LIFE PROJECT - WATER AGENDA
LIFE04/ENV/GR/000099
Sustainable water management in Spain according
Water Framework Directive and Agenda 21:
Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
SURVEY REPORT
EURO- MED ITER RANEAN
COOPERATION NETWOR K
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
Edited and Coordinated by:
Xavier Cazorla-Clarisσ
Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technologies (IEST)
UNIVERSITAT AUTONOMA DE BARCELONA (UAB)
Xavier.cazorla@uab.es
Tel. 0034-935812503
Fax. 0034-935813331
http://www.uab.es/icta
Authors and Contributors:
Martν Boada, Sergi Cantσ, Xavier Cazorla-Clarisσ, Meritxell Costejΰ, Elena Domene, Laia
Domθnech, Fco. Javier Gσmez, Feliu Lσpez-Gelats, Cristina Madrid, Silvia Mayo, Gregor
Meerganz von Medeazza, Neus Mirσ, Sigrid Muρiz, Elisabet Roca, David Saurν, David Tΰbara,
Wolf von Igel.
Acknowledgments:
Anatoliki, S.A., Commune di Milano, Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), Ajuntament de Sant
Cugat, ICTA-UAB, L’Observatori de la Tordera, EGAM S.A., ICLEI, University of Osnabrueck.
Version July 2005
Prepared under contract from the European Commission
Contract No. LIFE04/ENV/GR/000099
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
Table of Contents
1.
Foreword (Preface) ............................................................................................ 5
2.
Summary ............................................................................................................ 6
3.
Theoretical and methodological background ..................................................... 7
Implementing the IWRM and WFD in a natural-cultural context of ‘Mediterraneaness’ .... 7
Multi-Scale Integration.............................................................................................. 9
4.
Spanish Context: Past and Present of Water Management .............................11
4.1.
A mediterranean vision..............................................................................................11
4.2.
Diverse environmental conditions in Spain ..................................................................14
4.2.1. Climate patterns .............................................................................................14
4.2.2. Water basins and coastal areas........................................................................15
4.2.3. Biodiversity.....................................................................................................15
4.2.4. Wetlands........................................................................................................16
4.2.5. Environmental and social problems related to water resources in Spain..............17
4.3.
Socio-economic status: water, a key resource.............................................................18
Case Study 1. Virtual water exportations in intensive irrigated agricultural arid regions:
Granada and Almeria (Andalusian region) ......................................................................20
Case Study 2. Desalinated water for tourist services: Lanzarote (Canary Islands) .............21
4.3.1. Conclusions ....................................................................................................22
4.4.
Spanish regulative frame: property and use rights on water ........................................23
4.4.1. Private and public property regime...................................................................23
4.4.2. Water as public domain...................................................................................23
4.4.3. Towards a more flexible management of water.................................................26
4.4.4. Coastal waters legislation ................................................................................26
4.4.5. From Europe to Spain: transposition of Water Framework Directive ...................27
4.4.6. Conclusions ....................................................................................................28
4.5.
Administrative and institutional national water regime.................................................29
4.5.1. Main developments of the Spanish Water Regime .............................................29
Case Study 3. The transformation of the traditional Huerta of Mula into an innovative and
efficient irrigation system: Mula (Murcia) .......................................................................32
4.5.2. Institutional Frame of water management in Spain ...........................................33
4.5.3. Water policies and practices: reaching sustainability (?) ....................................37
4.5.4. Conclusions ....................................................................................................43
Case Study 4. The desalination technology: brief guided tour .........................................44
4.6.
Towards the implementation of WFD in Spain: ...........................................................45
4.6.1. Present and future challenges: Water Framework Directive ...............................45
4.6.2. Characterisation of water bodies: pressures and impacts...................................47
4.6.3. Integrating Economical aspects of the WFD into water policy in Spain................52
4.6.4. Public participation: social vector for a new paradigm .......................................55
Case Study 5. Gender and social movements. A look at the participation of the women in
the Platform for the Defence of the River Ebro: Terres de l’Ebre (south of Catalonia) .......61
4.6.5. Conclusions ....................................................................................................62
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
5.
Water management in Catalonia: Implementation of WFD and Agenda 21 ..63
5.1 Catalonian’s environment: river basin outlook ...........................................................63
5.1.1
Climate patterns in Catalonia ...........................................................................63
5.1.2
Water basins and coastal areas........................................................................64
5.1.3
Biodiversity.....................................................................................................65
5.1.4
Wetlands........................................................................................................66
5.2
Socio-economic context...........................................................................................66
5.3 Administrative and institutional catalan water framework: Internal River Basins of
Catalonia (CIC)................................................................................................................69
5.3.1
Surface and Groundwater................................................................................69
5.3.2
Coastal waters................................................................................................70
5.3.3
Conclusions ....................................................................................................71
Case Study 6. Management of groundwater with involvement of users through user
communities. Llobregat Delta (Metropolitan Region of Barcelona) ...................................72
5.4 Urban water management in the Metropolitan Region ...............................................73
5.4.1
The Metropolitan Region of Barcelona in Catalonia............................................73
5.4.2
Recent water demand management in the MRB................................................76
Case Study 7. Urban water conservation campaing in a mediterranean region. “Catalonia
Saves Water” ...............................................................................................................80
Case Study 8. Efficient urban water management according a Local Agenda 21 process in a
high water consuming town. Sant Cugat del Vallθs (Metropolitan Region of Barcelona) ....83
5.4.3
Future domestic water demand previsions and main future proposals of the
Regional Government of Catalonia.................................................................................84
Case Study 9. Urban sprawl and domestic water consumption relationships. The case of the
Metropolitan Region of Barcelona ..................................................................................87
5.4.4
Conclusions ....................................................................................................88
5.5. Towards the implementation of the WFD in the CIC (Internal Basins of Catalonia).... 89
5.5.1. Institutional and legal Framework.................................................................. 89
5.5.2. Characterisation of water bodies: pressures and impacts in continental surface
waters 90
Case Study 10. Integrated environmental assessment in Mediterranean River Basins:
sustainability indicators monitoring according WFD and beyond. La Tordera River Basin
(Catalonia) ............................................................................................................ 99
Case Study 11. Sustainable management, on a local scale, of the alluvial aquifer of the
river Tordera, through the reuse of wastewater. Tordera (Maresme) .........................100
5.5.3. Characterisation of water bodies: pressures and impacts in groundwaters........101
Case Study 12. Legal implications of overexploitation of Groundwater Resources. CarmeCapellades Aquifer (Catalonia) ...............................................................................107
5.5.4. Characterisation of water bodies: pressures and impacts in coastal waters .......108
5.5.5. An Economic analysis of water uses: Integrating Economy into Environmental
policy in Catalonia .................................................................................................113
5.5.6. Public Participation in the WFD .....................................................................117
Case Study 13. Public Participation and Social Learning in River Basin Planning and
Management. La Muga River Basin (Catalonia) ........................................................119
5.5.7. Conclusions ................................................................................................120
6.
Lessons Learnt and Conclusions.....................................................................121
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................123
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
1. Foreword (Preface)
The overriding objective of the EWFD for Member States to guarantee the
of all surface and ground-waters (Article 4) is to be achieved through an
“Integrated Management” approach, conducted by “economic rationality” 1 and by bi-directional
(i.e. top-down and bottom-up) pro-active Public Participation (PP). Article 14.1 requires MS to
“encourage the active involvement of all interested parties in the implementation of the
Directive, in particular in the production, review and updating of the river basin management
plans”. Those tasks must be formalized by 2009. Also, “transparency”, it is argued, creates
conditions for the free flow of information and provides potent ways to hold decision-makers
accountable and to give marginalized stakeholders a meaningful participative voice in shaping
policies that affect them. Participation 2 and transparency 3 belong to the instruments
constituting the founding pillar of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) and the
EWFD reflects the move towards such an integrated (and combined) environmental
management approach. In its strive towards sustainable and effective water policy alternatives
it must combine findings from natural and social sciences. In particular, participatory methods
involving multi-range stakeholders (Kasemir et al., 2000).
In this context, the LIFE WATER AGENDA Project (LIFE04/ENV/GR/000099) and the
EURO-Mediterranean Cooperation Network aim at supporting the development and
implementation of integrated water resources management policy to Anthemountas river basin
in Northern Greece through the application of a public, social wide local agreement, utilizing the
principles of Agenda 21 and of Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000/60/EC. Expected results
include illustrative solutions of technical, economic, social and administrative problems
confronting the issue of water resources management within the Mediterranean Europe river
basins. Particularly the overall objectives of this projects are 1) to promote sustainable policies
and water management practices, 2) to illustrate applications of the EWFD, especially in view of
acquiring know-how, adopting legal framework and developing methodology and tools, 3) to
report experiences of administrative schemes and management bodies acting at river basin
level, 4) to share the lessons learnt about practices of social agreement –and the corresponding
roles and cooperation of stakeholders and NGO’s- in the protection of water resources
(following Agenda 21 Models).
Hence, a formation of a transnational cooperation network between EU-Mediterranean countries
(Greece, Italy, Spain, France) has been established. The scope of the network is based on the
exchange of information, experience and know-how on examples of sustainable management of
water resources, together with hands on practice, administrative and technical organization of
water management entities and the implementation of WFD.
A first outcome of this cooperation is the elaboration of the present document, based on a
extensive technical survey. It introduces the draft framework of water management in a
Mediterranean context, particularly in Spain, providing relevant insights of present weaknesses
and strengths, and future challenges of Integrated Water Resources Management applied at
River Basin scale taking as example the Internal Basins of Catalonia. This non-exhaustive, but
paradigmatic interdisciplinary effort, expects to show the lights and shadows of River Basin
Management, in that context framed by the EWFD and Local Agenda 21 processes.
1
Mainly by applying “full-cost recovery” and “polluters pay” principles.
“Active stakeholder involvement is key to providing feedback on any stage in the management of the [IWRM] process
cycle […]” (GWP – TEC, 2004:19).
3
For instance, see point (g) of Paragraph 26 of of the World Summit for Sustainable Development (WSSDJohannesburg 2002) Plan of Implementation: […] stable and transparent national regulatory frameworks […] involving
all concerned stakeholders, […] and improving accountability of public institutions and private companies.
(www.johannesburgsummit.org)
2
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
2. Summary
The purpose of the present report is set the main
framework for discussion, containing a compilation,
harmonisation and integration of a number of waterrelated research studies as a technical survey of the
Spanish and, more particularly, the Catalan case under
the aegis of the transitional changes impeded and
fostered by the EWDF and Local Agenda 21
implementation. The intention of this deliverable is
both to reflect upon past, present and forthcoming
hydro-challenges and to serve as mirror effect to the
other River Basin partners of this research project.
Doing this offers valuable insight onto the yet fairly
unexplored EWFD science-policy-society interfaces.
In Spain climatic factors result to be the determining
aspect of water distribution and show the existence of
a real scenario where a humid Iberia (Atlantic zones)
and a dry Iberia (Mediterranean areas) can be
recognized. These aspects should be taken into
account of water management and policy. Several
environmental and social problems caused by human
intervention (mainly mismanagement of water
resources and unsustainable territorial planning) can
be detected: quality loss of surface waters and
alteration of water flows, morphological changes in
streams, modification and occupation of riparian
zones, chemical groundwater contamination by
pesticides and other agriculture products, exhaustion
of groundwater due to mass extraction and salinity
problems, morphology changes in coastlines, saltwater
quality degradation, problems associated to agriculture
practices, social and politic conflicts around water
engineering infrastructures, etc.
Total water uses in Spain are about 37,000 Hm3/year.
Nowadays, around 80% of water supply comes from
surface water, 15-20% from groundwater and rest
(2%) from desalination. Water consumption patterns
of economic activities are not proportional to their
contribution neither to the economic output nor the
employment they generate. The agricultural sector is
the biggest water consumer (68%) although it only
contributes with 3-4% to the total GNP. Development
of groundwater resources for agriculture through
private initiative has caused significant economic
development in some regions, but also important
environmental and social conflict due to excessive
extraction. In general, water consumption patterns in
the Spanish Mediterranean arch are not coherent with
the climatic features. The dry summer season
coincides with peak water demand for irrigation of
agriculture and urban water supply, especially for
tourism activities, located mainly along the coastline
which has steadily increased in the past decades often
implying an excessive exploitation of coastal aquifers
causing saltwater intrusion.
Regarding regulative frame on water issues, changes
in property and use rights in Spain take place very
slowly and at very long term. The main changes
occurred driven by changes at the political, economic
and social context. The 1985 Water Act with an
innovative approach introduced important changes on
the pre-existing water use and property regime by
declaring all waters as public domain. Nevertheless,
the ambivalence in the law and the weakness of the
hydraulic administration to enforce it, has generated a
general feeling of insecurity regarding the possession
of the groundwater. The situation is a legal and
administrative chaos which has also induced further
illegal clandestine development of groundwater
extractions. The present challenge of the Spanish
regulative framework is to develop the necessary
transposition for a correct implementation of the EU
Water Framework Directive to achieve EU standards
and integrate territorial and social interests in the
policy process.
After the derogation of the National Hydrological Plan
in 2004, policy events pose uncertainty on the real
extent of the integration many of the principles and
proposals of the New Water Culture, due to
domination of supply-oriented policies, and the intense
territorial and social confrontations over the resource
the
and water scarcity. The
alternative from the new government largely relies on
the desalination technology, which still remains in the
realm of ‘Increased Supply’, keeping at the same time
some other plans as National Irrigation Plan (PNR)
which still is very much earmarked by the old
paradigm of hydraulic structuralism.
Considering the implementation of WFD in Spain, the
late start-up in the set-up of guiding documents and
the tasks required by the WFD (characterization of
water bodies, pressures and impacts, and register of
protected areas) has negatively affected the
availability and quality of data (uncertainties are not
specified),
lack
of
transparency
regarding
methodologies (thresholds) and lack of consideration
of interactions between water body categories, and
public participation explicitly in water management at
River Basin, despite a long history (over 100 years)
presents big challenges ahead.
More specifically, the pattern of water use in the
Internal River Basins of Catalonia as opposed to the
rest of Spain, is characterized by a large (65%) urban
water demand (domestic and industrial) and a smaller
(35%) demand for irrigation and animal husbandry. To
overcome water scarcity in dry seasons, some
municipalities and the
(Catalan Water Agency), the River Basin Authority
with competence in the Internal River Basins of
Catalonia (WDIBC) in surface-, ground- and coastal
waters, have promoted programs to use low-quality
groundwater and rainwater harvesting for public uses,
as well as the construction of desalination plants as
the main measure to increase the supply. On the other
hand, some measures based in the water demand
control focused on water pricing policies introducing
block-pricing have been implemented.
Some social, cultural and demographic changes such
as the level of income, the housing typology, the
number of members per household, the demographic
structure of the households and some new urban
lifestyles based on more water-spending behaviours,
which are more complex to analyse and to control,
could stimulate also the water demand.
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
3. Theoretical and methodological
background
3.1.
Implementing the IWRM and WFD in a naturalcultural context of ‘Mediterraneaness’
The concept of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) seems best-suited to
simultaneously encompass –under one reflection umbrella- the myriad of aspects characterising
the transition undergone by the Catalan river basin entities through the implementation of the
EWFD, within its broader Euro-Mediterranean context. The development of the IWRM concept is
largely based on the four Principles 4 developed during the UN Conference on Water and
Development in Dublin (ICWE, 1992), and was formerly introduced a few months later in
Agenda 21 of the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro (UNCED,
1992). IWRM is a particularly well-adapted ‘mind set’ since its purpose is to overhaul
fragmented water management approaches and has been defined by the Global Water
Partnership as “a process which promotes the co-ordinated development and management of
water, land and related resources, in order to maximise the resultant economic and social
welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems”
(GWP, 2000). IWRM offers indeed a comprehensive approach to water governance, involving
not only the development and management of water resources, but also the political process,
which strives to mediate conflicts of interest.
Similarly to the concept of “Sustainability”, the three pillars of IWRM are grounded in the
principles of Economic Efficiency, Equity and Environmental Sustainability and aim at moving
towards 1) an enabling environment of appropriate policies, strategies and legislation for
sustainable water resources development and management 2) putting in place the institutional
framework through which the policies, strategies and legislation can be implemented 3) setting
up the management instruments required by these institutions in order to fulfil their tasks. Of
primary importance is the differentiation that IWRM makes between “water for livelihood” and
“water as a resource” and the cross-sectoral integration of the different purposes served: water
for people; water for food; water for nature; water for other uses.
The concept has been further refined during the major international water-related conferences
that marked the 1990s and a number of states around the world are now operationalising
IWRM within their own territories as a response to Paragraph 26 of the Johannesburg Plan of
Implementation 5 . For developing countries progress towards IWRM provides support in
attaining the UN Millennium Development Goals, i.e. reducing poverty, hunger, diseases and
environmental degradation. For richer countries, IWRM planning processes would primarily
focus on environmental maintenance and restoration. IWRM very much in agreement with -and
also inspired- the development of the Water Framework Directive of the European Union
(EWFD). In both approaches, the River Basin is the basic planning and management unit.
Analysis of water allocation between users (including ecosystem requirements) make sense only
when addressed at basin level since water (whether surface or groundwater) follows its own
boundaries, regardless of administrative demarcations. The scale of integration and its
discrepancies with institutional setting is precisely one of the main challenges of IWRM and the
EWFD: from local catchment or aquifer sizes to trans-regional or trans-national river basin.
4
(1) the holistic principle; (2) the participatory principle; (3) the gender principle; (4) and the economic principle. These
four principles have served as foundation for water resources development and management schemes in the
international arena.
5
At the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), held in Johannesburg in 2002, the international
community called all countries to “develop integrated water resource management and water efficiency plans by 2005,
with support to developing countries through actions at all levels.” (WSSD, 2002)
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
Under this perspective, Spain’s experience offers valuable
organised based on a river basin management structure for over 75 years.
since it has been
Having said this, it is primordial to emphasis the conceptual difference existing between
“integrated river basin management” (IRBM) and “integrated water resources
management” (IWRM). Indeed, as explained by Jψnch-Clausen (GWP, 2004:18), “many
policy decisions affecting water management – within or between sectors (such as food, health,
energy and so on) – can be taken only at the national level, not at the basin level and, within
the “water sector,” policy decisions for example, on cost recovery are necessarily taken at the
national level. So the two are complementary, strongly interrelated, and both aim at wise water
governance.” IWRM should and can therefore not act as a substitute for sound sectoral policy
and national management schemes, but the idea is to replace the old paradigm of pretending
to mend fragmented and heterogeneous approaches with a inter- or trans-disciplinary (in
opposition to multi-disciplinary) holistic approach that strives towards integration
.
While the wording of the WSSD Plan of Implementation and the EWFD appear simple, major
challenges remain. Also, in both cases, a striking contradiction exists between the “economic
approach” introduced by the UN Dublin Conference and the “humanitarian approach” stated by
the UN Millennium Development Goals; similarly, the final text of the EWFD starts by praising
water as Europe’s heritage and ends by heralding the economic value of water and the
necessity to concentrate on water pricing as the best-suited management approach for Europe’s
water resource. Divergent approaches about tackling water conundrums and prioritising
respective solutions have emerged from the dichotomy of these two view points. This clash is,
however, unnecessary and should instead be complementary for targeting distinct situations
and needs. Recalling the many purposes served by water mentioned above and recognising its
different dimensions (life-support, economic good or commodity, integral part of the ecological
system, cultural, spiritual and emotional component), lead us far beyond the current IWRM
formulation of water being merely an “economic and social good”.
Furthermore, a misinterpretation of IWRM and IRBM can easy lead to a tendency towards
centralisation and megalomania, in brief, exactly at the antipodes of the true substance of these
concepts to adequately incorporate ingredients of decentralised, local, community-led planning
and management, encompassing traditional, lay, indigenous and/or cultural-dependent
knowledge. Indeed, IWRM and IRBM approaches are not prescriptive; there is and should not
be a “cookbook” solution to the water issue.
Water as a resource and its development and management is of course critically dependent on
the geographical, socio-economic, institutional, environmental, historical and cultural context
specificities of any country, region or river basin: there is not such thing as “one size fits all”type management. Hence, the real-life application of IWRM processes should differ from river
basin to river basin. Within the scope of the EWFD, a major challenge is thus to acknowledge
the profound cultural differences existing between northern and southern Europe. The study of
(i.e. the sum of learned behaviour and beliefs
the distinctiveness of existing
–see Markus and Kitayama, 1997), and in particular
(Tΰbara et al.,
2004) can help avoiding thorny conflicts arising from the crystallization of cultural frameworks
in inadequate or mismatching identity and power structures. In this sense, the
“Mediterraneaness” serving as binding mortar concept among the four partners of this
project plays a fundamental role, to explore regional singularities, beyond strictly environmental
differences to tackle water management, under a “consensus” approach.
It should also be noted that the dual conceptual representation of segregated cultural and
environmental systems (testimony of Kant’s “great divide” legacy) should no longer hold.
Instead, in our work, ‘managing water’ is inscribed in the “process of production”6 (Lefebvre,
1991), where society and nature are inseparable. In this view, ‘water as a resource’ is to be
6
Henri Lefebvre’s work on the ‘process of production’ and temporality(ies), refers to the production of space, but also
arguing that seemingly spatial processes such as policies, have spatial implications.
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
7
considered as a Harawayian
, hybrid encompassing multiple contradictions of its social,
technological and natural components, that continuously redefines and reworks its essence
through discursive and symbolic means (Haraway, 1991). The hybridity of this “hydrosocial
cycle” (Swyngedouw et al., 2002), flows of socio-natural processes and dialectics, combined
with Latour’s (1993) networked reconstruction of quasi-objects characterises ‘anthropocentric
water resources’. This sets the analytical frame for best grasping the interwoven knowledge and
practice network of hybridized water circulation and its associated web of social power relations
in the Euro-Mediterranean “glocal” 8 socio-nature arena.
3.2.
Multi-Scale Integration
The emergence of new set of scales, social actors and power relations associated with the
implementation of the EWFD calls for a profound re-assessment of the long unquestioned
dominant environmental policy paradigm. The ever more intertwined and international
predicament of water resource management, its vested socio-economic interests and mounting
environmental concerns increases the complexity of the political ecology of water. In view of
tackling this new ‘reality’, the present document intends to tackle the water issue through a
holistic approach anchored in Multi-Scale Integrated Analysis (Giampietro et al., 2005).
According to Complex System Theory” 9 (see for instance Rosen, 1977), the constitutive
elements of a nested dissipative (self-organizing) and adaptive (learning) hierarchy system, are
treated as so-called “holons”. This term was introduced by Koestler (1968) to emphasize its
dual character of acting as a whole made of smaller parts while simultaneously forming part of
a larger whole. Similarly, to Henri Lefebvre’s approach (1991) insisting on the inseparability of
society and nature in the “process of production”, “[w]hen dealing with dissipative
holarchies[ 10], the clear distinction between system and environment becomes fuzzy and
ambiguous, especially when we want to consider several dynamics on different levels (and
scales) at the same time” (Giampietro, 2004:34).
The overarching axiom of this document is that a River Basin unit is to be considered as a
. Indeed, one of the novelties of the EWFD is in binding water resource management –as
an overriding objective to obtaining the
of water bodies
(2000/60/EC: Article 4)- to the River Basin plane. Doing so, EWFD’s provisions introduce a set
of new organizational regimes functioning at various scales (requiring the re-structuring of
existing administrations and institutions), where transboundary overlapping often occurs. In this
sense, the EWFD depicts the shift from a centralized, Keynesian, State-controlled and led
management (
) to a post-Keynesian paradigm based on disjointed decision-making
constellations (
) (Jessop, 1997); this entails a re-shuffling of power distribution, a
change undertaken vertically across administrational levels, lay transversally across sectors. In
holarchical dynamics the two higher and lower levels (i.e. n+2 –the context- and n-2 –the
parts- where ‘n’ is the focal level) should also be considered in the triadic reading for
sustainability assessment. Precisely, Mario Giampietro suggests that:
(Giampietro, 2004:37)
7
“A cyborg is a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine and organism, a creature of social reality as well as a creature
of fiction.” (Haraway 1991:149)
8
i.e. neither local nor global (Swyngedouw, 1997)
9
“A complex system is one which allows us to discern many subsystems [a subsystem is the description of the system
determined by a particular choice of mapping only a certain set of its qualities/properties] depending entirely on how
we choose to interact with the system” (Rosen, 1977:229).
10
“A nested adaptive hierarchy of dissipative system [a system made of holons] can be called a holarchy” (Koestler,
1969:102].
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
In this document, illustration of the newly arising challenges emerging from the EWFD -first-ofits-kind gargantuan legislative instrumentation- is therefore undertaken by up- and downscaling from the River Basin focal plane up to European and national level as well as down to
regional and local level.
Let’s the learning process begin…
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
4. Spanish Context: Past and Present of Water
Management
4.1.
A Mediterranean vision
The general Mediterranean
basin
climate
is
characterized, except in
extreme situations, by hot
and dry summers (there is a
typical more or less strict
drought period in summer),
by mild and humid winters
and by maximum rainfall
episodes occurring in spring
and autumn. Related to
these
environmental
conditions,
in
the
Mediterranean area we can
find several habitats like sub
humid deciduous forestlands
(mixed
with
some
Figure 4.1.1. Biomes of Mediterranean countries.
Source: Atlas virtual de la Mediterrània. Centro Virtual Cervantes. 2005.
esclerophyl
forest
vegetation),
esclerophyl
forestlands (dominated by Holm oaks communities), scrublands, high mountain areas
(grasslands and ice zones), regions with strict rainfall pattern dominated by typical subdesertic
vegetation, river zones (with interesting riparian forestlands), and an outstanding catalogue of
wetlands.
Mediterranean biome (green coloured) is present in the majority of
the Mediterranean basin countries, as well as in other parts of the
world (Southern Australia, South Africa, the Chilean Coastline and
the Californian Coastline)
Another key concept of the Mediterranean
region is the human intervention on the
territory since centuries. The contemporary
population growth in the Mediterranean basin
countries has induced the creation, growth
and sprawl of urban areas, the majority of
them located near the coastline and next to
rivers, as well as the increase in agricultural
land-use and its intensification.
Watching this satellite picture of the
Mediterranean basin taken by night, we can see
the importance of urban areas and the
important concentration near to the coastline.
Climatic
conditions
and
patterns
of
demographic evolution are key factors when
analysing the state, management and use of
water resources in the Mediterranean region.
Figure 4.1.2. Urban ligths in Mediterranean
basin by night.
Source: Earth Lights – NASA photos. 2005.
11
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
The Global Water Partnership (GWP, 2000) has identified the following relevant sustainability
issues (for a summary see Table 4.1):
Scarce water resources: Water scarcity has always been part of the history of the
Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean there are and there have always been water crisis and
the resulting famines and water conflicts that have needed to be confronted.
High level of exploitation: The level of exploitation of water resources is generally high
in most countries and pressure over water resources is increasing. Exploitation ratios over 50
%, or even nearing 100 % are present in many parts of Mediterranean countries.
Shared Rivers: Some countries depend on the natural resources of other countries.
Management of shared river basins has contributed to some regional tension but has also
lead to some important specific agreements in the region to allocate water resources. Today
issues of water quality are also important in the management of shared water resources.
Important role of the agriculture sector: The role of Agriculture in Mediterranean
water scarce countries is a main issue in relation to sustainable water management. National
water policies have aimed at water mobilisation to realise the important potential of irrigation
agriculture to increase agricultural productivity and deal with increasing food requirements of
the population. Irrigation agriculture is the biggest consumer of water.
Drinking water and sewage: In most of the region, drinking water supply reaches the
population. Sewage treatment facilities have tended to lag behind. This induces two dangers
for water resources in the region; direct health risk of discharges of untreated sewage to
underground and surface water resources, and threat to marine ecosystems, as well as to
wetlands and other transitional ecosystems in case of the discharge of un-treated sewage.
Risk Management: The effect of climate uncertainties-decreasing precipitation, higher
frequency of extreme rainfalls producing floods and droughts is a reality in the region and
climate change is considered a long term risk.
Water conservation and water demand management: Water conservation measures
have not been widely applied in most countries of the region. The technical efficiency of
water distribution networks is low. Also the introduction of water saving devices in urban
areas, and most important, the changes of on-farm water irrigation techniques and models of
application and changes in crop patters can also lead to important water savings. Very often,
population is unaware of high water losses and the potential for saving. Pricing schemes
need improvement.
Non-conventional water resources: Desalination and wastewater reuse is becoming a
major option particularly in the Islands where the effects of sever droughts cannot be
overcame by expensive transportation of water from the main land.
Health of aquatic ecosystems: Over-abstraction of groundwater and high mobilisation of
surface water has had an important impact on the health and integrity of aquatic ecosystems.
Institutional aspects: The fragmentation of the Institutional framework and the complex
co-ordination mechanisms have been pointed out as a characteristic in many countries of the
Mediterranean. Many sub-sectors of the water sector are dealt with by the different
government ministries and agencies, without too much linkages among them.
It is the aim of this report to study how these issues affect the sustainability of water resources
and related ecosystems on a national (Spain) and on a regional (Catalonia) scale as well as how
they are dealt with.
12
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
4.2.
Diverse environmental conditions in Spain
Spain is situated in the western Mediterranean region and has a surface area of 49,516 km² on
the Iberian Peninsula (excluding Balearic and Canary islands and North African territories) with
a population of 38,173,309 (Instituto Nacional de Estadística, 2005). Density is 77
inhabitants/km², lower than other European countries, but especially concentrated in coastal
areas (more than 40% of total population) and river flows.
4.2.1.
Climate patterns
Spain’s general climate is characteristic of temperate boreal areas, but its heterogeneous
orography and the influence of the Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean and Sahara region confer
certain peculiarities. At regional level, different climatic patterns fluctuate from Atlantic to
Mediterranean conditions, with some variations in transition areas and zones determined by
altitudinal and continental effects. Climatic factors result to be the determining aspect of water
distribution and show the existence of a real scenario where a humid Iberia (Atlantic zones) and
a dry Iberia (Mediterranean areas) can be recognized. These aspects should be taken into
account of water management and policy.
The Atlantic areas are
This map of rainfall pattern in Iberian Peninsula shows the contrast
located in the Cantabric
between the humid Iberia (North and especially Northeast areas) and
zone and NW of the
the dry Iberia (Mediterranean region), a key concept to understand
Peninsula
and
show
Spain’s water management approach.
similar
climatic
conditions of Western
70-300 mm
Europe regions, with
300-600 mm
mild winters and cool
600-900 mm
900-1200 mm
summers
(annual
1200-1600 mm
average
temperature
>1600 mm
around 13ºC) and an
uniform rainfall pattern
that ranges from 1,000
to 2,000 millimetres.
The Mediterranean areas
are located from the
East to the South of the
Peninsula. Their winters
N
are mild and summers
0
200 km
hot (annual average
temperature from 16 to
Figure 4.2.1. Map of rainfall pattern in Spain.
18ºC), and the rainfall is
Source: Modified from Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, 2005a.
heterogeneous with a
typical summer drought
period, and annual precipitation below 600 millimetres (and less than 300 millimetres per year
in the extremely arid zones of the Southeast part of the Peninsula).
In the transition lands between the two main climatic regions there are the sub-Mediterranean
(or sub-Atlantic) areas of the middle Peninsula where the continental and orography aspects
determine an important variability of climatic conditions, with high thermal amplitudes (extreme
variations up to 30ºC by day and up to 60ºC between seasons) and precipitation around 650
millimetres per year.
14
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
4.2.2.
Water basins and coastal areas
Spain’s hydrographical network, approximately 75,000 km long (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente,
1999), can be divided in 4 main units:
North sector (54,000 km²): regular hydrological patterns leading to the Cantabrian Sea.
Atlantic slope (257,000 km²): gathers waters from the largest Spanish rivers basins
(Tajo, Duero, Guadiana, Guadalquivir), with less homogeneous flows than the northern
sector, specially in summer periods.
Northern Spanish Mediterranean sector (86,000 km²): includes the Ebro river and
western Pyrenean rivers.
Eastern Spain Region: it comprises the remaining Mediterranean rivers that feature
scarce flows and torrential phenomena.
Human intervention over the fluvial network has been intense and still continues. An illustration
of this are the 1,007 reservoirs scattered over the country (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente,
2005), 63% of which were built between the 1960 and 1990.
Considering the peninsula geography, the coastline is of high importance for Spain. The Iberian
Peninsula is surrounded by sea with the exception of Span’s Northeast strip bordering France.
The Coastline is composed of two main unities: the Mediterranean and the Atlantic area that
feature considerable oceanographic and morphologic differences, which can be divided into
three main strips:
: the Eastern and Southeast Peninsula, the longest one in Spain
(approximately 1,900 km).
: North of Spain, from Guipuzcoa to A Coruña, approximately 1,200 km
long.
Climate patterns determine the development of
: located in two areas of
deciduous forestlands in Atlantic and humid areas
Spain, Northwest (Galicia) and Southwest
(top photo–
), and sclerophyl
(Andalucia) (approximately 900 km long).
forestlands in Mediterranean region where hídric
balance is unfavourable (bottom photo–
)
4.2.3.
Biodiversity
Elements such as geographic location,
territorial shape, geomorphologic and climatic
variability as well as other environmental
factors such as lithological contrast determine
that Iberian Peninsula show a very
outstanding ecological diversity. In Spain, 124
different habitats can be detected as defined
by Council Directive 92/43 EC (65% of total
defined habitats for Europe), richness that
turns Spain into the most important European
Union Member State in terms of ecological
diversity.
In natural conditions, the major part of the
Iberian Peninsula shows a tendency to take
shape as forestlands, except for mountain
areas
and
arid
zones.
Unfavourable
hydrological balance in over half of the
Peninsula determines the major predominance
of theses Mediterranean conditions and
sclerophyl forestlands, with evergreen and xerophilous trees (like holm oaks). In Atlantic
regions, as well as in humid areas due to soil, microclimatic or orographic aspects, forestlands
15
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
are composed of deciduous trees (like oaks and beeches). Spanish ecological diversity includes
extensive mixed forestlands, scrublands, grasslands, high mountain areas and rock-lands.
The great ecological diversity as well as the role of Iberian Peninsula in past biological dynamics
are elements determining Spain’s important biological diversity. In the Iberian context there is
an outstanding flora that includes approximately 8,500 vascular plants, 1,000 mosses and ferns,
more than 10,000 fungus and 3,330 lichens. Fauna checklists include 69 freshwater fishes, 27
amphibians, 61 reptiles, 337 birds and 89 mammals.
4.2.4.
Wetlands
The Iberian ecological diversity encompasses different kinds of wetlands and aquatic
environments. Spain features around 1,500 wetlands taking up 0.22% of the country (but are
generally smaller than other European wetlands) but of high importance for biodiversity (so).
called
Wetlands and aquatic milieus are habitats with an
outstanding biodiversity. These areas are of high
ecological importance for animal groups with strict
conservation problems associated to the degradation
and disappearance of their habitats, especially migrating
(photo).
birds and amphibians, like
Also, freshwater ecosystem such as lakes
and oligotrophic, dystrophic and eutrophic
small lakes, submerged vegetation and
approximately 178,000 hectares of riversides
with an outstanding diversity of riparian
forestlands should be detected. In terms of
EU ‘priority habitats’, wetland diversity
highlights
the
existence
of
small
Mediterranean temporal.
Coastal ecosystems include salt water areas
like coastal beds, tidal zones, estuaries,
deltaic zones or cliffs; or else, brackish water
areas like marshes and coastal/inland salt
marshes that present an extremely rich and
singular biological diversity.
Spanish wetlands have been catalogued by
different and multi-scale authorities in
several
protection
and
conservation
normative instruments. At international level,
in Spain 49 zones (170,741.40 hectares) fall
under the RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands,
the major part of which are located in the
Mediterranean region, that take up
(RAMSAR, 2005). At European level, 169
areas (with an extension of 3,335,951
hectares) are catalogued by the Council
Directive 97/49 EC (Ministerio de Medio
Ambiente, 2000). Finally, on a national and
regional level, numerous wetlands and
aquatic environments are included in
different legislations.
16
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
4.2.5.
Environmental and social problems related to water
resources in Spain
In Spain, several environmental and social problems caused by human intervention (mainly
mismanagement of water resources and unsustainable territorial planning) can be detected:
River basins: quality loss of surface waters and alteration of water flows, morphological
changes in streams, modification and occupation of riparian zones, chemical groundwater
contamination by pesticides and other agriculture products, exhaustion of groundwater due
to mass extraction and salinity problems, etc.
Wetlands: water quality deterioration (such as
eutrophication
phenomena)
and
shrinking
(possibly leading to complete dry-out) of wetlands
surface areas.
Coastal regions: morphology changes
coastlines, saltwater quality degradation, etc.
in
Water related social issues: problems
associated to agriculture practices, social and
politic conflicts around water engineering
infrastructures, etc.
Wetland loss, mainly due to drying out, is
a major concern for biodiversity
conservation. The rate of change in Iberian
wetlands is alarming: in 50 years, 60% of
Spain’s wetlands total extension have dried
out. An example of this is the Guadalquivir
marshelands, which have shrunk from
200,000 to 36,000 hectares (Source:
Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, 1999)
17
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
4.3.
Socio-economic status: water, a key resource
Total water uses in Spain are about 37,000 Hm3/year. These uses are distributed as seen in
Figure 4.3.1. Estimated water uses per sector and sources are shown in Table 4.2. More than
80% of the uses are derived from surface water sources (Figure 4.2). Spanish water policy has
traditionally focused on surface water development. As a result Spain has over 1200 water
dams being the country with the highest proportion of water dams per capita and has more
than 100.000 irrigation channels (MIMAM, 2000). Groundwater nevertheless, based on private
initiative, has had an enormous development increasing total extractions from less than 2,000
Hm3/year in 1960 to about 6,000 Hm3/year in 2000 (Martínez and Hernández-Mora, 2003).
Table 4.3.1. Water uses per sector and sources in Spain
Groundwater
[Hm3/year] 1
Urban water
supply
Agriculture
Industry
Refrigeration
Total
Source:
1
Groundwater
percentage of
total1
Surface water
[Hm3/year]2
Surface water
percentage of
total2
Total water
use
[Hm3/year]2
Percentage of
total water
use2
1000-1500
25 %
3417
73 %
4667
13
4000-5000
300-400
0
5500-6500
20 %
5%
19594
1347
4915
29273
81 %
82 %
100 %
83 %
24094
1647
4915
35323
68
5
14
100
15 - 20 %
Taken from Martínez and Hernández-Mora (2003).
Total water use: approx. 35000
[Hm 3/year]Agriculture is the
14%
5%
main
consumer
Spain
water
in
2
Based on MOPTA-MINER (1994) and MIMAM (2000).
Total water use: approx. 35000
[Hm3/year]
17%
68%
13%
83%
Agriculture
Urban supply
Industry
Refrigeration
Figure 4.3.2. Uses of water per sector in Spain
Source: Constructed departing from Table 4.3.1
Groundwater
Surface water
Figure 4.3.3. Sources of water for total water
uses in Spain. Source: Constructed departing from
Table 4.3.1
Groundwater is a key source for drinking purposes, particularly in rural areas and in insular
environments. In Spain, medium and small municipalities (of less than 20,000 inhabitants)
obtain 70% of their water supply from groundwater sources (MIMAM, 2000). Nevertheless,
Spain is one of the European countries using the lowest groundwater share for public urban
water supply in large cities (79% surface water, 19% groundwater and 2% basically
desalination).
Rural areas represent 2/3 of Spanish territory, but most population is established in urban
centers. In demographic terms, this spatial unbalance has strong implications for sustainability
challenges and, as the Environmental Ministry alerts, it could worsen as rural depopulation
keeps increasing (MIMAM, 2002).
18
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
The demand arising from the tourist sector and secondary residencies generates important
distortions on local scale in different regions of Spain, especially along the Mediterranean arch.
The share of the agricultural sector in the Gross National Product is about 3 to 4% and the
population devoted to agriculture has dropped from about 40% down to the current 6 to 7% in
just four decades (Llamas, 2003b). The geographical distribution of the agricultural workforce
can be observed in Figure 4.3.4.
% of agriculture
workforce in Spain
Figure 4.3.4. Percentage of active population employed in agriculture per provinces (1999)
Source: http://www.mapya.es/
Irrigated agriculture represents only 15 % of the total used agricultural land, but yields 55 % of
the final agricultural production and employs about 30 % of the labour (MIMAM, 2000).
Irrigated agriculture with groundwater resources in dry regions developed in the 1960’s. It has
been a source of social and economic benefits in many semiarid regions of the central and
Mediterranean Spain. Anarchic exploitation has eventually resulted in environmental and social
conflicts (Martínez and Hernández-Mora, 2003). Although only about 20 % of the total water
use in agriculture corresponds to groundwater resources it irrigates about 30 % (1.000.000 ha)
of the total irrigated area. The efficiency of groundwater is even higher in socio-economic terms
(productivity and employment per volume of water are higher) according to studies of Llamas
et al. (2001) and Arrojo (2001).
19
Case Study 1
Ê×ÎÌËßÔ ÉßÌÛÎ ÛÈÐÑÎÌßÌ×ÑÒÍ ×Ò ×ÒÌÛÒÍ×ÊÛ ×ÎÎ×ÙßÌÛÜ
ßÙÎ×ÝËÔÌËÎßÔ ßÎ×Ü ÎÛÙ×ÑÒÍæ
ÙÎßÒßÜß ú ßÔÓÛÎ×ß øßÒÜßÔËÍ×ßÒ ÎÛÙ×ÑÒ÷
Cristina Madrid (crismadlop@hotmail.com)
ÙÎßÒßÜß ¿²¼ ßÔÓÛÎSß
ݱ²¬»¨¬
Population: éíòðð𸿾
Area: ìî µ³î
Situation: ͱ«¬¸ ±º
Í°¿·²
Interest: Ê·®¬«¿´ É¿¬»®
¿²¼ ·®®·¹¿¬»¼
¿¹®·½«´¬«®»
Ù®¿²¿¼¿Ž- ¿²¼ ß´³»®3¿Ž- Ú¿®³´¿²¼- are situated in Southeast Spain, in the
Andalusian Autonomous Community. Andalusia has a typical Mediterranean
climate with high temperatures and ´±© ©¿¬»® ®»-±«®½» ¿ª¿·´¿¾·´·¬§. Concretely,
the coast of Granada and Almería feature the ¸·¹¸»-¬ ®¿¼·¿¬·±² ¿²¼ ´±©»-¬
°®»½·°·¬¿¬·±² ®¿¬»- of the entire Iberian Peninsula. Despite these arid climate
conditions, a ¹®»¿¬ »¨¬»²-·±² ±º ·²¬»²-·ª» ·®®·¹¿¬·±²ô ¸·¹¸ ©¿¬»® ¼»³¿²¼·²¹
¿¹®·½«´¬«®¿´ °®¿½¬·½»- can be found in this region.
Ю±¾´»³
Andalusian agriculture is considered as a high importance sector of the economy, partly
because it employs an important percentage of the occupied population. However,
traditionally it ¼±»- ²±¬ ½¿®®§ ¿ ª»®§ -·¹²·º·½¿²¬ ©»·¹¸¬ ·² ¬¸» ®»¹·±²¿´ ÙÜÐ øèû ·² îððî÷
while consuming 78 % of the total water resources available in Andalusia.
To improve the profitability, several ¬®¿¼·¬·±²¿´ ½«´¬·ª¿¬·±²- ¸¿ª» ¾»»² ®»°´¿½»¼ ¾§ ¬®±°·½¿´ ±²»-: high water consumers grown
in greenhouses. Consequently, large extensions of plastic-tented fields are mushrooming all over the coast. These intensive
agricultural practices have created a new water demand in the arid context of these regions.
Land uses should be designed according to resource availability. But this is not the case; especially not for water. Part of the
water from the Ebro river transfer (PHN) was required to -¿¬·-º§ ¬¸» »ª»® ¹®±©·²¹ -±½·¿´´§ó½±²-¬®«½¬»¼ ©¿¬»® ¼»³¿²¼.
Moreover, an important °»®½»²¬¿¹» ±º ¬¸» ¿¹®·½«´¬«®¿´ §·»´¼ ·- »¨°±®¬»¼ out of Spain. This practice creates the somewhat
paradoxical situation where tomatoes grown in arid conditions under highly irrigated quotas and embodying over 90% water
result in ª¿-¬ ¿³±«²¬- ±º ª·®¬«¿´ ©¿¬»® ¾»·²¹ »¨°±®¬»¼ ¬± ¸«³·¼ ²±®¬¸»®² ®»¹·±²- ±º Û«®±°».
Ü»-½®·°¬·±²
In 2002, 96% of Andalusian agricultural land was irrigated. Horticultural products,
which are usually cultivated through irrigation practices, represent 25% of the total
Andalusian agricultural yield.
29% of the total Andalusian horticultural production are tomatoes mostly grown for
export. Moreover, the largest tomato exportations originate from Granada (10%)
and Almeria (88%) greenhouses. Consequently, Granada’s and Almeria’s plastic
tents ½±²-«³» ¿ ª»®§ -½¿®½» ®»-±«®½» ¬± °®±¼«½» ¿ ½±³³±¼·¬§ ¬¸¿¬ ·- ¾»·²¹
»¨°±®¬»¼ by a -»½¬±® ©¸±-» ®»´¿¬·ª» ÙÜÐ ½±²¬®·¾«¬·±² ·- ¿ ³»®» èû.
The amount of water consumed in the production process of a product is called
ª·®¬«¿´ ©¿¬»®; i.e. the water volume embodied in the product not in the real sense but
in a virtual sense. This concept can be applied to any market good to calculate the
quantity of water spent in producing exportation goods. This concept therefore
serves as an indicator of socio-economic metabolism and consumption patterns.
Water requirements can be calculated using the FAO’s CropWat software. The
output can then be used to determine the virtual water flows between countries or
regions.
λ-«´¬- ¿²¼ л®-°»½¬·ª»The ¸·¹¸»-¬ »ºº·½·»²½§ ·² ¬¸» «-» ±º ¬¸» ©¿¬»® ®»-±«®½»- ·- º±«²¼ ·² Ó¿´¿¹¿
(Southern Spain) ¿²¼ ß´³»®·¿. While the rest of the provinces need around 20 m3
per produced ton, these provinces only need 5 m3/ton.
In spite of this, in 2002 Andalusia »¨°±®¬»¼ ¿´³±-¬ î سí of virtual water only
through the tomato market (export to the rest of Spain are excluded from this
figure).
Since 1997, 23,000 new irrigation hectares have been allocated in Andalusia,
especially in its eastern region. This has raised the water demand and
subsequently the need for new water resources. The Ю±¹®¿³¿ ßÙËß (basis for
new PHN) cancelled the Ebro river transfer to the southeast of Spain, introducing
new ‘actions’ to improve the ability of the resource (“more and cheaper water”).
15% of the investment conceded by the Plan will be dedicated to this region.
Andalusian tomato
exportation, per provinces
GRANADA
10%
REST
2%
ALMERIA
88%
Figure 4.3.5. Andalusian tomato
exportation, per provinces (2002)
Source: Madrid, C., 2004
ANDALUSIAN VIRTUAL WATER TRADE OUT
OF SPAIN FROM TOMATO MARKET
(Thousands of m3)
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
ALMERΝA
GRANADA
REST
Figure 4.3.6. Andalusianvirtual water trade
out of Spanish tomato market (2002)
Source: Madrid, C., 2004
Ô»--±²- Ô»¿®²»¼
We can use the estimation of Ê·®¬«¿´ É¿¬»® ¿- ·²¼·½¿¬±® of the pressure on water resources.
Ûºº·½·»²½§ ·² ©¿¬»® «-» ·- ²±¬ ¿ ¹±±¼ ·²¼·½¿¬±® of its associated impact.
The ²»© Ю±¹®¿³¿ ßÙËß ©·´´ ²±¬ ¾» ¿¾´» ¬± -±´ª» ¬¸» °®±¾´»³ in the region because the demand will increase if new
irrigation parcels are being allocated.
Andalusia is producing a good (holding «²-«-¬¿·²¿¾´» ©¿¬»® ®»¯«·®»³»²¬-) ³¿·²´§ ¿·³»¼ ¿¬ »¨°±®¬.
20
Case Study 2
ÜÛÍßÔ×ÒßÌÛÜ ÉßÌÛÎ ÚÑÎ ÌÑËÎ×ÍÌ ÍÛÎÊ×ÝÛÍ
ÔßÒÆßÎÑÌÛ øÝßÒßÎÇ ×ÍÔßÒÜÍ÷
Gregor Meerganz von Medeazza (gregor.meerganz@uab.es)
ݱ²¬»¨¬
Lanzarote is located in the Canary archipelago. With 1/3 of the
population being tourists, ¬¸·- ·²¼«-¬®§ ·- ¬¸» ¹®»¿¬»-¬ -±«®½» ±º
·²½±³». The insular water supply is »²¬·®»´§ ¼»°»²¼»²¬ ±² ¬¸»
¼»-¿´·²¿¬·±² ¬»½¸²±´±¹§ and it is obvious to see (Figure 1) that the
introduction of desalination was the trigger of development.
Ô¿²¦¿®±¬»
Figure 4.3.7. Tourism after the intro of the
desalination technology. Source: own elaboration;
(1996), Antena (1958) & Centro de Datos (2003)
Ю±¾´»³
Water is a key issue as far as development and economic growth of the island is concerned. In
2003, around 18.4 Hm3 of desalinated water were produced. As a consequence of efficiency
degradation combined with the increase of per capita consumption, water production
massively increased (Fig. 1), much faster than population growth. The increasing inconsistency
between the production modes and the commercialisation model has generated a water
supply system that is unsustainable in the medium and long term. Over half the produced
volume goes to the tourist sector: on average tourists consume on average 4 times more per
capita than residents. Three main problems can be depicted in Lanzarote:
1) The ever ¹®±©·²¹ water production, consumption and network losses
2) Extreme º±®»·¹² and ²±²ó®»²»©¿¾´» energy dependency of the desalination technology
3) “Water for Tourist Services” sheds light upon conflicting ©¿¬»® «-»-.
Production, Consumption and Losses
25
20
15
Prod
Cons
Losses
Projection
10
5
0
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
-5
Figure 4.3.8. Evolution of Lanzarote’s
water production
Source: own elaboration; Inalsa, (2004)
Ü»-½®·°¬·±²
Lanzarote lacks significant naturally present water resources. The conception that desalination has definitively eliminated this
handicap constitutes a dangerous myth that should be highly criticised for at least three reasons: firstly, the current
desalination trajectory (ever increasing and primarily based on fossil fuels) supposedly accepts an external strategic
dependency, which level may trigger some serious problems in the future, especially due to the irreversible nature of its “lockin”. Secondly, brine effluents –unavoidable desalination sub-product- may heavily affect local marine biota. Similarly, this
energy-intensive technology is responsible for gargantuan emissions of carbon dioxide and other Greenhouse Gases, the
environmental costs of which remain uncovered or are unloaded onto the energy sector. The sea-water desalination industry
is the island’s greatest individual energy consumer (around 15% of the total insular production). In Lanzarote, 5.88 kWh are
necessary to deliver one cubic meter of water to the end consumer. Finally, the desalination technology makes the former
water saving culture redundant, nourishes the false impression of abundance, responsible for the ever increasing demand,
production and consumption carousel, subsequently alimenting the two previously mentioned issues. Reviewing historical
data does indeed show how increased supplies raise demands (in agreement with Say’s Law). Given this, it is therefore
paramount to reflect upon the possibilities to simultaneously minimise the environmental impacts, foreign energy
dependency and reduce tourist water demands.
л®-°»½¬·ª»In order to reduce the above mentioned impacts, various possibilities are suggested here. 1) The insular desalination plants
could be replaced by state-of-the-art processes (around 3kWh/m3). However, desalination seems to be subject to the socalled Jevons paradox: decreasing production energy costs trigger a rebound effect on water consumption. 2) Atmospheric
emissions could be reduced by increasing the renewable energy share of the desalination process. For desalination purposes,
wind energy offers greater possibilities than photovoltaic. Under current conditions, an additional 23 MW would be required to
fully cover the kinetic energy, required to run the water production system, with no direct GHG emissions. This seems feasible
when considering recent development of 2 – 3 MW windmills. Alternatively, a possible mitigation technique would be to
allocate a carbon sink sufficiently large to absorb the undesired emissions. In the case of Lanzarote, approximately 5950
hectares of forest would have to be planted. In the insular aridity this would be quite simply impossible. Nevertheless,
arrangements could be made with other territories to “export” those virtual sinks by reforesting an area in a more suitable
environment. 3) Reducing the water network losses. Studies have shown that the currently 33% losses could be feasibly
reduced to 14%. 5) Providing water-saving devices in all new housing facilities (refer to case study Sant Cugat) 6) Increasing
the urban water re-utilisation share. In order to extend this option, a second parallel network would have to be built.
According to various studies, following these 6 strategies under “advanced scenario conditions”, the per capita desalination
GHG emission rate could be reduced almost by a factor of 9.
Within UNESCO’s programme (Man and the Biosphere – MaB), Lanzarote was appointed “Biosphere Reserve”. Under this
aegis and in view of tackling the tourism-related fouls (giving-up quality for quantity), the Insular Plan for the Organisation of
the Territory set a limit to growth via a tourist moratorium. The latter, however, seem rather difficult to implement mainly due to
the well-established speculative inertia.
Ô»--±²- Ô»¿®²»¼
The desalination technology ±ºº»®- ¹®»¿¬ °±¬»²¬·¿´ not only on at local scale, but also for entire population groups.
However, desalination is still to be regarded as a fairly »²»®¹§ó·²¬»²-·ª» ±°¬·±², with important environmental impacts.
Nevertheless, those impacts can be mitigated by paying attention to the »²»®¹§ -±«®½» and ³¿²¿¹»³»²¬ schemes.
A major concern is the ·²¼«½»¼ »ºº»½¬ ±º ·²º´¿¬·²¹ ¼»³¿²¼ that the desalination option seems to hold.
At the end of the day, desalination should be used to serve its lofty purpose of -«-¬¿·²·²¹ ´·ª»´·¸±±¼ (providing water for
basic domestic human needs, I.e. around 100) and ÒÑÌ º±® -¿¬·-º§·²¹ ´«¨«®§ (water for tourist services, where 500 litres
are daily required per capita in a naturally water scarce environmental context)
21
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
4.3.1.
Conclusions
Socio-economic aspects of water uses in Spain
Total water uses in Spain are about 37,000 Hm3/year. Nowadays, around 80% of water supply
in Spain comes from surface water, 15-20% from groundwater and rest (2%) from desalination.
Water consumption patterns of economic activities in Spain are not proportional to their contribution
neither to the economic output nor the employment they generate. The agricultural sector is the
biggest water consumer (68%) although it only contributes with 3-4% to the total GNP.
Development of groundwater resources for agriculture through private initiative has caused significant
economic development in some regions, but also important environmental and social conflict due to
excessive extraction.
Tourism and urban development located mainly along the coastline has steadily increased in the past
decades often implying an excessive exploitation of coastal aquifers causing saltwater intrusion.
Water consumption patterns in the Spanish Mediterranean arch are not coherent with the
climatic features. The dry summer season coincides with peak water demand for irrigation of
agriculture and urban water supply, specially for uses in tourism activities.
22
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
4.4.
Spanish regulative frame: property and use rights on
water
The evolution of the regulatory framework can be divided in 2 main phases. The first regulatory
framework starts in 1866 with the adoption of the first Water Act, together with the provisions
included in the 1889 Civil Code. This regulatory framework, that was coherent with the political,
economic and social context at that time, remained almost unaltered until 1985 when a new
Water Act introduced substantial changes in the pre-existing regulations. The two main
regulative periods include the one in which water is regulated as both private and public
property natural resource, and the one in which water is regulated as public domain.
Table 4.4.1. Main phases in the Spanish water regulative framework (from 1866 to 2000)
PHASE 1
PHASE 5
1866/1879 - 1986
1985/1986 – 1999
Water as a private and public property resource
PHASE 6
2000
Water as public domain
Rigid regime
More flexible
regime
Source: Costejà et al., 2004a.
4.4.1.
Private and public property regime
By virtue of the 1866 Water Act and the Civil Code, water use and property rights are
regulated following two principles. On the one hand, both water acts consolidate the concept of
hydraulic public domain, used, for the first time, in the Royal Decrees 5th April 1853 and 29th
April 1860. Waters falling in this category include rivers, rainwater, lakes, groundwater, springs
and fountains all of them along public river beds and land. On the other hand, waters flowing
on private land are not considered as public domain but private waters.
Regarding groundwater, the 1866/79 Water Act distinguishes between ‘discovered’ and
‘undiscovered’ waters. In the first case, when groundwater is placed under a public terrain, it
,
belongs to the State. In the second case, undiscovered groundwater is considered
that is, belonging to anybody, so the one discovering it becomes its owner.
Apart from surface and groundwater, coastal waters were first regulated in the 1866 Water Act
and then also in the 1880 Harbour Act. In both acts, the maritime area between deep sea and
the coastline is declared ‘public domain’1 and consequently affects public uses.
4.4.2.
Water as public domain
Since the 1960s and particularly during the seventies, the need for a legal revision of water use
and property regime is increasingly acknowledged. Abusive water use, problems of water
pollution in many Spanish rivers and aquifer over-exploitation become alarmingly frequent
during that period and the existing regulatory framework proves unable to cope with them
efficiently (Costejà et al., 2004). Finally, a new regulatory regime is established in 1985. The
1985 Water Act takes into account new criteria in water management (i.e. sanity, water quality,
civil protection, environmental values and territorial planning), and partially modifies the preexisting water use and property regime.
1
The characterisation of “public domain” can be seen as a way to exclude this good from private legal trade.
23
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
The main points included in the 1985 Water Act are:
Box 4.4.1. Spanish 29/1985 Water Act
29/1985 Water Act
Establishes that all water resources (surface and discovered or undiscovered groundwater) are public goods,
At the same time it also respects historically and socially deep rooted practices and property rights upon water
by giving traditional owners the possibility to change or maintain their private property on water. On the one
hand, they can transform their private property into a public domain by registering their right in Water
Register. During 50 years, there is no ownership of water but a temporary right to use private waters. At the
end of this period, users have the choice to obtain the corresponding administrative concession to their use.
Alternatively, users can maintain their rights in the way established by the previous legislation. However, if
they modify the exploitation conditions, they have to apply for an administrative concession and loose their
property right.
Regulates the obtention of privative uses by legal disposition or administrative concession
Establishes maximum of 75 years for the length of the administrative concession
Maintains the distinction between common and privative uses in public waters
In addition, the Royal Decree developing the Water Act also introduces several limits to the use of water:
It includes the respect of a minimum flow to ensure the availability of common uses and ecological and
sanitary needs,
It introduces the possibility of declaring an aquifer overexploited
It foresees the introduction of special regulations in situation of critical drought
Emphasises the need of the correct description of the pre-existing rights through the existence and
actualisation of a Water Register
To sum up, the 29/85 Water Act declared all continental waters (surface and groundwater) as
public domain which means that waters do not belong to anyone but to the whole society and it
is a duty and an obligation for public authorities to guarantee their proper management.
However, it also respects the rights of owners of private waters, so that both public and public
waters coexist. Regarding public waters, the Water Act distinguishes common uses from
privative uses in public waters (Costejà et al, 2004a). The following box illustrates the
differences between them.
Box 4.4.2. Common and private uses in public waters regarding Water Act
Uses of public waters
1. Common uses
“Ordinary” common uses
Drinking, bathing, domestic uses and cattle feed. No administrative authorization is
required.
Special common uses
Navigation and flotation, establishment of passing ships and embankments, other
uses that do not exclude the use of water by third parties.
2. Privative uses
Acquired by legal disposition
Landowners can use rainwater and stagnant waters flowing through their lands.
They can use waters coming from springs located in their lands and use
groundwater no exceeding 7,000 m3 per year (unless the aquifer has been declared
as overexploited; then an authorization is required).
If the annual volume of groundwater uses is superior than 7,000 m3, the
landowner will apply for a concession.
Acquired by administrative
concession
It is necessary to apply for an administrative concession to use public water in a
privative use when it is not possible to include the concrete situation in the cases
mentioned before.
24
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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Box 4.4.3. Implications on groundwater management of the 29/85 Water Act
Who owns the groundwater in Spain?
The
(Water Act of 1879) established the difference between public and private water
domains. The Law declared as private domain all groundwater extracted from a well located within private land,
as long as these works did not harm any water of public domain (surface waters mainly). Only the extraction of
groundwater from land of public domain was subject to administrative concession (Quintana, 1992).
In practice there were no quantitative limits to the exploitation of groundwater and its successive increment
(e.g. by deepening the well) until a clash occurring with another groundwater user. Therefore, in practice,
friendly agreements or courts limited the amount of rights over extracted groundwater (Moreu, 2003).
This radical liberal principle of the Water Act of 1879 regarding groundwater regulation triggered private
initiative that has developed an enormous agricultural production and facilitated for many municipalities their
duty to supply potable water (Llamas, 2003a). This, however, has been at the expense of socially undesired
consequences such as reduction or drying up of most Spanish wetlands, decrease or disappearance of streams
and river stretches, and the overexploitation and/or salinization of some aquifers (Martínez and HernándezMora, 2003).
This serious situation is a major factor that led to the legal reform of the jurisdictional regime of waters in
1985. The Ley de Aguas 29/1985 (Water Act 29/1985) establishes that all water resources are of public
domain. Following judicial resolutions established that owners of private water rights had 3 years to take the
(Water Register) and thereby
option to have recourse to the law inscribing their rights in the
transforming their rights into temporal rights for 50 years, after which they have the preference to obtain a
(Inventory) and enjoy indefinitely
new concession, or, if they preferred, to inscribe their rights in a
their rights “in the same way they have so far” but not being subject to “administrative protection”. The latter
terminology is not specified by the law and will be subject to interpretation by the corresponding authorities
(Moreu, 2003). The final result is that 85% of the wells in Spain have been inscribed in the private water
Inventory. (Arrojo, 2001).
The current inventory of groundwater rights only includes between 10 to 20 percent out of more than 1.5
million existing water wells. Moreover, not only are most of the old groundwater wells not inventoried, but also
many of the new water wells drilled after the enactment of the 1985 Water Act illegal (Llamas, 2003b).
The ambivalence in the law and the weakness of the hydraulic administration to enforce it has generated a
general feeling of insecurity regarding the possession of the waters. Some authors describe the situation as a
legal and administrative chaos which has also induced further illegal clandestine development of groundwater
extractions (Llamas, 2003; Martínez and Hernández-Mora, 2003 and Sanchez, 1995).
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4.4.3.
Towards a more flexible management of water
The 1985 Water Act is partially modified in 1999 by the 46/99 Act, the third one in Spain. This
act combines a more stringent control by the State upon the water resources with a more
flexible management of water, by establishing legal instruments aiming at promoting efficiency
and increasing available resources to meet increasing demands. The main changes introduced
by the 1999 Act are summarized in the following box:
Box 4.4.4. Main innovative issues of the 46/99 Act
Innovation of the 46/99 Act
Includes desalinated waters in the public domain as a public good
Includes the possibility of contract among users (concession holders) for the cession of use rights
Introduces the instrumentation of water banks, facilitating the exchange of water use rights, by which
the water administration purchases water and sells it at a price it sets.
Imposes a new restriction to the water use: the ecological flow or the so-called environmental demand
Requires an administrative concession for the reuse of treated/recycled waters
Source: Costejà et al., 2004b
After two failed attempts in 1993 and 1994, a new National Hydrological Plan was adopted in
2001. This planning instrument aimed at integrating River Basin Hydrological Plans (PHN) and
included inter-basin water transfers as a way of redistributing water within the Spanish
territory. The PHN was very much contested and it was finally derogated in June 2004.
4.4.4.
Coastal waters legislation
In general, in many areas the Spanish government is responsible for approving basic
legislations, while autonomous communities are responsible for their development and
implementation. Thus, concretion and adaptation to particularities of each region depends on
regional institutions like Catalan Water Agency (ACA) for Internal Basins of Catalonia (see
section 5). As a result, great differences in environmental and nature conservation policies exist
between the various regions.
The quality of coastal waters is affected by many variables. Consequently, the related
legislation is wide and diverse. In relation to ordinary legislation that affects maritime-terrestrial
zone, it is dispersed, fragmented and contradictory. Independently from the specific coastal
legislation, different laws dealing with territorial, maritime and sectorial issues are also in effect
(Villares, 1999): for instance, legislations related to water supply and treatment, land and urban
planning, harbours, the environment, protected areas, tourism, fishing, navigation and so on.
At European level:
EC
EC
EC
EC
EC
EC
Bathing Waters Directive
Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive
Shellfish Waters Directive
Habitats Directive
Conservation of Wild Birds Directive (79/409)
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
At national level main legislation concerning coastal waters are:
Coastal law (
, 28th of July)
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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Bathing waters quality act (
Territorial sea act (
734/1988, 1st of July)
, 4 of January)
th
Box 4.4.5 Coastal Act in Spain
SPANISH COASTAL ACT: Too late to protect coastal strip and water resources?
The object of coastal law is determination, protection, use and surveillance of the Public Maritime Terrestrial
Domain (art.1 CL). This is the principal law of coastal protection in Spain. The Coastal Act builds on the
declaration in the Spanish Constitution that the coastal strip, beaches, territorial sea and the natural resources of
the exclusive economic zone and continental shelf are State public property. It is intended to reassert State
ownership over “coastal public property”, which had increasingly become privatised, and to protect it from the
effects of inappropriate development on adjoining land.
The main criticism it suffered is that it took so long to be implemented; if it had been enforced 40 years ago it
would have been a powerful instrument to enhance beach protection. But this law affects a very narrow stretch
of coast and leaves the rest of the territory at the mercy of urban expansion.
4.4.5.
From Europe to Spain: transposition of Water
Framework Directive
The Water Framework Directive (2000/60/CE) (EWFD) which came into force on the 22nd of
December 2000, established the deadline of 31st December 2003 to transpose this regulative
frame into national legislations.
In the Spanish case, the transposition of the EWFD into the National Legislation was incomplete
and incorrectly formulated in some aspects (see Box 4.4.5 below). For a correct
implementation of the Directive, changes in the existing administrative structures, participatory
mechanisms and management approaches are needed in order to improve the ecological and
chemical status of waters. Next box shows specifically some critics to this transposition of WFD
into the regulative frame of Spain.
Box 4.6 Critics to the transposition process of the WFD into Spanish law
Transposition process of the WFD into Spanish law
The WFD was transposed/adopted to Spanish law the 31st of December 2003 through a Acompanying
Law of Budgets (Law 62/2003, from the 30th of December regarding fiscal, administrative and social
measures in the article 129). According to the WWF (2004) many elements of the WFD are ignored and
more than 20 articles are incorrectly formulated. The main critics made by the WWF to the transposition
are:
The determination of the public participation process during the planning process and
implementation of the WFD is lacking
The procedures for the elaboration and revision of the river basin management plans is lacking
The determination of the technical conditions defining the state of each water body, as well as
their classification criteria are missing. This is because the transposition of many annexes of the
WFD has been omitted.
Not all definitions have been transposed and some are incorrect The WFD establishes a clear
primacy of environmental objectives over other objectives during the hydrological planning, which
is currently not reflected in the transposition document.
Some of the deadlines established by the WFD are omitted.
Coastal waters are not sufficiently integrated in the management of the water district
Public participation is still based on the principle of participation of users instead of participation of
all interested persons.
Source: WWF, 2004.
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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4.4.6.
Conclusions
Spanish regulative frame: property and use rights on water
Changes in property and use rights take place very slowly and at very long term. The main
changes occurred in the Spanish regulative framework were in many cases driven by changes at
the political, economic and social context.
The 1985 Water Act had had a very innovative approach and introduced important changes on
the pre-existing water use and property regime by declaring all waters as public domain.
The present challenge of the Spanish regulative framework is to develop the necessary
regulations for a correct implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive.
The ambivalence in the law and the weakness of the hydraulic administration to enforce it, has
generated a general feeling of insecurity regarding the possession of the groundwater. The situation is
a legal and administrative chaos which has also induced further illegal clandestine development of
groundwater extractions.
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4.5.
4.5.1.
Administrative and institutional national water regime
Main developments of the Spanish Water Regime
Since its creation with the adoption of the first Water act in 1866, the Spanish water regime has
undergone deep transformations both regarding property rights and policy design. Since then,
the uses of water have increased and the scope of uses regulated has expanded. In this
respect, the main uses were first restricted to irrigation and population supply. During the 20th
century, and especially after the 1950s, water uses diversified due to the quick development of
industry and the tourist sector as well to the demographic boom, and then including navigation,
industrial water, hydropower production, water treatment, wetland protection, nature
conservation.
The main consequence of the increase of the number and type of uses is the overexploitation of
the water resources, which reaches dramatic levels in periods of severe drought. However,
although new uses are introduced, regulations and policy decisions are adopted with low levels
of policy coordination and by close policy communities (irrigation is the most significant
example). During the 1960s and 1970s, strongly supply-oriented policies (inherited from the
end of the 19th century), based on the construction of large hydraulic works subsidized by the
State, characterise the policy responses to the water problems.
By the end of the 1970s, the increase of water demand for heterogeneous uses, the situations
of water scarcity, together with the end of the Spanish dictatorship and the upcoming of
democracy, triggered changes in the water regime. The democratisation of the Spanish political
system creates a decentralised model in which power are distributed between the State,
autonomous communities and, to a lesser extent, municipalities. While the provisions of the
1978 Constitution have direct consequences on water management, water policy at the
beginning of the 1980s presents some contradictions as it coexist with the ‘old’ regulative
system (1866/79 Water Act). This situation results in a process of reform of the water
legislation, which ends with the adoption of the 29/85 Water Act. The Spanish entry into the
European Community in 1986 also introduced elements of change and had a progressive impact
on both water-related regulative framework and policy.
The 1985 Water Act attempted to introduce some
components of integration both regarding the uses
regulated and property rights. Regarding the former, it
integrates several uses, such as irrigation, water
treatment, drinking water, hydropower production and
nature protection within a common legal framework.
Regarding the latter, it states that all continental
(surface and ground-) waters are of public domain, even
though it establishes transitory processes that in
practice leave the door open to keep many situations of
water abuse unchanged (Costejà et al, 2004).
There have been some attempts to
introduce more integrated
approaches to water regime by
means of adopting new regulation and
policies since 1985 and, more strongly
since 1999. However, these attempts
have been frustrated due to a series of
factors: domination of supplyoriented policies, intense territorial
and social confrontations over the
resource and water scarcity.
In spite of the objectives established by the 1985 Water Act, the type of regime along the
1980s and 1990s can be characterised as a complex one (Costejà et al., 2004). Two main
reasons account for it: policy fragmentation and plurality of interests. The first reason relates to
the politico-administrative fragmentation of the water regime. On the one hand, it is
horizontally fragmented as, given the increase of the level of complexity, new issues related
with water policy (i.e. water quality) emerge and lead to the creation of new administrative
units at the State level. The creation of the Ministry of Environment in 1996 could be
interpreted as a signal of transition into a more integrated regime, as this department holds
29
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
power on both environmental protection and water policy. On the other hand, the policy is
vertically fragmented due to the involvement of both the European and regional policies: the
European Union introduces integration criteria with the 2000/60/CE Water Framework Directive
and the Autonomous Communities are increasingly involved as formal and informal actor in the
policy process in an attempt to defend their territorial interests. Regarding the second reason, a
plurality of interests enter the policy arena and openly clashes with the traditional approaches
on water policy.
Table 4.5.1 includes the main phases in the development of the Spanish water regime and the
main features characterising the regulative framework and the water policy.
Table 4.5.1. Main phases of Spanish water regime (from 1866 to 2000)
PHASE 1
1866/1879-1898
PHASE 2
1898 – 1953/59
PHASE 3
1953/59 – 1978
PHASE 4
1978 – 1985/1986
PHASE 5
1985/1986–1999
PHASE 6
2000
SIMPLE
SIMPLE
COMPLEX
COMPLEX
COMPLEX
COMPLEX
Fragmented
(transition)
(low complexity)
(high complexity)
(transition)
INTEGRATED
vs.
FRAGMENTED
Property and use
rights are regulated
following liberal
principles
Property rights
unaltered
Property rights
unaltered (but
need to review this
issue)
Property rights
unaltered
Public domain and
private waters (1985
Act)
Water markets
(1999 Act)
Deep social and
economic crisis
Economic and
demographic boom
Democratisation and
decentralisation
Water scarcity as a
national problem
Water scarcity as a
national problem
Need to promote
large hydraulic
infrastructures as a
means to
modernise the
country
Increase of water
uses and rivalries
Water scarcity as a
national problem
Territorial rivalries vs.
inter-territorial
solidarity
Water scarcity as a
national problem
Increasing
perception of water
scarcity as a
national problem
Perception on the
need to review
property rights
regime
Environmental
protection and water
quality
Hydraulic plans to
supply for the
increasing demand
Policy community
weakening
Regulation and
hydraulic projects
Environmental
protection and water
quality
European Union
European Union
Multilevel governance
Multilevel
governance
Administrative
reforms
Failed agricultural
reforms
Policy community
(promote irrigation
and hydraulic
works)
Multi-actor governance
(environm. groups,
regions)
Alternative problem
definitions and
perspectives
Water policy based
on territorial transfer
(2001 Act)
Multi-actor
governance
(environm. groups,
regions)
Alternative problem
definitions and
perspectives:
sustainability and
efficiency
Policy mix:
regulation, markets
and hydraulic
projects
Source: Costejà et al., 2004a
The failure to adopt PHN in 1993 and 1994, due to territorial, social and institutional conflict,
together with the increasing perception of the need to redefine water policy in more efficient
and market-oriented terms, lead to the reform of he 1985 Water Act in 1999. This Act
introduces some changes on the water regime, mainly by regulating the so-called water
30
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
markets, incorporating desalinated waters into the public domain and promoting efficiency
criteria in the use of water.
In spite of this, in 2001 a definite PHN was approved. The PHN aimed at facing the scarcity
problems through large inter-basins transfers of water and other infrastructure having an
impact on fluvial ecosystems, and not by adopting efficiency criteria based on the rationalisation
of its use and the modernisation of irrigation systems. While the 1998 White book on Water
(
– reference document) was adopted in a highly consensual way, the
PHN was adopted with the opposition of some Autonomous Communities, some political parties,
the environmental groups and the vast majority of the scientific community.
31
Case Study 3
ÌØÛ ÌÎßÒÍÚÑÎÓßÌ×ÑÒ ÑÚ ÌØÛ ÌÎßÜ×Ì×ÑÒßÔ ØËÛÎÌß ÑÚ ÓËÔß ×ÒÌÑ
ßÒ ×ÒÒÑÊßÌ×ÊÛ ßÒÜ ÛÚÚ×Ý×ÛÒÌ ×ÎÎ×ÙßÌ×ÑÒ ÍÇÍÌÛÓ
ÓËÔß øÓËÎÝ×ß÷
Meritxell Costejΰ (meritxell.costeja@uab.es)
ݱ²¬»¨¬
̸» Ó«´¿ ¸«»®¬¿ ø¬®¿¼·¬·±²¿´ ·®®·¹¿¬·±² -§-¬»³÷ is located in the northwest area of
the Murcian region, at the Southeast of Spain. It is part of the Mula river basin,
which is tributary to the Segura river in its right side. Climate conditions in the
Mula river basin are semiarid and typical of the Mediterranean basin: winters are
normally short and warm, while springs and summertime are long, warm and
dry. Most water from the Mula river basin is used in agriculture (95%).
Ó«´¿ ¸«»®¬¿
Population: ïíôêèë
Area: îôðï긿
Situation: ÍÉ ±º Í°¿·²
Interest: ײ²±ª¿¬·ª»
Ó±¼»®²·-¿¬·±² д¿²
Ю±¾´»³
The transformation of the Mula ¸«»®¬¿ (irrigated land) into a more efficient and equitable irrigation system has been, until the
late 1980s, frustated because of the combination of two main factors: (1) the º®¿¹³»²¬¿¬·±² ±º ¬¸» ·®®·¹¿¬»¼ ´¿²¼- into small
holdings (86% of parcels are smaller than 2ha.), (2) the severe situations of drought and ©¿¬»® -½¿®½·¬§, and (3) the traditional
¼·ª·-·±² ¾»¬©»»² ´¿²¼ ¿²¼ ©¿¬»® ±©²»®-¸·°, which has historically generated a monopoly system in which land owners have
been subordinated by those having a property title over water (the É¿¬»® Ô±®¼-). Since the XVI century, the Water Lords had
the property of about the 95% of the water flowing from the river through the main irrigation channel, and used to sell it in
daily auctions to farmers (land owners). They not only controlled the price of water but also the conditions of its distribution.
This situation provoked high levels of social conflict during the XX century that exacerbated a deep -·¬«¿¬·±² ±º ½®·-·- of the
¸«»®¬¿ during the first half of the 80s: ageing and decreasing productivity of crops; low efficiency of the traditional irrigation
system; deficient control of water consumptions; lack of farmers associations and poor hydraulic and administrative
management of available resources
Ю±°±-¿´
The organisation of farmers in an irrigation Community, together with new available water resources (coming form a new
dam and from a Segura river diversion) and the severe drought in the Mula region put pressure on the Water Lords to break
the monopoly system and allow a change in the water distribution system and a ®»¼·-¬®·¾«¬·±² ±º ©¿¬»® °®±°»®¬§ ®·¹¸¬-. In 1966
the auction system was suppressed and by the end of the 1980s, the Irrigation Community started purchasing water titles to
the Water Lords. All waters are now public and managed by the irrigation community. Parallel to the purchase of the water
titles, in 1988 a Ó±¼»®²·-¿¬·±² д¿² was elaborated as a pilot experience by the Regional Ministry of Agriculture. The plan
carried out a gradual transformation of the irrigation system into a dropping one and the computerisation of the water supply
and distribution system. Some of the ³¿·² ·³°®±ª»³»²¬- introduced by the Modernisation plan have been the:
Unification of all waters (public and private)
Progressive substitution of the flooding system by the dropping one, which has increased efficiency and reduced
water consumption at farm level
Computerisation and centralisation of the water management and control
Computerisation of the irrigation and fertilisation systems
Annual planning in the distribution of water
Creation of a Water bank where farmers can exchange their water use rights
Updating of farmers’ census
Training programme for farmers
The Modernisation plan is now serving a an example for the modernisation of other ¸«»®¬¿- in the Southeast of Spain.
Ñ«¬½±³»- ¿²¼ л®-°»½¬·ª»The Modernisation plan has dramatically contributed to the optimisation of the distribution and use of water and has
improved the sustainability of the system in three main dimensions:
Û½±´±¹·½¿´: an environmental impact assessment was elaborated before the implementation of the Plan. Considerable
savings in water and energy consumption have been achieved, as well as a decrease in the water loses. The
Modernisation Plan also established some measures in order not to overexploit ground waters and included the
maintenance of an ecological flow for the river.
ͱ½·¿´: The implementation of the Plan has improved the living quality of farmers and has contributed to stop rural
exodus at the ¸«»®¬¿ of Mula by providing incentives for young farmers to stay.
Û½±²±³·½: the cost of water for farmers (main users of water) has decreased while the productivity of land has
substantially improved
Apart form the improvements in the sustainability of the resource, other forms of ·²¬»¹®¿¬·±² have been favoured: (1)
Integration of actors (specially those involved at the local and regional level), (2) higher level of coordination among
different level of the governance system (State and regional administration, regional experts in irrigation and users at the
local level), (3) integration of water property and use rights in the hands of the main users’ organisation.
Ô»--±²- Ô»¿®²»¼æ
What explains the changes occurred at the Mula ¸«»®¬¿?
ݸ¿²¹» ¿¹»²¬-: (1) Leadership of the regional government (which has technical and financial resources and support
from other institutions like the EU and the national administration in the elaboration of the Plan, (2) ability of the Irrigation
community to break the monopoly on the property and distribution of water, and (3) Problem pressure (drought
conditions precipitated a deep crisis of the traditional structure of the ¸«»®¬¿)
Ú¿ª±«®¿¾´» ½±²¼·¬·±²-: High level of co-ordination and information exchange among the main actors involved
32
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4.5.2.
Institutional Frame of water management in Spain
According to the existing legislation (Water Law 1985 and regulations) the main institutional
organisation of water management in Spain include:
The General Directorate of Water, Ministry of Environment.
The National Water Council: highest advisory body on water policy ascribed to the
Ministry of Environment, and brings together representatives of the State, regional and
local administrations.
The River Basin Authorities (RBA): so-called
are
independent public authorities dependent on the General Directorate of Water and have
functional autonomy but are subject to contractual requirements of public
organisations. These RBA in those river basins lying entirely in one region have been
transformed in Regional Water Agencies (e.g. Catalan Water Agency), integrating
).
operational and planning functions (see
The Basin Water Councils: planning advisory body of the Basin Authorities.
Other organisation that assume roles in water management at central (national) level include:
General Directorate of Coastal Areas (Ministry of Environment) (see
)
General Directorate of Planning and Rural Development (Ministry of Agriculture)
The National Geographical Institute
The Technological Institute of geo-mining of Spain
CEDEX (Centre for Hydrographical Studies) and Tragsatec: technical public
organisations providing technical advice on water issues and agriculture. CEDEX was
(Civil Works), in charge of the
created in 1957, ascribed to the Ministry of
acquisition, analysis, treatment and application of basic data, and thus, the elaboration
of technical documents for the implementation of WFD.
SEPRONA: The specialised service of the Civil Guards (National Police) for the
protection of the Environment. They investigate and prosecute polluters and other
infractions of the water law and report to the RBAs for administrative infractions or to
the judges for ecological crimes.
Further organisations linked to water management issues,
Water Users Communities: public right entities attached to the River Basin
Authorities which fulfils the tasks of police, distribution and administration of water
granted by the Administration. (For more information see
).
Irrigation Communities: Users Communities in which the water managed is used
only for irrigation. In Spain there are around 6200 Irrigators Communities taken in the
census (
).
Water Societies: Public, private or PPP (Public-Private partnerships) specialised in
providing urban water services.
Municipalities or groups of municipalities
services directly (water distribution and sanitation services)
: provide water
Since the Constitution approval of 1978, a progressive decentralisation occurred in Spain with
an increasing role of the regions (with the creation of Regional Water Agencies) and
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municipalities (responsible for the provisions of water and wastewater services to the
citizens) in water management. Despite this, national planning and other “strategic decisions”
were adopted from central authorities.
At present, with the recent Government change (April 2004), and the adoption of a new water
management policy tendency, forced by social claim and the measures considered under the
European Water Framework Directive, there is an increased need of a progressive process of
“real” decentralisation in this institutional framework. This process, foresees restructuring some
inefficient and obsolete entities giving more scope to regional and local authorities according
and
(tackling environmental problems at a level as close as
the
possible to where it occurred).
At this point, some key issues to be taken into consideration are the following (modified from
Estevan et al., 2004):
The
should be an institution with the mission of orienting
water management in Spain, restoring aquatic habitats, and restructuring the use of
infrastructure in a new context (water-demand based).
Those
with an inadequate management of water
resources, should be transformed into “Water Agencies” at river basin level, being public
entities with a strong technical capacity (under a multidisciplinary perspective) and
transparency, with an equilibrated representation of local, regional and national authorities,
and other social entities involved in water management.
Those
and particularly,
, included
some local administrations, should be reconverted to more efficient organisations of the use
of water resources, adequately informed, and fully responsible of its funding and
management, supported by central Administration.
Box 4.5.1. Institutional Frame of coastal water management: a fragmented approach
Institutional divide of coastal water management
Surface, ground- and coastal waters are currently dealt with in a fairly fragmented manner; meaning that the
historical institutional divide and the isolated management of each category is still very much at force. This box
illustrates the functioning of the institutional setting responsible for coastal water management.
The wide range of issues related to the coastal waters is reflected by the quantity of ministries holding some
kind of responsibility on it, but it is mainly the Ministry of the Environment who is in charge of managing all
activities in the Coastal Public Domain and oversees the application of the Coastal Act. The Ministry is structured
into two secretariats: the General Secretariat of the Environment and the Secretariat for the State of Waters and
Coasts. Under the last, the General Directorate of the Coast is organised into a structure made up of its Central
Services in Madrid, with two General Directorate (General sub-Directorate of Public Maritime-Terrestrial Domain
and General Sub-directorate of Coastal Activities) and certain Peripheral Services in all coastal provinces
(Demarcations).
Concerning the other ministries with responsibilities on the coast, it is necessary to mention the Ministry of
Defence (Fishing and coastal surveillance), the Ministry of Promotion (control of ship spills and management of
the oceanographic networks), and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing (concessions for fisheries and
seafood aquaculture).
However, responsibility on coastal water quality monitoring is very complicated and depends on each
autonomous community.
While Territorial Sea is State property, coastal waters will be included in the closest hydrographical demarcation
and each Autonomous Community is responsible for implementing the EWFD.
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Table 4.5.2 Competences and responsibilities for different water related issues.
ENTITIES
RBA
(River Basin
Authorities)
Regional
Governments
Water use
permits (surface
& GW
discharge)
authorities
Constitutional
responsibilities
where in
interregional basins
water is a public
domain
In “internal regional
rivers” and where
there is delegated
responsibilities from
the RBA
Dam
construction /
Reservoir
management
Environmental
actions and
impacts. Natural
Parks
Biodiversity
Build and manage.
Also shared with “RB
companies”
In specific cases
Water Directorate
main funding (with
part EU funding)
Basic legislation.
EIA (Environmental
Impacts
Assessments).
Nature Directorate
Forestation
changes and
protection of
river banks
Planning and
implementation.
Permits control,
limits of public
domain
Main water
transportation
infrastructure to
irrigation areas
Development of
norms (according
basic legislation).
Main legal
responsibilities,
implementation and
funding
Forestation Plans
and Implementation
TOPIC
Agricultural
water
use/irrigation
agricultural
pollution
Livestock
Fisheries
Industrial water
use
Discharge authorizations to
urban sewage systems. Water
service contracts with individual
consumers
Ministry of
Environment
Discharge
authorizations and
monitoring, fines and
penalties. Gravel
extractions permits
Authorizations (and
charges) for the use
of water domain
Urban water
services and
Diffuse pollution
Soil erosion /
Soil quality
Irrigation communities with
delegated management from
RBAs
Program for clean up
of derelict sites
Responsibility for the
development of local plans and
management of building permits
International issues,
housing, funding
programs, statistics
Building of
wastewater
treatment plant,
charges, solid waste
plans
Regional
governments
responsibility
Municipal responsibilities (direct
delivery or companies) Solid
waste installations
Legal
implementation and
permits, related to
energy infrastructure
affecting one region
Flood
management
/Civil protection
Build and
maintenance of flood
prevention
infrastructures
Regional projects
Other
Ministries
Research and
Advice to RBAs,
Regional and
Central
Governments by
the Geological
and Mining
Institute of the
Ministry of
Science and
Tech.
Special nature
police
(SEPRONA)
depending on
the Ministry of
Interior
Interventions
declared of
general interest
or in a
interregional
domain, funding
quality of
products
Interventions
declared of
general interest,
funding, quality
of products
Statistics in
continental
fishing, quality
of products
Location permits, industrial areas
development, delivery of water
services
Permits and charges
for the use of the
public domain
Ministry of
Health/Regional
Departments of
Health
National Forestation
plans Funding
Regional
development
programs. R&D
support. Delivery of
WWT services and
charges. Inspections
of discharges
Approval of local
urban plans and
development of
regional special
strategies. Oversight
building permits,
other legal
requirements
Responsibility of
regional
Departments
Hydroelectricity
Ministry of
Agriculture
Water Directorate
Exclusive
responsibility in
continental fishing
Land use
planning and
control housing
Tourism
recreation
Exclusive
responsibility.
Department of
agriculture. Funding
farmers efficiency
improvements.
Control of diffuse
sources pollution
Exclusive
responsibility in
Livestock
Local
Governments/Other
Local Organisations
Funding to regional
and local
governments
Health controls
Health controls
Health controls
Health issues
Support of R&D
and industrial
restructuring
programs
Bathing waters, health
standards and controls
Institute of
Tourism,
promotion plans
and programs,
quality
assurance
Health controls
National “Campaign
against
Desertification
Strategy”, funds
Local projects
Flood control
security, funds,
compensation for
damages
Health issues
IDAE and
Ministry of
Economy:
Energy policy,
promotion of
renewable
energies.
Permits of
energy infrast.
for several
regions
Ministry of
Interior
Source. Modified from Maestu et al., 2003
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Box 4.5.2. River Basin Authorities in Spain
River Basin Authorities (
) are independent public authorities dependent on
the General Directorate of Water (Ministry of Environment) which have functional autonomy holding responsibilities
for planning, water management and hydraulic works when the river basin flows through more than one
Autonomous Community (Costejà et al., 2004). They were created from 1926 (with the predecessor being the
River Technical Offices created in 1903). In those river basins lying entirely in one region, RBA have been
transformed in Regional Water Agencies (e.g. Catalan Water Agency), undertaking the same functions.
Presently 14 RBA exist in Spain:
9 River Basin Authorities for the main
interregional basins;
3 intra-regional water authorities for
small rivers in Catalonia, Basque
Country and Galicia;
2 Insular Water Authorities in the
Balearic and the Canary Islands.
The Ebro and the Segura River Basins where
the first River Authorities created (1929 and
1931 respectively) with the view of planned
and integrated development of water
resources to control risks, warranty water for
the population all year around and with
economic development objectives in mind.
River Basin Authorities has cohabited
together with previously existing historic
water rights (of naturally available water)
” private development and use
and “
of groundwater until 1985.
Figure 4.5.1. Spanish River Basin Districts
Source: Maestu et al., 2003
The responsibilities of the River Basin Authorities today include:
Water resource planning.
Water resources development.
Management of water use rights and emission rights system.
Monitoring and control of water quality and water resources (surface and groundwater).
The earlier water resources development of the RBA’s in Spain, have given way to a much more complex set of
responsibilities and a greater role of integrated planning (surface and groundwater quantity and quality) and of
management and control. The importance of earlier functions (and their impact in the transformation of the
country) still remain and are reflected in the character and functions of the RBA’s where the investment activity
and budget (the most important) still structures many activities.
Central Government keeps strong control of the RBA’s through the investments that are funded mainly by the
General Directorate of Water in the Ministry of Environment. Since 1994, Cohesion funding have also been a main
source of financing of the investments in the Basin Authorities.
Source: Maestu et al., 2003
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Box 4.5.3. Spanish Irrigators Communities
In Spain, between 80% (in the past) and 70% or less (today) of water resources are used by the Irrigation Sector.
Irrigators Communities (IC) are corporations of public right ascribed to River Basin Authorities (RBA)
conformed by all the owners who possess an irrigating area. They are obliged by law to join together, for the
autonomous and common administration of the public surface and groundwater, without profit-making intention.
They have internal autonomy in terms of
management through individualized Ordinances and
Regulations drafted by the Irrigators themselves and
then submitted for final approval to their respective
).
RBA (
Presently, in Spain there are around 6200 Irrigators
Communities included in the census.
Its public character stems from the objectives they
follow:
Administration of public waters.
Distributing their flows.
Settling
disputes
between
“commoners”
(farmers) or other stakeholders.
Acting as policy enforcers.
Figure 4.5.2. General Assembly of the
Segarra-Garrigues Irrigators Community
(Tàrrega, Spain) Source: Diari Segre, 2004
All the Communities, run their administration under three headings: Legislative, Executive and Juridical, for
which they dispose of three organs: General Assembly, Board of Governors, and Irrigation Jury.
At national level, irrigators think they are not well enough represented within different authorities. For instance,
in the Water Council and RBAs, only the 15% of its members are Irrigators despite them using over 70% of the
supplied water, and assuming in some cases, 50% of the expenses of the RBAs (infrastructure) jointly with
Autonomous Communities.
Source: Del Campo, 1999
4.5.3. Water policies and practices: reaching sustainability (?)
The recent political change that occurred in Spain offers a perfect discussion frame to review
different water resource management options. The Spanish National Hydrological Plan (PHN)
will therefore serve as a debate ground to analyse current water management trends and also
discuss the desalination technology (see
).
The Former Spanish Hydrological Plan
The principle of the
that led end of
the 19th and especially during the 20th century to a
Spain is in the world top five of most
dammed countries (World
productivist water management approach result in a
Commission on Dams, 2000) and
well-established
, strongly rooted
increased its water retention capacity
in engineering and technical sciences. This can be
from 40 km3 to 53 km3 between 1980
particularly verified in Spain that traditionally focuses on
and 2000.
water supply; the issue of water quality and pollution
only truly appeared on the agenda in the late 1980s. Water in Spain has been a key issue for
development and economic growth, especially in the southern and interior regions. Water for
tourist services and irrigated agriculture has continuously increased demands. Part of this
demand has been met by a plethora of large-scale hydraulic works that “vertebrated” and “reequilibrated” the territorial hydrology system, especially since the 1960s.
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Spain’s water management trajectory, strongly based the extensive construction of big scale
hydraulic engineering works such as dams, channels and pipelines, slowly lead to saturation of
its own capacity. Past national droughts (1990-1995 & 1982-1983) remained unquenched
despite additional retention facilities. With its over 1000 dams and reservoirs, Spain is in the
world top five of most dammed countries (World Commission on Dams, 2000) and increased its
water retention capacity from 40 km3 to 53 km3 between 1980 and 2000, yet catchment waters
did not exceed 27 km3 on average. The PHN’s main subproject (BOE, 2001a&b) which was to
transfer yearly 1,050 Hm3 from the Ebro River over a 900 kilometre-long aqueduct triggered
great societal conflicts, has been officially repealed by the government after the recent political
change and previously rebuked by EU disagreements (see
).
In the old plan, the 1 km3 water volume would have been transferred from the Ebro basin to
the Northeast basin (0.190 km3/y), the Jucar basin (0.315 km3/y), the Segura basin (0.450
km3/y) and the South basin (0.095 km3/y). Out of the 893 hydraulic works planned by the PHN,
5% were to be desalination activities for the national average, with much higher proportions in
the arid regions (44% in the Balear Islands; 24% in the Canary Islands; 17% in the Northeast
basin; 14% in the Segura and 13% in North Africa).
approach produced the
The for-long unquestioned success of the
sensation that water scarcity problems could be entirely solved by increasing supplies. As this
conception spread amongst population and tourist industry, the traditional water culture
prudence progressively eroded, generating rising consumption patterns. Ironically, additional
supplies seem to create a serious contradiction in which
a “water squander” culture -subsequently triggering
The principal imbalance between water
socially constructed water calamities- increasingly
availability and its uses originate when
emerges in a natural context of absolute scarcity. As
human activities are imported to zones
pointed out by Naredo (2003), the principal imbalance
without any consideration for their
inherent capability to host such social
between water availability and its uses originate when
habits (Naredo, 2003).
human activities are imported to zones without any
consideration for their inherent capability to host such
social habits.
Water Management: From Supply- to Demand-based strategies
Throughout the large literature dealing with water management, in a simplifying guise, two
general approaches to water management can be identified. On the one hand, the traditional,
unsustainable ‘Increased Supply’ focuses predominantly on providing technical support enforced
by policies promoting large scale hydraulic engineering works, such as damming, transfers,
desalination, pumping, etc. On the other hand, there is a growing recognition of the need for
‘Demand Management’ as suggested by the EWFD, to provide sounder options. Such approach
: economic (“full cost recovery”
simultaneously rests on the three pillars of
principle), social (pro-active “public participation”) and environmental (aiming at restoring “good
ecological status” of rivers) aspects. The EWFD strives towards re-establishing the balance
between supply and demand by providing more goods and services using less water (EEA,
2001).
The New Water Culture
In Spain, civil society uttered its rising mistrust for wraithlike paternalistic hydraulic policies
correcting primarily socially-constructed water scarcities and serving oligarchic interests. A civil
movement representing social actors from different fronts cried for a new ‘Water Culture’ that
would acknowledge the multiple dimensions of environmental, social, economic, political, ethical
and emotional values of this vital resource.
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This
(Arrojo
Agudo and Martínez Gil, 1999), very much
in agreement with the EWFD, argues for a
fundamental shift from “hydraulic works
promotion”
towards
an
“economic
management” approach and strives for
integrating both socio-economic and
environmental aspects. Such demand side
approaches aim at minimising the need
for additional supplies, trying to avoid
“supply creates demand”-type vicious
circles and, at a global scale, enhanced
water access equity.
European Declaration for the New Water Culture
The European Declaration for the New Water Culture is
pronged in three priority levels:
-
-
-
: as a top priority, water should serve
its basic function of providing survival for all human
beings under the principle of efficacy.
: where water
preserves public health, social cohesion, and equity
under the principle of social efficiency.
: as a third level priority,
where water functions as a legitimate economic
resource serving private interest, under the pinciple
of economic rationality in order to optimise
economic efficiency.
,
As part of this
Antonio Estevan (1999, p.186) lays the
foundations for a sound ‘Demand-side’ strategy through:
a) Infrastructure programmes (reduction of network losses)
b) Savings and civil consciousness raising programmes (reduction of individual
consumption, voluntary saving, modification of tariff structures, etc.)
c) Hydraulic efficiency programmes (technical modifications in equipments)
d) Resource substitution programmes (replacing the high quality freshwater in the network
by water from other origins, not yet utilised: treated wastewater, rain water, saline
water, local water streams or aquifers with non-potable water, etc.).
The underpinning approach of ‘Demand Management’ is to render the regime more flexible by
reconverting programmes for more efficient uses (Naredo, 1996). Such changes can, for
instance, be implemented through so-called “water banks” 2 as it is done in California. From the
ethical foundations laid be the
emerged the
(signed in Madrid, February 18th, 2005), which recognises the different
functions and values of water.
The New Spanish Hydrological Plan
From both the EWFD and the
, emerged the so-called Programa AGUA,
the alternative to the afore mentioned PHN. The current Hydrological Plan, presented in May
2004 by the newly formed government, aims to provide the water-deficient river basins with the
same flow at a lesser cost, in less time. While a more modest pumping scheme south from the
Tagus river may still go ahead, out of this volume, the majority will be provided by the fleet
around 20 new desalination plants located in facility centres of the east coast, while around
18% originate from reutilised treated wastewaters. The change is especially visible in the case
of Andalusia where instead of the 95 Hm3 promised by the initial Ebro transfer, 312 Hm3 will be
provided, 160 Hm3 of which thanks the desalination technology while only 20 Hm3 through
recycling.
The political debate over the cost of desalination vs. transfer still does not seem to be resolved:
the conservative party (PP) calculates 0.90 € per cubic meter of desalinated water while the
socialist party (PSOE) asserts a cost of 0.33 €/m3; the cost calculation for the Ebro transfer
option is exactly the opposite (0.31 €/m3 argued by the PP - 0.90 €/m3 according to the PSOE).
Moreover, as the plants construction is to be partially funded by the EU, desalination-skeptics
argue that costs will rocket with maintenance expenses (renovation needed every 10 or 15
2
For more information on the Californian “water banks”, refer to Arrojo Agudo & Naredo (1997)
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years). Also, the animated discussion between the autonomous community of Aragon (Ebro
basin) and their concerned neighbours fiercely goes on.
Box 4.5.4. Actions of the Spanish
on the Mediterranean coast.
The ‘actions’ planned by the
on the Mediterranean coast will contribute to increasing
the current supply capacity by 1,100 Hm3 per year with a total investment of 3,900 million Euros. The
first project to be implemented are the following:
Table 4.5.3. Main ‘Actions’ of the
Nº of ‘actions’
Supply (Hm3/year)
Southern River Basin
17
312
554 mill. €
Segura River Basin
24
336
1.336 mill. €
Júcar River Basin
40
270
798 mill. €
Ebro and Internal Catalan River Basin
24
145
1.110 mill. €
Investment
Source: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, 2005.
A Sustainable Alternative to Inter-Basin Water Transfers?
Can a PHN that claims to get rid of the idea to “
” ever develop realistic solutions? Under current plans of massively implementing
the desalination alternative without any consideration of its questionable uses in the tourist and
agricultural sectors, does the myth “
” not prevails still; or is it shifting towards
“
”? Should not “
” be viewed as an opportunity
rather than a constraint? Although energy, monetary costs and above all environmental impacts
of desalination may present some clear overall advantages compared to the former Ebrotransfer option, to what extent do the management trends underpinning the desalination
alternative (given the currently suggested water volumes to be produced and their dedicated
use) differ from the former PHN? How does it deal with demand and consumption patterns?
Indeed, the new Plan will quench the thirst not only of the intensive plastic-tented irrigation
agriculture of Almeria but also of the numerous new tourist developments and golf courses. As
over 15,000 hectares of previously protected coastal land was recently reported to have been
freed for tourist developments, important international investors such as George Soros are
closely looking at the Spanish east coast. Such investments highly depend on the newly
promised water “abundance” for the Alicante-Almeria region (marketed as the new Florida) as
billion-worth projects plan the development of a series of vast tourist facilities, mostly based on
new golf courses. In Almeria alone, about 100,000 holiday homes and 10 golf courses -each
using as much water as a town of 10,000 people- have received planning permission on the
basis that water would arrive to satisfy their needs. A further 34 golf courses, were approved in
Murcia, along with 10,000 new residences and 25,000 new hotel beds: one of Europe's
projected biggest tourism complex at Cabo Cope.
Although such facilities are said to be charged 10 times more for their water than farmers, in
this view, would not a widespread implementation of desalination plans still remain in the realm
and the EU Water Framework
of Increased Supply, clashing with the
Directive that insists for desalination to be the solution of last resort? In fact, similarly to
gargantuan water-diversion projects, desalination holds the unrealistic hope of a supply-side
solution, which delays the onset of demand-side based solution. It indeed encourages the faster
spinning of the production-consumption carousel as well as lock-in situations both in the
technological trajectory undertaken and in the social habit of consumption patterns, rather than
rationalising demands within an integrated hydrological basin management approach.
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As argued by David Saurí (2003), water demand management policies -if applied on their ownmay be insufficient to appropriately curb growing demands. They should be properly integrated
with urban development and land use policies. Since it has been acknowledged that an intrinsic
correlation exists between water consumption levels and the location of one living, growing
urban sprawl trends shifting towards low-density demography patterns of diffuse-type cities,
could mean an overall increase of per capita water consumption hampering any technological
change efforts to increase efficiency.
The EU Water Directive therefore argues for better sectoral integration in water-related policymaking. How does the new PHN address such issues? In view of present considerations, the old
“increasing supply” logic still seems to hold. As will be seen for the case of Catalonia, one might
wonder about the effectiveness of this strategic approach. With 1,100 million Euros invested for
145 Hm3, Catalonia will be the more “privileged” region of the alternative plan. However, the
Catalan Water Agency (ACA) estimates that Catalonia’s hydro-deficit will still be of 304
Hm3/year by 2012. It seems that increasing supplies will always be insufficient because they
increase demands even faster and that ultimately, supplies will always be fully used up (“Supply
creates its own demand, which will exhaust supply”3 ).
The new alternative suggested by the Spanish Environmental Minister, Cristina Narbona, still
maintains water supplies well above real necessities, strongly contradicting the natural aridity
context. How does supplying ever more water to a desert-type region to satisfy imported
recreation habits clearly not adapted to the local host environment, solve drought problems?
Water squander and further decontrolled urban development will be the result of a political
action that refuses to properly address the alleviation of water needs by sound demand
management (control of illegal irrigation, distribution-infrastructure improvement and repair,
reutilisation of treated wastewaters, etc.)
3
Although Say’s Law applies to the whole economy, one may wonder to which extent it also holds within the water
sector itself.
41
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
Box 4.5.5. National Irrigation Plan (PNR) 2002
National Irrigation Plan: towards a new water culture?
The National Irrigation Plan (
– PNR) serves as one of the action modalities
of the Administration when the competencies of the agrarian policy are transferred to the
Autonomous Communities. The PNR receives its main impulse when the 1985 Water Act obliged
irrigation to be accounted for in the National Hydrological Plan (PHN) figures and in the River Basin
Hydrological Plans. But is was not until 1994 that the Congress of Deputies required the Government
to submit together with the PHN a PNR. As a result,
was approved in March 1996.
, 30% of all “dry land cultivation” was transformed into National Interest
By the
Areas. However, this
was revised by the PP (Spanish Conservative Party)
Government, which elaborated a
, approved by the Ministry for Agriculture,
Fisheries and Alimentation (MAPA) (
– 5th of April 2002).
The PNR confirms that public policies on irrigation issues continue to be necessary policies for
Spanish agriculture (MAPA, 2002). Under this perspective, the PNR argues for the necessity to
subsidize irrigation infrastructures not only on economic grounds but also for social, territorial and
environmental criteria sake.
strives to impulse the following principles and general management trends:
“Vertebrate” the territory
Improve living standards of farmers
Orchestrate agrarian productions and markets
Improve distribution infrastructures and application of irrigation water
Incorporate environmental criteria
Although the former PHN has been cancelled by last year’s governmental changed, the PNR has not
been adapted accordingly and is still very much earmarked by the old paradigm. Consequently,
neither do the formerly planned surface areas, nor the implementation periods nor the budgets
allocated concord with the present situation. The actions planed can be forged in 4 programmes
(Table 4.5.3):
Table 4.5.3. Actions planned by the
Surface Area (Ha)
Budget (%)
Consolidate and improve irrigation
1,134,891
61.15
Extent irrigation
138,365
22.74
Declare irrigated lands as Social Interest Areas
86,426
13.64
Incorporate irrigation of private initiative
18,000
2.48
Source: Own elaboration based on MAPA (2002)
Resides the PNR, Irrigation Plans also exist at regional level, developed by the different Autonomous
Communities, complemented and incorporated in the National Plan. In this sense, the Autonomous
Communities work in coordination with the MAPA for the elaboration of the PNR.
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4.5.4. Conclusions
Administrative and institutional Spanish water regime
There have been some attempts to introduce more integrated approaches to water regime by means of
adopting new regulation and policies since 1985 and, more strongly since 1999. However, these
attempts have been frustrated due to a series of factors: domination of supply-oriented policies, intense
territorial and social confrontations over the resource and water scarcity.
After the derogation of the National Hydrological Plan in 2004, policy events pose uncertainty on the
real extent of integration and many of the principles and proposals of the New Water Culture are just
beginning to be implemented.
The main future challenges of the water regime will be to achieve EU standards and integrate territorial
and social interests in the policy process.
The institutional context of water management in Spain, has been historically complex and with low coordination level between diferent scales (national, regional, local).
River Basin Authorities (RBA) which appear since the first part of 20th century need a strong technical
capacity (under a multidisciplinary perspective) and transparency, with an equilibrated representation of
local, regional and national authorities, and other social entities involved in water management being
transformed to Water Agencies.
Water Users communities and particularly, Irrigators Communities, are important entities in water
management, which should be reconverted to more efficient organisations of the use of water
resources, adequately informed, and fully responsible of its funding and management, supported by
central Administration.
Water Demand Management (WDM) has been recognised as a more sustainable approach than
‘Increase Supplies’, which is encouraged by WFD.
The
(new PHN), largely relies on the desalination technology, which still remains in the
realm of ‘Increased Supply’.
The
acknowledges the multiple dimensions of water. From it emerges the
European Declaration for the New Water Culture, which is pronged in three priority levels where “Water
for Life” is the top priority, while “Water for economic growth” is of third priority level.
Although the former PHN (National Hydrological Plan) has been cancelled by last year’s governmental
changed, some other plans as National Irrigation Plan (PNR) has not been adapted accordingly being
still very much earmarked by the old paradigm of hydraulic structuralism.
43
Case Study 4
ÌØÛ ÜÛÍßÔ×ÒßÌ×ÑÒ ÌÛÝØÒÑÔÑÙÇ
ÞÎ×ÛÚ ÙË×ÜÛÜ ÌÑËÎ
Gregor Meerganz von Medeazza (gregor.meerganz@uab.es)
Various desalination methods exist but the overall metabolism of the process is
generally the same (Figure 4.5.3). The most common processes used nowadays are
distillation (thermal separation) and membrane technologies, each accounting for
about half the installed global desalination capacity. Reverse Osmosis (RO)
membrane separation is a process based on physical-chemical filtration. Thanks to its
greater efficiency and much lower energy consumption (which in terms of primary
energy, is about 5-6 times lower than thermal technologies), RO has become the
widespread desalination process, gaining the major share of the desalination market
outside the Gulf countries which continue to use mainly distillation technologies.
However, most new desalination plants now use RO (over 80% in Spain for instance)
and this technology is unlikely to be challenged by any other process in the near
future (Figure 4.5.4).
IN
OUT
GHG
Energy
Desalination
Process
Seawater
Freshwater
Brine
Ú·¹«®» ìòëòí. Desalination metabolism
The energy required to overcome the osmotic pressure of a saline
solution is quite considerable. From thermodynamics, the theoretical
minimum to obtain fresh water is around 0.7 kWh/m3 (MacHarg,
2001). Back in the 1970’s, when the technology started to be
commercialised, sometimes well over 20 kWh were required to
desalinate one cubic meter of water. As shown in Figure 4.5.5, this
value has been constantly decreasing over the past decades and
nowadays, energy use for seawater desalination is in the range of 3
to 20 kWh/m3, with the older distillation plants at the top end.
However, since the operational pressure to force seawater through
the membrane remains around 75 bars consequently, desalination is
still to be considered as a very energy intensive and expensive way
of supplying freshwater. As a comparison, 6 kWh are required to lift
one cubic meter of water by 1,800 meters, i.e. higher than any
worldwide currently undertaken bulk water transfer. Hence,
Ú·¹«®» ìòëòì. Production capacity of different desalination processes in the technological advances have tried to optimise the process to its
Mediterranean region. (Source: Unep – Map, 2003)
maximum. One of the greatest contributions lie in energy recovery
devices (multi-train power reduction and retro-fit design schemes).
The out-flowing brine (i.e. the wastewater that did not traverse the membrane) is still of very high pressure. This remaining pressure is used
to spin a turbine, which acts upon the axe of the main turbo-pump. An additional device, now commercialised by various firms, is the so
called Pressure Exchanger (PX). By this means a notable reduction of the consumed energy is achieved: the state of the art,
commercialised RO desalination processes produce freshwater at an (official, i.e. optimal) energy cost lying around 2.5 kWh/m3. So, it
seems a feasible target to reach water production at an energy cost of 2.5 - 3 kWh/m3 at global level within the next 10 years and
thereby considerably reduce environmental impacts. This promise may be
Evolution of Energy Consumption
fulfilled in limited territories, if combined with active demand management
schemes striving towards reducing insular production; but may well fail in
absolute terms on global scale, since current trends seem to indicate a
25
massive increase in overall desalination production. Furthermore,
20
experiences have shown however, that the reliability of those PX devices
suffer a great deal as soon as the standard conditions under which they
15
have been designed is slightly altered; this is highly probable to happen
during their operation lifetime. So, accounting for this probability, for
10
occasional breakdowns as well as for additional pumping and distribution
costs, the real value (at consumption) is more likely to be found still in the
5
vicinity of 4,5 kWh per m3 of water produced. The desalination facilities of
the new Spanish Hydrological Plan (PHN) will be equipped with the ultimate
0
state of the art technologies; yet the Plan (reasonably) accounts for 4
1970
1980
1990
2000
kWh/m3. It is necessary to remember that the operation pressure of RO
systems is a function of feedwater salinity (Medina, 2000). For both cases
studies considered in this work, the technology operates on seawater;
Ú·¹«®» ìòëòëò Decreasing energy consumption to desalinate
brackish water desalination typically costs less than half as much.
water
So, despite concentrated efforts and real efficiency improvements, the desalination process still remains highly energy-intensive and too
monetary-expensive for most poor nations in need. Indeed, early enthusiasm for this technology relied on the promise that nuclear
power would provide the world with energy “too cheap to meter”: a hope that never materialised though. Economics of brackish and
seawater desalination has been a research issue for many decades now (Ashour et al., 2004; Jaber et al., 2004; Adrianne et al., 2002) in
view of optimising production costs. However, at $0.5 to $2 per cubic meter (the new PHN estimates the 1,000 litres of desalinated water
to cost around 0.46 €, approximately the same as 1 litre of bottled mineral water), turning seawater into a fresh drinkable resource is still
around two to eight times more expensive than the average cost of urban water supplies in most poor countries (0.2€ in Costa Rica for
instance) and at least 5-20 times what farmers –the world greatest water users- are used to pay. Therefore, It is still accounts for less than
0.17 % of the global water supply.
In the Mediterranean rim however, several countries such as Italy, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey and especially Spain make a fairly extensive
use of the desalination option. In Spain, around 700 desalination plants currently provide over 800,000 m3/day (47,1% of which originate
from seawater). Since the construction of its first plant in Lanzarote (1965), Spain became the fifth country in the world with the most
plants and gathered a vast experience handling this technology. It provides freshwater not only for domestic purposes (such as in the
town of Alicante, where 40% of the urban consumption comes from its 16 Hm3/year desalination process) but also for agricultural
irrigation practices. In the arid Almeria region (Palomares), 1,800 farmers irrigate 5,500 hectares with 25,000 m3 of desalinated water.
Similarly, in the arid Murcia region (Mazarrón), 3,600 hectares of arable land are irrigated by a rate of 4,500 m3/ha.
44
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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4.6.
4.6.1.
Towards the implementation of WFD in Spain:
Present and future challenges: Water Framework
Directive
The Water Framework Directive (2000/60/CE) (EWFD) came into force on the 22nd of December
2000 and establishes a common structure for Community action in the field of water policy. The
overriding objective of the WFD for Member States to guarantee the
of all surface and ground-waters (Article 4) is to be achieved through an
“Integrated Management” approach, conducted by “economic rationality” 4 and –of particular
interest for the present section– by bi-directional (i.e. top-down and bottom-up) pro-active
Public Participation (PP). The WFD establishes a calendar of actions that Member States need to
undertake in order to achieve the objectives of preventing further deterioration, protect and
enhance the status of water resources by 2015 (Table 4.6).
Table 4.6.1. Timetable of actions foreseen in the implementation of the WFD
Deadline
Action needed at national level
By 2003
Identify the individual river basins lying within their national territory and assign them to individual
River Basin Districts and identify competent authorities
By 2004
Characterise River Basin Districts (RBD) in terms of pressures, impacts and economics of water uses,
including a register of protected areas lying within the RBD
By 2006
Carry out together with the European Commission the inter-calibration of the ecological status
classification systems
Make operational the monitoring of networks
By 2009
Identify a programme of measures for achieving the environmental objectives of the WFD cost
effectively
Produce and publish River Basin Management Plans for each RBD including the designation of heavily
modified water bodies
By 2010
Implement water pricing policies that enhance the sustainability of water resources
By 2012
Make the measures of the programme operational
By 2015
Implement the programmes of measures and achieve the environmental objectives
Source: EC, 2003b
In the Spanish case, as it was
The main characterisation and analysis requirements
mentioned before the transposition of
of article 5 (deadline decembre 2004) encompass the following
activities:
the EWFD into the National Legislation
is incomplete and that for a correct
Delineation and characterisation of surface and
implementation
of
the
Directive,
groundwater bodies;
changes in the existing administrative
Establishment of Reference Conditions for surface water
bodies;
structures, participatory mechanisms
Identification of Pressures;
and management approaches are
Impact of human activity on the status of surface and
needed in order to improve the
groundwater bodies, by means of a preliminary assessment
ecological and chemical status of
of the risk of failing to meet the environmental objectives;
Conducting an economic analysis of water use.
waters. In addition, at national level, a
new administrative body called the
(CHJ, 2004) is created, where national, regional and local
4
Mainly by applying “full-cost recovery” and “polluters pay” principles.
45
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
administration are devised for fostering the inter administrative cooperation in the application of
the protective water legislation.
By December of 2004, a recent deadline, Member States should have developed in each RBD
(in Spain so-called
) the following issues: analysis and
characteristics of the RBD, review of the environmental impact of human activity, economic
analysis of water uses and the register of protected areas. (CHJ,2004)
In Catalonia, further detailed in section 5 the Catalan Water Agency (ACA), the competent
authority in water management and planning, has already finished this task and has created a
Technical Commission, integrated by all the Departments of the Agency, which leads and
coordinates the implementation of the WFD in the Internal Basins of Catalonia.
In addition, a Pilot River Basin Network has been created at European level within the
implementation of the Common Strategy framework, to facilitate the interpretation and
application of the Directive and the guidance documents that have been developed by experts
from Member States. In Spain the Spanish Ministry of Environment agreed to evaluate in the
Jϊ car Pilot River Basin all guidance documents to apply the Directive, as well as to lead the
platform in charged of developing a common Geographic Information System for all Member
States.
The area covered by the Júcar Basin Authority encompasses 9 river basins (Cenia, Mijares,
Palancia, Turia, Júcar, Serpis, Marina Alta, Marina Baja and Vinalopó), and accounts for about
43.000 km2. It is characterized by having a wide diversity and an irregular hydrology, distinctive
from Mediterranean river basins. (CHJ, 2004)
Figura 4.6.1. Jucar Pilot
River Basin
Source: CHJ, 2004
The balance between demand and water resources supply is fragile. Agricultural use
corresponds to aproximately 80% of the demand (2.800 hm3 annually for irrigating a surface of
almost 400.000 Ha). Needs for urban supply are of the order of 650 hm3/year for a resident
population of 4,3 million, to which 1,4 million should be added due to tourism predominantly
occurring in coastal areas.
To optimize water management, the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources is a
common practise in the river basin, achieving 70% those of groundwater origin. In a parallel
way, non-conventional resources as direct reuse of treated urban wastewaters or desalination
are being used more and more to supply the increasing demand.
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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4.6.2.
Characterisation of water bodies: pressures and
impacts
Surface continental water bodies
Surface continental waters have been widely studied in Spain, despite it is often difficult to
obtain integrated information referred to physical-chemical, hydromorphological and biological
status of intercommunity rivers and in those River Basin Districts with scarce technical
development.
Today, delineation of surface water bodies and their classification into ecotypes is being carried
out for the whole Spanish territory following the criteria established in the different Guidance
Documents (EC, 2002 and 2003). The Centre for Studies and Experimentation in Public Works
(CEDEX) of Spain is developing this task. This Centre is an organisation that provides assistance
to the Spanish Ministry of Environment in some technical aspects of the WFD.
There is a non-published guidance document for surface waters in Spain elaborated by CEDEX,
named “
” (Guidelines for the analysis of pressures and impacts in surface waters). This
document, jointly with Guidance Documents mentioned before (IMPRESS and REFCOND) from
the European Commission (EC, 2003) framed the studies of characterisation of surface water
bodies and the analysis of its pressures and impacts in Spain. To reinforce this task, the Júcar
RBD by mean of its
but also other Water Agencies (e.g. Catalan Water
Agency) has collaborated with CEDEX on testing and improving the methodologies that are
being developed.
The process of delineating the significant river network may be an easier task in countries
with more uniform rivers and higher flows. However, in Spain it has required to carry out an
important process of analysis and characterisation, with the participation of several River Basin
Districts (RBDs). The criterion based on the basin area (10 km2) was not enough to define the
significant river network, because, as mentioned before, in many areas of the District, there are
no rivers flowing given this draining basin size. Additional variables to the basin size had to be
considered: mean annual flow, variation coefficient and percentage of months with no flow. The
results were then tested with the different monitoring networks in the District (quantitative,
qualitative and biological), which, in some extent,
reflects the management interest of the RBD.
The river network for the Júcar as example, was
obtained from the Digital Elevation Model (DME) (100m
x 100m), adjusting those watercourses with continuous
flow tested with fieldwork and the monitoring networks
formerly mentioned. The specific criterion adopted was
to define the river’s origin when they had a basin greater
than 10 km2 and received a mean annual inflow greater
than 100 l/s (3.2 Hm3). The flows below the defined
thresholds are considered intermittent or ephemeral,
and consequently not significant as water bodies for the
WFD purposes (CHJ, 2004).
Figure 4.6.2. Ephemeral water
course Rambla de la Castellana
Source: CHJ, 2004
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
WFD defines lake as a “
”,
and specifies a size typology
based on a surface area with a
lower limit of 0.5 km2, which
includes not only what it is
understood commonly as lakes,
but also the marshes with a
defined water surface. The
preliminary criteria defined by
CEDEX include a water body into
the category lake if the water
surface is greater than 50 ha
Figure 4.6.3. Perimeter of the water
(0.5 km2), or if the water surface
surface in the Pego-Oliva marsh
is greater than 8 ha and its
Source: CHJ, 2004
maximum depth is greater than 3
m. In case that a water body is
affected by infrastructures for irrigation or drainage or it is regulated by gates, or if it has been
used as a salt pan and is still affected by the hydromorphological modifications, or if the water
level fluctuates artificially, then the water body will be considered as a heavily modified water
body (HMWB).
Wetlands are not considered water bodies according to the WFD. However, if they include a
water surface that fulfils the requirements to be included in the category of lake, they will be
considered as water bodies within this category, as it is the case of some marshes described in
the previous section.
HMWB are water bodies, which, as a result of physical alterations by human activity, are
substantially changed in character and cannot meet a “good ecological status” (GES). AWB are
water bodies created by human activity. Instead of a GES, the environmental objective for
HMWB and AWB is achieving a “good ecological potential” (GEP), which has to be met by 2015.
The designation of HMWB and AWB is optional and must be carried out by each RBD. In those
places where modified or artificial waters are not designated, the objective will consist on
achieving a good ecological status. This optional designation is not an opportunity to avoid
achieving ecological and chemical objectives, since GEP is an ecological objective, which may
often, in itself, be challenging to achieve.
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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Box 4.6.1. Criteria established by CEDEX to characterise Artificial and Heavily Modified Water Bodies in
Spain
Criteria to characterise Artificial and Heavily Modified Water Bodies
For Artificial Water Bodies (AWB), the criterion followed by CEDEX has been to define AWB as
water bodies located where there was not a previous water surface.
To define the HMWB some of the proposed criteria by CEDEX are:
-
Reservoirs: They are considered as heavily modified rivers because water bodies change
their category due to the construction of a dam (from river to lake). To be includedin this
category, the water body is required
to be located inside a “significant river”, according to the criteria previously defined and to
have a water surface greater than 50 ha.
-
Canalised rivers: They are considered heavily modified rivers when an alteration of a length
greater than 5 km is produced in a river reach.
-
Heavily modified lakes: Water bodies must be studied case by case in order to establish if
they must be considered heavily modified lakes. For the Júcar RBD case, as mentioned, all
lakes have been included in this category.
-
Ports: Although the final criteria has not been decided, it is very probable that only the
greatest ports are going to be considered HMWB. Other ports may be considered as pressures.
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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Groundwater bodies
To the best knowledge of the authors the Ministry of Environment no guideline has been
published for any of the tasks related to the implementation of the WFD with regard to
groundwater, except a non-published study elaborated in March 2005 by General Secretary for
Land and Biodiversity, (Ministry of Environment) named: “
”. This document is
one of the main available reference to be the guiding documents for this water category jointly
with the
in Spain (CHJ, 2004; MMA,
2005a). In the three documents complying with the implementation of the WFD to which the
author had access (CHJ, 2004: 78, CHE, 2005 and ACA, 2005a), groundwater resources appear
to be analysed less deeply than surface water resources. This is in relation with the scarce
importance attributed in practice to groundwater resources by the administration and the
consequent smaller amount of information available (Arrojo, 2001).
The delineation of groundwater bodies in Spain is tightly related to the concept of
hydrogeological unit (HGU), which is defined in the Spanish legislation (RD 927/1988) as
corresponding to “one aquifer or group of them suitable to be managed as a single
administrative unit by means of a rational and efficient water use” (Samper, 2003: 57). In the
Provisional Article 5 Report of the Júcar Pilot River Basin (CHJ, 2004) the delineation and initial
characterization is based on these units defined during a project of the Spanish Geological and
Mining Institute (IGME) carried out in 1989 at national level. The report nevertheless, as well as
further opinions (Arqued, 2003), consider that these HGU’s can not readily be assimilated to the
concepts of aquifer nor groundwater body as they are defined in the WFD. Therefore, according
to the same report, the “General Directorate of Water is redefining the HGU’s for the whole
Spanish territory with the collaboration of the IGME and the River Basin Districts” following
criteria that depart from the HGU “refining the limits using more physical criteria following the
geological maps” as well as other geographical information (CHJ, 2004: 78). In fact, both the
Ebro River Water District and the Internal Basins of Catalonia Water District, have applied
delineations of groundwater bodies, which, departing from the HGU’s, have been defined based
on the criteria promoted by the Ministry of Environment (CHE, 2005 and ACA, 2005a).
The characterization of pressures and impacts is fulfilled with a different approach by the three
reports (CHJ, 2004: 78, CHE, 2005 and ACA, 2005a) to which the authors have had access. The
CHE (2005) applies a qualitative, apparently subjective, criterion to evaluate the degree of
pressure and impact of each groundwater body based on a descriptive characterization. Their
evaluation of the risk that a water body won’t achieve the environmental objectives required by
the WFD doesn’t follow any quantitative criteria and also appears as a subjective evaluation,
although conceptually it is a combination of intrinsic vulnerability, pressures and impacts. The
CHJ (2004) is not very specific about the pressures on the groundwater chemical status, but
presents a clear analysis of the impacts on quantitative and chemical status based on
monitoring data. Their risk analysis is solely based on the observed impacts to date. The ACA
(2005a) has a quantitative approach evaluating pressures, intrinsic vulnerability, potential
impact and proven impact through indexes, which are not always well documented. These
indexes are then combined to obtain the risk of not achieving the environmental objectives (for
further analysis of this report see section 5.6).
No national guidelines for the implementation of the WFD with regard to groundwater
have been published by the Spanish Government.
Definition of groundwater bodies for the implementation of the WFD is based on the
Hydrogeological Units which were legally defined in the Spanish legislation (RD
927/1988) and determined by the Spanish Gelogical Survey in 1989.
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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Coastal and transitional water bodies
Until the moment WFD came into force (22nd December 2000), several tasks were required in
order to achieve environmental objectives by 2015. For each coastal and transitional water
body it is necessary to carry out a process of delimitation and characterisation based on
physical descriptors which will permit to establish the reference conditions.
The General Directorate of Coasts through its Protection of Marine Environment and Ecosystems
Division commissioned CEDEX to realise a proposal at national level to characterise coastal and
transitional water bodies (LLoret, A. et al. 2005). This document would have been the
guidelines for the Autonomous Communities involved in this process. However, in reality the
only guidelines provided are the Provisional Article 5 Report of the Júcar Pilot River Basin
(CHJ,2004). In this report CEDEX has developed a classification of coastal waters by ecotypes
for the General Directorate of Coasts (CHJ, 2004).
As WFD establishes, Member States should facilitate to the Commission a map with geographic
delimitation of coastal and transitional waters in GIS format. In Spanish legislation, the internal
limit of the Maritime territory is delimitated by the maximum low tide line, but in some cases, by
the base straight lines connecting external coastal points- The external delimitation is specified
by a straight line at 1 mille from the former (see map). The main problem for delimitating
coastal waters lied on the low precision of the location of those points, which were initially
calculated from a very small scale, and made necessary the correction of the coordinates in
some of the points to locate the
correct geographic positions (CHJ,
2004).
For the characterisation of coastal
waters, System B of WFD has been
used, following the
(EC,
2003). Among the optional factors,
for Spanish coastal waters the
following are being selected:
deepness,
composition
of
substratum and wave exposure. As
a result four types of coastal water
bodies are described: deep rocky,
superficial sandy, deep sandy.
Figure 4.6.4. Estany de Cullera (coastal lake)
Source: CHJ, 2004
In order to establish reference
conditions, sites under minor
alterations are used. This is what
has been done in the Jucar River Basin and in the Catalan Coastal Waters (see section 5.6).
Concerning IMPRESS, it was supposed to be finished for each river district at the end of 2004.
However, at least for coastal and transitional waters, it has not been possible. The General
Directorate of Coasts has requested an extension of the deadline. Only Catalan Autonomous
Community (see section 5.6) has finished. For the case of Jucar, the Spanish pilot site, only
pressures has been described for coastal waters. Impacts and evaluation of coastal water
bodies at risk of not achieving good status by 2015 are still missing.
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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4.6.3.
Integrating Economical aspects of the WFD into
water policy in Spain.
The WFD establishes in articles 5 and 9 the specific principle of full cost recovery of the water
services. Based on this principle, the WFD aims to achieve two main economic objectives: in
one hand, the total recovery of the costs of the water services and, on the other, an adequate
pricing which incentives a more efficient use of the resources.
The economic tasks of the WFD
The only tool we have to achieve de full cost recovery is a correct tariff policy, while the
objective of effective use of water can be achieved by some other tools. The WFD leaves
members states the responsibility to organize the work to guaranty tariff policies which
incentive the efficient use of the water resources and an appropriate contribution of different
water uses to the total cost recovery by 2010. In spite of this, there is a list of economic tasks
related to the general objectives which can be used as a guide. This tasks and its applying
calendar is summarized in Table 4.7.
Table 4.6.2. Calendar of the main economic tasks in the implementation of the WFD
ECONOMIC TASK (Integrated in another)
OBJECTIVE
DEADLINE
Economic Analysis of Water uses.
Assess level of Cost Recovery.
Characterize river basins.
By 2004
Economic Analysis for supporting
The designation of heavily modified water bodies
The justification of new morphological modification,
overabstraction and determination
Identify water issues
Undertake the cost-effectiveness analysis.
Assess total cost of programme of measures.
Identify Cost-effective
programme of measures
By 2008
Investigate time allocation of costs => Time Derogation
Compare costs and benefits => Lower Objectives
Redefine Programme of Measures with Derogation
Estimate Total Costs of Measures
To assess cost-recovery
and incentive pricing and
their economic impact
By 2010
By 2006-2007
Source: Elaborated by authors from European Commission (2003).
As we can see, the first step must be to carry out an economic analysis to assess, on one hand,
the actual water uses and the tools to manage them correctly and, on the other, the actual
level of cost recovery in each river basin using appropriate indicators and economic tools and
models. At the same time, member states have to start developing strategies to implement
tariff policies that incentive the effective uses of water by 2010.
At the moment, Spain is trying to complete this economic analysis of the water uses and
the assessing of the level of cost recovery. The task of developing strategies to achieve the
full cost recovery is not being accomplished yet since the economic analysis and
assessment are needed for this.
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The Economic analysis of water uses in Spain: trends.
Spain has a growing academic and
social movement claiming for water
policies with emphasis on demand
management instead of on supply
management. Following this line,
Estevan and Naredo (2004) have stated that a correct economic analysis of the water use in
Spain needs, in the first place, to study the real demands and its difference with the water
consumption in order to achieve a real demand management and to make a correct estimation
of the real dimension of the necessary supply. Secondly, the old ideas and tools applied in the
management have to be assessed in order to replace those which do not achieve a good level
of efficient use.
In Spain there exists the problem of the so called “sociallycreated demand” which refers to the demand created by the
high water demanding economic activities in some of the
most arid regions of the country.
The study of the real demand seems to be difficult since the only way to know it, are surveys
and these usually cause problems of overestimation. To solve this, Estevan and Naredo (2004)
propose the creation of a binding future-use list with economic obligations for each of them
when considering the recovery of costs.
Estevan and Naredo (2004) believe replacing existing economic tools in Spain is difficult
because they would require changing some basic perceptions. Nevertheless, from the point of
view of the water economy, the main actions they propose can be summarized as:
Move away from the use of indistinguishably applied subventions: these must be local
and specific in order not to diverge much from market conditions.
No differentiation of tariffs per sectors and use of fees, fines, etc.
Use of water banks to facilitate the voluntary transfers between different users and to
foster water being treated as a common good .
Water banks (market) have been studied for the Balearic Islands by Gómez et al. (2004) whose conclusion was
that “the increased efficiency provided by water markets (water banks) makes this option more advantageous
than the popular alternative of building new desalinisation plants”. A good example of the application of this
concept is the water banks created in California (Aguilera Klink, 2003).
The Assessment of Cost Recovery in water uses
This assessment consists essentially in evaluating the difference between the full costs and the
money recovered by the different levies included in the regional tariff policy (Table 4.6.3.). The
full cost to be assessed corresponds to environmental, financial and resource costs. While
financial costs are assessed studying the investments, in many cases environmental and
resource cost assessment need the use of indirect indicators and the development of new tools.
We have to note that all the costs must be assessed in the context of its contribution to the
total cost of water services in each of the river basins.
Water services in Spain are generally divided in two levels with interrelated responsibilities. The
low supply level is comprised of distribution networks and those infrastructures needed to
return wastewater to the water courses and wastewater treatment plants, and is focused on
water delivery to urban and irrigation areas. The high supply level comprises the storage,
regulation and conveyance of water using dams and pipelines. This level needs large
investments and long periods of amortisation. The most of the cases the study of the costs
recovery is being done separately for each of these levels.
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Table 4.6.3. Levies applied to different water uses in the Spain.
SERVICE
RESPONSIBILITY
LEVIES
Dams and main
channels (surface
water)
River Basin Authority
Canon de regulación (regulation fee)
Tarifa de utilización (distribution fee)
Well (groundwater)
Urban distribution
Municipalities, Irrigation associations
or individual users
Municipalities (in some cases with
regional Governments)
Given by municipalities or associations or private users
(Canarias)
Tarifa de abastecimiento (urban water supply fee)
Irrigation
distribution
Irrigation associations (public entities
with delegated management)
Derrama (Apportionment of taxes): Apportionment of
expenditures according to cultivated ha, water use or
combination
Wastewater
collection and
treatment in urban
areas
Municipalities and Regional
Government.
Canon de Saneamiento (sewage fee, only for urban
and industrial uses)
Discharges control
River Basin Authority
Canon de control de vertidos (surveillance discharge
and spill fee, only for urban and industrial uses)
Source: Elaborated by authors departing from CHJ, 2004.
The financial costs corresponding to the water services are evaluated considering the
investment needed (capital cost) and the operation costs. In spite of this, the assessment is not
easy and sometimes underestimated because until now there have been subsidies from the
Spanish and/or the European Government, which are not recognized as costs in many cases.
The environmental costs are difficult to determine since a direct measure can not be
accomplished in many cases although there are many methods to obtain the indirect economic
value of environmental services (Cost of the travel, hedonic prices, etc.) In other cases, the
services are not well identified.
In Spain, environmental cost assessment is carried out applying two different approaches. The
Environmental Economics approach consists in trying to traduce to a monetary value the
environmental impacts of the water uses. Another approach consists in trying to value the
economic cost of improving the quality of water in the environment and to consider this cost as
part of the environmental cost of the water. Andreu, Pulido and Collazos from Polytechnic
University of Valencia are developing economic models following this line.
The resource cost can be studied in two ranges. Foremost, the marginal opportunity cost in a
certain location and time, that can be defined as the cost for the system of having available one
unit less of the resource. The second type of resource cost is the social marginal cost, which is
the opportunity cost incurred by the society. The assessment of the marginal cost has been
studied using hydro-economic models which take into account resource availability, storage
capacity, losses, return flows, willingness to pay, climate conditions, etc.
Each river basin of Spain has a different method to develop the economic assessment. Some of
them are taking data in an economic way (when possible) while others take all data in physical
units of consumption and flows between economic sectors in order to accomplish an indirect
economic analysis. In other cases River Basin Districts use the first method to study the
financial costs and the second for the environmental an resource costs.
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4.6.4.
Public participation: social vector for a new paradigm
The Public Participation provisions of the WFD
The objective of the EWFD for Member States (MS) to guarantee the
of all surface and ground-waters to be achieved through an “Integrated
Management” approach, need to be conducted by bi-directional (i.e. top-down and bottom-up)
pro-active Public Participation (PP). Article 14.1 requires MS to “encourage the active
involvement of all interested parties in the implementation of the Directive, in particular in the
production, review and updating of the river basin management plans”.
The
of the Directive include very clear statements regarding the key role
that the information, consultation and active involvement of the public plays in achieving the
desired water quality objectives of the directive for 2015. And that, in order to ensure the
participation of the society it will be necessary to inform and involve them before the final
decisions on the measures to implement are adopted.
But it is the
of the Directive the one that plays a leading role. The article
establishes/prescribes three forms of incorporating the participation of the public summarized in
Table 4..6.4:
the Active involvement of all
in all aspects of the
implementation of the Directive – and specially in the elaboration of the river basin
management plans has to be
the Consultation of the public –including users- in the three steps of the
elaboration of the river basin management plans (elaboration, revision, updating).
that access to background information used in the different implementation
steps of the WFD.
Table 4.6.4. Main requirements of the WFD regarding public participation
Level of participation
Extent
Who participates?
In what?
When?
Encourage
All interested parties
Elaboration, revision and update of river
basin management plans
In all steps of the implementation of
the Directive
Ensure
(obligation)
General public –including
users
(a) timetable and work programme for the
production of river basin management plans
Elaboration of the river basin
management Plan
(a) at the latest by 2006
(b) overview of the significant water
management issues in the river basin
(b) at the latest by 2007
(c) copies of the draft river basin
management plan
(c) at the latest by 2008
Include 6 month period for the citizens to
react on these documents (a,b,c)
Ensure
(obligation)
General public –including
users
Working documents and informations used
In all steps of the implementation of
the Directive
Source: Elaborated by authors departing from EC, 2003b
It should be highlighted that active involvement is an upper level of participation than consultation. Consultation
means that the authorities consult people and the interested parties over scenarios or plans already elaborated to
gather information or opinions from those involved. The process of consultation does not concede any share in
decision-making (WFD CIS Guidance document nº8). Active involvement, however, means that those involved
can influence the decision taken by discussing issues and contributing to their solution.
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Brief history of Spanish Public Participation
The history of water management in Spain is well documented in many sources. Some focus on
general policies, and some on the history of specific organisations, or technical artifacts or
decisions. Many of them have emphasized the close link between conceptions of development,
technical progress, and political events with the way like problems were framed, understood
and acted upon. Some important references are those documents elaborated by Fernandez
Clemente (2000), Fanlo Loras (1995), Swyngedouw (1999), and Bakker (2002).
We can distinguish several “sequential models” of water management in Spain which contribute
with insights into public participation today, and the positions and problem frames of the
different stakeholders (Maestu et al., 2004):
The liberal 19th century model
The state led modernist post colonial model
The state led post civil war autocracy model
The democratisation and decentralisation model
The mercantilisation model
Table 4.6.5. The shift from state led to mercantilisation in Spain
The Dictatorship water policy
Capture water to deal with irregularity
to serve industrialization and large
scale expansion of irrigation
The first democratic period
Mercantilisation
Water as insuring general welfare,
equity and greater spatial balance in Water as a tradable good
access to resources based on
The environment as a legitime user
arguments of inter-regional solidarity
Intervention of the state in the
financing and construction of large
scale infrastucture and
mechanisation/modernisation of
agriculture (1200 dams built)
The state as master engineer
1993 National Hydrological Plan
proposes 100 new dams and an
increase of 6000 Hm3 of regulated
water.
Newe general system of water
transfers
Proposed investments of 4200 M
Euros
Focus on the poorest regions with
many landless.
Water interventions as a “form” of
land reform via irrigation schemes and
colonization villages
Focus on interventions that make
Solidarity and equity driven decisions
water available to uses with highest
Water projects financed by the state
economic value
will “return” through income
Need for water for tourism and high
resulting from growth.
value added agriculture
Modernisation strategy as a form of
legitimation and an instrument of
“integration” of the country and
suppression of opposition
Continuing irrigation growth
Help deal with regional disparities
and the spatial integration of the
country.
Economic efficiency and
macroeconomic austerity are priorities
over socio-economic objectives and
agricultural sector employment
objectives.
Withdrawal of the state
The market as main allocation
mechanism
Threats to capital accumulation,
bottlenecks and market failure justify
state interventions and funding
Private capital need to be engaged
Source: Maestu et al.(2004), from Bakker (2002).
Furthermore, other relevant external changes in the environmental policy in Spain, have been
identified by different authors (del Moral and Saurí 1999) and they include the globalization
processes, the decentralisation of government, the increasing valuation of environmental quality
by the population, the liberalisation policies and indeed the changes in the European context
(WFD and sustainability debates). These context changes have legitimised and reinforced
existing internal processes and led to adaptation, but also resistance and rejection on part of
the communities of practice.
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Social involvement on water issues in Spain: who is involved?
), are one of the
Regarding Water Act of 1985, River Basin Authorities (RBA) (see
main formal participatory bodies at river basin scale in Spain. So, the public involvement to this
entities have influenced
.
Users initially “gave themselves” the opportunity to be involved (as co-founders). The RBAs
later have promoted this involvement and the collective representation of users as “financial”
contributors towards building necessary “collective” infrastructures. The RBA and other
government agencies were key in the process of up-scaling water interventions. As direct
contributors and interested parties the presence of users went beyond financial support and
extended to management of infrastructures where allocation decisions are taken and controlling
the building decision process to insure low costs.
Early on, different governments have built on and promoted the creation of irrigation and, later,
user associations (WUA). The reasons for involvement have been, among others, the need to
government interventions through
that could act
both as interlocutors with many individual farmers and as implementers and part of the
executive arm of policy. This led to the WUA having an important role. Although their role in
RBAs participatory bodies today is advisory, they have co-decision-making and decision-making
power through juries and administrative decisions at local level. This is supported by the River
they assume administrative powers of enforcement (with
Basin Authorities. As
the tutelage of the RBAs). (Maestu et al, 2004)
The involvement of other stakeholders representing
or
(in addition to existing users) was justified very early on, where projects had social
objectives or in new colonization projects with no users yet. Participation of the public is always
and made operational by casting them as
. Everyone
in this process is a
or representative of organized socio-economic or general
interests and thus
. No one is cast here directly as
(general interests
are safeguarded by public organisations). There have been a very slow and limited integration
of ecologist representation and other consumer protection association, as part of the socioeconomic interests and this only is planning advisory bodies in the National River Basin Water
Councils. (Maestu et al, 2004)
The issues at stake have prevented public participation in
functions of the River
Basin Authorities in Spain. In general there is no Public Participation either in organizations
providing urban water services (local water distribution, sewage and wasterwater treatment)
when these are provided through a specialised public or private company. There are some
exceptions to this, in Asturias and Valencia, for example. When the services are provided
publicity regulations as any other
directly by municipal services they are subject to the
municipal decisions. At local level, when users are organized in water users associations
(WUA), the participation and decision rules inside the associations are well established in
tradition and formal statutes (and subject to oversight of the RBAs). Some of the issues here
relate as to whether representation according to size of holdings provides enough weight to
smaller farmers. (Maestu et al, 2004)
The level of involvement has varied from consultation, discussion and information with some
level of co-decision-making in the RBWC to co-designing and co-decision-making (active
involvement) in the management commissions of the RBAs and in/by the users associations.
Over time, decision making rules in RBAs have been regulated and it includes provisions today
where the role of stakeholders (in most River Basin participating bodies) is mainly advisory.
This is related to considerations that it is the goverments’s responsibility to be involved in
decision-making. Decisions or agreements in the participatory bodies can then be overruled
often by the Basin President or the Commissar. Still there is a tacit understanding that this
procedure should be avoided and that consensus/majority votes (considering minority votes)
57
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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should be the basis of decisions in the context of RBAs. This is especially the case in those
Basin Commissions where decisions affect directly beneficiaries (water allocation or RBA taxes)
and where, of course,
will improve the possibility of solutions being accepted as
positive. (Maestu et al, 2004)
Many other more recent participatory experiences have been, in general, less linked to
has participated
specific decision-making processes or management issues as those above.
and
has followed principles of inclusivity (and equality) of all affected parties. The
understanding was that all parties were necessary in order to obtain the necessary information,
bridge across different views and interests, if
There is a general acceptance that in many cases,
the objective was to come to common
there has not been reached high levels of
understanding about acceptable solutions and
involvement where participatory processes lead to
improved consensus, or at least understanding.
policy decisions or actions on the ground. (Maestu
et al., 2003)
This is specially important where
situations of water scarcity make it necessary to establish forums of consensus among different
interests. The methods used include creating non threatening opportunities for small group
discussions where all participants are invited to express their views and opinions. They used a
variety of charts and maps to facilitate joint understanding of common problems. Yet, there is a
of involvement where
general acceptance that in many of these examples, the
participatory processes lead to policy decisions or actions on the ground, has not been reached.
(Maestu et al, 2004)
Scale and multi-scale issues are also relevant for understanding public participation and who
is involved and how. In the Spanish water management context, up-scaling of interventions in
the early 20th century made it necessary to incorporate
though trade unions
and other associations of economic and social interests, rather than individual users affected by
specific projects. Re-scaling again during the decentralisation in the last part of 20th century
introduced a new type of influential stakeholders and also led to creation of regionally managed
river basins. Multi-scale issues in river basin planning and management affecting different levels
of governments and types of actors (local, regional, national) are a special challenge. The
complex intersectorial multi-scale nature of River Basin planning has led in Spain to develop
specific coordination commissions to face general issues. There are also some formulas of
coordination mainly between administrations (and other stakeholders), though is more common
discuss about concrete single issues such as the regional price commissions.
There are clear differences in the type and quality of public participation according to whether
there are local, regional, River Basin or national scale issues in water management. It is at the
local scale (but also at regional scale) where many of the most recent experiences of open
public participation have emerged. In Regional, River Basin and National scale, public
participation has a long tradition and is much more regulated. Actors have a clear
understanding of their influence on decision-making in the context of established rules.
Meetings are carefully minuted to insure that stakeholders know and are provided with
of how their opinions and positions are considered in decision-making. (Maestu et al,
2004)
Local Agenda 21 and Public Participation
Local governments have been engaging in the preparation of local strategies for sustainable
development, following the Aalborg Charter, particularly on water issues. Participatory
processes are central to implement a Local Agenda 21 although in many cases the experiences
are more common for the implementation of participatory processes for Policy Development
rather than those oriented to the Program of Implementation phase.
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The Spanish Federation of Municipalities and Provinces has made an effort in disseminating
experiences and has prepared a code of “good practices” to prepare Local Agenda 21 programs.
Earlier efforts for the development of Local Agenda 21 widely used can be traced back to the
Provincial Government of Barcelona and the Calvia Agenda 21 (Mallorca), and had strong links
with urban planning (see the example of Sant Cugat Municipality in
. These
Agenda 21 processes deals with waste management, energy use, water use, urban
environment, environmental management, society and cohesion, economic development, etc.,
prepared through participatory processes, which can lead in concrete actions, as a river
restoration identified in Pamplona through its Agenda 21.
Applications of Public Participation will be more closely looked at for the case of Catalan River
Basins, in section 5.
Box 4.6.2. Public Participation in Spain beyond WFD, some key issues.
Public Participation in Spain beyond WFD
From the analysis of Public Participation of River Basin Management, we conclude that there is a formally explicit
consideration and articulation of PP in well established participatory bodies. These have ensured in some cases
consultation and participation as means to increase implementability and accountability of decision-making.
However this is not enough. There are heavily regulated participatory processes which consider that public and
governmental visions should be taken into consideration altogether. But often this does not provide
opportunities for open discussion beyond the agenda set by government.
Some considerations emerged (improvements) related to public participation beyond Water Framework Directive
identified are:
The more explicit requirements of recent international developments such as the Aarhus Convention
where ensuring public consultation and participation enhances public advocacy for the decisions to be
taken.
Co-ordination of WFD requirements with other EU Directives. For instance, the SEA Directive requires
public consultation of both plans and programmes, while the WFD requires consultation on the river
basin management plan, but not on the full programme of measures.
The WFD does not give a definition of the “public”. The SEA Directive and the Aarhus Convention
define: “one or more natural or legal persons, and […] their associations, organisations or groups”.
Due to the limited specificity of the EU Directives, problems and discussions will arise with regard to the
scaling, and how to coordinate among the different levels.
Source: Mostert, 2003
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Strengths and weaknesses of Public Participation in River Basin
Management in Spain
Some key points of the strengths and weaknesses of the current Public Participation (PP) in
River Basin Management in Spain are summarized in the table X below:
Table 4.6.6. Strengths and weaknesses of Public Participation (PP) in River Basin Management in Spain
Strengths of the Public Participation system in Spain
Long history (over 100 years) of PP explicitly in water
management at River Basin scale. Experience of PP in
many issues in RBM (planning, management,
implementation).
Experience of PP at many levels (from information to
co-decision-making).
Experience of PP involving many types of mainly
organised “publics” (promoted often by the RBM
system) including the general public (mostly
represented by public organisations but also through
public information and allegation procedures on policy
proposals and in specific cases opinion polls).
Existence of organised forums to articulate multiscale and multi-stakeholder PP in RBM including
mixed commissions and Water Councils.
Weaknesses of the Public Participation in Spain
PP system in RBM developed in the context of user’s
participation in investment and infrastructure
decisions.
Long tradition of organised stakeholders but mainly of
“productive water uses”. Lower articulation of
“general interests” or other interests.
Low consideration of the inputs that PP can provide in
the “technical” phase of policy, and plan preparation.
Lower articulation of involvement of the general
public beyond one way communication (via press,
information, open procedures) on decisions taken
elsewhere.
Existence of experience dealing with participative
forums with complex issues at stake, where there is
interdependence, inter-allocation, and uncertainty.
Little substantive importance (only implicitly in some
cases) about the need of taking into account the
quality of relational practices in PP processes, and the
importance of social capital built in previous
interactions. Often due to the dominance of
“technical professions” in RBM.
Well established organised stakeholders (mainly
users) with advocacy tradition and co-operative
management with government at different scales.
Lack of interest of civil society to participate directly
in water management perceived as a governmental
responsibility and a technical problem.
Successful experiences of PP to draw on at many
levels and establishes feedback to the governance
system.
Clear decision-making rules of PP forums (built from
tradition and experience of interactions), clear role
(and weight) of stakeholders in participating forums.
Important tradition and experience in consideration of
the importance and consensus decisions.
Increasing experience to draw on with explicit focus
on relational practices in the context of Agenda 21
and new experiences in PP.
Source: Maestu et al., 2004
60
Case Study 5
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ÌØÛ ÉÑÓÛÒ ×Ò ÌØÛ ÐÔßÌÚÑÎÓ ÚÑÎ ÌØÛ ÜÛÚÛÒÝÛ ÑÚ ÌØÛ Î×ÊÛÎ ÛÞÎÑ
ÌÛÎÎÛÍ ÜÛ ÔŽÛÞÎÛ øÍÑËÌØ ÑÚ ÝßÌßÔÑÒ×ß÷
Neus Mirσ (neusmirσ@hotmail.com)
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The approval of the Spanish Hydrological Plan(PHN) in 2000, which
envisaged the transference of 1050 hm³/year of the Ebre current flow
towards other areas of the Spanish territory, is the starting point of a
signficant social movement in the lower Ebro lands. In such movement,
driven by the so-called Platform for the Defence of the river Ebro
(hereinafeter PDE), women played an essential role.
ÌÛÎÎÛÍ ÜÛ ÔŽÛÞÎÛ
ø´±©»® Û¾®± ®»¹·±²÷
Population: ïëëôèïè
Area: íôîêí µ³î
Location: ͱ«¬¸ ±º Ý¿¬¿´±²·¿
Interest: °±©»®º«´ ¿²¼ -«½½»--º«´
-±½·¿´ ³±ª»³»²¬ º±® ¿ Ò»© É¿¬»® Ý«´¬«®»
Barcelona
Ю±¾´»³
The defence of the environment and the community of people, local vindications such as culture,
language, among others, and a firm rejection to an enduring historical process of political and
economical ostracism felt by local inhabitants of the Terres de l’Ebre constitute the elements that
converged into a basis point within the social movement against PHN and that surrounded the battle
Logo PDE
hold the state government’s water plan.
The fight then arises out of, not only against the management of the natural means by the government, but also against how
state policies have historically been applied regarding this territory; that is, how decisions affecting the area have
systematically been taken bearing into consideration the well-being, the needs or the opinion of its inhabitants. These
elements all gave birth to a very specfic proposal and activism that were promoted by the PDE and that involved a notable
social mobilization, besides the development and boost of an alternative plan desgined along with a strategic alliance with
the scientists: the New Water Culture.
Ü»-½®·°¬·±²
The present study analyses a social movement which comprises a period that initiates with the
creation of the PDE and finishes in April 2004. (At the moment of this writing, in spite of the shift in
the autonomous regional government and in the state government –now being in office a
renowed left-winged PSOE–, and the definite abolishment of the PHN -both factors that have
modifed at a reasonable extent the context afore described, and that have alternatively brought
about a turning in the strategies and activities of the PDE- the PDE is currently in operation).
Photo: Joan Panisello
The contents present as follows:
Contextualization of the conflict hold agaisnt government’s PHN, given within the social and political framework of the
Terres de l’Ebre, within a broader framework which envisages the Spanish and the Catalan policy.
Description and analysis of the organizational structure of the social movement, and exploration of the characteristics
shown by the activist women participating in the PDE as well as their insertion in the organism itself; that is to say, this is
an analysis of how work, power and the prominence between men and women within the PDE are distributed.
A look into how women implicate, either from the genre inequality point of view, a phactor that finds them confronted
with when activism is concerned, or in terms of a way-of-acting when participation is concerned.
An exploration into the relationships that establish in terms of genre, territory and collective activism. The connections
settled between the roles played by every genre and the political objectives of the movement (the defence of a river
that is the symbol of the defence of a community as well as a way of life) have strongly contributed, on the one hand,
to a massive mobilization that involved people that would normally remain passive, and, on the other hand, to
discursive line of actuaction that have evolved towards a more eco-social conception of sustainability, focusing on
which the river means as a natural, human, symbolic and community patrimony.
λ-«´¬- ¿²¼ л®-°»½¬·ª»We believe that the strength and power to mobilise the people and which both emerge from the action leading by the PDE,
cannot been understood without giving consideration that we are not dealing with a purely ecologocal movement. The river
is seen as the icon that goes beyond its function as a natural source and valued beyond the ecological and economical
principles. The Ebro is, therefore, conceived as the vital core of the territory among which it flows, since it emerges as the
source of personal identity, social and community cohesion, and as the source of natural and human sustainability.
Implication, intense and at a high level, of the women in this social movement can be understood, thus, bering in mind the
afore-mentioned elements. It follows then how they overcome the distance which have traditionally kept them away from
any political scenery, and how they conferred the fight an essential turn of the screw with their know-how.
In this study we have also dealt with all impacts arosen out of this movement, at a political level (abolishment of the NHP and
an ongoing turn in the Spanish water policy), at a social level (politization of a community which has traducionally stayed
passive when confronted with any conflict), and at a personal level (changes and evolutions occurred in the roles of genre
and the identities of all the activist women).
Ô»--±²- Ô»¿®²»¼
A better, eficient and less social conflictive management of the natural means and, more particularly, of the water
sources lead to a new and broader view of the environment towards human and social sustainablity, in connection with
the symbolical, feeling-like, identifying and emotional aspects.
Movements that are traditionally linked with such broader view facilitate women affected by a diversity of social and
political conditionings to be involved. This fact becomes essential in order to understand this social movement, both in
terms of a way-of-acting and in terms of capacity to incurr into social and political effects. Sexism issues do not raise in
the present study, though genre inequality are made present in the internal power structure of the movement.
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4.6.5.
Conclusions
Towards the implementation of WFD in Spain
Due to differences in political will and availability of technical resources there has been some delay in
the implementation of the WFD in Spain, namely differences in timing from RBD to RBD to fulfill the
tasks of the WFD within schedule.
Late start-up in the set-up of guiding documents and the tasks required by the WFD
(characterization of water bodies, pressures and impacts, and register of protected areas) has
negatively affected the availability and quality of data (uncertainties are not specified), lack of
transparency regarding methodologies (thresholds) and lack of consideration of interactions between
water body categories.
The three IMPRESS documents revised have much more detailed analysis of surface water bodies
than groundwater bodies, and the latter more than the coastal water bodies.
In general, RBD of Spain are trying to complete the economic analysis of the water uses and the
assessment of the level of cost recovery and therefore the tasks of developing strategies is not really
strictly being accomplished yet.
The recovery of costs in Spain comes from Levies and subsidies. The levies are managed by different
governments at different spatial scales.
Despite a long history (over 100 years) of PP explicitly in water management at River Basin scale PP
in many issues in RBM (planning, management, implementation), there has been a low consideration
of the inputs that PP can provide in the “technichal” phase of policy, and plan preparation.
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5. Water management in Catalonia: Implementation
of WFD and Agenda 21
5.1
Catalonian’s environment: river basin outlook
The Autonomous Community of Catalonia is located
in the northeast of Spain
and has an extension of
approximately
32.000
km². It has a total
population of 6.813.319
inhabitants
(Institut
d’Estadística
de
Catalunya, 2004) and a
population density of 213
inhabitats/km².
N
The majority of the population lives in urban
areas of the Metropolitan Region of
Barcelona, around the riversides of the most
important water flows, and in urban areas
distributed along the Mediterranean coastline.
5.1.1
Figure 5.1.1. Population distribution in
Catalonia, Spain (2002)
Source: map modified from Generalitat de
Catalunya, 2003.
Climate patterns in Catalonia
The major part of Catalonia
The black line indicates the limit between the Water District of
presents Mediterranean climatic
the internal River Basins of Catalonia (to the east) and the
conditions, although variations in
Catalonian part belonging to the Water District of the Ebro river
mountainous (northern part)
(to the west).
and continental (western part)
>1250
areas linked to the orography
1200-1250
are present as well.
1150-1200
Temperature
patterns
in
1100-1150
northern Catalonia show low
1050-1100
average temperatures (between
1000-1050
9ºC and 12ºC) and extreme
950-1000
900-950
values in winter (below 0ºC);
850-900
Continental
regions
present
800-850
average temperatures of around
750-800
15ºC although characterized by
700-750
large seasonal thermal variations
650-700
N
(more than 30ºC between winter
600-650
and summer). Regions near to
550-600
the coastline show typical
500-550
Mediterranean
temperature
Figure 5.1.2. Rainfall annual average (in
450-500
mm/year) in Catalonia
patterns, with mild winters and
Source: map modified from Agència Catalana de
hot summers and average
l’Aigua. 2005.
temperatures of around 18ºC.
With the exception of the
northern areas (Pyrenean range area where annual rainfall values can exceed 1000 millimetres)
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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the major part of the Catalan territory has an annual average rainfall below 650 millimetres per
year. There is less rainfall in the southern Mediterranean Coast than in the northern, and in
some places in the East and Southeast there are extreme rainfall values under 400 millimetres
per year that determine arid conditions.
In fact, following the criterion applied to Spain dividing the territory into “
” and
“
” units, in Catalonia we can recognize two similar units: to the north (in the Pyrenean
area) a humid Catalonia and in the rest of the territory a dry Catalonia as the predominant
tendency.
5.1.2
Water basins and coastal areas
Catalonia has 8.974 km of river courses that flow to the Mediterranean Sea, with the only
exception of the Garona River in the extreme NW that flows to the Atlantic Ocean. Catalan
rivers are classified into two main groups belonging to different water districts:
Tributary rivers of the Ebro River Basin: this group is composed by rivers that are
born in the Pyrenees and flow from northeast to southwest until they meet the Ebro river
that drains most of north-western Spain and conforms the Water District of the Ebro River.
The flow regime of these rivers is normally homogeneous and has maximum values during
spring. The main rivers flowing through Catalonia and into the Ebro river are shown in
Table 5.1.1.
Table 5.1.1. Main Rivers of the Ebro River Basin
River
Length (km)
Basin area (km²)
Segre
257
22.579
66
2.820
130
2.046
41
562
Noguera Pallaresa
Noguera
Ribagorçana
Valira
The Internal River Basins of Catalonia
include all river basins that are integrally
located within Catalonia (colours).
Source: Institut Català d’Estadística, 2003.
Internal River Basins of Catalonia: this
group includes the river basins that are
integrally located within Catalonia and flow to
N
the Mediterranean Sea (Table 5.1.2). These
river basins can be further subdivided into two
subgroups: i.) rivers that are born in the
Pyrenees, and ii.) rivers that are born in other
Figure 5.1.3. Internal River Basins of
mountain systems. Internal River Basins of
Catalonia
Source: ACA, 2005.
Catalonia have very variable flow rates and
often present torrential phenomena. The
authority responsible for the Water District of the Internal River Basins of Catalonia is the
Catalan Water Agency (ACA).
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Table 5.1.2. Main rivers of the Internal River Basins of Catalonia
River
Length (km)
Muga
65
Fluvià
97
Basin area (km²)
River
Length (km)
Basin area (km²)
854
Llobregat
170
4.948
1.125
Cardener
90
1.373
208
3.010
Foix
49
312
54
894
66
423
Besòs
58
1.039
Gaià
Francolí
85
838
Congost
41
223
Siurana
50
627
Ter
Tordera
Source: Institut Català d’Estadística, 2003.
The Catalan river network is highly modified just as for the case of Spain. Catalonia has 29
reservoirs covering an approximate total extension of 8.000 hectares. Ten of these reservoirs
are located within the Internal River Basins of Catalonia and have a total capacity of 764 hm³
(Institut Català d’Estadística, 2003).
The entire Catalan coast along the Mediterranean Sea stretches over 575 km. The level of
human intervention on the coastline is high. According to data from 2002, 50,8% (292,1 km) of
the coastline corresponds to urbanized areas. The greatest intervention intensity is found in the
Barcelona province, with approximately 19,4% of coastline not being urbanized. A reduction of
22,17% of the total beach areas and coastal sand zones is estimated for Catalonia.
5.1.3
Biodiversity
Catalan forestland diversity can be show in the presence
of three of the most important biomes of Europe,
sometimes coexisting at different altitudes in the same
region.
Mediterranean biome:
Holm oak forestland
Eurosiberian biome:
beech forestland
Boreoalpine biome: high mountain scrublands
The ecological diversity of landscapes
and natural zones in Catalonia is
outstanding. An indicator of this fact
is the total number of habitats
defined under the Council Directive
92/43 EC present in Catalonia, 89,
which represents 42,8% of the total
habitats defined in Europe.
Forest landscapes include a wide
range of typologies. In Boreoalpine
biome regions (mainly in high
altitudes above 1.800 meters of the
Pyrenees) there are coniferous
forestlands dominated by pine trees
and fir trees. In Eurosiberian biome
regions (located in the northern third
of Catalonia and at altitudes above
1.000 meters) there are deciduous
forestlands dominated by oaks and
beeches. In Mediterranean biome
regions, the most extended ones,
there are land covers of sclerophyl
vegetation,
like
forestlands
dominated by Holm oaks and
scrublands.
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Other habitats present in Catalonia are high mountain areas, composed by grasslands and ice
zones that have been reduced to 57,7% since 1987, coastal zones like cliffs, dune areas and
beaches, and wetland and water zones.
The biological diversity checklist of Catalonia is extremely outstanding considering its small
extension. The flora list is composed by 3.900 vascular plants, 817 mosses and ferns, 1.964
fungus and 1.362 lichens. The vertebrate fauna checklist includes 49 freshwater fishes, 14
amphibians, 35 reptiles, 297 birds and 78 mammals.
5.1.4
Wetlands
The Catalan list of wetlands includes freshwater ecosystems that are related with river areas,
lakes and high mountain wetlands. In Catalonia 202 river zones have been identified where
singular riparian forestlands can be found. The estimated area of riparian forestland is about
15.000 hectares. Moreover, there are catalogued 99 high mountain wetlands and 450 lakes
(usually smaller than 15 hectares).
Another type of wetlands, linked to the presence of salt water, is marshes. Some of these areas
are related with river mouths. A reduction trend in wetland area estimated in 21,28% has been
identified since 1987.
Catalan wetlands are included in some protection and conservation normative instruments texts
from different authorities. There are three RAMSAR zones declared in Catalonia: Aiguamolls de
l’Empordà (4.784 hectares), Llac de Banyoles (1.033 hectares) and Delta de l’Ebre (7.736
hectares) (Ramsar, 2005). Under European scope, in Catalonia there are 20 spaces protected
under the Council Directive 97/49 EC with a total
area of 239.825,96 hectares, covering 7,47% of
Lapwings (
) are birds
the total Catalan extension. Under Spanish and
that arrive to Catalan wetlands in the
Catalan scope there are some protection laws
beginning of the winter and leave at the
that include the wetlands of Catalonia under
beginning of the hot season. Their
different normative figures.
feeding is related to insects, little
The
biological importance of the Catalan
molluscs and earthworms
wetlands is high in terms of singularity and value
for different taxons of flora and fauna. Some
examples are the shelter and feeding area
functions of wetlands to migrating birds that use
Catalan wetlands as waypoints in the route
between Northern Europe and Africa or as
temporal habitat. Other examples for the
importance of wetlands include the conservation
of several amphibians with strict conservation
problems or the presence of odd flora taxon
related with salt water environments (Boada, et
al., 2003).
5.2
Socio-economic context
The pattern of water use in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia (Figure 5.2.1), as opposed to
the Ebro river basin and the rest of Spain, is characterized by a large (65%) urban water
demand (domestic and industrial) and a smaller (35%) demand for irrigation and animal
husbandry. 35% of the total water use is derived from groundwater resources (ACA, 2000).
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The current total demand is summarized in the Table 5.2.1 and Figure 5.2.1:
Table 5.2.1. Current water demand in the Internal
River Basins of Catalonia
Demand
Typology
Average annual
volume
(Hm 3/year)
Percentage of
the total
Domestic
518.8
43.7
Industrial
251.5
21.2
URBAN
770.2
65.0
Irrigation
386.5
32.6
Farming
29.7
2.5
417.2
35.0
1186.4
100
AGRICULTURE
Total
3%
32%
44%
21%
Domest ic
Indust ry
Agr icult ure
Animal husbundr y
Figure 5.2.1. Distribution of water uses per
sector in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia
Source: Elaborated from ACA, 2000
Source: ACA, 2000
Tourism is one of the most important economic sectors in Catalonia. Over the last 50 years it
has been increasing with a similar trend as the rest of the Mediterranean region. The tourism is
mainly concentrated near the coastline. As Table 5.1.2 shows, tourism in coastal areas
(Barcelona, Costa Brava, Costa Dorada, Garraf and Maresme) represented 92% of the total
tourism in 2003. Moreover, coastal municipalities concentrate 45% of the Catalan population,
with a density of 1.284 inhab/km2 while in the rest of the Catalan territory the population
density is of 199 inhab/Km2.
Table 5.2.2. Destiny of foreign tourism in Catalonia (2002-2003)
Travellers (x 1000)
Barcelona
Catalunya Central
Nights
Average stay (days)
2002
2003
2002
2003
2002
2003
4,112
4,361
20,920
22,290
5.1
5.0
433
412
1,965
1,541
4.5
3.7
Costa Brava
5,374
5,451
46,210
44,921
8.6
8.2
Costa Dorada
2,145
1,997
19,897
14,701
9.3
7.4
573
704
3,338
3,530
5.8
5.0
Costa del Maresme
991
953
11,200
10,479
11.3
11.0
Pirineus-prepirineus
411
384
2,104
1,864
5.1
4.9
Costa de Garraf
Terres de Lleida
Catalonia
164
120
508
429
3.1
3.6
14,347
14,540
106,440
100,074
7.4
6.9
Source: Institut Català d’Estadística, 2003
Seasonality of tourism is another relevant feature. During summertime the population doubles
coinciding with the dry season. However, the tourism evolution has confirmed a tendency
towards diminishing the seasonal variations with a total of 750.482 tourists in December 2004,
which represents an increase of 20,7% in relation to 2003.
Although tourism represents important incomes, the effects on the environment and water uses
include: Increase in water supply and treatment during summertime, occupation of wetlands
and urban sprawl specially related with 2nd residences, overexploitation of groundwater for
swimming-pools, golf courses and other leisure activities. (Saurí, 2003)
Agricultural land use in Catalonia has increased from 33,96% of the total Catalan territory in
1982 to 36,05% in 1999 (Idescat, 2004). In contrast, agrarian population has diminished; fifty
years ago it represented 22% of the total working population, whereas nowadays it represents
only 3% (DARP, 2001). Farmers tend to dedicate less time to agricultural activity and more to
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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other jobs. Furthermore, agrarian population is undergoing a significant ageing process,
particularly in rural areas.
Irrigated land represents only 1/3 of the dry land. Grass crops (specially, cereals) are the most
abundant, both in un-irrigated and irrigated agriculture. Irrigation is unequally distributed over
Catalonia; 40,64% is located in western regions and 1,82% in central Catalonia (ACA, 2005a).
The evolution of irrigated agriculture has been irregular; in the province of Barcelona the
irrigated area has dropped more than 50% since 1962, while in the province of Girona irrigation
has increased 27%, in the province of Lleida 12% and in the province of Tarragona 26%.
Most irrigation projects (around 65%) are located within the Temperate Mediterranean weather
(in the Ebro Basin, concretely in its mouth and in the Lleida plain). Only 30% of the irrigation is
located in areas with Maritime Mediterranean weather (Ebro Delta area). Most of the flood
plains and littoral plains have been transformed to irrigated land growing vegetables or fruit
trees. But lately, in some zones the Mediterranean agricultural landscape has been changed
with the development of crops in greenhouses.
Animal husbandry also has an irregular distribution. The province of Lleida to the northwest of
Catalonia has the biggest concentration. Pigs represents the most abundant livestock. Although,
in general terms, stockbreeding exploitations has decreased in Catalonia, nowadays,
management of pigs’ excrement is an important worry for the Catalan Administration since in
many cases it has been identified as the source of soil and water contamination.
In the Internal River Basins of Catalonia 14,4% of the agricultural land was irrigated in 1999.
Approximately 50% of the total irrigated land is related to 10 big irrigation channels. An
average of 79% of local irrigation projects are based on groundwater resources while big
irrigation areas are supplied with surface water (75%). Bigger agricultural extensions are Foix). (ACA,2005a)
Gaià-Francolí, Baix Ter and la Muga (see
Types of crops
Irrigated Tree crops
Irrigated grass crops
Dry land Tree crops
Dry grassland crops
Internal RB delimitation
Hydrographic network
River Basins
Vineyards
Tree crops
Deserted crops
Irrigated grass crops
Intensive grassland
Figure 5.2.2. Distribution of irrigated areas regarding
the type of crops in Catalonia
Source: ACA, 2005a
Rice fields
Dry grassland crops
Vegetables crops
Cereal crops
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5.3
5.3.1
Administrative and institutional catalan water
framework: Internal River Basins of Catalonia (CIC)
Surface and Groundwater
The
, ACA (Catalan Water Agency) is the River Basin Authority with
competence in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia (WDIBC). This hydraulic administration
participates in several phases of the hydrological cycle. This figures shows different services
offered by Catalan Water Agency:
HYDRAULIC SERVICES IN CATALONIA COMPETENCE OF
HYDRAULIC ADMINISTRATION
SERVICES
ENVIRONMENT
PROTECTION
AND CONTROL
SUPPLYING IN
DISCHARGE
WATER
TREATMENT IN
DISCHARGE
ENVIRONMENT
PROTECTION
AND CONTROL
LEVEL OF PARTICIPATION
IMPLEMENTATION LEVEL
Planification, monitoring, control
SUPPLY LEVEL
PLANNING LEVEL
LOCAL INFRASTRUCTURE
PROGRAMME
Dams, Transport network,
TREATMENT LEVEL
PLANNING LEVEL
Treatment plants
IMPLEMENTATION LEVEL
Planification, monitoring, control
Figure 5.3.1. Description of the services offered by the Hydraulic Administration
of Internal Basin of Catalonia,
(ACA), (Catalan Water
Agency).
Source: Modified from ACA, 2005a
The ACA offers services in several phases: supplying and water treatment in discharge, and
those services to protect the hydrological resources. It renders these services throughout 5
levels of involvement which are described below:
Level of availability: Set of interventions related to implementation, maintenance,
replacement and new investments regarding the infrastructures and production, regulation and
improvement of water resources availability. To summarize, are included those interventions for
increasing and ensuring water resources in quantity and quality. Moreover, activities of spills
surveillance and control are included, as well as the monitoring of the environment.
Local Infrastructure Programme (PIL): Set of investment interventions at municipal or
supramunicipal level regarding water supply in discharge, mainly water transport networks,
water tanks and domestic water sources (wells and drinking water stations), to co-finance
interventions in municipalities where that infrastructure cannot be afford by users.
Level of wastewater treatment: Set of interventions related to implementation,
maintenance, replacement and new investments regarding to the infrastructures of wastewater
treatment, including water lines, and mud lines. It also considers interventions derivated from
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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surveillance and control of spills, monitoring of the hydrological environment, and specific
decontamination of water resources.
Level of Management and Planning: Set of delimitation, protection and management
interventions of the hydraulic public domain, competence of the hydraulic administration:
awardings and spill authorizations. In general, all these procedures are regulated by current
legislation.
Level of Implementation: Set of restoration activities in the hydraulic public domain, and
implementation prevention and protection infrastructures. Are included on this section those
activities which are neither directly related with the availability of water resources nor with the
contamination that water use creates.
Other organisations and institutions with an important role in water management in the Internal
River Basins of Catalonia are:
Municipalities and Metropolitan Entity of Barcelona: In charge of urban water
supply. They usually subcontract this services (water distribution) to water companies.
Users communities: User Communities is a figure that the Water Act 29/1985 considers
to be “a public right corporation attached to the River Basin Authorities which fulfils the
tasks of police, distribution and administration of water granted by the Administration. An
interesting example is the Groundwater Users Community of the Llobregat Delta, the first
groundwater user community of Spain to be established in 1976 under the initiative of the
).
users (More information in
Water companies: Private companies or consortiums which offer water distribution
services at household level according to agreements with public administrations (at local
and regional level). In the Internal River Basins of Catalonia, are relevant: AGBAR (
), and ATLL (
).
5.3.2
Coastal waters
The ACA (Catalan Water Agency) is also the unique administration of the Catalan Autonomous
Community directly responsible for coastal waters quality, in terms of monitoring and control.
Each territorial district of the ACA has three administrative units. From Water Marine
Department in the Inspection and Control Unit the organisation has develop several programs
to monitor coastal water quality: networks of sanitary control (bathing waters), physicalchemical control (coastal waters and chemical contamination), and biological control (invasive
species –
-, toxic phytoplancton, benthonic communities –
-,
etc.
Besides that, other institutions indirectly play an important role on coastal water management.
This is the case of several Departments in the Regional Government of Catalonia (
): Department of Environment (protected areas), Department of Public Works and
Transports (Ports and infrastructure at regional level, urban development), Department of
Agriculture (pesticide uses) and municipalities for water treatment, etc.
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
5.3.3
Conclusions
Socio-economic, administrative and institutional catalan
water framework: Internal River Basins of Catalonia (CIC)
The pattern of water use in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia as opposed to the Ebro river
basin and the rest of Spain, is characterized by a large (65%) urban water demand (domestic and
industrial) and a smaller (35%) demand for irrigation and animal husbandry.
Tourism is one of the most important economic sectors in Catalonia, mainly concentrated near the
coastline, were are concentrated 92% of tourists in catalan region. In summertime the population
doubles due to tourism affluence coinciding with the dry season. The effects of that dynamics
on the environment and water uses are important and critical due to the lacking of water supply:
increase in water demand and treatment during summertime, occupation of wetlands and urban
sprawl specially related with 2nd residences, overexploitation of groundwater for swimming-pools,
golf courses and other leisure activities.
In the Internal River Basins of Catalonia 14,4% of the agricultural land was irrigated in 1999.
Approximately 50% of the total irrigated land is related to 10 big irrigation channels. An average of
79% of local irrigation projects are based on groundwater resources while big irrigation areas
are supplied with surface water (75%).
The Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua, ACA (Catalan Water Agency) is the River Basin Authority with
competence in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia (WDIBC) in surface-, ground- and coastal
waters. This hydraulic administration participates in several phases of the hydrological cycle:
planning, supply and water treatment in discharge, protection of the hydrological resources
(monitoring and control), etc. Other entities like other Departments of the catalan government
), municipalities, users communities, and water companies, play an
(
important role in water management at regional and local scale.
71
Case Study 6
ÓßÒßÙÛÓÛÒÌ ÑÚ ÙÎÑËÒÜÉßÌÛÎ É×ÌØ ×ÒÊÑÔÊÛÓÛÒÌ
ÑÚ ËÍÛÎÍ ÌØÎÑËÙØ ËÍÛÎ ÝÑÓÓËÒ×Ì×ÛÍ
ÔÔÑÞÎÛÙßÌ ÜÛÔÌß øÓÛÌÎÑÐÑÔ×ÌßÒ ÎÛÙ×ÑÒ ÑÚ ÞßÎÝÛÔÑÒß÷
Wolf von Igel (wolf.von.igel@upc.edu)
ݱ
ݱ²¬»¨¬
Ü»´¬¿ ¼»´ Ô´±¾®»¹¿¬
The Ù®±«²¼©¿¬»® Ë-»®- ݱ³³«²·¬§ ±º ¬¸» Ô´±¾®»¹¿¬ Ü»´¬¿ (CUADLL for its Spanish
acronym) gathers industrial, agricultural and municipal water supply users of a
coastal aquifer system located in the southwest of the Metropolitan Region of
Barcelona (MRB) (Galofré, 2001). User Communities is a figure that the Water Act
29/1985 considers to be “a public right corporation attached to the Organismo
de Cuenca (River Basin Authorities)” which “fulfils the tasks of police, distribution
and administration of water granted by the Administration”. The CUASDLL is
considered a well-functioning example of users participating actively in the
management of groundwater resources that has even been highlighted by the
World Bank (Niñerola, 2002)
Ю±¾´»³
The population growth and the industrialization induced the increase in groundwater
aquifer and an uncontrolled management of urban and industrial wastes. All of which
resulted exploitation, abusive extraction of gravel and sand, excavation of a dock for the
port within the limits of the in minimum historical piezometric levels, increasing -¿´¬©¿¬»®
·²¬®«-·±² ¿²¼ ¼»¬»®·±®¿¬·±² ±º ¬¸» ©¿¬»® ¯«¿´·¬§ during the 1970’s (Codina, 2003).
At present the Ü»´¬¿ д¿² (construction of a new metro line, a highway, a high velocity
train, the enlargement of the sea port and the airport, the deviation of the Llobregat river
and the construction of a wastewater treatment plant) ¬¸®»¿¬»²- ¬± º«®¬¸»® ¸¿®³ ¬¸»
-¬¿¬«- ±º ¬¸» ¹®±«²¼©¿¬»® ®»-±«®½»-.
Barcelona
Area: ïîð µ³î
Situation: ÓÎÞ
ײ¬»®»-¬æ succesfull
participation of
users in the
management
of water resources
Ó¿° ±º ·-±½¸´±®·¼»-æ ³¿§ îððì
4588 000
4586 000
4584 000
4582 000
4580 000
4578 000
4576 000
4574 000
4572 000
4570 000
4568 000
412000 41 4000 41600 0 4 18000 4200 00 422000 424 000 426000 42 8000
ͱ«®½»æÝËßÜÔÔ
Ü»-½®·°¬·±²
The CUADLL is the first groundwater user community of Spain to be established in 1976 under the initiative of the users. Along
the years they have controlled water extraction and evolution of the chemical and quantitative status, and proposed actions
to avoid overexploitations, salinisation and industrial contamination of the aquifer that have had to be implemented by the
River Basin Body (ACA) and defended in front of all relevant authorities (Codina, 2003).
The establishment of the Delta Plan arose alarm among the members of the CUADLL. The main actions taken by the CUADLL
to defend their common interests are the creation of a technical department, the signature of two (2001 and 2004)
agreements with the ACA to enhance the mutual collaboration and transfer more management tasks to the CUASDLL, the
signature of an agreement with the university (UPC) and the Spanish Geological Survey to set up a mathematical
groundwater model, as well as active participation in the follow-up meetings of the several projects included in the Delta
Plan.
λ-«´¬- ¿²¼ л®-°»½¬·ª»Thanks to the active police of the projects and constructions in the territory the CUADLL has been able to report and press
charges for different actions that harm their common interests, which have partially been successful in being compensated
(e.g. legal process against the Ministry of Environment denounced for irregular proceedings during the project of changing
the location of the Llobregat riverbed was won at the Supreme Court) (Codina, 2005).
Chemical monitoring network
The signature of the agreement with the ACA improves mutual collaboration and
trespasses financial resources to fulfil further management tasks (CUADLL, 2004c):
The ACA compromises to put forward, in collaboration with the CUASDLL, the
construction of artificial recharge facilities granted for compensation in loss of
recharge from infrastructure projects
The CUASDLL is granted financial support to fulfil the inventory of wells, to incentive
the users to legalize their wells, and to seal the abandoned ones.
The ACA will complete requiring installation of metering devices in all wells, looking
together with the CUADLL for possible subsidies to the farmers.
A technical commission with 3 members of each institution is established to followup the fulfilment of the agreements and to do a follow-up of the works that may
affect the aquifers of the Llobregat delta
Both institutions compromise to establish a unified groundwater quality monitoring
network comprised of 160 points controlled by the CUADLL and 20 by the ACA, with
ͱ«®½»æ ÝËßÜÔÔ
a financial compensation for the former.
As a result of the active involvement of all users the CUADLL has worked well, gaining significant control over the
management of the aquifer. This is partly possible due to an important power of action thanks to the creation of a technical
department and a budget that reached 250.000€ in 2003 (CUADLL, 2004a), coming mainly from contributions of members
and the agreements with the ACA and other entities.
Ô»--±²- Ô»¿®²»¼ ñ ݱ²½´«-·±²Although traditionally use of groundwater in Spain has not been characterized by collective actions, there are examples
of successful participation of users in the management of groundwater through user communities
It takes active involvement and time for the user community to gain the confidence of the administration and a positive
attitude from the latter to transfer relevant management tasks to the local entities.
Well-functioning user communities have power to defend their common interests in front of the different administrations
implementing actions on the territory.
72
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Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
5.4
Urban water management in the Metropolitan Region
5.4.1
The Metropolitan Region of Barcelona in Catalonia
Most of the total population of Catalonia lives within the area of the Internal River Basins of
Catalonia that occupies 52% of the Catalan territory and holds 89% of the Catalan Population.
Furthermore, it is in the area of influence of the city of Barcelona, the Metropolitan Region of
Barcelona (MRB), where most of the population is concentrated. With a total of 4.3 millions
inhabitants and a population density of 1,354 inhabitants/km2 the MRB is the sixth most densely
populated metropolitan region in Europe. This high density of population translates into a high
domestic water consumption in comparison with other non-urban areas (
).
In this section we try to highlight the importance of the urban conglomerations in the global
water system of Catalonia. Moreover, in the last decades, some demographical, social and
cultural changes are occurring, which could increase the pressure upon the water resources in
this area. Some of them will be presented together with their implications over the current
water management in this area.
Table 5.4.1. Distribution and density of population in Catalonia (2001)
Population
Area(km2)
Density
(inhabitant/km2)
Water supply
(Mm3/year)
Catalonia
6,361,365
32,106
198
2,678
CIC
5,706,812
13,628
343
1,186
MRB
4,390,413
3,241
1,354
500
Source: Institut d’Estadística de Catalunya, 2001 and Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2002
The Metropolitan Region of Barcelona includes seven counties and 163 municipalities (
). Internally, it can be divided into one core area (the city of Barcelona), a first periphery,
a second periphery, and six cities with more than 50.000 inhabitants that act as subcenters.
The first periphery coincides with the urban continuum of the city of Barcelona and, as the
latter, it is characterized by high population densities. The second periphery, on the other hand,
presents low density patterns. Between 1981 and 2001, the total population of the MRB
remained fairly stable but showed a significant spatial redistribution (see
on Urban
Sprawl and Domestic Water Consumption Relationships).
Figure 5.4.1. Extension of the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona
Source: Elaborated by the author departing from data of the Entitat Metropolitana de Transport, 2002
73
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
The water issue in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona
The European legislation, and to some extent the Spanish and the Catalan legislation, set new
objectives to the water management such as the rational and sustainable use of water, the
preservation, protection and improvement of the quality of the water and the aquatic
ecosystems of the river basins.
However, water policies in Catalonia have traditionally been focused on water supply to
guarantee the availability of the water resource for human, agricultural and industrial uses, in
order to cover a growing shortage with new water sources, transferring resources between river
basins if necessary. A brief history of the water supply in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona
is presented in the box below.
Brief history of the water supply in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona
From the roman ι poque - the traditional water sources were natural springs and the aquifer of the Besos
river.
Beginning of the XXth century- some wells are drilled in the aquifers of the Llobregat river.
1955- the first diversion of superficial water from the Llobregat river was inaugurated at Sant Joan Despí.
1965- Water transfer from the Ter river.
1976- Baells reservoir
1990 - Sant Ponç i La Llosa de Cavall reservoirs
Currently, the water supply is obtained from different sources as can be seen in next figure.
The Ter and Llobregat rivers are the main water sources, that are distributed through two
regional networks: Aigües Ter Llobregat (ATLL) and Aigües de Barcelona (AGBAR). Local
networks such as municipal nets, industrial and owner community nets are also present but less
important.
Potabilization plant
Distribution plant
Desalination plant
Figure 5.4.2. Main characteristics of the water supply system to the MRB
Source: Modified from Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2002
On average, considering a normal year of rainfall and present infrastructure, the available water
resources for the MRB are approximately 500 Mm3/year (
).
74
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
Table 5.4.2. Water resources in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona (Mm3/year)
2002 (Mm3/year)
Superficial
Groundwater
Planned (Mm3/year)
325
175
Other sources
Total
325
175
0
145
500
645
Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2002, and 2005d
The Catalan Government has planned numerous projects to increase the available resources for
the MRB to a total of 645 Mm3/year and to improve the water quality (Table 4.x). The most
important ones in terms of augmenting the water resources as well as in terms of investment
are desalination plants. A new desalination plant and the enlargement of an existing one will
provide 70 Mm3/year more to the network. Both projects together represent 30% of the total
investment (
and
).
Table 5.4.3. Planned project to increase the water availability for the MRB
Planned projects
Volume (Mm3/year)
Desalination Plants
70
Improvements to the water treatment plant
40
Improvement of the Regional Supply Network
10
Aquifer recovery
25
Savings and rational use
Not calculated
Use of regenerated water
Not calculated
Total
145
Figure 5.4.3. Location of the planned desalination
plant in the Delta of the Llobregat river with a
capacity of 60 Mm3/year
Figure 5.4.4. Enlargement of the Tordera
desalination plant to a total capacity of 20
Mm3/year (increase of 10 Mm3/year)
Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005
Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005
Water policies in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona have mainly been based on strategies towards increasing
water supply in order to meet the growing demand for human, agricultural and industrial uses.
Planned projects to augment the future availability of water for the MRB are mainly based on development of
desalination plants.
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Current state of water supply and demand
At present, total water demand in the MRB is about 500 Mm3/year. Residential demand
represents 67% of the demand in the MRB, followed by industrial (23%) and agricultural uses
(10%). This is in contrast with the Autonomous Community of Catalonia as a whole, where
66% of water is consumed by agriculture (ATLL, 1999) (
).
100%
90%
22
80%
70%
12
67
60%
Domestic
Industry
Agriculture
50%
40%
30%
66
Despite water uses in MRB are mainly
from domestic uses (67%), water
planners shouldn’t underestimate the
possible measures adopted in the other
sectors to reduce the water demand.
In order to save water in the MRB, it will
be necessary to understand the driving
factors of domestic water
consumption.
23
20%
10%
10
0%
Catalonia
MRB
Figure 5.4.5. Water use per sectors in Catalonia and the
Metropolitan Region
Resources and demand are in a labile
equilibrium that tends to break during
long inter-annual dry periods. It must be
noted that the regional government of
Catalonia issued five drought alerts
(with restrictions for some water uses)
between 1990 and 2005. Moreover, the
quality of the resources is very poor.
Source: Elaborated by author from ATLL, 1999
5.4.2
Recent water demand management in the MRB
As mentioned before, some water demand strategies have been implemented as part of the
urban water management in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona. They have been basically:
a) Water pricing policies
b) Educational campaigns
c) Technological improvement
d) Use of alternative sources
a) Water pricing policies
Almost all the households in the MRB are metered and the largest urban concentrations and
other major cities follow the block rate structure and include a service fee. Only smaller
municipalities may have a fixed price per cubic metre regardless of the amount of water
consumed.
Water prices are very heterogeneous in Catalonia (
) and also within the MRB.
Generally, however, they tend to decrease from the metropolitan core towards the periphery,
although there are municipalities with high prices and high consumption levels and
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
(Saurí, 2003). In Catalonia, as well as in the Barcelona metropolitan area, generally total price
is composed of a fixed quantity and up to three blocks depending on the amount of water
consumed, each block with a different price.
Grΰfico 1. Precios medios del agua para consumo domι stico
en Cataluρa para diferentes niveles de consumo (con canon
1.3
del agua)
1.2
1.1
1.0
Barcelona
0.9
Girona
0.8
Tarragona
0.7
Lleida
0.6
Cataluρa
0.5
0.4
0
5
10
15
20
25
m3/month
m3/mes
Figure 5.4.6. Average prices for the domestic water consumption for
different levels of consumption in the provinces of Catalonia (water
taxes included)
Source: Tello et al., 2004
The Regional Government of Catalonia was the first one within Spain to introduce in the
domestic water bill the cost associated with the management of the hydrological cycle. In 90s a
tax on water consumption to pay for the costs of treating and disposing to nature the effluents
of urban water use was approved through the Decree 103/2000 of the Regional Government of
Catalonia. The new tax to cover wastewater treatment costs varied according to the
consumption as well as to the size of the municipality. Two blocks of monthly consumption
).
were established (
Table 5.4.4. Structure of the water tax in Catalonia
Monthly taxable base (m3)
1rst Block
2nd Block
TAXABLE RATE
Up to 12 m3/month More than 12 m3/mounth
Base rate (€/m3)
0,25
0,38
Applicable coefficient (multiplicand) 1
2
Final rate (€/m3)
0,76
0,3167
Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005 (www.gencat.net/aca)
Overall, current water prices are oriented to favour middle levels of consumption, except for certain cases
where block pricing is absent. In the latter case high and very high levels of consumption are not
penalized.
The combined operation of prices and water taxes represents the most important management action on
the water demand side in the MRB.
77
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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With the objective of further promoting the efficient use of the water and of penalizing the
sumptuous consumptions, a new water tax has been introduced in April 2005. The structure of
the water tax is shown in
. In the case of consumption over 200 litres/person/day, a
coefficient of 4 is applied, which intends to give an incentive to water conservation within the
household. There are no data available yet that ascertain the effect of the new water tax on
consumption.
Table 5.4.5. Structure of the water tax implemented in April 2005
Monthly taxable base (m3)
1rst Block
2nd Block
3rd Block
0-3
Up to 10 m3
From 10 to 18 m3
More than 18 m3
4
Up to 13
From 13 to 24
More than 24
5
Up to 16
From 16 to 30
More than 30
6
Up to 19
From 19 to 36
More than 36
7
Up to 22
From 22 to 42
More than 42
n
Up to (3n+1)
> (3n+1) to 6n
More than 6n
Base rate (€/m3)
0,3167
0,3228
0,3228
Applicable coefficient (multiplicand)
1
2
4
Final rate (€/m3)
0,3167
0,6456
1,2912
Persons per household
TAXABLE RATE
Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005 (www.gencat.net/aca)
Despite the water pricing policies implemented, consumption does not appear to correlate well with price,
reflecting the highly diverse price structures in the MRB where municipalities with high prices also observe
high consumption levels, and vice versa.
Therefore, water taxes may respond more to a sense of equity, in which people consuming more water may
contribute more to the total water cycle management, than to the intention of decreasing the domestic water
demand.
Further research is needed in order to understand the effect of the increase in water price.
b) Educational campaigns
Consumer behaviour related to water savings has been examined during periods of drought,
) aimed at
mostly to gain knowledge about the efficacy of public campaigns (
conserving water. The overall results of these campaigns have been positive but mostly for
indoor uses, the ones targeted explicitly (see Figure below). Thus strongest savings have been
recorded in dense municipalities where consumption was already quite low. On the contrary
water consumption appears to have increased in municipalities with a predominance of
gardens. Therefore, conservation practices in water seem to be more extended in the denser
metropolitan core than in the periphery.
78
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
Figure 5.4.7. Ads in the newspapers during the drought of 2002 to raise the public awareness
regarding water consumption
Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2000 (www.gencat.net/aca)
The water savings campaign of 2002 was more oriented towards inhabitants of the compact city than
towards inhabitants of the diffuse city where the consumptions per capita are higher and, therefore, the
conservation measure could have potentially larger effects.
c) Technological improvements
Concerning domestic water-saving technology, since the mid-1980’s, new housing has
increasingly been equipped with more water efficient systems. Nevertheless, available data
from a survey to 632 households in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona (Domene et al., 2004)
show that, in general, water saving devices and systems are still relatively uncommon within
the MRB. The most frequent systems are low-flow devices in faucets (12%) and showers
(13%), and dual flushing system in toilets (13%). New washing machines or dishwashers
including water efficient technology are also more widespread that in the past. For the
implementation of a water conservation campaign in Catalonia see the next case study.
Although there is still a margin of further reductions of water consumption in the residential sector, an important
question is whether it will be able to offset the effects of the aggregate demand coming from the increase
of the number of households in the MRB.
However, in single-family housing the major consumption is due to irrigation of the garden. Here again,
the use of more efficient irrigation systems may not be enough to overcome the important growth of
outdoor water usage.
79
Case Study 7
ËÎÞßÒ ÉßÌÛÎ ÝÑÒÍÛÎÊßÌ×ÑÒ ÝßÓÐß×ÙÒ ×Ò ß
ÓÛÜ×ÌÛÎÎßÒÛßÒ ÎÛÙ×ÑÒ
ÝßÌßÔÑÒ×ß ÍßÊÛÍ ÉßÌÛÎ
Elena Domene (elena.domene@uab.es)
ÎÛÙ×ÑÒ ÑÚ ÝßÌßÔÑÒ×ß
ݱ²¬»¨¬
The Catalan Water Agency financed a project called “Catalunya Estalvia
Aigua” [Catalonia saves water] developed by the environmental NGO “
Ecologistes en Acció” [Ecologists in Action]. This project had a double objective.
1. To quantify the effect of the implantation of some water-saving measures at
household level.
2. To engage a water conservation campaign
Population: êòç ³·´´·±²Area: íîôïðê µ³î
Situation: Ò±®¬¸óÛ¿-¬ ±º Í°¿·²
Interest: ײ²±ª¿¬·ª»
É¿¬»® ½±²-»®ª¿¬·±² ½¿³°¿·²¹-
Barcelona
ݱ²-¬®¿·²¬ ñ Ю±¾´»³
Due to a growing perception of the necessity of looking for new alternatives to fight against the increase of water
consumption from the traditional sources, technology and more water-efficient systems appears as a solution, also in the
residential sector. But there is a lack of knowledge about the effect of this measure in Catalonia.
Moreover, educational campaigns to encourage water saving is also a tool in the context of the water demand
management.
Ü»-½®·°¬·±²
The existent of different typologies of urban development and population dynamics makes important
the selection of different study areas. Therefore, three different municipalities of Catalonia where
chosen as case study: the city of Barcelona, Santa Perpètua de Mogoda and Torredembarra.
The first municipality correspond to a big compact city that due to its high population (1,5 millions of
people) has a high total water demand. However, the per capita water consumption in this area is
around relatively low (around 130lpd). The high concentration of population bring efficacy to a low
amount of resources due to conditions of high communication.
On the contrary, Santa Perpètua de Mogoda, with a population of 20,140 inhabitants (IDESCAT, 2001),
has a growing urban development base on low density housing, usually with gardens and communal
swimming pools.
Finally, Torredembarra (11,718 inhabitants) has a substantial temporary demand concentrated in the
summer season due to the tourist attraction based on “Sun and Beach”.
The campaign was addressed mainly to citizens, but also to city councils and neighbourhood
associations and commercial sector.
The main actions of the citizen campaign were the free installation of water-saving devices in the
households, and the follow-up and analysis of the water-savings achieve due to the technology
incorporated. The water-saving installed were:
- Low flow systems in faucets and showers
- Counterweights in toilet cisterns.
λ-«´¬- ¿²¼ л®-°»½¬·ª»Results show an average water saving of 6- 10% in Barcelona in the households
where the technology was introduced.
In Santa Perpètua de Mogoda the technology provokes a decrease of the
water consumption around 9%.
Finally, Torredembarra was divided in two groups for analysis. The first group,
representing the household that where permanently occupied, achieves
water-saving of 6%. Secondary households achieved reduction of the
consumption in 14,5% (taking into account only the days that the household
̱®®»¼»³¾¿®®¿
was occupied)
Í¿²¬¿ л®°8¬«¿ ¼» Ó±¹±¼¿
Þ¿®½»´±²¿
More information: ©©©ò»½±´±¹·-¬»-»²¿½½·±ò½±³
Ô»--±²- Ô»¿®²»¼ ñ ݱ²½´«-·±²Environmental campaigns addresses to citizens are necessary but difficult to evaluate due to the number of other
factors that may influence.
Technology can provoke water saving within the households between 6-10%.
Urban development and housing typology are two important factors to understand the domestic water consumption
and its relation with the measures adopted.
80
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
d) Alternative sources
The importance of the utilization of water of different qualities for different uses is slowly
entering in the discourse and the application of water rationality in the Metropolitan Region of
Barcelona. Two examples of use of alternatives sources are presented next:
Alternative water resources to irrigate the public gardens and streets of Barcelona
The water used to irrigate the public gardens and streets of Barcelona represents 37,5% of the
total potable water consumed in public uses. Water for these uses however, does not need to
be of drinking quality. The first actions where addressed to the irrigation of the urban street of
different districts of Barcelona. At present more than 10 wells and some springs exploiting
groundwater of poor quality of the subsurface of Barcelona are used to capture the water for
the irrigation of public spaces. Nevertheless, the proportion of potable water for public uses is
still predominant in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona. From the total public gardens, 86%
are irrigated mainly with water from the public network, 29% are irrigated mainly with
groundwater and only 5% use as a main source regenerated water (
).
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
public
network
groundwater regenerated
water
Figure 5.4.8. Sources of water for public uses in Barcelona (left) and photo of a sign making aware of
irrigation with recycled water (right). “
“
Source: Parés et al., 2004
The Council of Barcelona has engaged in a program to irrigate public spaces with poor-quality
groundwater reducing the consumption of potable water for public uses. A positive externality of this measure
is the reduction of groundwater infiltration to the underground Metro system.
81
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
Greywater reutilization and rainwater harvesting
Greywater reutilization and rainwater harvesting contributes to save drinking water. The
potentiality of these two water resources is achieving increasing recognition since they
contribute to water conservation and restoration of the hydrological cycle.
Up to now in the MRB there have been just a few experiences regarding its implementation,
most of them constitute isolated cases of personal initiatives. Generally, the administration has
not promoted its utilization although a new awareness towards the subject seems to be
appearing. Recently, Sant Cugat del Vallès, a town in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona
launched a pioneering bylaw making compulsory the incorporation of these systems in new
). Their promotion and implementation will surely grow in the near
houses (see
future in the MRB since different institutions have demonstrated interest for the matter.
Since high quality water is not necessary for covering all domestic uses, increase in greywater reutilization
and rainwater harvesting would contribute to save large amounts of drinking water. Other beneficial
effects would be associated such as cost-effectiveness, less energy and chemical use, positive effects in urban
drainage system and groundwater recharge.
Most of the designed greywater reutilization systems consider replacing the potable water with
treated water from showers and hand basins for toilet flushing. Rainwater harvesting systems
aim to replace drinking water with rainwater stored in a tank mainly for toilet flushing, irrigation
of plants and cleaning.
GREYWATER REUTILIZATION
Maximum Potential Saving = 21%
126 lpd
99 lpd
Dishwasher
5%
Others
8%
Shower
33%
Kitchen
4%
Washingmachine
11%
Toilet flushing
21%
Hand Basin
18%
Figure 5.4.9. Distribution of water
consumption for domestic uses in high-density
housing, 2004.
Source: Domene and Saurí, 2004
Others
5%
Dishwaher
Hand Basin
4%
11%
Toilet flushing
13%
Gardening
36%
Washingmachine
8%
Kitchen
2%
Shower
21%
GREYWATER REUTILIZATION
Maximum Potential Saving = 13%
207 lpd
180 lpd
RAINWATER HARVESTING
Larger water saving amounts may be obtained
since rainwater presents higher quality and
therefore it can cover additional uses. Toilet
flushing and irrigation will be the most
important.
However, it is more difficult to rely on its
availability since it is difficult to predict the
quantity of water that will be stored with each
rain.
Figure 5.4.10. Distribution of water consumption for domestic
uses in low-density housing, 2004.
Source: Domene and Saurí, 2004
82
Case Study 8
ÛÚÚ×Ý×ÛÒÌ ËÎÞßÒ ÉßÌÛÎ ÓßÒßÙÛÓÛÒÌ ßÝÝÑÎÜ×ÒÙ ß ÔÑÝßÔ
ßÙÛÒÜß îï ÐÎÑÝÛÍÍ ×Ò ß Ø×ÙØ ÉßÌÛÎ ÝÑÒÍËÓ×ÒÙ ÌÑÉÒ
ÍßÒÌ ÝËÙßÌ ÜÛÔ ÊßÔÔXÍ øÓÛÌÎÑÐÑÔ×ÌßÒ ÎÛÙ×ÑÒ ÑÚ ÞßÎÝÛÔÑÒß÷
Sergi Cantσ (sergicanto@sancugat.org) and Laia Domθnech (laia.domenech@uab.es)
ÍßÒÌ ÝËÙßÌ ÜÛÔ ÊßÔÔÛÍ
ݱ²¬»¨¬
Í¿²¬ Ý«¹¿¬ ¼»´ Ê¿´´8- is a town with 73.000 inhabitants situated in the
Metropolitan Area of Barcelona (MAB), 20 km far from Barcelona. Urban
development is its main source of income, in the last years the town has
experienced a high growth of population becoming a middle and high
standing residential town. ܱ³»-¬·½ ©¿¬»® ½±²-«³°¬·±² ·- ª»®§ ¸·¹¸, feature
close related to the low density urbanisation model of the town.
Population: éíòðð𸿾
Area: ìî µ³î
Situation: ÓÎÞ
Interest: ײ²±ª¿¬·ª»
É¿¬»® Í¿ª·²¹ Þ§´¿©
Barcelona
ݱ²-¬®¿·²¬ ñ Ю±¾´»³
Because of the acute socioenvironmental problems affecting the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona
(MRB) (air and water quality, water supply, mounting urban waste generation, insufficiency of public
space, congestion, etc.) sustainability initiatives, particularly in the form of Local Agenda 21s, have
been operating since 1997 when the provincial administration launched the network “Ý·¬·»- ¿²¼
Ê·´´¿¹»- ¬±©¿®¼- Í«-¬¿·²¿¾·´·¬§”. Since then more than half of the municipalities of the MRB have
been involved in various phases of development of Local Agenda 21s, including Sant Cugat del
Vallès.
The environmental diagnosis process undertook during 2001 to generate the Agenda 21 of the municipality revealed the
water issue to be a major concern. In that year the domestic consumption arrived up to îéí ´ñ½¿°ñ¼¿§, appearing like the
town with the ¸·¹¸»-¬ ®¿¬» of consumption of all the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona.
Ю±°±-¿´ ñ Ü»-½®·°¬·±²
One of the proposals developed during the Local Agenda 21 process was to encourage the -«-¬¿·²¿¾´» «-» ±º ©¿¬»®
following various strategies. The action plan considered the implantation of several ³»¿-«®»- which finally result in the design
of a new bylaw.
The composing process of the new regulation lasted one year being finally published in 2002. The main aims of the bylaw
were to reduce water consumption and establish a ½±®®»´¿¬·±² ¾»¬©»»² ¬¸» ¯«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ ¬¸» «-» ±º ¬¸» ©¿¬»® in order to
prevent the needless waste of high quality water. Why to use drinking water for WC flushing or garden watering?
Thus, Sant Cugat del Vallès became the first town in Catalonia promoting an ambitious water saving policy throughout a
large fraction of its community. The implementation have to be carried out in buildings of new construction and in houses
with significant restoration works, subsidies were also given to encourage people to incorporate water saving systems in their
buildings.
Since 2002 water saving devices such as flow restrictors, tap aerators or dual flush and water stop toilet mechanisms have to
be installed in new buildings. However, the most innovative content of the regulation involves water reuse promotion,
different thresholds were taken into account to implement it:
Ù®»§©¿¬»® reutilization for WC flushing is mandatory for buildings with more than 8 flats and 400 m3/year shower
consumption.
A ®¿·²©¿¬»® ¸¿®ª»-¬·²¹ system has to be installed in complexes with more than 1000 m3 of garden.
Water reuse systems will have to be installed in -©·³³·²¹ °±±´- with more than 40 m2 of water surface.
λ-«´¬- ¿²¼ л®-°»½¬·ª»The last water consumption rates published by the Environmental Entity of the
Metropolitan Area of Barcelona for 2003 were optimistic, Sant Cugat del Vallès
had reduced its consumption in ëè ´ñ½¿°i¼¿§, decreasing its consumption up
to îïë ´ñ½¿°i¼¿§. Although this rate is still very high, an extension in the
application of all these strategies seems to initiate a new tendency. The city
council aims to reduce water consumption up to the European Community
average situated in ïèê ´ñ½¿°ñ¼¿§.
During 2003 these new measures were implemented in 1731 buildings of
different typologies. The majority were incorporated in dwellings although there
were several buildings for collective use adopting some of the water saving
strategies described.
H o us e ho ld c o ns um pt io n
300
250
200
150
100
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Year
ͱ«®½»æ ͱ®»¿
A greater water reduction may be obtained if all the designed mechanisms are complemented with behavioural changes.
In that way, the city council plans to start a long-term campaign addressed to the whole community to promote a change
of habits and awareness towards water conserving.
Ô»--±²- Ô»¿®²»¼ ñ ݱ²½´«-·±²Environmental diagnosis and ß¹»²¼¿ îï °®±½»-- importance in the development of a strategy to solve the inefficient
water utilisation.
Large water consumption reduction after the application of the ©¿¬»® -¿ª·²¹ ¾§´¿©.
Many households in the municipality «-» ©¿¬»® »ºº»½¬·ª»´§ contributing to protect water resources.
Feasibility of ©¿¬»® ®»«-» -§-¬»³- installation in a Mediterranean town.
83
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
5.4.3
Future domestic water demand previsions and main
future proposals of the Regional Government of
Catalonia
The current situation, characteristics and patterns of evolution of the water demand in the
Internal River Basins of Catalonia (CIC for its Spanish acronym) will be highlighted in this
section. The most important source of information has been the studies elaborated by the
Catalan Water Agency (ACA) about the characterization and evolution of the water demand in
Catalunya (ACA, 2002) available online at www.gencat.net/aca. All the data and definitions
provided are those elaborated by the Catalan Water Agency.
More precisely, this section will focus on the domestic water demand, which includes the
residential, public and commercial uses, as well as the tourist demands. The domestic demand
and the industrial demand together are considered the Urban Demand.
Current water demand
Urban uses, and in particular, the domestic uses are the sectors where most water is
demanded. The urban water consumption (total resources in the head of the water supply
networks) in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia (CIC) is estimated to be 352
litres/person/day (lpd) and of 238 lpd for the domestic uses. In the area of Barcelona, where
data from the water company is available, the domestic uses are around 212 lpd. Domestic
uses includes the losses in the network ( 22%), public uses ( 8%), commercial uses ( 5%)
and residential uses ( 66%) (Figure 5.4.11).
Figure 5.4.11. Geographical distribution of the population and the water demand for domestic uses
Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2002
In comparison with other regions, the per capita urban water demand in the Internal River Basins of
Catalonia is lower than values for North-American (700 lpd in California and 500 lpd in Florida) and higher
than European countries such as Germany or Finland (200-250 lpd).
84
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
Municipalities >10,000 inhab.
Domestic
140
Comercial
Public
10
16
Losses and noncontroled
46
Figure 5.4.12. Distribution of the urban water use in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia
Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2002
Future water demand evolution
The trend in domestic water supply appears to stabilize or to increase slightly specially in
Barcelona and the Metropolitan area. However, as already mentioned some demographic and
urban changes are occurring in this area, for example the movement of the population to the
denser centre to the more diffuse metropolitan peripheries where the domestic water
consumption are higher.
In order to evaluate the future water demand in the CIC the Catalan Water Agency uses the
index of the per capita consumption. Per capita water consumptions are established and these
are multiplied by the total population, therefore population becomes a key point in the
calculation of the demand. Moreover, some hypothesis can be introduced such as the increase
of the water prices and taxes.
The Catalana Water Agency study (ACA, 2002) includes two different scenarios of population
for 2025. The Scenario 1 is the most realistic.
Scenario 1
Population of 7 millions for Catalonia and 6,3
millions in the CIC (increase of 10%).
Scenario 2
Population of 7,5 millions for Catalonia and
6,7 millions in the CIC (increase of 18%).
Source: Institut d’Estadística de Catalunya, 2004.
Source: Parlament de Catalunya, 1995
There are also two scenarios for the evolution of the per capita water demand within the CIC:
Base Scenario
High water-saving scenario
For the domestic demand, the current
values of consumption are applied,
multiplied by the future population.
For the industrial demand a slight increase
is supposed.
The water for irrigation are the same in the
current cultivation land and are lower do to
the optimization of the irrigation system.
The domestic demand is lower due to the
impact of the Water Framework Directive
(water price increase and water-saving
technology within the households.
The industrial demand is also lower due to
the WFD (more efficiency, control)
Water for agriculture is supposed to be
optimizing in all the cultivation land.
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
The foreseen water demand for the CIC applying these scenarios are shown in
and
These figures show moderate or even low increases of the water demand in
the CIC for the 2025, which implies the guarantee of the water supply. However, the validity of
these figures would depend on the previous hypothesis and the values of water supply and
population taken into account. The Regional Government of Catalonia considers the Base
Scenario with 7 millions inhabitants as the most probable one, but also takes into consideration
the more conservative combination of the Base Scenario with 7,5 millions inhabitants.
1600
1400
1200
1000
Scenario 1
800
Scenario 2
600
400
200
0
Trendy Scenario
High water-saving Scenario
Figure 5.4.13. Future water demand in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia
Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2002
Table 5.4.6. Increase in the future water demand (2025) with respect to water demand in 2002 for the
Internal River Basins of Catalonia
Base Scenario (Mm3)
High water-saving Scenario (Mm3)
Total
Urban
Agriculture
Total
Urban
Agriculture
Scenario 1
10%
12%
7%
0,8%
-0,3%
2,4%
Scenario 2
16%
18%
10%
4,1%
4,8%
2,4%
Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua, 2002
Some social, cultural and demographic changes such as:
the level of income,
the housing typology
the number of members per household,
the demographic structure of the households
and some new urban lifestyles based on more water-spending behaviours,
which are more complex to analyse and to control, could stimulate the water demand in a way not considered in
the scenarios presented.
The inclusion of these factors in the prediction of new scenarios results critic to achieve a more realistic
approach of the future situation and deal with the current problems of the water system in this area.
86
Case Study 9
URBAN SPRAWL AND DOMESTIC WATER CONSUMPTION
RELATIONSHIPS
THE CASE OF THE METROPOLITAN REGION OF BARCELONA
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
METROPOLITAN REGION OF BARCELONA
Con•ex• • •
Population: • • • llions
• • • •
Area: 3,241• • 2• •
Barcelona
Situation: MRB
Interest: Trends• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • a•
• •• ••o••• •• •• •• •• ••in••a• •
• • • • • • • • • •• ••
The Metropolitan Region of Barcelona (MRB• is• structured in a core area, a first
and second periphery, and a number of subcenters. In the last decades,
important social and urban changes have occurred. The central area and the
first periphery represents the traditional and Mediterranean a compact city with
high population density. On the other hand, the second periphery is based is a
low density urbanization with a high proportion of sing• • amily
• • •housing.
• • •
• • • • •
• •
• • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • •
Cons•ra•in• •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
frequently with private gardens and swimming pools.
The traditional and Mediterranean compact city has been transformed into a regional and diffuse city, with a predominance
of low density urban form and with important social and environmental impacts. One of these is an increase of water use.
1900000
1500000
First
periphery
1300000
1100000
Second
periphery
900000
Su cent.
700000
500000
1986
1991
1996
DIFFUSE CITY
Low density.
Segregation of spatial uses and
functions.
Increase need for mobility due
to separation of lifestyles activities.
Less public space.
COMPACT CITY
High density.
Mixed uses: combining work,
leisure and residence.
Proximity and routine of daily
activities.
Public spaces.
Barcelona
1700000
2001
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
buildings in the periphery tend to have less
community gardens and swimming pools.
All these trends translate into • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• •• • • • • •• •• • • • • ••
floors than in the past and are also offered with a package that includes
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Resul•s •and Pers• e•c•iv•es
200
As shown in the last Figure, the residential water consumption is the most
180
important in the Metropolitan Region. Moreover, low density urban forms
160
contribute to the higher water consumption observed in households in the
metropolitan periphery. In 1999, Barcelona County (the dense
140
Barcelona
metropolitan core• •egistered
• • • • a consumption of 131• • • • • • • • • • • 120• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • First
• • periphery
•
Second periphery
(l• • • whereas
• • •
the average consumption for the rest of the region
RMB
100
reached 17• • d.
• • Water
• • • •consumption in some municipalities of the
80
periphery rises above 40• • d,
• •which
• • • is• four times more than in the less
water spending municipalities of the compact city (Sauri,• • • .• To• a• large
• • • • • 60•
extent and documented by previous research, • • • • • • • • • is• • • 40• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
responsible for these differences. On average, the water consumed
Figure 1. Domestic water consumption in the Metropolitan
annually by the garden is 30% of the total water consumed in the
Region of Barcelona (liters/person/day).
1999
household, and can reach 50% during the summer season (Domene and
Source: Elaborated by the author from ATLL, 2000
Saurí,• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Moreover, the population increases in the municipalities where the consumption is traditionally higher.
Sant Andreu de Llavaneres
Matadepera
Cabrils
Sitges
Cabrera de Mar
L’Atmetlla del Vallès
Barcelona
Prat de Llobregat
Cornellà de Llobregat
Sant Agrià del Besòs
L’Hospitalet de Llobregat
Santa Coloma de Gramenet
Population
1991
Population
• • •• •• • •
Domestic water consumption
in lpd (19• • • • • •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •• •• • •
• •• •• •• ••
• •• •• •• ••
• •• •• •• •• • •
• •• •• • •
• •• •• •• ••
• •• ••• ••• ••• • • •
• •• •• •• ••
• •• •• •• •• • •
• •• •• •• ••
• •• •8• •• ••
• 175
• • • •
• •• •• • •
• •• •• •• ••
• •• •• •• ••
• •• •• •• •• • •
• 9• • • •
• •• •• •• ••
• •• ••• ••• ••• • • •
• •• •• •• ••
• •• •• •• •• • •
• •• •• •• ••
• •• •5• •• ••
• •• ••• ••• ••
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
Lessons Learned / Conclusions
Expansion of • • • • • • • • • • in
• •urban
• • •sprawl
• • • in
• the
• • Metropolitan
• • • • • • • Region
• • • •of• Barcelona
• • • • • results into a • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
A major explanatory factor: change in • • • • • • • •, which
• • • is• illustrated,
• • • • • for
• • instance
• • • • in
• the
• • increase
• • • • •of• private gardens.
Not only economic instruments, such as price and rates, but also social, cultural, political, technical and environmental
measures, are needed as • • • • • • • • to
• •deal
• • with
• • the
• • progressively
• • • • • • •increase
• • • • of
• water
• • demand.
87
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
5.4.4
Conclusions
Urban water management in the Metropolitan
Region of Barcelona (MRB)
The MRB is one of the sixth most densely populated metropolitan urban regions of Europe holding
4.3 Million inhabitants.
Domestic water consumption is the most important use within the Metropolitan Region of
Barcelona corresponding to 67% of the total water consumed in this area, which is in contrast to
the total of Catalonia where domestic water uses are only 22%.
The objective of the water management in Catalonia has been traditionally to guarantee the
availability of water resources for human, agricultural and industrial uses, in order to cover a growing
shortage with new water sources focussing water policies on augmenting the water supply more
than on managing the water demand.
The water transfer from the Ebro river has been substituted from the construction of desalination
plants as the main measure to increase the supply.
The measures based in the water demand control are very poor in objectives and inversions.
However, some water demand strategies has been implemented in this area in the last years being
focused mainly on water pricing policies introducing block-pricing.
Although programs to use low-quality groundwater and rainwater harvesting for public uses have
been implemented, the proportion of potable water resources is still the main source of public water uses
in the MRB.
In order to implement the water system in this area it is very important to understand the processes
and the factors influencing water consumption in urban areas.
The forecast of future water demand in urban areas in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia
estimates to increase between 4.8 and 18%.
Some social, cultural and demographic changes such as the level of income, the housing
typology, the number of members per household, the demographic structure of the households and
some new urban lifestyles based on more water-spending behaviours, which are more complex to
analyse and to control, could stimulate the water demand in a way not considered in the
scenarios presented.
Similar processes could be occurring in other Metropolitan Regions of the Mediterranean Area.
88
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
5.5.
5.5.1.
Towards the implementation of the WFD in the CIC
(Internal Basins of Catalonia)
Institutional and legal Framework
As was mentioned in previous sections, the River Basin Authority with competence over the
Internal Basins of Catalonia, is the Catalan Water Agency (
,
ACA). The ACA was established through the Act 25/1998,
The Catalan Water Agency
being the unique hydraulic administration in the Regional
(ACA) is responsible for the
Government of Catalonia (Generalitat de Catalunya). This
elaboration and revision of
entity is structured in 6 decentralised territorial districts:
programs, plans and
Girona, Tordera-Besς s, Llobregat-Foix, Tarragona, Lleida,
hydrological projects,
Terres de l’Ebre.
monitoring, management and
With the implementation of the Water Framework Directive
control of water resources, and
other quantitative and
(2000/60/EC) the Internal Basins of Catalonia (CIC) are
qualitative characteristics of
redefined as Water District of Internal Basins of
waters (surface and
Catalonia (WDIBC), being the Catalan Water Agency the
groundwater), as well as other
competent authority for the planification and management
aspects related to hydraulic
of this district in Spain.
public domain, including,
Nowadays, the current legal frame is defined by the “
” (Internal
Basins of Catalonia Hydrological Plan), approved by the
Royal Decree 1664/1998. This plan includes all the river
basins fully included within Catalan territory: the Internal
Basins.
Figure 5.5.1. Delimitation of the DIBC with continental and
coastal waters associated. The systems referred are included in
the Hydrological Plan
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005b
permits and concessions in the
Water District of Internal
Basins of Catalonia
(WDIBC).
Following the deadline of 22nd
of December 2004 established
by the WFD, the ACA delimited
the area of the Water District
of Internal Basins of Catalonia
(WDIBC), comprising a total of
16,600 km2. The limit of the
coastal waters has been
established
following
the
definition in Article 2 of the
WFD. The northern limit for
coastal waters consists of the
French
border,
and the
southern limit, was determined
by the influence of the Ebro
river, being defined at Cap
Roig. The WFD defines in
Article 2 (15), a River basin
district as “the area of land
and sea, made up of one or
more neighbouring river basins
together with their associated
groundwaters
and coastal
waters, identified as the main
unit for management of river
basins” .
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
After defining the River Basin District of the Internal River Basins of Catalonia (WDIBC),
following the requirements of Article 5, the ACA carried out a diagnosis:
To analyse the characteristics of the WDIBC
To study pressures and impacts of human activities on the status (quality and quantity)
of water resources.
To analyse the economic use of water resources.
The results of this analysis of water bodies characteristics, pressures and impacts, economic
analysis, and register of protected areas with delivery deadline for December 2004, but
submitted to the Spanish Ministry of Environment in March 2005, are summarized below
considering each water category: surface waters, groundwaters and coastal waters.
5.5.2.
Characterisation of water bodies: pressures and
impacts in continental surface waters
The first step to characterise surface water bodies, as the WFD indicates in Article 5, is the
identification and classification into one of these categories:
Rivers
Lakes
Categories of surface water bodies
Heavily Modified Water Bodies (HMWB) Transitional waters
Coastal waters
In this section we focus on the characterisation process and results for rivers, lakes and HMWB
continental surface waters as presented in the IMPRESS report.
Characterisation of Rivers
The specified methodology was to subdivide every water body in “types” and “sub-types”. The
following Figures show the results obtained for rivers, (10 sub-types) performing a network
shaped by a total of 260 river water bodies in the WDIBC:
Figure 5.5.2. River sub-types in the Water
District of Internal Basin of Catalonia (WDIBC)
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA),
2005b.
In the Water District of
Internal Basin of Catalonia
(WDIBC) 247 river water
bodies
have
been
identified (plus 13 which
are reservoirs or HMWB)
from a river network of
3,838 km. (average of
15,5 km per river water
body)
Figure 5.5.3. Performance of river water bodies in
Water District of Internal Basin of Catalonia (WDIBC)
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b.
90
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
The criteria used to divide the river network into water bodies is described in
.
Table 5.5.0. Criteria used for definition of water bodies in the river network of the WDIBC
Criteria used to section river network in water
bodies
Water bodies considered
Change of river tipology
130
Geographical and hydromorfological:
Artificial (Reservoir)
22*
Natural
23
Protected Areas
21
Changes of quality
64
Biological and physical-chemical quality
Hydromorphological quality
260 (TOTAL)
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005
* 13 of this 22 are reservoirs
Reference conditions in the river water bodies
For every water body type defined in the river network “reference conditions” (without
notorious human impact, and therefore low alteration of hydromorphological, physico-chemical
and biological characteristics) should be established. The chosen criteria and thresholds of
reference to identify reference conditions water bodies and stations are shown in
Table 5.5.1. Criteria to establish reference conditions for river water bodies
Criteria
Threshold of reference
Natural land uses in the river basin
Natural uses > 70%
Urban land uses in the river basin
Urban uses < 2 %
Hydrological flow control
Section no controled
Naturality of river channel and riverine
forests
Urban sections < 10% of water body lenght
QBR > 75, 4th part of QBR = 25*
* Criteria and thresholds of reference specific for reference stations
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
Reference Conditions
To establish reference conditions for each
river type, the WFD proposes to use
information obtained in monitoring stations.
Therefore, in the WDIBC, simultaneously to
identifying reference water bodies, several
reference stations have been selected.
Finally, 73 stations of reference have
been selected to establish reference
conditions in the WDIBC.
Besides these results, the pressures and
impacts analysis allows to identify which
water bodies or stations can be considered
as reference conditions. Both
methodologies, obtain different results in a
significant manner, due to quantity and
quality of information available, and how
this information is treated analytically,
being the “expert judgement” one of the
main criteria used.
Figure 5.5.4. Stations of reference selected to fulfil reference
conditions or to shape the monitoring network of ACA in
WDIBC.
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b
Characterisation of Lakes and Wetlands
The Catalan Water Agency, has used the following criteria to define the category of lakes and
wetlands within water bodies:
Lakes and ponds with a total area larger than 0.5 ha, located more than 800 m high, and
lakes below this level with more than 6 m depth.
Wetlands located below 800 m high with less than 6 m depth.
Following these criteria 9 types of lakes have been defined. From those, there is only 1 lake in
the WDIBC,
, (Banyoles pond), considered as “large karstic lake”.
For wetlands, there have been defined 3 types of wetland ecosystems, considering: i) origin of
salinity, ii) average of conductivity, and iii) water permanence. Finally, 64 wetlands have been
identified within the Water District of Internal Basins of Catalonia.
Reference conditions in lakes and wetlands
Due to human pressures and impacts within the WDIBC we cannot find wetlands and lakes that
achieve different criteria of reference. An alternative proposed is to define wetland
ecosystems
, once these water bodies have achieved
or
ecological
status, measured by different biological (QAELS index), hydromorphological and physicochemical (ECELS index) indexs.
92
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
Characterisation of Heavily Modified Water Bodies (HMWB)
A Heavily Modified Water Body (HMWB) considering Article 2 of the WFD is “a body of surface
water which as a result of physical alterations by human activity is substantially changed in
character”. Besides, an Artificial Water Body (AW), is “a body of surface water created by
human activity”.
For the Water District of the Internal Basins of Catalonia (WDIBC) the following criteria have
been considered to determine HMWB:
Reservoirs: are rivers heavily modified by a dike, which can not achieve good ecological
status within river water body category. To undertake its ecological potential, the elements
of quality considered for reservoirs will be those taken for lakes category, which are fairly
similar.
River sections heavily modified caused by diversion of flows or hydrological flow
modification, like sections downstream of reservoirs or “
” (small reservoirs to redirect
water flow). To categorise these sections as HMWB we should analyse whether measures
undertaken to restore river conditions to achieve good ecological status will: (i) influence
significantly in a negative way to current uses; (ii) be economically not achievable; or (iii)
will affect negatively to ecological status.
The IMPRESS defined 13 reservoirs in the WDIBC using the criteria of the “
” divided in 6 types according to the following
criteria: altitude, volume, river basin area, distance to the coast and salinity.
For the heavily modified river sections, the criteria used have been: morphological
conditions (urban and metropolitan areas, redirection of water flow), hydrological flow, and
river continuity.
Considering
biological
quality
(macroinvertebrates, diatomees, and
fishes) and the potential for recovery
(geomorfological naturality, cost and
possibility of facilitating an ecological
river flow) of each section, reservoirs
and downstream river sections have
been classified in 3 categories:
HMWB
Unrecoverable:
With
high
probability to be a HMWB.
Recoverable:
With
medium
probability to be HMWB.
No HMWB: Sections where
biological quality can achieve
good ecological status.
shows a complete
proposal for Heavily Modified Water
Bodies (HMWB) in the WDIBC.
Figure 5.5.5. Proposal of Heavily Modified Water
Bodies (HMWB) in the WDIBC.
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b
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Register of continental surface water protected areas
Together with the characterisation of water bodies and the risk analysis of not achieving the
environmental objectives of the WFD, and with regard to Article 6 of this Directive, the
responsible authority of the Water District of Internal Basins of Catalonia has presented in its
study (Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005b) a register of protected areas and their relations to
the water bodies.
Particularly for surface waters, it is foreseen to define protected areas in those water bodies
intended for human consumption as follows (
):
Water bodies designated for the abstraction of water intended for human consumption,
with an average over than 10m3 per day, or those that supply more than 50 people.
Every water body intended for this use mentioned before in the future.
Figure 5.5.6. Water bodies included in the Register
of Protected Areas for water supply (WDIBC).
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b.
Figure 5.5.7. Protected areas for aquatic species
with economic interest (WDIBC).
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b.
Furthermore, proposals for protected areas of aquatic species with importance from an
economic point of view (see
of water bodies for recreational uses, of zones
sensible to nutrient loading and of zones for the protection of species and habitats are
presented.
Analysis of pressures and impacts in rivers
In the analysis of pressures to estimate the risk of achieving the objectives of the WFD, the
magnitude of pressures, the susceptibility of water body, and the environmental objective for
every pressure have been considered (
). It is important to remark that objectives set
for each pressure, are not departing from current or future legal frames of the Agency, but
performed from those which can disturb the ecosystem.
In the analysis of pressures has been estimated the risk of not achieving the objectives set by
the WFD, from those pressures considered significants. On the other hand, for the analysis of
impacts, it has been estimated which water bodies, due its observed status, is at risk of not
achieving the goals. In both analysis, the risk has been estimated according the environmental
objectives for every water body.
Pressures analysis in rivers
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Table 5.5.2. Pressure types considered under the pressures and impacts analysis on rivers.
Type of pressure
Morphological modification
Pressure
Dikes and dams
River channels
Water flow modification
Water abstraction
Hydrological regulation for reservoir
Redirection through small hydroelectrical energy stations
Land use in riverside areas
Flooding area invasion by urban uses
Flooding area invasion by extraction activities
Flooding area invasion by fast-grow forestry exploitations
Sources of pollution
Biodegradable substances
Industrial non-biodegradable substances
Deposits of solid urban waste
Deposits of solid industrial waste
Agriculture uses
Animal defecation
Lixiviates of nitrogen from agriculture and animal husbandry
Urban uses
Polluted and potentially polluted soils
Transportation infrastructure
Wastewater treatment plant sludge
Mining areas
Salinated waste dumps
Other
Areas affected by forest fires
Invasive species
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005b
The numerical range used to perform the 4 categories of risk of achievement from pressures, is
shown in
. These categories are equivalent to those used in the impact analysis,
which allow a final estimation of risk combining both risks from pressures analysis and impacts
analysis.
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Table 5.5.3. Numerical range per category
of risk
Pressures
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005b
Numerical
range
< 0,8
0,8 – 1,2
1,2 – 2
>2
Category of
Risk
Null risk
Low risk
Medium risk
High risk
Color
These pressures stated, should
not be considered as impacts,
because if risk is adequately
managed, and we are capable of
mitigate and reduce their
effects on water bodies, it would
be possible to achieve WFD
goals.
Figure 5.5.8. Risk of not achieving WFD goals regarding
pressures analysis in WDIBC.
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b
Impacts analysis in rivers
Impact analysis is established defining both, proven and probable impact. River water bodies
with a proven impact are those which are not achieving current legal frame on water issues,
and therefore there is a possibility (numerical) of not achieving the goals of the WFD. On the
other hand, river water bodies with a probable impact are those which probably will not achieve
WFD objectives. In other words, those
whose status will be worse than “good”
Ecological Status
in
2015,
using
biological,
hydromorfological, and phisico-chemical
indicators (see
). Currently
the latter are not regulated by any
normative but considered in Annex V of
the WFD.
According to the WFD all water
bodies that are not heavily
modified ought to fulfil at least a
good ecological status (green
colour) by 2015.
Nowadays, in the Water District of
Internal Basins of Catalonia, 48 %
of river water bodies do not
achieve good ecological status.
Figure 5.5.9. Ecological Status of river water bodies
in the WDIBC (2003).
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b
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presents the results of the risk of not achieving the objectives f the WFD through
the analysis of impacts (proven and probable).
Impacts
Quality Level
Very good or good quality
Moderate quality
Insufficient quality
Bad quality
Risk regarding
Impact
High
Medium
Low
Null
No data
High
High
High
Medium
Medium
High
Category of Risk
Null risk
Low risk
Medium risk
High risk
Proven Impact
Medium
Low
Null
High
Medium Medium
Medium Medium Medium
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Low
Null
Medium
Low
Null
No data
High
Medium
Low
Null
No data
Figure 5.5.10. Risk of not achieving the objectives of
the WFD for river water bodies in WDIBC following the
impact analysis.
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b
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Evaluation of river water bodies at risk of not achieving a good
status by 2015
The risk of not achieving the environmental goals of the WFD is finally evaluated combining
both, the risk evaluation following the pressures and the risk evaluation following the impacts
analysis. This combination has been established according to the next table:
Risk
High
Medium
Low
Null
No data
High
High
High
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
Low
Null
Low
Pressures
Low
Null
High
High
Medium Medium
Low
Low
Null
Null
Low
Null
Risk
No data
High
Medium
Low
Null
No data
This table indicates that weight of impact
analysis is prevalent on the risk of
achieving the goals of the WFD. This Table
has been established following the
Guidance Document No. 3 (EC, 2003c).
According to the analysis of
pressures, 39% of river water
bodies in the WDIBC are at high
risk of not achieving the goals.
Today, only 17% of river water
bodies (considering both pressures
and impacts) achieve the WFD
objective of good status.
Figure 5.5.11. Risk of not achieving the
environmental goals of the WFD in the river water
bodies of WDIBC.
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b
Null risk
Low risk
Moderate risk
High risk
No data
Risk following the analysis of pressures
Risk following the analysis of impacts
Main elements of risk that condition the achievement of the objectives of the WFD
in river water bodies (to prioritise in the future Plan of Measures)
1.
Density of dikes and “azudes”, redirection caused by small hydroelectrical energy stations, and
modification of water flows.
2. Hydromorphologic degradation, riverside forest overexploitation, and morphodynamic impacts. Loss of
riverside habitats, and urbanisation of flooding areas.
3. Biodegradable and industrial point discharges in vulnerable river sections.
4. Diffuse contamination, overload of nitrogen from farms and pesticides (organic contaminants) of
agricultural origin.
5. Very low quality of fish populations. Hard introduction of foreign and invasive species, and loss of
river habitats.
6. Low biological quality in medium and lowlands in main rivers.
7. Concentration of priority and dangerous substances, some of them still not regulated.
98
Case Study 10
×ÒÌÛÙÎßÌÛÜ ÛÒÊ×ÎÑÒÓÛÒÌßÔ ßÍÍÛÍÍÓÛÒÌ ×Ò ÓÛÜ×ÌÛÎÎßÒÛßÒ
Î×ÊÛÎ ÞßÍ×ÒÍæ ÍËÍÌß×ÒßÞ×Ô×ÌÇ ×ÒÜ×ÝßÌÑÎÍ ÓÑÒ×ÌÑÎ×ÒÙ
ßÝÝÑÎÜ×ÒÙ ÉÚÜ ßÒÜ ÞÛÇÑÒÜ
Ôß ÌÑÎÜÛÎß Î×ÊÛÎ ÞßÍ×Ò øÝßÌßÔÑÒ×ß÷
Xavier Cazorla-Clarisσ (xavier.cazorla@uab.es)
Ôß ÌÑÎÜÛÎß Î×ÊÛÎ ÞßÍ×Ò
ݱ²¬»¨¬
ÔŽÑÞÍÛÎÊßÌÑÎ× is a regional project to develop sustainability indicators and
innovative decision support systems (DSS), under a Integrated Environmental
Assessment approach, for the monitoring of River Basin Areas in Catalonia,
Spain. It started in 1995 as a result of an agreement between the Catalan
Water Agency (ACA), the Institute for Environmental Sciences and Technology
(Autonomous University of Barcelona), and the Council of Sant Celoni. Its
research-action group is integrated by multidisciplinary scientists from natural
and social sciences, policy makers, and stakeholders.
Currently there are two ongoing pilot projects: Ô¿ ̱®¼»®¿ 窻® Þ¿-·², and La
Ó«¹¿ 窻® Þ¿-·². In this case we will present the case study of La Tordera River
Basin
Barcelona
Population: îîêôïìï ¸¿¾
Area: ïðéð µ³î
Situation : Ò±®¬¸ »¿-¬
Þ¿®½»´±²¿
Interest: ͱ½·±ó
»½±´±¹·½¿´
Ó±²·¬±®·²¹ ·²
Ó»¼·¬»®®¿²»¿²
窻® Þ¿-·²-
Ù±¿´- ¿²¼ Ы®°±-»
1.-Define Integrated Assessment indicators tools and methodologies for water sustainability improvement at river basin scale
according to Water Framework Directive.
2.-Apply in a policy relevant manner the developed IA tools and methodologies within pilot projects.
3.-Promote and improve Social Learning precesses in river basin management supporting public participation and
dissemination activities.
Ó»¬¸±¼±´±¹·½¿´ Ü»-½®·°¬·±²
Specifically, one of the core goals of L’OBSERVATORI has been to develop a set of indicators structured under a cause-effect
DPSIR scheme: Driving Forces of environmental change (e.g. Agricultural activities), Pressures on the environment (e.g.
discharges of waste water), State of the environment (e.g. water quality in rivers), Impacts on population, economy,
ecosystems (e.g. water unsuitable for drinking), Response of the society (e.g. watershed protection) (Mysiak, et al 2003)
ÑÞÍÛÎÊßÌÑÎ× Í«-¬¿·²¿¾·´·¬§ ײ¼·½¿¬±® Ó±²·¬±®·²¹ ͧ-¬»³ ¿½½±®¼·²¹ ÉÚÜ ¿²¼ ¾»§±²¼
øÞ±¿¼¿ »¬ ¿´ô îððí÷
Ô»--±²- Ô»¿®²»¼
As WFD establishes to implement in 2006, ³±²·¬±®·²¹ ²»¬©±®µ- (control, suveillance, investigation) are necessary to
evaluate not only quality of water resources, but also the status of associated riverine and coastal resources, as well as
its uses and public perception.
New tools and indicators aimed at ³±²·¬±®·²¹ current ·²¬»®´·²µ»¼ ½¸¿²¹»- between biodiversity loss, landscape
changes, and other social issues such as social learning, public participation and institutional changes besides chemical,
and ecological status, are needed to improve decision making.
The -»¬ ±º ·²¼·½¿¬±®- should contribute with °±´·½§ ®»´»ª¿²¬ ·²º±®³¿¬·±², at ¹»±¹®¿°¸§½¿´ó-½¿´», and at ¬·³»ó-½¿´».
99
Case Study 11
ÍËÍÌß×ÒßÞÔÛ ÓßÒßÙÛÓÛÒÌô ÑÒ ß ÔÑÝßÔ ÍÝßÔÛô ÑÚ ÌØÛ
ßÔÔËÊ×ßÔ ßÏË×ÚÛÎ ÑÚ ÌØÛ Î×ÊÛÎ ÌÑÎÜÛÎßô
ÌØÎÑËÙØ ÌØÛ ÎÛËÍÛ ÑÚ ÉßÍÌÛÉßÌÛÎ
ÌÑÎÜÛÎß øÓßÎÛÍÓÛ÷
Laia Domθnech (laia.domenech@uab.es)
ÌÑÎÜÛÎß
ݱ²¬»¨¬
The alluvial aquifer of the river Tordera situated in the lower part of its basin has a
storage capacity of 60 hm3. The aquifer is of great importance since it supplies
water to several towns of Maresme and Selva counties. Tordera is one of the
towns collecting water for domestic consumption in wells situated upstream.
Environmental and social problematic have resulted from ¹®±«²¼©¿¬»® ¯«¿´·¬§
´±-- ¿²¼ ¿¯«·º»® ±ª»®»¨°´±·¬¿¬·±² which could have ended up with the
irreversible loss of the fluvial ecosystem associated to the river.
Barcelona
Population: ïîòðð𸿾
Area: èì µ³î
Situation : Ó¿®»-³»
Interest: Ю±¬»½¬·±²
±º ¬¸» ¿¯«·º»®
ݱ²-¬®¿·²¬ ñ Ю±¾´»³
Tordera’s municipality suffers from the environmental problems affecting
Tordera River Basin, which have their origin in the ½«®®»²¬ ³¿²¿¹»³»²¬ ¿²¼
»¨°´±·¬¿¬·±² ±º ¬¸» ¿´´«ª·¿´ ¿¯«·º»®. The proliferation of industrial activities,
urban growth, tourism, increase in water extraction for agriculture use and
bottling factories contribute to the over-exploitation of an already scarce
resource.
ײº·´¬®¿¬·±² ´¿¹±±²ô ̱®¼»®¿ô Ý¿¬¿´±²·¿
The most ®»´»ª¿²¬ ·³°¿½¬- on the aquifer derived from these activities are:
Reduced aquifer level and lower catchment capacity of wells.
Reduced volume of flow, which causes the river to dry up completely in summer.
Salinisation caused by intrusion of the saltwater wedge, which brings about a loss of ground water quality and
contamination of the urban supply wells.
Drying of wetlands and loss of biodiversity
Ю±°±-¿´ ñ Ü»-½®·°¬·±²
Tordera’s Aquifer project aims to achieve a -«-¬¿·²¿¾´» ¿²¼ ·²¬»¹®¿´ ³¿²¿¹»³»²¬ of the aquifer including improvement of
ͱ«®½»æ
ͱ®»¿
water treatment processes, reutilization of reclaimed water, water table stabilization
in the
protected wetlands and in the
water supply points, creation of new wetlands and restoration of the fluvial island. The project can be summarised in the
following areas:
-
-
-
Ы®·º·½¿¬·±² б²¼ò The existing wastewater treatment plant has been enlarged by the addition of a natural tertiary
treatment system to reduce nutrient concentration of the effluent. The advanced treatment consists of a series of
shallow purification ponds in which the water circulates superficially and the nutrients (mostly nitrogen and phosphorus)
precipitate by gravity and, at the same time, are taken up by organisms growing on the pond. The degree of treatment
allows the water to be recycled and reused.
É¿¬»® °«³°·²¹ ¿²¼ ¬®¿²-°±®¬ò Part of the water treated by the tertiary system is pumped to a fluvial island. Solar panels
produce the energy required to pump approximately 1000 m3/dia of water through a 3 km pipeline from the treatment
wetlands to the island where the infiltration and restoration system for the aquifer is located.
ײº·´¬®¿¬·±² ¿²¼ ®»½¸¿®¹» ©»¬´¿²¼ò A wetland has been prepared in the fluvial island to support the aquifer refilling with
the effluent of the tertiary treatment. The water cycle is therefore closed up by returning part of the treated water to the
infiltration wetlands.
λ-«´¬- ¿²¼ л®-°»½¬·ª»The wastewater treatment system including the tertiary treatment
with natural wetlands reduces significantly the presence of
suspended and dissolved solids and nutrient concentration. The
effectiveness of the system depends on the environmental
conditions; larger reductions are achieved during summers with
scarce rains. Approximately 1700 m3/day of reclaimed water is
obtained and reused for ¿¯«·º»® ®»½¸¿®¹»ô ©»¬´¿²¼ ½®»¿¬·±² ¿²¼
¿¹®·½«´¬«®¿´ ·®®·¹¿¬·±².
Part of the reclaimed water - 700 m3/day- is taken by gravity to a
collection box of the irrigation channel where it can be reused for
agricultural irrigation.
Another part, a maximum of 1000 m3/day, is returned to the river
through its infiltration which takes place in the new island of the river.
In maximum flooding conditions, the wetland covers an area of
ͱ«®½»æ ߯«·º»® ̱®¼»®¿ Ю±¶»½¬ô îððì
14.000 m3.
This infiltration lagoon allows the gradual incorporation of clean water to the aquifer and thus the ©¿¬»® ¼»º·½·¬ ±º ¬¸» ¿¯«·º»®
·- ®»¼«½»¼. The new area also strengthens the local wetland network contributing to increase biodiversity and reconverting
a marginal area into a recreational and educational area.
Ô»--±²- Ô»¿®²»¼
The project is an example of »ºº·½·»²¬ ©¿¬»® ³¿²¿¹»³»²¬ where a policy based on water saving and the protection of
the aquifer is promoted.
Better quality of the water, the hydrological cycle closure and the creation of an infiltration wetland constitute
»²ª·®±²³»²¬¿´ ¿²¼ -±½·¿´ ¾»²»º·¬- for Tordera’s municipality.
The project supports the ecological values of the areas located near Tordera’s municipality contributing to ·²½®»¿-»
¾·±¼·ª»®-·¬§ with the creation of new wetlands and the improvement of the river bank condition.
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5.5.3.
Characterisation of water bodies: pressures and
impacts in groundwaters
Characterisation of groundwater bodies in WDIBC
The delimitation of groundwater bodies (Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2003) has proceeded
that were used by the water authority. Besides those
based on the
general criteria defined by the European Commission and the Spanish Environmental Ministry in
order to harmonise the process, some specific criteria applied to the definition included: i.)
Delimitation has followed in some cases the river basin limits where surface discharges of the
aquifers or the low permeability of the materials allow to associate the groundwater divide to
the topographic infill, ii) delimitation has followed in some cases the impermeable contact with
metamorphic or clayey formations, and iii) where there are existing management measures in
place previous limits have been respected when possible.
The WFD establishes that all water bodies used for drinking water supply for more than 50
people or in rates of more than 10 m3/d need to be specified. In the case of the Internal River
Basins of Catalonia this condition constituted problems in identifying and delimiting water
bodies in vast parts of the territory composed of materials of very low permeability, which
should be rather referred to as aquitards or aquicludes.
A total of 39 groundwater bodies have been defined within the Water District of the Internal
Basins of Catalonia (WDIBC) (
). Groundwater body types have been defined based
on the lithology of the materials present (Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005a). Therefore a
groundwater body may correspond to one or more of the following types: 1.) Alluvial, 2.)
Detritic of non-alluvial origin, 3.) Carbonated, 4.) Granites and Palaeozoic materials, 5.)
Grouping of local aquifers in low permeability media, and/or 6.) Bodies in volcanic and fluviovolcanic materials.
Their initial characterisation considered specification of the relevant lithologies, their flow
conditions, origin of permeability, and the main components of the mass balance, as well as
considerations regarding their connection to the sea, vulnerability towards nitrate
contamination, connection between different aquifers, and relation to wetland areas.
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Figure 5.5.12. Groundwater bodies delimited in the Water District of the Internal Basins of Catalonia
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b
Register of groundwaters protected areas
In the case of groundwater bodies it is foreseen that all protected defined groundwater bodies
will have protected areas designated for the abstraction of water intended for human
consumption, although final definition will follow only after an ongoing study regarding water
supply.
Separate registers are presented of areas, which are protected for aquatic species of
importance from an economic point of view, of water bodies for recreational uses, of zones
sensible to nutrient loading and of zones for the protection of species and habitats are
presented. Little or no analysis though, is presented with respect to the interaction of these
protected zones with the defined groundwater bodies.
Finally, the study presents a list of the aquifers whose management is regulated by a special
Decree 328/1988.
Analysis of pressures and impacts in groundwaters
The final goal of the analysis of pressures and impacts is to estimate the risk of achieving the
objectives set by the WFD. The list of significant pressures considered in the analysis of
pressures and impacts on groundwater bodies by the water district authority distinguishes
between diffuse- and point-type of pressure sources over the chemical as well as the
quantitative status of the bodies (
). The selected indicators for the evaluation of the
magnitude of the diverse pressure sources are explained in a very vague way in some cases,
and for many it is not explicit which, less how, ranges are taken to set the final evaluation of a
particular pressure sources in qualitative ways as either low, moderate or high.
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Finally, to obtain the total pressure on the chemical- as well as on the quantitative status of a
groundwater body, some weights are subjectively assigned to each pressure type as a function
of the capabilities to remediate their impact, and a weighted linear sum is applied.
Table 5.5.4. Significant pressures over the chemical and quantitative status of groundwater bodies
considered in the IMPRESS study by the Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua
Type
Source
Agriculture and animal
husbandry
Diffuse
Sewage network and
urban and industrial
tanks
Industrial activity
Point
Pressure
Impacts
Animal defecation
Fertilising and
Phitosanitary treatment
Application of sewage
sludge
Nitrates of animal origin
Pesticides and nutrients
Irrigation returns
Related contaminants
Network losses
Salinity, organic matter, microbiologic
contamination, other contaminants
Discharges, lixiviation
and losses
Contaminated soils
Components of N
Contaminants of Annex VIII of WFD
Specific contaminants of Annex VIII of WFD
Waste management
Industrial, urban and
special waste deposits
Diverse contaminants
Underground tanks and
deposits
Mining activity
Losses
Hydrocarbons
Saline
Salinisation
Wastewater treatment
plants
Gravel extraction
Discharges
Ammonium
Condition of the
unsaturated zone
Water extraction
Increase in vulnerability, metals
borehole
Saltwater intrusion, induced fluxes,
reduction of resources
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b
The study by the Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (2005b) distinguishes between a potential impact
and a proven impact on the chemical status of the groundwater body. The potential impact is
defined as a combination of the pressure on and the intrinsic vulnerability of the water body.
The study states which parameters are considered for the evaluation of the vulnerability, but it
does not make reference to any specific methodology to arrive at the qualitative evaluations of
low, moderate or high vulnerability. The qualitative proven impact is defined based on the
chemical status considering physico-chemical parameters and mentioning a reference state,
which is never defined. The text neither mentions any ranges defined to classify the proven
impact into low, moderate or high.
For the evaluation of the proven impact on the quantitative status of groundwater bodies the
study takes into account analyses of piezometric levels and water balances, but no mention to
any criteria of classification into low, moderate or high is neither given here.
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Evaluation of groundwater bodies at risk of not achieving good
status by 2015
This analysis will ultimately allow to articulate the Program of Measures and elaborate the
future Management Plan of the Hydrological District. The information used to evaluate this risk
has been:
Existing pressures
Intrinsic vulnerability to contamination
Information about the main parameters to control the chemical status and the quantitative
status (proven impact)
The applied methodology, including the steps revised in the previous sections, to evaluate the
risk of not achieving the good status of groundwater bodies by 2015 consisted in (
1. Identify pressures on the chemical status departing from a combination of indexes
regarding diffuse and point contamination sources, as well as artificial recharge and
extractions inducing saline intrusion.
2. Identify the pressure on the quantitative status considering total recharge, transferences to
other water bodies and extractions, as well as consumption from ornamental and
phreatophic plants and extraction of aggregates.
3. Evaluate the intrinsic vulnerability of the water bodies based on the recharge, soil
characteristics, unsaturated zone and the saturated zone, as well as on the topography, the
relationship between surface- and groundwater.
4. Estimate the potential impact on the chemical status based on the significant pressures and
the intrinsic vulnerability in order to have an indication of the possibility of perceiving an
impact where it has not been detected or no information is available.
5. Evaluate the proven impact on the chemical status and the quantitative status based on the
existing observed monitoring data (for chemical status 5 bodies without data, for
quantitative the same 5 and further 3 bodies without data).
6. The risk of not achieving the quantitative status is estimated based on the proven impacts
and the pressure on the quantitative status.
7. The risk of not achieving the chemical status is estimated based on the potential impacts
and the proven impacts.
8. The risk that any groundwater body does not achieve the objectives of the WFD exists
when either the chemical or quantitative status are at risk of not being achieved.
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Figure 5.5.13. Schematic figure of the methodology applied to evaluate the risk of not achieving the
environmental objectives (2015) for the groundwater bodies.
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b
According to the report made by the competent Hydrologic District administration (Generalitat
de Catalunya, 2005b) in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia the groundwater bodies at risk of
not achieving the objectives established in the WFD for 2015 are:
25 groundwater bodies (64% of the total) are at risk of not achieving the objectives
14 groundwater bodies (36% of the total) are not at risk of achieving the objectives
Of these 25 bodies at risk, 10 are at risk of not achieving the quantitative status and 23 of not
achieving the chemical status. From the latter 14 are at risk due to nitrate contamination from
agricultural activities and 7 due to seawater intrusion.
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The responsible authority for the
Hydrological District of the Internal
Basins of Catalonia identified and
delimitated 39 groundwater
bodies, all of which are protected
for drinking water supply. The
analysis of pressures and impacts
nevertheless, estimates that 25 of
them (64%) are at risk of not
achieving the objectives of the
WFD by 2015.
Figure 5.5.14. Groundwater bodies in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia at risk of not achieving the
environmental objectives by 2015
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b
According to the evaluation that the responsible authority of the water district makes, the main
elements of risk that condition the achievement of the objectives set by the WFD and the
respective action that will have to be prioritised in the future Plan of Measurements are
(Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005b):
Nitrates of agricultural and animal husbandry origin (Fulfilment of the Prevention Plan and
correction of the contamination and related norms approved by the Govern de la
Generalitat. (Regional Government of the Catalan Autonomous Region)
Seawater intrusion conducing to elevated concentrations of chlorides in coastal aquifers.
(Establish Plans for the Ordering of Extractions and integrated resources management)
Ammonium contamination from network losses and discharges to infiltrating rivers.
(Improvements to the urban wastewater treatment systems and to the sewage network,
control of discharges)
Contamination of other specific elements (organochlorinated, metals, etc.). (control of
discharges, promote treatment at the origin, remediation of events)
High extraction volumes that induce sinking groundwater levels and affect the hydrologic
resources. (Establish Plans for the Ordering of Extractions and integrated resources
management)
Extraction of aggregates in alluvial deposits with groundwater levels near the surface. (Limit
the areas and depth of extraction).
Intensive use of lower terraces of the alluvial valleys, especially in the highlands for
phreatophyte plants which affect the quantitative status (Establish criteria to protect
groundwater that may be affected by these activities).
106
Case Study 12
ÔÛÙßÔ ×ÓÐÔ×ÝßÌ×ÑÒÍ ÑÚ ÑÊÛÎÛÈÐÔÑ×ÌßÌ×ÑÒ ÑÚ
ÙÎÑËÒÜÉßÌÛÎ ÎÛÍÑËÎÝÛÍ
ÝßÎÓÛóÝßÐÛÔÔßÜÛÍ ßÏË×ÚÛÎ øÝßÌßÔÑÒ×ß÷
Wolf von Igel (wolf.von.igel@upc.edu)
ß²±·¿ ا¼®±¹»±´±¹·½¿´ ˲·¬
ݱ²¬»¨¬
The Carme-Capellades aquifer is part of the Anoia Hydrogeological Unit (AHU), which is a
multilayered aquifer system composed of carbonated rocks from Cretacic to Tertiary age
that extends over 160 km2 and discharges through numerous natural springs that constitute
the base flow of the Carme and Mediona rivers. The area is located some 60 km to the
northwest of Barcelona; the economic activities are agriculture (vineyards and cereals) and
forestry, as well as industrial activity (papermills, bottled water). The ßØË ·- ¿² ·³°±®¬¿²¬
-±«®½» ±º ©¿¬»® -«°°´§ to municipalities outside the area holding significant industrial activity.
ݱ²-¬®¿·²¬ ñ Ю±¾´»³
Ø·¹¸ ¹®±«²¼©¿¬»® »¨¬®¿½¬·±² ®¿¬»- ¸¿ª» ·²¼«½»¼ ½±²-¬¿²¬´§ ¼»½®»¿-·²¹
¹®±«²¼©¿¬»® ´»ª»´-. As a consequence, the natural spring within the main
town of Capellades (5000 inhabitants) ceased to flow in 2000 leaving its
associated 2000 m2 lake dry. This triggered an important social upheaval
that turned into an important political issue even influencing subsequent
municipal elections. Concern arose also within the Regional Water
Authority (Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua, ACA) about the consequences
on the socio-economy of the region and among ecological groups on the
consequences on the ecological status of the aquatic systems of the
Carme river, which depends heavily on the natural discharges of the AHU
through springs (Candela et. al., in press).
370
Population: êðð𠸿¾
Area: ïêð µ³î
Situation: ß²±·¿
Interest: Ю±½»-- ±º
±®¼»®·²¹ ¹®±«²¼©¿¬»®
»¨¬®¿½¬·±²
Evolution of piezometric levels in the AHU
(Oct 1971 - Mar 2003)
360
350
340
330
320
310
300
Les Comes (PPEc)
Carme-Cementeri (PPEc)
Can Gramunt (PPEc)
Orpi (PPEc)
Torre Claramunt (PPEc)
ͱ«®½»æ Ñ©² °®±¼«½¬·±² ¾¿-»¼ ±² ¼¿¬¿ º®±³ ßÝß
Ю±°±-¿´ ñ Ü»-½®·°¬·±²
In 2001, according to the article 171 of the Reglamento del Dominio Público Hidráulico of 1986, ¬¸» 窻® Þ¿-·² ß«¬¸±®·¬§
øßÝß÷ ¼»½´¿®»¼ ¬¸» ¿¯«·º»® °®±ª·-·±²¿´´§ ±ª»®»¨°´±·¬»¼. According to the law this jurisdictional measure necessarily implies
the creation of a user community. It also implies the following effects on all public water extraction concessions, as well as all
private waters (see Þ±¨ ìòìòí on Groundwater in the Spanish Water Law 29/1985):
i)
all procedures to authorise explorations and modification of existing extraction concessions of surface- and
groundwater are halted,
ii)
suspension of the right to construct new exploitations,
iii)
forceful constitution of a groundwater users community, which if not established after 6 months, will be constituted by
the ACA,
iv) all water users must install an extraction measuring devise before 6 months and hand out this information to the ACA if it
requires so,
v)
Latest one year after the provisional declaration of overexploited aquifer and after hearing the user community and
putting it into a public information process, the ACA must prepare a Plan for the Ordering of Extractions to recover the
aquifer (only after this plan is approved the aquifer can be definitively declared overexploited)
After the declaration, the ACA has seeked for alternative water sources in order to reduce the pressure on the CarmeCapellades aquifer and simultaneously meet the increasing demand for municipal water supply from the nearby towns.
λ-«´¬- ¿²¼ л®-°»½¬·ª»-
Polygons for the management of the AHU
The statutes of the Users Community of the Carme-Capellades Aquifer were
conceived in 2002 and approved by the Administrative Council of the ACA in
2003. The users community nevertheless, has not been working as such properly
due to internal disputes among user groups regarding the repartition of power
and due to mutual distrust. As a consequence collection of information,
specially regarding location and rate of extractions, as well as the information
flow between the ACA and the users community has been difficult.
Despite these drawbacks, the ACA has proposed a Plan for the Ordering of the
Extractions based on a hydrogeological modelling study (Queralt, 2002). This
plan has still (April 2005) not passed the required consultation with the user’s
community to be finally approved by the ACA.
ͱ«®½»æ Ù»²»®¿´·¬¿¬ ¼» Ý¿¬¿´«²§¿ô îððí
A technical commission composed of four members of the user’s community and four members of the ACA meets
periodically to improve the information flow and support the implementation of the required measures.
Ô»--±²- Ô»¿®²»¼ ñ ݱ²½´«-·±²Forceful creation of user communities after declaring legally an aquifer provisionally overexploited may in some cases
result in a further burden for the implementation of actions towards the management of overexploited aquifers
The figure of user communities foreseen by the water law does not guarantee good functioning and can give rise to
further institutions where power groups can exert their influence.
Few aquifers have been declared overexploited because the Governing Council of the River Basin Authority in charge
of doing so, is by composition a rather “political” body more concerned for present economic interests than for the long
term benefit of society.
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Water management in Spain: Case of Internal Basins of Catalonia
5.5.4.
Characterisation of water bodies: pressures and
impacts in coastal waters
The Water District of the Internal Basins of Catalonia (WDIBC) has accomplished with the
deadlines for the characterization of coastal water bodies and is presently facing the intercalibration phase. The long experience of the Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua (authority responsible
for the WDIBC) in this field, with a diversity of monitoring programs in progress since around
1999 has facilitated its tasks and ACA has become a reference for the other water district
authorities. However, several drawbacks can be drawn from the work undertaken until now, like
the lack of transparency in establishing indicators (without defining uncertainty issues),
thresholds, etc. under “expert criteria” justification.
Characterisation of the water district with regard to coastal
water bodies
Delimitation of coastal waters has been performed following the article 2 of the WFD. "Coastal
water" means surface water on the landward side of a line, every point of which is at a distance
of one nautical mile on the seaward side from the nearest point of the baseline from which the
breadth of territorial waters is measured, extending where appropriate up to the outer limit of
transitional waters.
The baseline is specified in the Spanish legislation (Real Decreto 2510/1977) and coincides with
the low tide water mark. To facilitate territorial sea delimitation, in some sites, straight lines
have been traced to join different points, leaving some water compressed between the baseline
and the coast, which is included into the internal waters. In these situations, coastal waters
under the WFD definition includes interior waters (autonomous authority responsibility) and 1
mile of territorial sea (national
Figure 5.5.15. Delimitation and characterization of coastal
responsibility). This jurisdictional
water bodies in the CIC
aspect represents an added
difficulty for delimiting water
bodies because in some sections
the limit is 12 milles far away
from the coast (e.g. Badia de
Roses, Cap de Salou).
The characterisation has been
realised using the coastline in
some places where the water
body
can
be
very
heterogeneous and then some
information is lost. In particular,
50% of the coastline coincides
with the baseline and the other
50% the baseline goes from
between 3 until 12 miles
seawards.
WATER BODIES
Boundary
Code
TIPOLOGY
Deep Rocky
Deep Sandy
Shallow Sandy
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua. 2005b
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LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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The IMPRESS document (Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005) under “expert criteria” which is not
transparent enough to understand and to build confidence among the whole scientific
community and the rest of the society has been used to delimitate coastal water bodies.
The typology used for Catalan coastal waters is based on System B Annex II of the WFD, using
the obligatory factors established by the working group COAST and two optional like the
average composition of the substratum and the slope of the bottom. The combination of this
two factors leads to consider four types of coast (rocky, sandy, superficial and deep). In
Catalonia only three of them can be found: deep rocky, superficial sandy, deep sandy (
).
Register of protected areas
Following Art. 6 of the WFD, several protected areas under the classification established in the
annex IV of the WFD have been established for the Catalan coastal waters, which are:
Areas designated for the protection of economically significant aquatic species:
Considering legislation of the Department of Agriculture and Fishing the areas
designated are: on the one hand, the natural shoals of fishing exploitation of Donax
trunculus in the Bay of Roses and Callista chione in the Maresme zone and, on the
other red coral (Corallium rubrum).
Water bodies designated as recreational waters, which include bathing water areas
under Directive 76/160/EEC, almost all the Catalan coast.
Areas designated for the protection of habitats or species where the maintenance or
improvement of the status of water is an important factor in their protection, including
all Nature Net 2000 sites, the inventory of Wetlands in Catalonia and marine
ecosystems of “herbassars de fanerς games”.
Analysis of pressures and impacts
The analysis of pressures and impacts (IMPRESS) for the coastal waters has been realised in a
semi-qualitative way. It is based on the qualitative and quantitative system proposed in the
manual of the Ministry of Environment (2004) and considering on the one hand the water body
susceptibility to the pressure and, on the other, the coastal length exposed to each pressure.
109
LIFE PROJECT: WATER AGENDA
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Water
bodies
identification
Identification
of significant
Pressures
-
-
Water bodies
Under pressure
Not under pressure
Without data
Impact
analysis
-
Risk
assessment
Proven Impact
Provable Impact
High
Medium
Low
Without apparent Impact
Figure 5.5.16. Qualitative assessment of IMPRESS.
Source: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, 2005.
The significant pressures that can affect coastal water bodies characterised have been classified
into three groups: Morphologic alterations, contamination sources and other pressures (
).
The magnitude of each pressure has been referred to the coastal length of the water body
affected. Again here, the threshold of each pressure has been defined “under expert criteria”.
Table 5.5.5. Pressures over the coastal water bodies considered.
Type
Pressure
Coast artificialization
Beach nourishment
Morphologic alterations
Contamination sources
Urban water discharges:
through treatment system
by mismanagement in treatment system
by direct superficial discharges in episodic rainfalls
Point
Diffuse
Other pressures
Industrial water discharges:
biodegradable substances
non-biodegradable
River contributions
Urban land use
Agriculture land use
Invasive species
Tourism
Fishing
Ports: Marinas, fishing, commercial and industrial
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005b
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The Impact analysis is also
based on the guidelines of the
Ministerio de Medio Ambiente
(2004). It distinguishes among
4 categories of impact that can
alter ecological and chemical
status of coastal water bodies:
Proven impact, when water
body does not fulfil the
WFD
environmental
objectives.
Probable
impact,
when
water body will possibly not
accomplish
the
WFD
environmental objectives.
Without apparent impact,
when alteration of the water
body is not significant, then
it will accomplish WFD
environmental objectives.
Without data, when there is
not enough data to evaluate
impacts.
Figure 5.5.17. Characterization of coastal water bodies at risk
RISK OF FAILING
None
Low
Mι dium
High
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua. 2005b
Concerning proven impacts, as legal criteria for defining ecological status still don’t exist;
proven impact evaluation is only based on chemical criteria regulated by Water bath legislation
and protected areas plans. As a result, no coastal water body in the Internal Basin of Catalonia
has a proven impact.
In relation to proven impacts, both ecological and chemical status should be minimum in order
to consider a coastal water body with good quality.
Ecological status is a combination of biological quality and physico-chemical quality. For
biological quality the WFD establishes three elements: phytoplankton, aquatic flora and
benthonic fauna. This is very consistent with the Monitoring and Control programmes that the
ACA is currently implementing along the Catalan coasts (Xarxa FITO net, CARLIT net, BENTOS
net, Posidonia Oceanica net, MACROFAUNA net). For physico-chemical quality, indicators used
come from data of Environmental Quality of Coastal waters of Catalonia programme. As a
result of combining the worst results of biological and physico-chemical quality, there are: 2
water bodies that have very good ecological status, 14 with good, 14 with moderate and 2 with
bad.
In order to calculate the chemical status, different criteria have been used depending on the
availability of data. Water is based on the values of WFD draft. For sediment and biota, ERLERM quality criteria have been applied, which are based on the observation of biological effects
caused by chemical pollution.
The probable impact is the result of combining ecological and chemical status. After
aggregating all the information, the resultant classification varies between 15 water bodies
without any significant impact, 15 with probable impact and 2 with very probable impact.
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Evaluation of coastal water bodies at risk of not achieving good
status by 2015
The risk of not achieving good status by 2015 has been assessed through the qualitative
IMPRESS proposed by Ministry of Environment (2004) with a modification in considering two
the impact types (probable and very probable).
Applying this methodology to the Water District of the Internal Basins of Catalonia the results
are:
9 water bodies at null risk
6 water bodies at low risk
15 water bodies at medium risk
2 water bodies at high risk
In this complex process of aggregating information in order to evaluate pressures, impacts and
to identify risks of not achieving good status, the lack of transparency is the main criticism. The
whole process seems a “black box” with few visible criteria, the rest are all based on expert
assessment. Although this report doesn’t question the expertise of the responsible working
group, a more transparent and open process should be provided and communicated in order to
facilitate understanding and improve the final results.
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5.5.5.
An Economic analysis of water uses: Integrating
Economy into Environmental policy in Catalonia
The Catalan Water Agency (ACA) has developed a first approach of the economic assessment of
the Water District of Internal Basins of Catalonia (WDIBC) focussing in a detailed study of the
industrial and urban water uses and in a general way the study of the recreative uses. Farming
and energetic uses have been delayed until further development. In spite of this, the ACA is
assessing an amount of water corresponding to 63% of total consumed in the CIC that
represents 96% of the total Gross Added Value generated in the River Basin District. To
complete the evaluation, the ACA has divided the WDIBC in observation systems following the
characterization study developed by them previously (Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005d). The
ACA has also accomplished a detailed list containing all the agents and the tasks or services
given by them.
1. Institutional Map of water services in Catalonia.
There are different agents which contribute to value water resources. These agents can
interchange services per economic benefits. The relationship between all of them is summarized
.
in
Chain 1
(Direct)
Chain 2 (Public)
Chain 3
(Regional/private)
Chain 4
(Local/private)
Chain 5
(Complete)
Levies
Financial
resources
ACA
PUBLIC
COMPANIES
LOCAL
WATER
ENTITIES
PRIVAT
COMPANIES
USERS
Gross water resources
Treated or transported water resources
Domiciliary service
Tariff
Figure 5.5.18. Value chains and economic financial flux of Catalan water services synopsis.
Source: Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005d
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2. Cost recovery assessment
In order to assess the level of cost recovery, the study done by the ACA classifies managing
functions in
(in high or low level 1 ),
,
and
. These functions are performed for different agents (private or public)
and the same agent is able to manage different functions. The ACA has all the managing
services apart from irrigation.
The ACA’s method used to recover water services costs has some differences if compared with
the one used in other river basin administrations (RBA). In the first place, while other promote
the investments using transferred funds and having zero costs for public administration, the
ACA promotes the investment using the money obtained from the levies (which suppose 96%
of the total income) and, when this is not enough, it looks for external funding and assumes the
interest costs. In addition, the ACA has to plan the tariff of the services in order to be able to
recover not only the present costs of the services, but also the future ones.
The costs of the ACA can be classified in two
groups: The first one includes all the
From the total costs of the CWA, 86% came from
Environmental Corrected Costs and the rest (14%)
demand service costs to guarantee the
from Financial Costs. The costs of the special service
supply of water. This group is the one called
is not charged to users. As an
of
and includes
by the WFD
example, the 15% of the total costs of the regulation
amortizations, monetary transferences from
works can be not charged to the users by the CWA.
The cost recovered by tariffs in 2003 was 69%, if
public
administration,
irrecoverable
subventions are added; the total recovery was 89%.
prevision, exploitation costs, etc. The
The rest, 11%, was financed by an external
second group are the
indebtedness.
. In the Spanish chapter we
talked about two ways to obtain the
environmental costs. In this case, the costs are obtained from the estimation of the total
expenses of the restoration and reduction of the impacts induced by actions from the ACA.
Other supply agents are divided in two groups, depending on the kind of supply they provide
(in high or low level). The agents, which operate in high level, manage 97% of the total
provision of water in high level; the rest is provided by the ACA. At this level, tariffs are
developed by the agents but have to be supported by the Catalan Pricing Commission. If
subventions are not taken into account, the cost recovery of
this portion of the sector is around 99%, if they are, the
income accounts for 102% of the costs.
URBAN
24%
IRRIGAT
50%
INDUST
26%
Regarding to groundwater management, the ACA has not
accomplished the cost recovery assessment but has done the
costs assessment. Due to the fact that the only available
costs are the given by the extraction works the only cost
assessed are these. The conclusion was that 45 Million € can
be charged with the groundwater costs distributed in the way
showed in
The agents in charge of the
managing of this resources are usually private owners.
Figure 5.5.19. Origin of the
Groundwater costs.
Source: Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua,
2005d
1
High level refers to the bulk water supply served by big infrastructures, whereas the low level refers to distribution
networks serving endusers
2
The Environmental Corrected Costs only includes the real costs of restoring the impact generated by actions proposed
by CWA. In spite of this CWA has developed another study of the prevision of the cost in the period 2005-2014 to
perform the WFD.
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The water supply in the low level recovers the investment and cost through tariffs, applying
consumption block tariffs, and subventions and seems to be a good method, because the cost
recovery in this case is 100%. Despite this, subventions are unknown since several town
councils have not registered them.
Municipalities provide wastewater treatment service. Its costs have been calculated from the
costs per person and multiplying this by the population. The results shows that from 76 million
€ of the costs, the recovery are 19 million, 25%. The report of the ACA note that there is a low
level of investment in these services.
Irrigation water supply is given by the Irrigators Community. In February 2005, the report
assessing this recover in not complete.
The environmental costs
are divided in two groups:
The
fist
one,
the
Environmental
Corrected
Costs, which have been
explained in the paragraph
referring to the ACA.
Secondly, the forecast costs
for the period 2005-2014.
Both environmental costs are
aggregated in the ACA study.
For the rest of the agents that
offer this kind of services a
more complete study will be
developed.
400
350
300
250
DEFICIT
200
INCOME
150
100
50
0
CW A ( all Othe r A ge nts
s e rv ic e s )
Supply
Other Ir rigatio nA mbient
pr otec tion
W a s te
w ater
Figure 5.5.20. Recovery level of the different managing functions.
Source: Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua, 2005d
In the report elaborated by
the ACA the opportunity cost
of the resource is not accomplished. Despite this there is a proposal of doing a study of this
costs using a model developed by the Technical University of Valencia.
3. Economic characterization of the water uses: trends
Looking at some socioeconomic indicators, we can see the trends in the Catalan economy
related to water consumption.
Services sector has the highest contribution to the Gross Agregated Value (GAV) (64%) in the
three provinces of the WDIBC and is the sector with the highest growth in the last years.
Industry represents 27% of the total and agriculture, farming and fishery only 1%. Regarding
the employment, Services sector employs 63% of the active population while industry does
26% and agriculture 2%.
For urban services, the average consumption of water per inhabitant of the WDIBC is 455 l/day.
75 % corresponds to domestic uses and 25% to other uses (hotels, , eucation, etc.). The ACA
has described four possible scenarios of population growth in order to describe how population
could evolve until 2010 and 2015.
The prevision shows an increment of the urban water consumption from 500 Hm3 (present) to
540 Hm3 in 2015 with a medium-low growth and to 570 Hm3 if the pattern is medium-high. An
improvement in the distribution efficiency would allow the supply of the same consumptions but
with a smaller resources extraction.
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Industrial activities have an average consumption of 6.6 m3 per thousand of € generated. On
the other hand, the average spill is 4.8 m3 per thousand of € generated. The ratio
consumption/spills is 72%, which meants that industry is adding 28% of the consumed
resources into his products.
Prevision for 2015 shows an increase
in the industrial consumption of water
The quality of water is also deteriorated by all users,
from 157 Hm3 in 2004 to 209 Hm3 in
especially industrial ones. Companies usually invest
2015. We could say that quantitave
in environmental protection mechanisms. The
and qualitative pressures will increase
highest investments are in plastic and cardboard
33 %.
industries with about 40% of the total investment
accomplished.
Other sectors as agricultural, energetic and leisure uses which represents 4% of GAV have not
been studied yet by Catalan Water Agency (ACA), leaving its analysis to further studies.
116
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5.5.6.
Public Participation in the WFD
The participation of the civil society in decision-making is a key issue of the Water Framework
Directive (WFD). Participation is understood as a way of offering an opportunity for the public
to be involved in the elaboration and implementation of river basin management plans. But how
does the WFD include public participation? What are the provisions of the Directive regarding
public participation and its implementation in Catalonia?
Implementing the WFD in Catalonia: Public participation
Activities to support the implementation of the Water Framework Directive are under way in
both Member States and in Candidates for accession to the European Union (EC, 2003b). In
Spain, both at the national and river basin level some works are being done to establish a new
framework for water management according to the requirements of the Water Framework
Directive (WFD).
In the Internal River basins of Catalonia (CIC), an agreement of the Catalan government of
December 2003, in its chapter on Water Policy and Management included the compromise of
the competent authorities to implement the Water Framework directive and elaborate a
National plan of Water Management. This compromise was later developed in a working
agreement between the Catalan Water Agency (the competent authority in water management
in Catalonia) and the Foundation for a New Water Culture in order to establish the criteria for
an alternative water management framework in the CIC according to the requirements of the
New Water Culture and the WFD. One of the conclusions of the first phase of this study was
that the main measures identified in it included complex management instruments that will
require the active involvement of a plurality of social agents. And that in order to meet the
objectives of the new water management scenario, the Catalan Water Agency would need to
develop a participatory process to improve the implementation of the measures and plans (Prat
& Estevan, 2004).
The challenge of designing a strategy for public participation
In order to meet the requirements of the Water Framework Directive, the Catalan Water
Agency (ACA) has elaborated a working document on “Actions and measures needed fort he
implementation of the WFD” which included all the steps to be taken in the implementation
process. Along 2003 and 2004, the ACA has elaborated several technical documents in order to
identify the water bodies and characterise the river basin district in terms of pressures and
impacts. More recently, the ACA has also created a Technical Commission, integrated by all the
different technical departments of the Agency that has assumed the role of leading and
coordinating the implementation works of the WFD in Catalonia.
However, the implementation of the WFD still has many challenges ahead. According to the
calendar of the Directive, in 2006 the planning works for establishing programmes of measures
and outline of river basin managements plans should start. As well as further gap
characterisation for those bodies identified by gap analysis as being at risk, in order to optimise
the monitoring programme and the programme of measures. For public participation and
consultation about the river basin management plan (RBMP) this will require to start making
available for comment to the public a timetable and work programme for the production of the
RBMP, and give access to the public to all the documents that are being used in each step of
the process.
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Although the technical documents are already being elaborated, the ACA has not yet started to
include public participation in the implementation tasks. In this sense, one of the biggest
challenges in the short term will be to develop a strategy for public participation that is
designed according to the political, organisational, cultural and physical context of the Internal
river Basins of Catalonia.
118
Case Study 13
Ы¾´·½ ﮬ·½·°¿¬·±² ¿²¼ ͱ½·¿´ Ô»¿®²·²¹ ·² 窻® Þ¿-·²
°´¿²²·²¹ ¿²¼ ³¿²¿¹»³»²¬
Ôß ÓËÙß Î×ÊÛÎ ÞßÍ×Ò øÝßÌßÔÑÒ×ß÷
David Tΰbara (jdtabara@terra.es) and Wolf von Igel (wolf.von.igel@upc.edu)
ݱ²¬»¨¬
The Muga River Basin lays in the North-East of the Iberian Peninsula, near the
border with France. Seasonal variation of both supply and demand of water
resources is high due to its peculiar Mediterranean location and intense tourist
development and intensive agriculture. This case study explores to which extent
recent institutional developments have or can incorporate forms of public
participation (PP) for the improvement of the environmental and sustainability
standards in tune with the Water Framework Directive (WFD).
Ó«¹¿ ®·ª»® ¾¿-·²
Census Population: 84,000
Flowing Population:
172,000
Area: 854 km2
Situation: Catalonia
Interests: ͱ½·¿´
´»¿®²·²¹
Ü»-½®·°¬·±² ¿²¼ ݱ²-¬®¿·²
From a historical perspective, and in a simplified guise, three main periods can be distinguished both in
Catalonia and in the Muga river basin with regard to the evolution of public involvement and the institutional
developments affecting water resource and quality management since the second half of the XX century. These
are:
i.) ̸» °®»ó¼»³±½®¿¬·½ »®¿ô °®»ª·±«- ¬± ïçéë: Until the mid 1970s and because of the Franco dictatorship era, participation
initiatives were scarce, and when existing at all, largely controlled by the bureaucratic state apparatuses. Therefore,
'participation' tended to take place within a number of organizations (for example irrigation communities) created and/or
controlled by the Franco regime.
ii.) Ú®±³ ïçéë ¬± ´¿¬» ïççð-: From 1975 onwards, three important institutional changes and developments would lead water
policy in Spain; the emergence of a quasi-federal state, the approval of the Water Law of 1985, and the incorporation of
Spain in the EU in 1986. In the Muga river basin, in this period one can observe an intensification of environmental and
resource problems, accompanied by a much large social echo, mainly through the small but very active local media. The
growing degradation of the basin spurred conflict between municipalities regarding responsibilities in the pollution of certain
parts of the river. Public involvement and participation in water management, and more broadly in environmental issues,
organizations such as the irrigation communities, and the Commission for Reservoir Routing in Boadella would continue with
their normal activities, without much change in respect to the former period. Other forms of participation mostly related to
environmental conflicts and demands, however, gained more salience.
iii.) Ô¿¬» ²·²»¬·»- «²¬·´ ¬¸» °®»-»²¬: participatory experiences in the study area tended to become more embedded within a
context of social concern for the environment in a broader sense, which embraced several issues related with land use
planning. Increasingly, this interest was to be expressed through the concept and flag of sustainability, and, in more practical
terms, through the creation of Local Agendas 21, municipal environmental audits, and the like. The two relevant aspects for
our case study are, on the one hand, that all these new instruments entailed participation as one of their fundamental
features. On the other, they were aimed to deal with a large number of complex issues at the same time in a more integrated
and interrelated manner than had ever been tried before.
ß½¬·±²- ¿²¼ λ-«´¬The key interest issues fulfilled in the area were:
Important development of information systems to monitor quality and quantity of RB water resources and system.
A PIA procedure involving over 40 people has been carried out in order to:
- Explore stakeholders’ framings RB problems and possible policy options with regard RBPM
- Assess past and current PP in RBPM in the light of WFD.
- Create a process of mutual learning between stakeholders and researchers.
- Increase awareness of the potential and pitfalls of PP within the WFD at the local level.
- Help and enhance communication between relevant stakeholders on the above issues.
The main results are:
Increasing recognition that PP water RBPM needs to be linked to spatial and land use planning.
Water management institutions were highly permeable to outside advise and knowledge at the early stages of
the democratic transition, and participation was important in devising new water quality indicators.
However, now, expert information systems, such as water quality indicators are not sufficiently known or ‘socialized’
by local stakeholders.
Lack of adequate channels for public participation led to greater role given to informal and non-conventional
forms of participation.
Important and increasing role of local mass media (TV).
At RB, ‘participation’ mainly focused on a few traditional organizations and on tourism, urban and agriculture
water users. Crucial decisions were still taken elsewhere.
No additional resources have been provided so far by formal and governmental institutions to develop and
enhance PP at RB scale.
Ô»--±²- Ô»¿®²»¼
Social learning perspective at river basin scale might show some limitations in providing a satisfactory answer in
identifying the needs or potential for public as difficult questions of social and political nature have their roots at
transnational scale
Local and river basin participation alone remains almost meaningless if it does not find its ways to become
embedded in the power centres and multi -level governance domains were most relevant natural resource
decisions take place.
Social learning and public participation are both source of institutional change and a result of it. In the case of
the Muga river basin, it appears that the existing institutions have not been capable to meet the increasing
complex confluence of interest and demands, some of which, derive from economic globalization forces.
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5.5.7.
Conclusions
Towards the implementation of the WFD in the CIC
(Internal Basins of Catalonia)
The tasks required by the implementation of the WFD in the Internal Basins of Catalonia have been
all fulfilled by the responsible authority corresponding to the Catalan Water Agency (Agencia Catalana
de l’Aigua) with only minor delays in time.
Implementation of the WFD in the WDIBC has so far consisted in the definition of water bodies,
characterization of water bodies, register of protected areas and the analysis of pressures and
impacts leading to an evaluation of the risk not to achieve the environmental objectives set by the
WFD by 2015. The main output is the IMPRESS document which contains valuable information and is
a good effort to comply with the requirements of the European regulation.
It appears though, that the diverse types of water bodies have not been analyzed with an equivalent
depth, caused by the different background and experience of the institution on their analysis.
Besides, little mention is made to any analysis of the interactions between the diverse types of water
bodies (river, lakes, wetland, groundwater, coastal waters, etc).
In the IMPRESS too often subjective criteria and/or methods that are not even referenced have been
applied to evaluations without even making this explicit. This lacking methodological rigor may harm
the transparency towards the public, which to the knowledge of the authors, has neither been
involved in the setting up of this work in any form.
In the Water District of Internal Basins of Catalonia the IMPRESS reveals that 247 river
water bodies have been identified (plus 13 which are reservoirs or HMWB), 1 lake, and 64
wetlands. Currently, 48 % of river water bodies do not achieve good ecological status, and
only 17% of river water bodies achieve good status. Finally, 39% of river water bodies in the
WDIBC are at high risk of not achieving the goals caused by hydromorphologic degradation, riverside
forest overexploitation, diffuse contamination, low biological in medium and lowlands main rivers, and
concentration of priority and dangerous substances.
The IMPRESS identifies and delimitates 39 groundwater bodies, all of which are protected for
drinking water supply. The analysis of pressures and impacts nevertheless, estimates that 25 of
them (64%) are at risk of not achieving the objectives of the WFD by 2015. The main
problems are contamination by nitrates from agricultural origin and seawater intrusion.
In the Water District of Internal Basins of Catalonia the evaluation of coastal water bodies
at risk of not achieving good status by 2015 reveals that 15 water bodies are at medium risk, and 2
water bodies at high risk, from a total of 32 coastal water bodies identified.
For the economic assessment in WDIBC, only the 63% of the total volume consumed has been
analysed at the moment. The agricultural and energetic uses has not been assessed yet.
Water resources are distributed by more than one way from high level dams or sources to final
users. Distribution and management companies of this resource can be private or public despite
water in considered a public good.
Water prices in Catalonia allows to recover a high percentage of the costs for urban and industrial
uses of water supply but is not so efficient with costs of wastewater treatment. While ACA recovered
69% of 350 million € in 2003, and 99-100 % by other entities of water distribution -depending on
the level of the supply-, the wastewater treatment recovered only 25%.
According to the water consumption forecasting in 2015, based on population and economy growth
shows that urban uses could consume until 14% more (quantitatively) and industrial uses could do it
33% more (quantitatively or qualitatively).
In order to meet the requirements of the WFD, the ACA has elaborated a working document on
“
” and has also created a
Technical Commission, to coordinate the implementation works of the WFD in Catalonia. However,
there are still has many challenges ahead, related to Public Participation like the availability to base
information, and active involvement.
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6. Lessons Learned and Conclusions
Lessons Learned & Conclusions: Spanish Context
Socio-economic aspects of water uses in Spain
Nowadays, around 80% of water supply in Spain comes from surface water, 15-20% from groundwater
and rest (2%) from desalination.
Water consumption patterns of economic activities in Spain are not proportional to their
contribution neither to the economic output nor the employment they generate. The agricultural
sector is the biggest water consumer (68%) although it only contributes with 3-4% to the total GNP.
Moreover, these activities are not coherent with the climatic features. The dry summer season
coincides with peak water demand for irrigation of agriculture and urban water supply,
specially for uses in tourism activities.
Tourism and urban development located mainly along the coastline has steadily increased in the past
decades often implying an excessive exploitation of coastal aquifers causing saltwater intrusion.
Spanish regulative frame: property and use rights on water
The 1985 Water Act had had a very innovative approach and introduced important changes on the
pre-existing water use and property regime by declaring all waters as public domain, though changes
in property and use rights take place a very long term.
The present challenge of the Spanish regulative framework is to develop the necessary regulations
for a correct implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive.
Administrative and institutional Spanish water regime
There have been some attempts to introduce more integrated approaches to water regime. The
main future challenges of the water regime will be to achieve EU standards and integrate
territorial and social interests in the policy process.
After the derogation of the National Hydrological Plan in 2004, policy events pose uncertainty on
the real extent of integration of the principles and proposals of the New Water Culture, due to some
other plans as National Irrigation Plan (PNR) has not been adapted accordingly being still very
much earmarked by the old paradigm of hydraulic structuralism and supply-oriented policies.
The institutional context of water management in Spain, has been historically complex and with low
co-ordination level between diferent scales (national, regional, local): River Basin Authorities
(RBA) appeared the first part of 20th century need a strong technical capacity (under a
multidisciplinary perspective) and transparency; Water Users communities and particularly,
Irrigators Communities, should be reconverted to more efficient organisations for the use of water
resources.
The Programa AGUA (new PHN), largely relies on the desalination technology, which still remains in
the realm of ‘Increased Supply’.
Towards the implementation of WFD in Spain
Late start-up in the set-up of guiding documents and the tasks required by the WFD (characterization
of water bodies, pressures and impacts, and register of protected areas) has negatively affected the
availability and quality of data (uncertainties are not specified), lack of transparency regarding
methodologies (thresholds) and lack of consideration of interactions between water body categories.
Despite a long history (over 100 years) of Public Participation explicitly in water management at River
Basin scale there has been a low consideration of the inputs that it can provide in the “technichal”
phase of policy, and plan preparation.
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Lessons Learned & Conclusions: Internal Basins of Catalonia
Socio-economic, administrative and institutional frame: Internal River
Basins of Catalonia (CIC)
The pattern of water use in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia as opposed to the Ebro river
basin and the rest of Spain, is characterized by a large (65%) urban water demand (domestic and
industrial) and a smaller (35%) demand for irrigation and animal husbandry.
Tourism is one of the most important economic sectors in Catalonia, mainly concentrated near the
coastline, were are concentrated 92% of tourists in catalan region. In summertime the population
doubles due to tourism affluence coinciding with the dry season.
In the Internal River Basins of Catalonia an average of 79% of local irrigation projects are based
on groundwater resources while big irrigation areas are supplied with surface water (75%).
The Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua, ACA (Catalan Water Agency) is the River Basin Authority with
competence in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia (WDIBC) in surface-, ground- and coastal
waters.
Urban water management: Metropolitan Region of Barcelona (MRB)
Domestic water consumption is the most important use within the Metropolitan Region of
Barcelona corresponding to 67% of the total water consumed in this area, which is in contrast to
the total of Catalonia where domestic water uses are only 22%.
The objective of the water management in Catalonia has been traditionally to guarantee the
availability of water resources for human, agricultural and industrial uses, in order to cover a growing
shortage with new water sources focussing water policies on augmenting the water supply more
than on managing the water demand.
The measures based in the water demand control are very poor in objectives and inversions.
However, some water demand strategies as water pricing policies introducing block-pricing has
been implemented in the last.
Although programs to use low-quality groundwater and rainwater harvesting for public uses
have been implemented, the proportion of potable water resources is still the main source of public
water uses in the MRB.
Some social, cultural and demographic changes such as the level of income, the housing
typology,the number of members per household, the demographic structure of the households and
some new urban lifestyles based on more water-spending behaviours, which are more complex to
analyse and to control, could stimulate the water demand in a way not considered in the
scenarios presented.
Towards the implementation of the WFD in the CIC (Internal Basins of
Catalonia)
The tasks required by the implementation of the WFD in the Internal Basins of Catalonia have been
all fulfilled by the responsible authority corresponding to the Catalan Water Agency (Agencia
Catalana de l’Aigua) with only minor delays in time.
In the Water District of Internal Basins of Catalonia the IMPRESS reveals that 247 river
water bodies have been identified (plus 13 which are reservoirs or HMWB), 1 lake, and 64
wetlands. Currently, 48 % of river water bodies do not achieve good ecological status, and
39% are at high risk of not achieving the goals caused by hydromorphologic degradation, riverside
forest overexploitation, diffuse contamination, low biological in medium and lowlands main rivers, and
concentration of priority and dangerous substances.
The analysis of pressures and impacts, estimates that 64% of groundwater bodies are at risk of
not achieving the objectives of the WFD by 2015. The main problems are contamination by
nitrates from agricultural origin and seawater intrusion.
The evaluation of coastal water bodies at risk of not achieving good status by 2015 reveals that
15 water bodies are at medium risk, and 2 water bodies at high risk, from a total of 32 coastal
water bodies identified.
Water prices in Catalonia allows to recover a high percentage of the costs for urban and industrial
uses of water supply (70-90%) but is not so efficient with costs of wastewater treatment (25%).
There are still many challenges ahead, related to Public Participation like the availability to base
information, and active involvement.
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WEB SITES
Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005
http://www.gencat.net/aca
Ajuntament de Barcelona. Parcs i Jardins, (2005)
http://www.clabsa.es/CAT/AiguesSubterranies_Freatic.asp
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National Aeronautics ans Space Administration (NASA).
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RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands, (2005).
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FIGURES
Figure 4.1.1. Biomes of Mediterranean countries.
Figure 4.1.2. Urban ligths in Mediterranean basin by night.
Figure 4.2.1. Map of rainfall pattern in Spain.
Figure 4.3.2. Uses of water per sector in Spain
Figure 4.3.3. Sources of water for total water uses in Spain.
Figure 4.3.4. Percentage of active population employed in agriculture per provinces (1999)
Figure 4.3.5. Andalusian tomato exportation, per provinces (2002)
Figure 4.3.6. Andalusian virtual water trade out of Spanish tomato market (2002)
Figure 4.3.7. Tourism in Lanzarote after the intro of the desalination technology
Figure 4.3.8. Evolution of Lanzarote’s water production
Figure 4.5.1. Spanish River Basin Districts
Figure 4.5.2. General Assembly of the Segarra-Garrigues Irrigators Community (Tΰrrega, Spain)
Figure 4.5.3. Desalination metabolism
Figure 4.5.4. Production capacity of different desalination processes in the Mediterranean region.
Figure 4.5.5. Decreasing energy consumption to desalinate water
Figura 4.6.1. Jucar Pilot River Basin
Figure 4.6.2. Ephemeral water course Rambla de la Castellana
Figure 4.6.3. Perimeter of the water surface in the Pego-Oliva marsh
Figure 4.6.4. Estany de Cullera (coastal lake)
Figure 5.1.1. Population distribution in Catalonia, Spain (2002)
Figure 5.1.2. Rainfall annual average (in mm/year) in Catalonia
Figure 5.2.1. Distribution of water uses per sector in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia
Figure 5.2.2. Distribution of irrigated areas regarding the type of crops in Catalonia
Figure 5.3.1. Description of the services offered by the Hydraulic Administration of Internal
Basin of Catalonia,
(ACA), (Catalan Water Agency).
Figure 5.4.1. Extension of the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona
Figure 5.4.2. Main characteristics of the water supply system to the MRB
Figure 5.4.3. Location of the planned desalination plant in the Delta of the Llobregat river with a capacity
of 60 Mm3/year
Figure 5.4.4. Enlargement of the Tordera desalination plant to a total capacity of 20 Mm3/year (increase
of 10 Mm3/year)
Figure 5.4.5. Water use per sectors in Catalonia and the Metropolitan Region
Figure 5.4.6. Average prices for the domestic water consumption for different levels of consumption in
the provinces of Catalonia (water taxes included)
Figure 5.4.7. Ads in the newspapers during the drought of 2002 to raise the public awareness regarding
water consumption
Figure 5.4.8. Sources of water for public uses in Barcelona (left) and photo of a sign making aware of
irrigation with recycled water (right).
Figure 5.4.9. Distribution of water consumption for domestic uses in high-density housing, 2004.
Figure 5.4.10. Distribution of water consumption for domestic uses in low-density housing, 2004.
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Figure 5.4.11. Geographical distribution of the population and the water demand for domestic uses
Figure 5.4.12. Distribution of the urban water use in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia
Figure 5.4.13. Future water demand in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia
Figure 5.5.1. Delimitation of the DIBC with continental and coastal waters associated. The systems
referred are included in the Hydrological Plan
Figure 5.5.2. River sub-types in the Water District of Internal Basin of Catalonia (WDIBC)
Figure 5.5.3. Performance of river water bodies in Water District of Internal Basin of Catalonia (WDIBC)
Source: Agθncia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA), 2005.
Figure 5.5.4. Stations of reference selected to fulfil reference conditions or to shape the monitoring
network of ACA in WDIBC.
Figure 5.5.5. Proposal of Heavily Modified Water Bodies (HMWB) in the WDIBC.
Figure 5.5.6. Water bodies included in the Register of Protected Areas for water supply (WDIBC).
Figure 5.5.7. Protected areas for aquatic species with economic interest (WDIBC).
Figure 5.5.8. Risk of not achieving WFD goals regarding pressures analysis in WDIBC.
Figure 5.5.9. Ecological Status of river water bodies in the WDIBC (2003).
Figure 5.5.10. Risk of not achieving the objectives of the WFD for river water bodies in WDIBC following
the impact analysis.
Figure 5.5.11. Risk of not achieving the environmental goals of the WFD in the river water bodies of
WDIBC.
Figure 5.5.12. Groundwater bodies delimited in the Water District of the Internal Basins of Catalonia.
Figure 5.5.13. Schematic figure of the methodology applied to evaluate the risk of not achieving the
environmental objectives (2015) for the groundwater bodies.
Figure 5.5.14. Groundwater bodies in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia at risk of not achieving the
environmental objectives by 2015.
Figure 5.5.15. Delimitation and characterization of coastal water bodies in the CIC.
Figure 5.5.16. Qualitative assessment of IMPRESS.
Figure 5.5.17. Characterization of coastal water bodies at risk.
Figure 5.5.18. Value chains and economic financial flux of Catalan water services synopsis.
Figure 5.5.19. Origin of the Groundwater costs.
Figure 5.5.20. Recovery level of the different managing functions.
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TABLES
Table 4.1.1. Summary of some Key sustainability issues in different subregions of the Mediterranean
Table 4.3.1. Water uses per sector and sources in Spain
Table 4.4.1. Main phases in the Spanish water regulative framework (from 1866 to 2000)
Table 4.5.1. Main phases of Spanish water regime (from 1866 to 2000)
Table 4.5.2. Competences and responsabilities for different water related issues.
Table 4.6.1. Timetable of actions foreseen in the implementation of the WFD
Table 4.6.2. Calendar of the main economic tasks in the implementation of the WFD
Table 4.6.3. Levies applied to different water uses in the Spain
Table 4.6.4. Main requirements of the WFD regarding public participation
Table 4.6.5. The shift from state led to mercantilisation in Spain
Table 4.6.6. Strenghts and weaknesses of Public Participation (PP) in River Basin Management in Spain
Table 5.1.1. Main Rivers of the Ebro River Basin
Table 5.1.2. Main rivers of the Internal River Basins of Catalonia
Table 5.2.1. Current water demand in the Internal River Basins of Catalonia
Table 5.2.2. Destiny of foreign tourism in Catalonia (2002-2003)
Table 5.4.1. Distribution and density of population in Catalonia (2001)
Table 5.4.2. Water resources in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona (Mm3/year)
Table 5.4.3. Planned project to increase the water availability for the MRB
Table 5.4.4. Structure of the water tax in Catalonia
Table 5.4.5. Structure of the water tax implemented in April 2005
Table 5.4.6. Increase in the future water demand (2025) with respect to water demand in 2002 for the
Internal River Basins of Catalonia
Table 5.5.0. Criteria used for definition of water bodies in the river network of the WDIBC
Table 5.5.1. Criteria to establish reference conditions for river water bodies
Table 5.5.2. Pressure types considered under the pressures and impacts analysis on rivers.
Table 5.5.3. Numerical range per category of risk
Table 5.5.4. Significant pressures over the chemical and quantitative status of groundwater bodies
considered in the IMPRESS study by the Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua
Table 5.5.5. Pressures over the coastal water bodies considered.
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BOXES
Box 4.4.1. Spanish 29/1985 Water Act
Box 4.4.2. Common and private uses in public waters regarding Water Act
Box 4.4.3. Implications on groundwater management of the 29/85 Water Act
Box 4.4.4. Main innovative issues of the 46/99 Act
Box 4.4.5. Coastal Act in Spain
Box 4.4.6. Critics to the transposition process of the WFD into Spanish law
Box 4.5.1. Institutional Frame of coastal water management: a fragmented approach
Box 4.5.2. River Basin Authorities in Spain
Box 4.5.3. Spanish Irrigators Communities
Box 4.5.4. Actions of the Spanish
on the Mediterranean coast.
Box 4.5.5. National Irrigation Plan (PNR) 2002
Box 4.6.1. Criteria established by CEDEX to characterise Artificial and Heavily Modified Water Bodies in
Spain
Box 4.6.2. Public Participation in Spain beyond WFD, some key issues.
CASE STUDIES
Case Study 1. Virtual water exportations in intensive irrigated agricultural arid regions: Granada
and Almeria (Andalusian region)
Case Study 2. Desalinated water for tourist services: Lanzarote (Canary Islands)
Case Study 3. The transformation of the traditional Huerta of Mula into an innovative and
efficient irrigation system: Mula (Murcia)
Case Study 4. The desalination technology: brief guided tour
Case Study 5. Gender and social movements. A look at the participation of the women in the
Platform for the Defence of the River Ebro: Terres de l’Ebre (south of Catalonia)
Case Study 6. Management of groundwater with involvement of users through user
communities. Llobregat Delta (Metropolitan Region of Barcelona)
Case Study 7. Urban water conservation campaing in a mediterranean region. “Catalonia Saves
Water”
Case Study 8. Efficient urban water management according a Local Agenda 21 process in a high
water consuming town. Sant Cugat del Vallθs (Metropolitan Region of Barcelona)
Case Study 9. Urban sprawl and domestic water consumption relationships. The case of the
Metropolitan Region of Barcelona
Case Study 10. Integrated environmental assessment in Mediterranean River Basins:
sustainability indicators monitoring according WFD and beyond. La Tordera River Basin
(Catalonia)
Case Study 11. Sustainable management, on a local scale, of the alluvial aquifer of the river
Tordera, through the reuse of wastewater. Tordera (Maresme)
Case Study 12. Legal implications of overexploitation of Groundwater Resources. CarmeCapellades Aquifer (Catalonia)
Case Study 13. Public Participation and Social Learning in River Basin Planning and
Management. La Muga River Basin (Catalonia)
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ACRONYMS
EWFD or WFD: European Water Framework Directive
WDIBC (or CIC): Water District of Internal Basins of Catalonia
ACA: Catalan Water Agency
HMWB: Heavily Modified Water Bodies
AW: Artificial Waters
IMPRESS: Report demanded by the WFD to define pressures and impacts in water bodies
133