BEST OF TWO WORLDS: A STUDY OF HEAVY VEHICLE ACCESS IN JAPAN
AND AUSTRALIA
Project leader on a number of
national research projects on
heavy vehicle performance,
access management, and route
assessment.
Team leader of ARRB’s
Freight and Heavy Vehicle
team.
MATT ELISCHER
ARRB Group Ltd.
Australia
Consulting
Engineer
responsible for the design
and development of the
Heavy Vehicle Permission
and Enforcement System.
Deputy Director at CTI
Engineering Co., Ltd.
HIDEYUKI WAKISHIMA
CTI Engineering Co., Ltd.
Japan
Abstract
Japan and Australia are two very different countries when it comes to their road networks.
Although Japan is many times smaller than Australia it has roughly 1.2 million km of road
network compared to Australia’s 800,000 km. This equates to a road density of
approximately 3,100 m/km2 of land for Japan, and a mere 100 m/km2 of land for Australia.
This reflects the nature of each country, Japan’s large population and high density urban areas
requires careful management of the freight network to allow efficient movement within the
space-constrained road network. Australia, on the other hand, has a small population widely
distributed in centres over vast distances.
Although the nature of the freight task is different, both countries require detailed knowledge
and effective access to the networks to allow industry to efficiently operate. Both Japan and
Australia have developed particular strengths as their access frameworks have matured
through differing influences. This paper aims to describe these strengths and their benefits.
Keywords: road network, database system, Performance Based Standards, ITS, heavy
vehicle access
Best of two worlds: A study of heavy vehicle access in Japan and Australia
ELISCHER & WAKISHIMA
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1. Introduction
Countries are facing many challenges with their freight and road networks. Economic
expansion leading to increasing freight volumes and increased competition are leading the
drive to improving the efficiency of transport. Possible solutions to this, such as allowing
larger and heavier vehicles, and improvement capacity of the road network have been
promoted, however, there is a critical issue around the large costs involved in the reform of
previously constructed road infrastructure.
For this reason, high-level studies for more efficient and safe heavy vehicle traffic have been
implemented, and this paper will compare and analyse the two working cases of Australia and
Japan.
2. The Method of the Study
2.1 Focus of the Study
It is supposed that in order to allow heavy vehicle run safely and efficiently on the road
network, a balance of three factors is necessary. The road (including structures): the
standards, capacity, and geometry; the vehicles: their standards and performance; and the
driver: techniques and behaviour.
If any of these factors are lacking, an unbalance will exist and can increase the possibility of
accidents and undesirable levels of deterioration or destruction of road infrastructure.
Therefore, the commonalities, differences and background of the cases of Japan and Australia
will be examined.
2.2 Comparison of Infrastructure
A high-level comparison of road and infrastructure standards and operational transport needs
and conditions, including land area, population density, varied classes of roads, and road
extensions was undertaken (refer Section 3).
2.3 Comparison of Regulation and Access
On the basis of a difference of road architectures between both countries, the actual conditions
of regulated operation of heavy vehicles is categorized by size and compared (refer Section 4).
2.4 Initiatives for Improving Access
In conjunction with the comparisons above, current heavy vehicle network access initiatives
will be examined with a view on the improvement of the efficiency of the transportation task
(refer Section 5).
3.
Comparison of Infrastructure
3.1 Comparison of Land Area and Road Networking
The land area of Australia is 7,692,000 km² compared to 378,000 km² for Japan, whereas the
total length of road network in Australia is 813,000 km compared to 1,208,000 km for Japan.
Best of two worlds: A study of heavy vehicle access in Japan and Australia
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Australia's land area is 20 times that of Japan's, whereas, conversely Japan’s road network is
1.5 times as long as Australia (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, 2011).
Australia road infrastructure is owned and managed by each of the eight states and territories,
and the hundreds of local governments. A national highway network also exists that is
managed by individual jurisdictions. There are also a number of private organisations
operating tollways, and roads on private land (e.g. ports). Japan’s network is owned and
managed by the central and local governments. The nation’s networks of tolled expressways,
however, are owned and managed by a separate private corporation (NEXCO).
Figure 1 and Figure 2 illustrate high-level road maps of Australia and Japan respectively, and
clearly show the difference in road density, due to the large difference in population size and
distribution between the two countries.
Figure 1 - Road Map of Australia (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010)
Best of two worlds: A study of heavy vehicle access in Japan and Australia
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Figure 2 - Road Map of Japan (Vidiani, 2012)
Table 1 lists the road categorisations and lengths, which shows that both network have a
similar proportion of roads and that local/municipal roads make up the vast majority.
Table 1 - Categorised Roads and Length of Both Countries
Expressways
National roads
‘000s
km
0
8
‘000s
km
19
55
Country
Australia
Japan
%
total
0.0%
0.7%
%
total
2.3%
4.6%
State/
Prefectural
roads
‘000s
%
km
total
122 15.0%
129 10.7%
Local/
Municipal
roads
‘000s
%
km
total
672 82.7%
1016 84.0%
Total
length
(‘000s
km)
813
1208
3.2 Comparison of Infrastructure Standards
Current design standards of road infrastructure in Australia are usually based upon the
Austroads Guide to Road Design (Austroads, 2012). In Japan, design standards are based
upon "Road Architecture Regulations" issued by Japan Road Association (JRA, 2009). Table
2 shows a comparison of general access prescriptive vehicles parameters used in road design
between both countries.
Best of two worlds: A study of heavy vehicle access in Japan and Australia
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Table 2 - Comparison of Prescriptive Vehicle Parameters Used in Road Design
Category
Country
Mass (t)
Width
(m)
Height
(m)
Length
(m)
Single
rigid truck
SemiTrailer
Australia
Japan
Australia
Japan
22.5
20.0
42.5
36.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
4.3
3.8
4.3
3.8
12.5
12.0
19.0
16.5
Minimum
turning
radius (m)
12.5
12.0
15.0
12.0
Japan, generally speaking, designs for a heavy vehicle fleet with general access. Australia,
however, has a much larger range of vehicle combinations, including up to 53.5 m long ‘road
trains’ and has four distinct types of network of increasing restrictions. Road design takes
into account the largest desired vehicle type for that type of network.
3.3 Comparison of the Regulation of Vehicle Access Restrictions
Both countries have various mechanisms in place for the restriction of access of certain types
of vehicles. The rigid truck and semi-trailer combinations both enjoy full access to roads in
both countries on an ‘as-of-right’ basis. At the other end of the scale, both countries require
certain types of vehicles (e.g. Over-dimension and over-mass vehicles) to obtain permits for
access to routes, and are usually subject to other operating conditions (e.g. time restrictions).
Both countries also offer restricted networks for certain combinations. This is a small
component for Japan, for instance ‘increased mass and height” roads. In Australia, however,
there are four types of restricted network as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 - Outline of Australia’s Restricted Access Networks
These networks are restricted primarily due to the increased mass and size of the vehicles, and
the requirements of these vehicles on the network (e.g. increased bridge capacity, larger
turning circles).
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3.4 Comparison of the Access System of Heavy Vehicles
Comparing the rigid truck and semi-trailer combinations, both countries operate on the same
principal of general access. Although the prescribed maximum dimensions are slightly
different, networks in both countries provide networks with the capacity for the general
operation of these combinations. In direct response to Australia’s vast size and wide
distribution of population centres, larger vehicles capable of towing up to four trailers have
been incorporated into vehicle regulations, and accompanying networks have been defined to
allow for greater productivity for moving freight.
Both countries offer a concession on both mass and dimensional restrictions on certain routes
that meet particular capacity requirements, or where vehicles have certain components or are
of a certain combination.
4.
Comparison of the Conditions for Heavy Vehicles
4.1 Conditions in Australia
Australia freight task is forecast to double over the 20 years to 2030 (IBISWorld, 2009). This
increase is projected both through export and import volumes, as well as domestic transport.
A number of jurisdictions are currently experiencing large growth in the mining sector, which
has traditionally moved a large percentage of bulk products by road. This is especially the
case as new mines operate and expand in remote locations, often with inadequate links to
other modes of transportation.
Furthermore, a large proportion of this growth is in containerised freight. While this allows
for some standardisation of the movement and handling of freight, it also poses some
challenges for road transport, particularly around potentially unknown masses, and the
inefficient movement of containers. Another challenge for Australia is the shortage in the
number of drivers, particular skilled drivers for the larger, more productive vehicles. This is
forecast to continue and a number of programs have been implemented to encourage young
people into the industry. The cost of operation in Australia, particularly the price of fuel, has
been increasing steadily. This, in conjunction with increased competition, is leading to tighter
profit margins and a need to increase productivity.
With regard to infrastructure, many jurisdictions are generally facing decreases in overall
budget, which necessitates the need for greater benefits through better prioritisation of
maintenance and development funding for the road network.
4.2 Conditions in Japan
In Japan, the population density is high nationwide, and therefore on rural or municipal roads
there exist sections unsuitable for the operation of heavy vehicles. Conversely, some larger
heavy vehicles are able to run on the highways, whose main role is for freight transportation,
or on the specially designated roads for relaxed mass and dimensional limits.
Similar to Australia, the number of container movements, including international and
domestic, has been increasing. However, in recent years, the incidence of the rollover
accidents of vehicles carrying international marine containers is actualised on roads. Figure 4
highlights some recent incidents. Due to the number of elevated and space-constrained roads
Best of two worlds: A study of heavy vehicle access in Japan and Australia
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in Japan, particularly in urban areas, the potential consequence of these types of accidents is
substantial.
Figure 4 - Examples of Rollovers with Containers (Asahi, 2007)
Furthermore, there are many issues around road maintenance that are influenced by heavy
vehicles. Japan has recently been facing a decrease in the national budget for the
development and maintenance of the road network. Figure 5 shows a critical maintenance
issue on a bridge deck on a freight route in Japan, and highlights the need to balance access
management with freight demand.
Figure 5 - Bridge Deck Requiring Treatment
5.
Initiatives for Improving Access
Both countries have undertaken many initiatives to improve the access arrangements of heavy
vehicles. Australia’s main access challenges centre around realising the maximum capacity
and efficiency of the network to allow higher productivity freight vehicles (HPFV) to operate.
Best of two worlds: A study of heavy vehicle access in Japan and Australia
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One of Japan’s major aims is to facilitate the increased movement of containerised freight.
This section explores a number of more recent major initiatives.
5.1 Initiatives related to the Network
Australia has a large number of heavy vehicle combinations with different performance
characteristics, and as such has developed a number of restricted access networks over the
years. In 2008, the Performance Based Standards (PBS) Scheme came into effect. This
scheme aims to match the right vehicles to the right roads through standards requiring a
certain level of performance of the vehicle and the capacity of the network. There are four
levels of PBS classification (and two subclasses) for vehicles and roads as shown in Table 3.
Table 3 - Four levels of access under the PBS scheme
PBS Level
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
Example Vehicle
Rigid trucks, semi-trailer
B-Double
Double Road Train (Type I)
Triple Road Train (Type II)
Network Access by Vehicle
length (m)
Class A
Class B
≤ 20 m (General access)
≤ 26 m
≤ 30 m
≤ 36.5 m
≤ 42 m
≤ 53.5 m
≤ 60 m
As a result, the more realistic evaluation method that focuses the dynamic behaviour of the
vehicle has been established, that provides both safety and efficiency benefits. Figure 6
illustrates the national PBS network. This is classified primarily through the National
Transport Commission’s (NTC) PBS Network Classification Guidelines (NTC, 2007) and is
constantly expanding as jurisdictions and local councils continually classify routes and
provide certainty of access to industry.
Figure 6 - National PBS route network (NTC, 2012)
To date, there are hundreds of vehicles participating in the scheme. These higher productivity
freight vehicles enjoy productivity increases in the range of 15% - 100%. The number of
vehicle trips is reduced, as is congestion, fuel usage and emissions. A specific example of
increased access through PBS has been the recent announcement of a modular B-triple
Best of two worlds: A study of heavy vehicle access in Japan and Australia
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network. These vehicles have been operating for many years; however industry take-up of
these safer vehicles has been hampered by inconsistent policies on access and specifications.
Using PBS to define a range of compliant vehicles, this combination now has access to the
Type I road train network (similar to PBS Level 3).
Japan has concentrated on fully understanding and documenting the capability of its network.
A database of every road and intersection in Japan was created in 2006. This database
contains road specifications such as width, radius of curve, inside height of tunnel, loading
capacity of bridge, etc. as required to evaluate the access potential for heavy vehicles. In
addition to this ‘raw’ data, the database contains processed data and ratings on the capacity
of network elements (e.g. largest vehicle suitable for turning in an intersection). The database
is updated yearly and regularly utilised for detailed assessment of access. Figure 7 outlines the
system.
Information center
・bridge
Road
Structural
DB
①Weight
Span separated
・tunnel
Departure
place
destination
③Height
② Width
・crossing
・intersection
④turning
along the
curve
⑤crossing
Checking through
the Data
onlineBase
system
system
by online
Passable conditions
Figure 7 - Road data database system in Japan
Online functionality also exists where a particular route for a certain vehicle type can be
generated and evaluated for access suitability. This powerful tool enables very detailed route
assessments to be undertaken for the general fleet, and non-standard fleet.
5.2 Initiatives related to the Vehicle
There are a number of vehicle design innovations in Australia. ‘Smart’ converter dollies that,
depending on speed and other factors, can control the rate of articulation are in limited
operation. Vehicles with increased manoeuvrability have also been designed utilising
rotatable axle groups, such as that shown in Figure 8, which can also be fitted to longer
combinations such as B-doubles. Additionally, there have been a number of innovative
combinations appearing, particularly with the vehicle fleets servicing remote area. An
example is the “B-A-B” combination which is two B-doubles connected by a converter dolly.
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Private industry is leading the innovation for fit-for-purpose vehicles, and is enabled and
incentivised by government schemes such as PBS.
Figure 8 - Example of a PBS Vehicle with steerable trailer axle group
On the other hand, in Japan there exists no action where the public and the private sector work
together. However, some trailer manufacturers have developed and operated vehicles with
self-driven trailers. As a result of the large amount of urban freight movement in spacerestricted networks, Japan has seen many adaptations and innovations over the years to
facilitate manoeuvring and loading/unloading in tight spaces, such as gull-wing doors on rigid
trucks, shorter wheelbases and longer rear overhangs, high proportion of twin-steers to allow
more mass forward and to reduce turning circles.
5.3 Using Route Assessment methods to increase efficient and safe access
In order to improve the efficiency of transportation and the safety of heavy vehicle operation,
it is necessary to identify, upgrade or construct roads suitable for heavy vehicle travel. To
achieve this, the potential of the existing road network also needs to be re-evaluated as new
methods are developed.
For example, in Japan a database related to the road network has been created. In addition,
there is a database containing the level of ease of driving on the road using the method
outlined in Figure 9. This ease level is determined by a number of factors including the
number of lanes of the road, the geometry and shape of the road, the road environment, etc. In
Japan, this additional methodology can be factored into the route evaluation.
Best of two worlds: A study of heavy vehicle access in Japan and Australia
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Evaluated Ease of Driving Level Chart
Illustration
Content
Evaluated
the Road
Level for
Ease of
Driving as
6 Levels
Rural Area
City Area
Level
Easy
2 more lanes
Gentle curves
2 more lanes
Distinguished Bicycles
2 more lanes
Some tight curves
2 more lanes
One Shoulder
1 lane or 2 lanes
Many tight curves
2 more lanes
No Shoulder
Level
Exclusive
Most Easy
Exclusive for Automotives
Rural Area
Level
Very Easy
2 more lanes
Longer straight lines
Distinguished Pedestrians
1 lane
Continuous tight curves
Difficult
1 lane
No Shoulder
Figure 9 - How to Evaluate the Ease of Driving
5.4 ITS Technology initiatives
In Australia, a system has been recently implemented with the purpose of the increasing
transportation efficiency. Operators participating in the Intelligent Access Program (IAP) can
be allowed concessions on the mass limits of their vehicle, and potentially increased access.
IAP involves the installation of an in-vehicle unit that transmits position, and in some cases
mass data back to the service provider. This is helpful for ensuring compliance of restricted
access vehicles, and those operating under permit conditions to operate on their set routes and
at allowed masses. This framework seeks to provide infrastructure owners with greater
confidence that heavy vehicles are operating within their allowed conditions, and thus
provides flexibility for them to increase access and efficiency.
Japan has a very advanced infrastructure that supports the large range of telematics services
offered by private businesses. This and the large-scale penetration of hand-held devices, leads
to lower costs for some kinds of service. As such, Japan has seen widespread adoption by
operators of real-time state management of fleets. Additionally, navigational aids are
widespread and can provide a large range of information to drivers, as well as real-time
updates and warnings, providing both safety and efficiency benefits. It is well recognised that
utilising ITS technology is beneficial in enabling heavy vehicles to operate efficiently. The
use of software without investing capital in the construction of new road infrastructure is also
seen as a very cost-effective approach.
6.
Conclusion
Methods impacting access for heavy vehicles have been examined and compared between two
countries having vast differences in area, population and freight task. As a result of the
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comparison, it was found that a common feature between both countries is the desire to more
fully utilise already-existing road networks. The current key method for this has been through
the PBS scheme in Australia, and through the creation of detailed databases on the network in
Japan.
Both countries have a lot to offer each other, as Australia is realising the importance of
detailed and current data on the network, and Japan can envisage schemes like PBS assisting
with the increased movement of larger, heavier containers.
Monitoring in some form appears helpful in securing the road conservation and the traffic
safety. In that sense, ITS technology is beneficial for administering heavy vehicles, as can be
seen in environments, such as Europe and the U.S. where charging heavy vehicles by mass
through On-Board Devices is prevalent.
In the future, in order to face the challenges arising such as decreasing income of fuel tax and
the deterioration of roads and structure, the administrating run of large-sized vehicles
appropriately and the improving efficiency of transportation and safety of run on the road may
lead to restrain the negative impact of road infrastructures as a result.
7.
References
 Asahi newspaper article (2007), 21 February 2007
 Austroads (2012), Road Design & Guides,
https://www.onlinepublications.austroads.com.au/collections/agrd/guides, viewed 2
June 2012
 Commonwealth of Australia (2010), Map of Australia,
https://www.ga.gov.au/products/servlet/controller?event=GEOCAT_DETAILS&catno
=47987, viewed 2 June 2012
 Vidiani.com (2012) Free detailed road map of Japan, http://www.vidiani.com/?p=3694,
viewed 12 June 2012
 IBISWorld (2009) ’Meeting the 2050 Freight Challenge’, prepared for Infrastructure
Partnerships Australia,
http://www.infrastructure.org.au/Content/Meetingthe2050FreightChallenge.aspx
 Japan Road Association (JRA) (2009), “Road Architecture Regulations”, 13 May 2009
 Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIAC), Statistics Bureau (2011),
"The World Statistics 2011", Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Tokyo,
Japan
 National Transport Commission (2007), Performance based standards scheme
network classification guidelines. National Transport Commission (NTC), Melbourne,
Australia.
 National Transport Commission (2008), Performance based standards scheme, the
vehicle standards and assessment rules. National Transport Commission (NTC),
Melbourne, Australia.
 National Transport Commission (NTC) (2012), PBS Network Classification Maps,
http://www.ntc.gov.au/ViewPage.aspx?DocumentId=01928, viewed 3 June 2012
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