ACCOMMODATING EXISTING SETTL EMENTS IN LARGE SCALE
DEVELOPMENT: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SHA TIN NEW TOWN
HONG KONG
by
James Rutherford Richardson IV
B. Arch. University of Colorado (1971)
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degrees of
Master of Architecture in Advanced Studies
and
Master of City Planning
at the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
August,
1981
Signature of Authc
Department of Ur an St dies and Planning
pre
Department of Ar ite
1981
August 15,
---------
Certified by....
I
Accepted by ............
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Julian
hairman, Departmental
Accepted by ......... .............
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Gary Hack
Thesis Supervisor
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Beinart
Committee
----------' V - -r
Langley C. Keyes
Chairman, Departmental Committee
MA SSACHUSETTS INSTiTUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
NDOV 2 5 1981
LIBRARIES
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Abstract
This thesis examines several problems associated with
large-scale construction projects proposed for areas with
existing settlements.
It focuses on how local people
affect and are affected by government policies and the
resulting project development.
ACCOMMODATING EXISTING
SETTLEMENTS IN LARGE
SCALE DEVELOPMENT:
The purpose is to suggest how the development office in
Sha Tin New Town ought to design its policies for existing
villages.
Two additional international new town projects
are reviewed as examples of problems that governments
encounter. The two other projects also provide examples of
policies that the governments have instituted.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
SHA TIN NEW TOWN
HONG KONG
by James R. Richardson
Historically, many large-scale development projects
have encountered resistance from local settlers. Conflicts
between
indigenous settlers at the project site and
governments
that are creating new environments occur
because of rarcid environmental changes and uncertainty
surrounding the local settlement's future.
Many of the
immigrants arriving in the early stages of development also
experience uncertainty and perceive the same rapid changes.
The thesis makes recommendations for three villages
located in Sha Tin. The villages were chosen to illuminate
issues and problems with relocating a village in one case
and preserving a village in another.
The final case
addresses
redeveloping
a village with the villagers
retaining development rights. Recommendations will be made
for each of the villages around:
Thesis Supervisor
Gary Hack
Department of Urban
Studies and Planning,
MIT
--structuring
development
villagers.
positive
the
interactions
between
office
professionals and the local
--resolving problems with land occupancy, both by the
villagers and by nearby squatters.
--organizing the appropriate processes and institutions
level to ease each village's
village
the
at
transition in the new town development.
The thesis concludes with recommendations for
development of Sha Tin New Town in Hong Kong.
recommendations suggest how the development office
process for villages
a
participatory
structure
residents in the new town.
the
The
can
and
It is hoped that the findings of this thesis may be
useful for the Sha Tin New Town Development Office and for
practitioners seeking to improve means of working with
indigenous populations and settlements in large scale
development.
Acknowledgements
This thesis is dedicated to Penney and to Mother who
gave so much and asked for so little.
I would like to thank all the people who committed
their time to help prepare the thesis.
First, my
advisors Gary Hack, Phil Herr and Lisa Peattie who read
and reread early drafts and gave critical guidance. I
also want to thank Tom Nally and Hok Lin Leung who
provided comments and insight regarding the structure and
content.
I also want to express my gratitude to a circle of
friends and relatives who gave me moral support and
encouragement to write during the long South Dakota
My appreciation would not be complete without
winters.
acknowledging the role that Kate Hildebrand provided as
my editor in residence, constant companion and wife. Pam
Roberts aided in the early research and Terry Erickson
worked with me on the graphics. Jean Rounds did the
typing and provided patience and understanding when I
made numerous chanqes.
the
ideas,
the
responsibility
for
I
take
interpretations and the opinions expressed in the text.
I owe a debt of gratitude to the Henry Luce Foundation
for the opportunity to work in Hong Kong and to the
Government of Hong Kong for the opportunity to work in
the Sha Tin New Town development office.
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5
CHAPT1ER I__-TODUCTNIO
Background
Traditional Villages
Hong Kong Land Tenure
CHAPTER2
9
10
10
FJ___FEAMELDRK FQR-ANALYSIS
THE CASE STUDIES
FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS
Relationship between the Professionals
and the Local People
Relationship between the Local People
and the Land
Political and Institutional Relationships
14
16
17
THE NEW TOWN PROJECTS
19
Ciudad Guayana
Milton Keynes
Sha Tin New Town
RECOMMENDAT IONS
21
23
24
26
_HAPTEE_:__C.DADQUA YNA _-_ENEUELA
INTRODUCTION
The Setting
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PROFESSIONALS AND
THE LOCAL PEOPLE
Attitudes of the Professionals
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOCAL PEOPLE AND
18
19
29
30
33
34
35
THE LAND
Housing Choices
Squatter's Rights
PATTERNS OF LOCAL INFLUENCE AND INSTITUTIONS
Local Politicians
36
37
38
39
Revising the Strategy
CONCLUSION
40
41
CHAPTER 4iMILTON KEYNES NEW TOWN -ENGLAND
INTRODUCTION
The Setting
46
46
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PROFESSIONALS AND
THE LOCAL PEOPLE
Farmers' Concerns
Consultations
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOCAL PEOPLE AND
THE LAND
Development Phasing
Stony Stratford
PATTERNS OF LOCAL INFLUENCE AND INSTITUTIONS
Review Process
Community Councils
CONCLUSION
50
TDNQGKONG
H-_T.IN
CHAPTER-;
INTRODUCTION
THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
50
51
52
52
53
53
54
56
56
61
72
THE SETTING
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PROFESSIONALS AND
THE LOCAL PEOPLE
Attitudes of the Professionals
Economic Pressures
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOCAL PEOPLE AND
THE LAND
78
83
Fung Shui and Religious Beliefs
Local Land Rights
LAND TRANSFER POLICIES
Village Relocation
Development Rights Transfer
Farmers
Squatters
Village Preservation
90
92
93
94
95
97
97
99
84
88
90
PATTERNS OF LOCAL INFLUENCE AND INSTITUTIONS
Local Organization
Local Government Needs
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER-§il_ THEEEylLLAOES
INTRODUCTION
TSANG TAI UK - PRESERVATION
Interactions between the Professionals
and the Local People
Local Relationship to the Land
Local Institutional Needs
Conclusion
TIN SAM TSUEN -
REDEVELOPMENT
Interactions between the Professionals
and the Local People
Local Relationship to the Land
Local Institutional Needs
Conclusion
102
105
107
108
114
117
118
121
124
128
131
132
137
138
140
WONG UK - RELOCATION
143
Interactions between the Professionals
and the Local People
Local Relationship to the Land
Local Institutional Needs
Conclusion
SUMMARY
144
149
151
152
155
CHAPTER _7
THESIS ONCLUSION-AND-RECOMMENDATIONS
Case Comparisons
Case Study Outcomes
Participation Goals
Techniques
159
161
163
165
FOOTNOTES
167
BIBLIOGRAPHY
173
Chapter 1:
Introduction
BACKGROUND
In
the
spring of 1976 I
received a fellowship from
the Henry Luce Foundation to work and travel in Southeast
Asia.
My professional work assignment as a Luce scholar
was with the Hong Kong government in the Sha Tin New Town
Development
the
City Scene
Office.
The assignment began in the fall of
same year when I arrived
late
in the summer of
from
administrative
1977.
in Hong Kong; it concluded
My responsibilities ranged
duties and
contract supervision to
design review, site planning and large scale design.
When
cluded
project
I
arrived, the Sha
Tin professional staff in-
three engineers, two planners, an architect and a
manager.
chitect/planner;
My
official position
working
in
this
was senior ar-
role allowed
me the
freedom to observe and research several issues related to
the Sha Tin development process.
three
phases
years
of
into
a
ten
development:
design and construction.
In 1976 the project was
year time horizon
long
range
and in. all
planning, detailed
I
Traditional Villages
became interested in the future of several Chinese
located
villages
in
as a result of
the Sha Tin Valley
coordinating the Sha Tin landscape master plan consulting
Interactions
contract.
and
landscape
firm
revealed
several
between
conflicts
the
villages.
from
the
in the field
goals
of the
These problems,
land rights, village relocation and the sociofuture
economic
professionals
frequent observations
office and local
development
including
with
of
the villagers,
seemed analogous to
situations in America with which I was familiar.
Although
Hong Kong Land Tenure
belongs to Britain, the
land
land tenure system for the
Territories of Hong Kong is similar in many respects
New
to
Hong Kong is a British colony in which most
the land tenure system structured for Indian reservain the United States.
tions
villagers
dating
and
their
in
Just as traditional Chinese
Hong Kong have legal
back to the 1898
rights to their land
Treaty of Nanking between China
Britain, American Indians also have treaty rights to
reservation
lands.
In both
cases the government
has
instituted
coordinate
In Hong
the lands held
Kong
dinates
an administrative system
the New
to protect and
by the indigenous population.
Territories Administration coor-
Chinese land ownership
for the traditional vil-
lages; in America, the Bureau of Indian Affairs administers
Village Photo
land owned by Indian tribes.
Further, the Hong Kong
government has limited legal jurisdiction over traditional
village
have
areas
--
state governments
severely limited jurisdiction
in America also
over Indian reserva-
tions located within state boundaries.
These similarities were particularly meaningful to me
because
Sioux
I
had
Indian
Reservation
returning
several
in
to
worked
as an architect
tribe
and
South
Dakota
graduate
analogies
had
for the Rosebud
lived
on
for three
school at MIT.
to spark and guide
the
Rosebud
years prior to
Thus there were
my curiosity as I
worked for the Hong Kong government in Sha Tin.
Given
an
my past experiences
interest in land tenure
with American Indians and
systems, I became fascinated
with
examining
the
relationship between
and
the
traditional
government
Territories
of Hong Kong.
vestigation
of
proached
town
how
villagers
the Hong Kong
in
the New
This experience led to an in-
the Sha Tin
development office ap-
problems with the existing
villages on the new
site and how the local villagers were responding to
the government's policies.
12
Chapter 2:
Framework For Analysis
13
order
In
THE CASE STUDIES
I selected two additional
context,
a desire to select
two other projects having compar-
tension between the
able
new town projects to
My choice was motivated
several key issues.
illuminate
by
New Town in a broader
look at Sha Tin
to
government's development goals
and the resulting development pattern.
several similar
should
have
scale,
population
The projects also
dimensions including urban
goals, existing
village settlements,
distinct government policies and local land rights.
I
therefore chose to examine the new towns of Ciudad
Guayana in Venezuela and Milton Keynes in England --
both
confronted with indigenous populations to accommodate and
existing
settlements to incorporate
in the development.
In
each project the indigenous settlers had legal rights
to
their
government
land,
and in each
formulated
development the respective
policies
that
were
directed at
these settlers.
Ciudad
the
Guayana
mid-1960's
by
is a new
the
town project undertaken in
Venezuelan
government
in
an
ambitious effort to develop remote natural resources.
addition
in
to the problems
a remote area, the
with
indigenous
In
encountered by any development
Venezuelan government had to cope
settlements
and
a flood
of squatters
since the project's inception.
Milton Keynes, a new town under construction north of
London,
the
is
scheduled to reach
year 2000.
its target population by
This project, reflecting the best tradi-
tion of British town planning and design, is also government sponsored.
The land for Milton Keynes will be taken
publicly and converted from farm land to urban uses.
The
development area is occupied with several small towns and
villages.
The Sha Tin design also reflects the traditional land
use
pattern
legally
digenous
Ciudad
towns.
The Hong Kong
has had to confront problems with incorporat-
government
ing
for many British new
villages, communicating
existing
settlers
Guayana
and
and
accommodating
Milton Keynes,
with in-
squatters.
Like
the infrastructure,
15
land
formation
and
some
housing
in Sha Tin
is to be
financed with public dollars.
The
local
responded
ments,
in
each
of
these
projects
to government policies directed at the settle-
but
response
population
the
process of policy
has engendered differing
initiation and local
consequences for each
development.
In all three cases the response fluctuated
according
the level of
to
sensitivity exhibited by the
government toward the settler's interests.
FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS
Government
implicit
policy objectives have explicit and often
implications
settlements.
for
the residents
In many cases
of indigenous
settlement policies are in-
stituted because measures must be taken to compensate local villagers for land that has been taken or to ease the
economic
transition
policies
usually
are
from
rural
derived
to urban
from a
life.
These
range of choices
available to the government authorities.
Some
preserve
of
the
existing
government
policies
settlements,
some
are
designed to
to
relocate
16
settlements
and
some to integrate
new town environment.
designed
tion
In Milton Keynes, the policies are
to encourage the
in planning and
local population's participa-
development decisions.
the
policies may clarify the
the
project
needs.
and
settlements into the
Many times
local settlement's role in
accommodate local
Essentially, however, all
social and economic
of these policies are
aimed at facilitating the development process.
An
indigenous
government's
fluence
is
population
settlement
exerted
begins
and
values
ensue.
the
often
policies.
after
can
influence the
Typically,
construction on
concommitant effects on
The influence usually
this in-
the project
the local land
results in a high
degree of interaction between government and the concerned local people.
clarify
this
The following framework will be used to
interaction
so
that
the results
of the
government policies can be more clearly evaluated.
Relationship Between The
Professionals and the
Local People
An
used
examination
in
this
of
thesis
three key
to
assess
relationships will be
the
degree
to which
indigenous
policy
settlers
objectives.
interactions
the
The
will
direction of government
first relationship
centers on
between government professionals working on
development and the
tions
and
affect the
local settlers.
be examined according
These interac-
to physical proximity
the socio-economic relationship existing between the
professionals
and
the
local
community.
Specifically,
this inquiry will ask:
--Where is the planning and development office located relative to the project site?
--What are the class relationships between the local
inhabitants and the professionals?
--How do the planners view the local citizens?
--How does the local population view the government
project, its programs and policies?
Relationship Between The
Local People and the Land
The
second
relationship
This
inquiry
relationships
have
dimension
between
will
and
the
includes
local settlers
include
looking
legal rights that
to the land they occupy
analysis asks:
highlighting
at
the
and the land.
both
historic
the local settlers
at the project site.
This
--What are the historic ties to the land?
--What
are
the
settlements?
tenure
rights
of
the
existing
--What are the rights of squatters?
Political and Institutional
Relationships
The
third
and final dimension
of this analysis ad-
dresses political and institutional relationships including
the local settlers' support for or opposition to the
project.
isting
In addition to defining the capabilities of exlocal
government
institutions this
part of the
evaluation asks:
--To what extent do local groups
pressure on the government?
--What
is
pressure?
the
government's
exert political
response
to
local
--How effective are the local governmental institutions at the project site?
THE NEW TOWN PROJECTS
Each of the three new towns presents a unique context
for
development:
society
and
similarities,
land
each project reflects its own culture,
political
each
economy.
Although
project is guided
tenure and legal
relationships.
there
are
by its particular
However, early in
19
the
made
planning
a
stages each
set
of
government development entity
choices
that
determined
both
the
government's policies and the resulting response from the
local settlers.
These
choices
set
the
pattern
for
the resulting
dialogue by establishing a process for molding government
policies.
Initially, the governments decided whether to
produce a detailed master plan for the project or provide
a flexible structure within which the new town could incrementally
grow.
development
authority near the
The governments chose
away from the site.
consultants
to locate the
project or some distance
Professional government planners and
helped decide whether
to alter and redirect
established local growth patterns or whether to structure
the
development
so that it grows outward from existing
settlement patterns.
These
government
relocate
early
strategic
should
the
decisions determined
preserve
settlers
to
existing
another
if the
settlements
site.
or
Relocation
policies
required that the governments address questions
of compensation.
These questions include asking how much
compensation is fair; to whom should the compensation go;
and what form should the compensation take?
governments
decided whether to
Finally, the
consult the local people
in making development decisions or whether to inform them
of after-the-fact decisions.
Ciudad
Ciudad Guayana
400,000
Guayana
people
resource
base.
is
planned
in order to
ning
phases
range
of
an estimated
Beginning in the mid 1960's, the project
1975.
Early in the plan-
the Venezuelan government
professional
Joint
Harvard-MIT
house
develop an abundant natural
planned for completion in
was
to
skills
Center
and
for
imported a broad
from the
expertise
Urban
to
Studies
help
develop the new town.
In
1960
several
for
responsibility
-
CLLCTO RMOUM
Ciudad Guayana - New town
plan
solidated
(CVG).
into
The
the
governmental
bodies
developing Ciudad
Corporacion
CVG was granted
that
shared
Guayana were con-
Venezolana
de Guayana
broad authority to develop
and
implement
a
coordinated
new
town
plan.
However
headquarters for the CVG was located in Caracas, some 300
miles
from the new town project site.
professionals
residents
of
had
the
little
contact
Guayana
Consequently, the
with
region.
the indigenous
The
government's
development strategy called for relocating large segments
of
the
existing population and
reorienting the flow of
immigrants to fit a pre-established physical master plan.
Although the squatters and villagers were compensated
for relocation costs, the planners and citizens alike had
many
misconceptions about development of Ciucad Guayana.
The government found immigration flows to be difficult to
control,
lagers
ing.
and
the rudimentary local
perceived Caracas based
government and vil-
directives to be confus-
Finally, the local people mounted several protests,
and in 1974 the CVG opened an on-site development office.
The
an
local development office provided the residents with
avenue
for
professionals
problems.
essential
to
respond
information
more
and
rapidly
allowed the
to
on-site
The project is still under construction today.
22
Milton Keynes
In
is
Milton Keynes, England,
being developed to accommodate a new town for 400,000
people
ing
by the year 2000.
plan
New town
by
the
consulting
Weeks,
Forestier-Walker
develop
Milton
Towns
Milton Keynes -
began
Keynes
in
firm
and
Bor.
Llewelyn-Davies,
The
authority
to
the British New
delegated to the Milton Keynes
Corporation.
Planning work
the mid-1960's, while
issued in 1967.
of
is derived from
Act of 1946 and is
Development
was
The project is planned accord-
to a flexible set of physical and program guidelines
proposed
CWmm
A -u~sO
21,900 acres of farmland
There is
on the new town
the consultant's report
an on-site office for the
development corporation, the chief agency in the new town
with
responsibility
for
coordinating
governmental
authorities
However,
corporation
the
affecting
does
the
the
not replace
appropriate
development.
the normal
functions of the existing local governments.
In Milton Keynes the professional staff consults with
residents
of
villages
located
within
the development
boundaries through surveys and open public meetings.
The
corporation
existing
Milton
ing,
and consultants made
an early decision that
villages in the area would be incorporated into
Keynes through an incremental process of renovat-
upgrading and preserving
government
economic
hopes
life
diversity
that
selected structures.
these
actions will
of the villages
in Milton Keynes.
The
enhance the
and contribute to social
The
project is still under
construction.
British
reviewed
of
law
fabric
that
the
town
plan is
Local government in England is well or-
mature,
and
politically
of public decision making.
arriving
new
by the affected local governments at each stage
development.
ganized,
requires
immigrants
were, for the
integrated
into the
In Milton Keynes the
most part, well edu-
cated and there were no problems with squatters.
Sha Tin New Town
Sha
Hong
living
was
Tin New Town, located
Kong,
is being developed
conditions.
first
issued
in the New Territories of
to ease severely crowded
A detailed master
in
1960
and
plan for Sha Tin
later
revised
when
construction
structed
began
over
housing
a
in 1975.
ten
year
The new
town will be con-
time horizon,
will provide
for approximately 500,000 people, and will cover
some 4,500 acres.
Sha Tin
The
-
Hong
Kong
New town plan
projects
should
have
However,
because
the
professionals,
government
an
decided
on-site
staff
is
the
new
development
dominated
by
town
office.
western
there is limited direct communication be-
tween
the Chinese settlers
There
are more than thirty-five traditional Chinese vil-
lages
in the Sha Tin valley and approximately 20,000 im-
migrants
are
living in new
and the government planners.
housing estates constructed
since 1975.
Since
official
the project began, the
opportunity
residents have had one
to comment on
the new town master
plan, but local villagers have protested on several occasions.
villages
within
According to the Sha Tin master plan, some of the
will
the
be relocated, but
new town structure.
most will be preserved
The development office
has
not
articulated an overall
villages
through
economic and
strategy to guide these
physical transition from
the existing rural setting to urban life.
Today,
squatters occupy available
land near the ex-
isting villages, while light industrial and manufacturing
enterprises
abound
construction
So
response to the
on Sha Tin and
first phases of
the increasing land values.
far, the master plan does not allow for village level
incremental
Each
and
in
redevelopment
in
the
development zone is phased
the
government moves the
development process.
on a pre-set time line,
illegal squatters and en-
terprises so that Sha Tin can proceed on schedule.
RECOMMENDATIONS
to
Working
and living in Hong Kong keyed in my interest
explore
what
development
Milton
process.
Sha Tin New Town
provide direction for resolving
between the traditional
development
digenous
can aid the
The analysis of Ciudad Guayana and
Keynes new towns
conflicts
Tin
actions
office.
populations can be
villagers and the Sha
This research
shows that in-
accommodated and government
professionals
can
receive
give
and
provide
residents with
information
about
the
an avenue to
development
process.
The thesis makes specific recommendations for each of
three
villages located in the
lages
were chosen to illuminate issues and problems with
Sha Tin Valley.
The vil-
relocating a village in one case and preserving a village
in another.
village
The final case
will address redeveloping a
with the villagers retaining development rights.
Recommendations
will
be
made for each
of the villages
around:
--structuring
positive interactions between the develop-
ment office professionals and the local villagers.
--resolving
problems
with
land occupancy,
both by the
villagers and by nearby squatters.
--organizing
at
the appropriate
processes and institutions
the village level to ease each village's transition
in the new town development.
Chapter 3:
Ciudad Guayana - Venezuela
28
INTRODUCTION
The
presents
planning
and
development
a
case
of rapid
clear
technolcgical
located
time.
The new town,
late 1970's.
from a national
government
primary
intended
industries
to develop
The develop-
planning effort aimed at
region's abundant natural resources.
and
Guayana
population growth and
in a short
400,000 people by the
resulted
the
Ciudad
in southeastern Venezuela, was planned to accom-
modate
ment
progress
of
The Venezuelan
hydroelectric power and
by attracting a
private investment sufficient to
skilled labor force
create a major new
regional economic center.
The
first
Guayana
goals
reveal
ten
years of formal
contradictions
for the city and the
residents.
The
planning for Ciudad
between
the
government
immediate needs of the local
government professionals
viewed Ciudad
Guayana as an ideal arena in which to implement a complex
development
economic
with
the
program, and the local population viewed the
activity as beneficial but experienced problems
distribution
of utilities,
housing, jobs and
community services.
29
The
There
project
was remote and
local expertise scarce.
was no major, tradition-bound population living in
Guayana, transportation networks were simple and rudimentary,
and the national government
could control the ex-
isting land ownership patterns.
The Setting
The lower Orinoco Valley, located some 300 miles from
Venezuela's
CAf,,
BA
capital
city, Caracas, is
a region teeming
A
E
with
natural resources.
U.S.
owned
After
early development by two
A
steel
companies, the
Venezuelan government
0
0
began
the
constructing the Macauga
Caroni
development
~
".~
~
N
Regional location -
Guayana
Ciudad
ing
the
River
in
the
hydroelectric station on
early
1950's
and initiated
of a steel plant on the Orinoco River boost-
population to 45,000
people over the following
ten years.
In
1960
Corporacion
public
the president of
Venezolana
corporation,
and
Venezuela established the
de Guayana
charged
(CVG), an autonomous
it
with
the respon-
sibility to devise an overall strategy for developing the
region.
The
CVG
decided to augment
its limited staff
----
ilL
MAOR ARTERDERS
COLLECTOR ROUTES
0
CUIDAD
GUAYANA
Cuidad Guayana -New Town Plan
with
foreign
expertise
Harvard-M.I.T.
The
of
by
contracting
Joint Center for
with
the
Urban Studies in 1961.
Joint Center team came to Guayana with a broad range
skills including architecture, anthropology, agricul-
ture,
economics,
education, engineering,
housing, law,
real estate, political science, sociology and transportation planning. 2
The boundaries for the new town included the existing
mining
settlements,
electric project.
San
ment,
active
steel
Costa.
and
Felix, contained concentrated
commercial
west
mill,
in
There
the
hydro-
The most important traditional settle-
base.
By 1960
was 13,000 with 8,000
Felix
and
the
housing and an
the population of San
persons living to the south
two communities called
El Roble and Dalla
were few paved roads,
no water lines and
underdeveloped utility systems; expansion was haphazard.3
The
CVG
planners
decided
to ignore
this existing
development pattern when they designed the masterplan for
the
new city.
The CVG wanted to create a new commercial
center
for Ciudad Guayana on the west bank of the Caroni
River.
This new center, Alta Vista, was to be created by
providing
on
space for immigrants
the west side of the
these
new
in planned sub-divisions
river.
residential
The planners hoped that
settlements
and
commercial
amenities
would attract skilled labor and the management
personnel
essential to the
future economic viability of
Ciudad Guayana.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
PROFESSIONALS AND THE
LOCAL PEOPLE
The government decided to locate the CVG headquarters
in
Caracas, nearly 300 miles
cause
it was the national
from the project site, be-
focus of political power.
In
addition the available professional expertise was located
there,
and
Caracas
was
a
major
social
and cultural
center.
The
administrative
planning
their
were
work
nor
personnel
committed
the
responsible
to civil
centers
service, but neither
of power
and advancement
necessitated their living near Ciudad Guayana.
Center
professionals
were
oriented
for city
toward
The Joint
developing
international
a
place
careers.
to
live
dependence
and
on
They tended to prefer Caracas as
had
official
an
acute
approval
sense
of
from
the
their
CVG
that time there were no telephone con-
headquarters.4 At
nections,
the
transport
took 14 hours.5 Because the professionals were
based
mail
system
was
inefficient,
and
bus
in Caracas, they could not benefit from first hand
knowledge about the effects of their planning decisions.
Attitudes of the
Professionals
In
addition
planners
had
population.
that
the
to communication problems,
a paternalistic attitude
One MIT researcher,
planners
many of the
toward the local
Lisa Peattie, observed
viewed themselves
as the motivating
force behind the project and viewed the city as something
they
were
Venezuela.
of
the
people
and
developing
for
the
good
of
This attitude complemented a feeling by some
professionals that the
unfamiliar
part
planning
with
the project and
in the planning process.
were lower class and were
local population was too
too uneducated to take
Most of the 45,000 local
so viewed by the plan-
ners in Caracas. 6
34
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
LOCAL PEOPLE AND THE LAND
At
its inception the CVG
was granted broad power to
acquire and dispose of public and private lands.
Control
over public land was transferred from the government land
agency
to the CVG corporation, and private land was pur-
chased
by
Through
this process most of
negotiating
with
the
respective
owners.
the land within the city's
boundaries came under CVG control.
Although
Ciudad
the
government's
people.
there
was
no
objectives
for
implications for the local
Guayana had important
population,
policy
effort
to consult
with the
The objectives of the growth management policies
included:
(1) Expanding the population with economic growth;
(2) Attracting people with industrial skills to staff
Ciudad Guayana's economy;
(3) Postponing
skilled
the
migrants
build-up of a
not
population of un-
essential
to
industrial
development;
35
(4) Importing
technical support staff on a temporary
basis; and
(5) Expanding
the
more desirable parts
of the city
faster than the squatter settlements and locating
most new growth near Puerto Ordaz. 7
The local settlers affected these government policies
Housing Choices
by
choosing
through
to
live
in
the
their own efforts, to
improve these areas which
resulted in complications for the project.
choices
ced
the
centers and
traditional
Initially the
new immigrants made about where to live influendevelopment of Ciudad
Guayana.
In 1962, three
quarters of the 50,000 people living in the city chose to
live
near San Felix, because it was the traditional cen-
ter of commercial activity and community life.
It served
as the political center for the local government when the
offices of the district council were located there.
The
planners selected a site for the new city center
removed from the traditional centers near San Felix.
The
planners hoped that the creation of the Alta Vista center
36
would
stimulate
high
quality
commercial
development.
However, most immigration occurred around the traditional
centers
near
San Felix, and
the city's development was
not balanced as planned. 8
Alta
immigrants
Vista was vacant as
late as 1964, because most
were lower class
and had insufficient income
levels to support a major commercial center some distance
from their homes.
than
the
Additionally, squatters arrived faster
planners could accommodate
them.
Many of the
arrivals simply squatted on the edge of the existing
new
centers creating "unplanned" development.
Squatter's Rights
Squatter's
legal
rights
are
protected
by
the
Venezuelan civil code stipulating that any person improving the land of another in good faith is entitled to compensation
quickly
if
removed from the
land.
The CVG officials
discovered that once the land was cleared it had
to be developed immediately or another group of squatters
would
move in, and compensation would
second time in order to clear the land. 9
have to be paid a
In
with
1965
low
income
squatter
Caroni
the CVG established a
community
immigration.
(FUNVICA)
limited
local entity to deal
development in
The Fundacion de
was
created to give
authority and to
response to
la Vivenda del
the local people
implement several experimental
self-help housing projects.
The
creation
of FUNVICA represented
the first step
toward aligning government planning more closely with the
local governments.
of
Addressing the needs and expectations
the local population represented a major shift in the
government's mainline planning strategy.
Local
PATTERNS OF LOCAL INFLUENCE
influence
in
Ciudad
roughly into two time periods:
Guayana can
from the formation of the
to the mid-1960's; and
CVG
in
The
earlier period was dominated
1960
structure
the
later
be divided
from 1966 to 1970.
by a lack of community
sufficient to represent broad interests, while
period represented
more organized resistance
and coordinated response.
38
jurisdiction
for
municipal government competed
most instances the
In
FUNVICA,
council
and
the
handled
with
the
school
local
by
the
level a district
CVG.10 On the local
complaints
system,
neighborhood
residents
against the controlling powers; however, the local people
not believe the council
did
offered a viable avenue for
influence, because it had not developed an ability to understand the operating style of the CVG.1 1
A
Local Politicians
cal
were
survey taken in 1964 revealed that half of the lopeople
misinformed
Lisa
city.
the
contacted
Barrio,
about
had not even heard
its role in
development of the
her book, View from
Peattie pointed out in
that "The local
of the CVG or
politicians are very, very
local
indeed; their access to the party structure at the
top,
even within their own party, is hardly greater than
that
of
the
sewer
San
the average local resident,
Felix municipal council
...
the members of
know nothing about the
systems and very little about the structure of the
development
agency,
reference to the CVG."12
they
too
felt
powerless
with
An
analysis of population projections showed that to
attain
the CVG's balanced growth goal, 99% of all growth
six
(for
years)
after 1962 would have
to occur on the
western side of the Orinoco River. 1 3 The planners decided
that the only way to begin controlling the flow of squatwas
ters
to
provide planned
settlements or "reception
areas" for the arriving immigrants.
Unfortunately, plan-
ners were unable to provide housing sites fast enough for
the incoming population.
Revising the Strategy
In
1966 the CVG
revised its implementation strategy
in an effort to mitigate local problems at the site.
result
local
was a change in the style of interaction with the
settlers
Council's
and
arriving squatters.
representative on the
The Municipal
FUNVICA board was given
equal voting weight with the CVG representative.
office
The
A local
of the CVG was established to coordinate planning
decisions with the Municipal Council, various utility interests, and community service organizations.14
Because the planners underestimated the influx of low
income
settlers, the government altered
tracting
staff
its goal of at-
people with industrial experience and skills to
Ciudad
Guayana's economy.
By
the mid 1970's the
CVG had yet to reduce substantially the level of imported
foreign
expertise
operations.
government
proves,
to
provide assistance
This situation is
solves
and
slowly changing as local
problems, the quality
commercial
to industrial
activity
of housing im-
emerges
in
the town
center.
CONCLUSION
The
relationship
of the professionals
to the local
people, the relationship of the local people to the land;
and the patterns of local influence in Ciudad Guayana all
affected the government's original set of objectives.
The
the
CVG
initial
300
communication
sionals.
The
decision to locate
miles from the
the headquarters of
project prevented adequate
between the local settlers and the profesplanners
were
unable
to
respond
to
day-to-day problems at the site, and the locals could not
understand
the
government
planners'
learned
that
it
goals.
Ultimately,
was necessary
the
to staff an
on-site office of the CVG.
Class distinctions between the planners and the local
people
of
led to delays in
immigrants.
In time
dealing with the massive influx
the professionals realized that
it would only be possible to build the city as envisioned
by
accommodating the needs of the overwhelmingly low in-
come
populous.
tlements
The strategy of neglecting squatter set-
in order to construct a
new town center to at-
tract skilled, higher income workers simply did not work;
it had to be adjusted and a balanced approach pursued.
In
historic
Ciudad Guayana the existing villagers have strong
ties to the land and there are legal rights as-
sumed by arriving squatters.
By failing to recognize the
importance of these ties the planners assumed that growth
could be directed away from San Felix and reoriented near
Puerto
Ordaz.
traditional
The objective could not be realized.
The
settlements had a vitality and economic life
matching
the
expectations
and
needs
population and most new immigrants.
that
of
the existing
The planners learned
they must provide housing sites and services to ac-
commodate
paying
these
immigration
streams in order to avoid
unnecessary dual compensation
for the squatters'
land rights.
The
intended
new
city center was
not constructed within the
time frame, because the CVG was unsuccessful in
attracting the necessary private commercial business ventures.
The economic status of
the immigrants could not
support high quality commercial activity, and the department
stores
were reluctant to
because
of
these
learned
to
institute
education
market
conditions.
programs
and skills of the
locate in Ciudad Guayana
The
aimed at
government
upgrading the
local population as well as
to import Venezuelan professionals to work in the Guayana
industries.
The
detailed
patterns
master
of
local influence
planning
alone
demonstrated that
does
not
guarantee
success.
The longer the planners remained in their world
of plans and papers, the more the local settlers resisted
the efforts of the Caracas based directives.
after
the
after
the CVG established
local political
It was only
infrastructure organized and
formal avenues for communica-
tion that the local people began to understand the nature
of
more
the project.
coordinated
problems.
Guayana
The FUNVICA
effort
Compared to the
organization resulted in a
to
solve
low
income housing
early planning years, Ciudad
is now moving toward
a partnership between the
local residents and government planners.
44
Chapter 4:
Milton Keynes New TownEngland
INTRODUCTION
When
four
complete
Milton Keynes will
provide homes for
hundred thousand people by the early 1990's and ac-
commodate
population
overspill from the
London and Birmingham.
England's
New
urban areas of
With legal authority derived from
Towns Act of 1946
Milton Keynes is being
constructed on 21,900 acres of farmland.1
The
government established a development corporation
located
at
authority
- --
ProposedStratqgc Routes
-Propoed
NowandImprovedRoads
-Proposed
Atom
Roadsin Milton Kogmee
Regional location - Milton
Keynes
the
project
site
for all aspects of
to
provide
a
the development.
central
When the
development
corporation
development
in 1967, the population of Milton Keynes was
approximately
towns
and
began to assemble
40,000 people who
villages;
land for the
were living in existing
construction began in
1970 and by
1975 the population had grown to 70,000 people in accordance with the predetermined strategy.
The Setting
Milton
Keynes
lies
in
one
of the
transportation corridors in Britain:
nects
site
London with the
is
midway
most important
the Ml highway con-
industrial midlands.
between London and
The project
Birmingham with two
railways
The
and
the
Grand Union Canal
consultants believed the
crossing the site.
project's proximity to the
Technological Institute at Cranfield and to Cambridge and
Oxford
Universities made it
center
for
the
an exceptionally attractive
development
of
new
science-based
industries 2
When
Milton Keynes was designed, the bulk of the ex-
isting population lived in one of four towns:
Stony
Stratford,
Additionally,
there
Wolverton
or
were eight smaller
New
Bletchley,
Bradwell.
villages in the
designated area with the balance of the population spread
across 17,000 acres of countryside. 3
Although
the location of existing communities define
its basic physical form, the design for Milton Keynes was
based
on
these
communities the planners had to accommodate a num-
ber
of
a transportation
buildings
nificance.
The
grid.4
having historic
development
area
Additionally, within
or achitectural sigcontained
sites
of
archaeological interest, including the main corridor from
47
Suggested Conservation Areas
Archeological Sites
Milton Keynes - New Town Plan
48
London
to the northwest originally built and used by the
Romans.5
The
planners' strategy called
sized
neighborhoods
munity
facilities.
for providing medium-
with local schools,
The
shops and com-
plan also detailed
a new city
center containing a regional shopping mall that would offer
entertainment,
offices,
shops
and
recreational
facilities.
Milton
and
Keynes
has overspill
agreements with London
Birmingham to provide jobs and relieve congestion in
residential
areas.
Citizens willing to
move to the new
city are put on waiting lists by the older community, and
when
job
notified
other
vacancies
open
in
and given priority
areas.
Milton
Citizens become
that the new city takes
London
and Birmingham, the
development
timing
and
they
are
status over applicants from
eligible for housing when
their new employer nominates them.
ing
Keynes
In addition to ensur-
most of its population from
overspill agreements control
location
of
immigrants
by
49
coordinating the arriving settlers with available housing
and jobs. 6
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
PROFESSIONALS AND THE
LOCAL PEOPLE
The
Milton
consultant
trol
Development Corporation
who showed special
and
request
Keynes
sensitivity to local con-
social development.
for proposal the
hired a
In
their response to the
consultants said, "The general
conclusion was that Milton Keynes must be planned to give
people
try
what they want and no committee of experts should
to dictate the future patterns
This
is
not
a
new
idea,
but
of life in the city.
it
is new
to take it
seriously..."7
Farmers' Concerns
Seventy-three
development
land
in
percent
Milton Keynes
the
land
designated for
is currently agricultural
supporting a total of 225 farmers and farm workers.
Farmers
are concerned that they may live in an "agricul-
tural
slum"
plans
for the new city are
be
of
used
begins.
during
as long as
the
transitional
period, although
phased so that farm land can
possible before actual construction
Additionally,
farmers
losing
income
fully compensated for their land and livelihood.
will be
Consultations
Shortly
poration
tants
after a local office of the development cor-
opened
Keynes site, the consul-
held several open meetings
administered
the
at the Milton
a
door to door
on the master plan and
survey.
Concerns included
link road alignment, provision of public transporta-
tion,
effect
on
existing settlements,
preservation of
village
areas, the city's cost, and adequate public ser-
vices.
The corporation responded
cerns
to questions and con-
of the citizens, and several aspects of the master
plan were refined to reflect these local concerns.8
Indeed,
ners
the
the ongoing communication
and the residents
between the plan-
increased local understanding of
project, allaying many of
the fears of the farmers,
and was instrumental in pinpointing development problems.
Throughout
ample
The
the
development process the
opportunity
government
structure
problems
to
has
meet
to
review
people have had
and comment
on the plan.
responded by amending
the new town
local
needs.
Although
a number of
remain to be resolved, such as the lack of mass
transit
to
access shopping in
the older districts, the
corporation continues to address local concerns.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
LOCAL PEOPLE AND THE LAND
Outside
the
villages
and
hamlets,
family farmers have worked the land.
costs
that
lose
There are two major
the agricultur al community
the new town development.
income
government's
during
policy
bears because of
The first is that farmers will
con struction.
is
generations of
to compensate
Even
though
the
farmers for their
land,
there are additional costs to the farmers that in-
clude
moving
and
to another
receiving lower earnings
possibly
employed.
location, changing occupations
The
second is the
or remaining un-
loss of one's traditional
work place and historic method of making a living, an important although unquantifiable cost. 9
Development Phasing
Many of the residents were concerned with the phasing
and
ties
timing
Milton Keynes because
they had historic
with their homes and forms of livelihood.
sultants
older
of
planned
to
provide
an economic
The con-
role for the
communities as regional shopping centers, and with
incentives
ing
provided by the government some of the exist-
commercial
with
areas
have thrived
adequate shopping services
new shopping districts.
commercial
providing newcomers
before constructing the
This phasing will help the older
centers remain viable
after Milton Keynes is
complete.
Stony Stratford
Stony
ter
to
Stratford, for instance, is similar in characa
project
traditional
began,
English
market town.
Stony Stratford had
When the
several empty shops
and houses; property values decreased and traffic congestion
worsened.
The corporation was
able to attract new
commercial prospects to the community by working with the
citizens
to upgrade the declining
structing
a
new
by-pass
around the district.
the
road
buildings and by conto route
heavy traffic
It was important to the citizens of
community that the character
of the town be preser-
ved, and so far it has been. 1 0
PATTERNS OF LOCAL
INFLUENCE AND
INSTITUTIONS
Farmers
Milton
have
Keynes
influenced
the
form
by collaborating with
and
phasing of
researchers at the
However,
local
commercial
dents
concerned
development
concern
ensure
was
areas, because the
were
this
influence
that
of Reading.
the University
of
Department
Agricultural
greatest
in
the
older
business people and resi-
about the impact
of the new town
on their economic activity.
As a result of
the development corporation
their
position as
has worked to
neighborhood commercial
centers is preserved and enhanced.
Local
village
inhabitants
and
early
arriving im-
migrants have influenced the development of Milton Keynes
through
public meetings and surveys.
The government has
used their responses from these sources of information to
the
refine
open
and
master
plan before it
was published and to
better lines of communication between the residents
the planners.
government
One result of the survey was improved
coordination of social
services delivered to
existing residents and immigrants.1 1
The
Review Process
in
process for designing and constructing new towns
England
ensures
that
local authorities
review and
approve
proposals
development.
at
various
stages
of
the
project
The first step is to designate a site.
accomplish
this
the
Minister
of
Housing
and
To
Local
Government consults with local authorities and allows for
public
ment
inquiry.
The second step is to create a develop-
corporation,
and the third step
is to prepare and
submit a master plan for review by national agencies, local government and concerned citizens.
Finally, detailed
design plans are prepared by the corporation.1 2
The con-
sultants went beyond these legal requirements and directly consulted the local residents.
Because of historic weakness in new town social planning,
of
the consultants not only requested special surveys
the
existing communities and
considered
new residents but also
a social development plan as a necessary com-
ponent of the physical development plan for the new city.
To
this
end
they
addressed
institutional
roles
and
responsibilities
for
health care
delivery, educational
systems,
relations, local
government, churches,
public
housing management and public participation. 1 3
Community Councils
In addition the government supported the formation of
local
community
institutional
Milton
framework
Keynes,
grass-mowing,
wheels
councils.
These
to
deliver social
addressing
managing
councils supplied the
such
diverse
schools,
to elderly residents,
services in
activities as
delivering
meals
on
and providing basic health
care. 14
Economic
greatest
conditions of the
influence
on
mid 1970's presented the
Milton Keynes
development.
The
world wide economic downturn caused the planners to reassess several major assumptions and revise the transportation
system.
ment
was
In spite of
able
severe criticism, the govern-
to redirect the
interim development and
proved that the plan could adapt to new conditions.
CONCLUSION
In developing Milton Keynes, the government addressed
issues
sionals
cal
resulting
from
the relationship
of the profes-
to the local people, the relationship of the lo-
people
to
the
land,
influence and institutions.
and
the
patterns
of local
In
local
the early days of the development the farmers and
people were concerned
relocation
towns
about construction phasing,
and the impact of the development on existing
and villages.
The decision to locate the develop-
ment corporation at the project site enhanced the ability
of
the
government
citizens.
to
communicate
directly
with
the
Working within a legal framework that fosters
consultation
in new town development with the proper lo-
cal authorities, the consultants went beyond requirements
of
the
law
surveys,
result
local
to
open
encourage participation
meetings and formal
was a better understanding
level;
a more predictable
in many forms:
design reviews.
The
of the project at the
future for the farmers
whose land would be condemned; and an ability on the part
of
the
designers
to fine tune
the physical and social
development strategy.
Historically
the
existing
Stony
Stratford, Wolverton and
roles
in
regional
communities
(Bletchley,
New Bradwell) played key
development north of
London and the
residents
felt historic ties to their communities.
Many
buildings were on the historic register and several sites
of
archaeological significance dotted
development
programs
area;
to
the
renovate
planners
and
the Milton Keynes
therefore
rehabilitate
designed
these
older
communities.
In addition to providing an
economic role for these
communities as regional shopping centers, the development
corporation
around
also framed much of
these
older
the overall design plan
communities
and
their
existing
transportation
networks.
The strategy for Milton Keynes
reflected
planners'
desire
growth
the
patterns and provide a
to expand
on existing
flexible framework to ac-
commodate future change.
The
of
door
local population influenced
Milton
to
adequate
support
Keynes' development
door
through public meetings,
surveys and complaints
public transportation.
from
the form and timing
local government in
about the lack of
Existing institutional
the region reinforced
these patterns of influence.
58
The
formal
overspill
agreements
with
London
and
Birmingham assured that the development would have a predictable
the
stream
policy
before
of immigrants.
of not providing
they
But, more importantly,
housing for the immigrants
secured employment allowed
the planners to
coordinate housing supply with the incoming population.
Poor economic conditions were the most pronounced influence
on Milton Keynes'
timing.
The world wide recession slowed economic growth,
tilting
the
physical form and development
ratio of private
investment in housing and
and assuring that the already small transporta-
industry
system would be inadequate.
tion
Milton
plan:
and those that arrived
Keynes
mobiles.
Fewer people moved to
This
situation
did not own autogoal of the
tested the major
flexibility.
After
discovered
a
thorough
that
review and
the plan could be
changing
situation
Adjusting
density
and
and
rising
changing
analysis the planners
altered to meet this
local
land
expectations.
uses
within the
overall
framework allowed the
professionals to iron out
these difficulties in preparation for future development.
Chapter 5:
Sha Tin New TownHong Kong
When
INTRODUCTION
construction is complete Sha
provide
people
housing
by 1985.
and
employment
for
Tin New Town will
one-half
The majority of the residents will come
from congested areas of Hong Kong and Kowloon.
to
a recent government publication
vironment
is
planned to be
self-contained,
million
According
on Sha Tin, "The en-
convenient, attractive, and
providing new
opportunities and freedom
of choice in a socially-balanced community."1
The project is being developed in the New Territories
Public housing in Kowloon
of
Hong Kong along the Shing
tion
Mun River at the intersec-
of several important transportation routes connect-
ing the People's Republic of China to Hong Kong.
portion
the
of Sha Tin will be constructed on land fill, and
town center will be structured around an inter-modal
transportation
Railway
minal
fices,
Hong Kong street
scene
A major
to
and
complex
linking
the Kowloon
major highway networks.
regional
parking complex,
housing and shopping
around a central plaza.
and Canton
A central bus tertogether with of-
facilities, will be unified
The existing Sha Tin village and
TO CANTON
RAIL LINE
MAJOR TRAFFIC ROUTE
-
S0
246
Kiometrs
810
Sha Tin New Town - Regional Location
63
marketplace,
lages,
a
will
regional shopping place
be
removed
to
make
for nearby vil-
way
for
the
new
development.
Historically, most immigrants from China chose to locate
of
in the urban areas of
Hong Kong and Kowloon.
these families constructed homes
Many
out of almost every
conceivable material wherever space was available including
the rooftops of highrise buildings or junks anchored
in typhoon shelters.
Kowloon
acre,
Urban squatters
is
estimated
while
squatters
Today the density of one section of
at
have
to be 5,000
the urban fringe
never
been
free
to 6,000 persons per
living conditions for
from
disease,
fire,
typhoons, and landslides.
Housing
cause
percent
little
ravaged
people
conditions in Hong
steep topography and
of
room
a
the
to
soil characteristics make 79
land virtually unbuildable
grow.
squatter
homeless,
Kong are complicated be-
the
Soon
after a
settlement
government
--
there is
devastating fire
in 1960
leaving 50,000
began
to investigate
prospects for future urban development and expansion.
1972,
-n
the Governor of Hong Kong approved a major housing
program
to provide housing for 1.8 million people by the
mid-1980's.
The four major objectives of the housing plan are to:
--Rehouse
all
squatters;
of
Hong
Kong's
remaining
250,000
--Relieve overcrowding in the urban areas;
--Provide
self-contained
households; and,
accommodation
for
all
--Provide housing for those who must be regoused as a
consequence of other government schemes.
Three
will
new
towns,
Sha Tin, Tsuen
provide most of the housing and industrial develop-
ment over a ten year time horizon.
design
ment
of the new towns is
professionals
architectural
Office
Squatters near Sha Tin
Wan and Tuen Mun,
Detailed planning and
being carried out by govern-
and engineering,
consultants.
transportation and
The Government Town Planning
and the Architectural Office
of the Public Works
Department (PWD) are the project's major coordinators.
65
*Sheung Shui
Tai Po
Yuen Long
Tuen Mun
New Town
Tsuen Wan
New Town
0
2
4
6
Kilometers
Regional New Towns Map
8
10
These
offices also provide most of the site planning and
design work for public buildings.
The
New Territories, leased from
clude
335
small
islands
square miles of mainland
off the Kowloon
China in 1898, inas well as over 100
peninsula.
When Britain
leased the New Territories in 1898, there was little need
for governmental administration in the scattered villages
and
towns; most activity was devoted to farming rice and
vegetables,
or
livestock.
Two
growing
commercial flowers
District
Officers
and raising
(one living
in the
northern territories and one living in the south near Sha
Tin)
were appointed by the
administrative
Hong Kong Governor to handle
duties for land transactions and to serve
as magistrates for criminal and civil matters.
Hong
Kong's
stimulated
necessary
housing
New Territories
development
formed
flood of immigrants
development
in
after World War II
the rural areas
and made it
for the District Officers to allocate land for
and
five
industrial use, and
therefore the Governor
separate
to handle
districts
the rapidly
growing
three
new
territories.
new towns, two new
bringing
the
total
to
With the
development of the
districts were created in 1974
seven
districts,
each
with a
District Officer and a staff of a hundred or more.3
The Commissioner for the rural district officers, officially
Rural New Territories
is
known as the Secretary for the New Territories,
generally responible to the central Hong Kong govern-
ment
for New Territories affairs
inhabitants.
for
The
and the welfare of its
Secretary is also
the land authority
the New Territories, and is in charge of controlling
land
use
including allocating,
land for development.
The
original
retained
disposing and acquiring
4
inhabitants
of
the
New
Territories
possession of their village land at the time of
the British takeover.
allocated
The remaining land was deemed "un-
crown land" and was
leased by public auction.
However, at the time of the occupation Governor Sir Henry
Blake
issued
a
proclamation promising
"commercial and
Lantau Monestary
landed
interests will be safeguarded and usages and good
customs will not in any way be interfered with." 5
68
In
keeping
Secretary
for
government
in
of
this
original
the New Territories
policies
villagers
network
with
a
and
the
must ensure that all
programs are
way that is
Rural
directive,
explained to the
understandable to them.
Committees structured
A
this necessary
communication.
Each
representative"
elected or nominated to sit on the Rural
Committee.
into
27
village
These village
has one
or more "village
representatives are organized
Rural Committee areas and
stay in contact with
the government through the District Offices.
In addition
to providing a liaison with the Hong Kong government, the
committees
arbitrate
clan and family
disputes and give
advice to the people in their village. 6
The
chairman
Committees
advise
elective
vice-chairman
of
the
Rural
along with other community leaders in the New
Territories
tablished
and
form
the
in 1926 as an
government,
body
but
making
Heung
Yee Kuk.
The
Kuk was es-
assembly of appointed elders to
over
its
own
time
it matured
choices.
In
into an
1957 this
system
broke
order
They
down
when a number
of elders resigned in
to speak authoritatively on
behalf of the people.
claimed
that government had
no right to interfere
with the villages in the New Territories. 7
Such
an
government
assertion was unacceptable
which
withdrew
its recognition
making
it an unlawful society.
passed
reconstituting
ganized
body
a
under
a
the
to the colonial
of the Kuk,
Then a new ordinance was
Kuk as an
advisory body or-
new structure.8 Today,
this statutory
meets with the Secretary for the New Territories on
regular
policies,
government
basis
and
to
discuss
problems
senior members of the
sub-committees
and
government
Kuk also sit in on
dealing with
land tenure and
selected policy matters. 9
According
formed
to
to
the
promote
Hong Kong government.
social
and
ordinance, the Heung
mutual cooperation
Yee Kuk was
with the central
The Kuk also advises government on
economic development
matters and encourages
traditional customs and functions in the New Territories.
In
fact,
the
Kuk's
constitutional
the
influence
is
functions suggest.
greater
For
than
its
example, in 1972
Kuk threatened to organize a protest march to demand
changes
after
in land policy and village building regulations;
three
weeks of negotiating
the Secretary for the
New Territories announced that agreement had been reached
with representatives of the Kuk on all their demands.10
When
the
the
decision was made to
government
decided that the
build the new towns,
rural committees could
not deal with problems related to urbanization of the New
Territories.
In 1977 the
Governor announced the forma-
tion of local urban advisory councils to fill the consultation
gap
However,
advice
other
between
officially
on
"the
public
sibilities
the
government
the councils are
provision
and use
facilities." 1 1 In
of the District
and
the
people.
limited to giving
of recreational and
contrast,
the
Officers include:
respongathering
political intelligence, representing the interests of the
villagers
to higher authorities, coordinating activities
of
local government agencies,
tions
at
the
transactions,
development,
village
level,
controlling
arbitrating
explaining government acadministering
squatters,
land
encouraging local
disputes, assisting
in educa-
tional administration, organizing relief work in emergencies, and organizing social welfare activities. 1 2
THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
In 1973 the Public Works Department was charged with
the
responsibility
to plan and
develop new towns.
The
PWD therefore established the New Territories Development
Department (NTDD), a new division under its structure and
purview,
to
planning
and
direct
site
implement
the
development
new towns
each
control of a Project
professional
staff and
new
program.
town is
During
under the
Manager supported by an onseveral consultants.
When
the
projects
and
other government departments will be responsible for
the
daily management of each new town's activities.
Sha
Tin
are complete, the
development
team
New Town Administration
is composed
of
The
senior
architects, engineers, and town planners who organize and
review
the
work
of
consulting
engineers,
private
architects and Public Works Department employees assigned
to the project.
In
of
the fall of 1976 the development office consisted
a project manager, a
chief planner, one senior staff
planner, one architect, and three engineers.
was
three
several
years into the ten year
overlapping
planning,
phases
The project
time line and was in
of development:
long range
detailed design, site preparation and building
construction.
By
the end of 1977
the staff had nearly
doubled.
Sha
stages.
Tin
New
Town
will
be developed
Stage One will accommodate
proximately
240,000
people
in two major
a population of ap-
in the central
area of Sha
Tin.
Stage
still
under construction, will finish the remaining work
Two,
which
will begin while
Stage One is
necessary to complete the project and to house a total of
500,000 people.
-&*Z
1000J
/0700
44
Phase I
|I Phase Ii
Rail Line
Boundary
Sha Tin New Town - Phase Map
As
first
with
and Ciudad Guayana, the
priority for the Sha Tin development office was to
prepare
a physical plan for the new environment.
Milton
Keynes, however, the Sha
designing
Today
use
both Milton Keynes
a
detailed
by
development
transportation
Tin development team is
master plan
there is an outline
Unlike
for the development.
master plan that details land
parcel
networks.
and
The
structures
the
major
government professionals
and
private
consultants are now
producing site designs
for
each individual land parcel.
After a site design is
complete
the
or
it is approved
by several government agencies;
land is then acquired
squatters.
built,
After
Next,
and cleared of any structures
the
site is
prepared, roads are
sewers are installed and utilities are connected.
designs for individual
buildings are produced and
reviewed by the government, construction begins.
As
in
communities
zones
Milton
are
Keynes, several
planned
will vary in style,
for Sha
types of residential
Tin.
The residential
size, location and population
75
density
in
throughout
will
order
the
to
new town.
encourage
maximum
While the
density in Sha Tin
diversity
be much greater than those in either Ciudad Guayana
or
Milton Keynes, it will be considerably less than that
of
Hong Kong as a whole.
Just
as a key function of the
physical
plans
balance,
a great deal of effort in Sha Tin has gone into
creating
an
in
Milton Keynes and
appropriate
balance
Ciudad Guayana is
between
various town
functions.
According to the plan, housing will be balan-
ced
available
with
children;
shopping,
jobs;
schools,
with residential
with
numbers
of
areas; and health
and social service facilities, with service needs. 1 3
To
are
achieve a balanced
planned to meet the residents' basic needs including
safety,
shelter, security, health, education, employment
and recreation.
ly
living environment facilities
A development program is updated annual-
to coordinate the physical
new
town's
the
population
progress.
The
development and guide the
development program outlines
projections, highlights
the progress to
date,
details
allocates
changes
public
in
the
resources
government's
and estimates
policies,
the level of
private investment in the project.
Investment for Sha Tin is balanced between public and
private
interests;
partnership.
the
government
hopes
to
build
a
Approximately sixty percent of the invest-
ment in Sha Tin will be from government sources, and forty
percent is anticipated to
tor.
However.,
New
Territories
1997,
less
town
come from the private sec-
private investment is complicated in the
because
the lease is
than twenty years from
construction.
The government's
due to expire in
the start of the new
goal is to develop
Sha Tin public housing
Sha
Tin
period
in
for
Completing
year
Kong's
time
to
allow a
investment
the
reasonable ammortization
before
new town by the
the
lease
expires.
mid-1980's leaves a ten
period before 1997, and given the structure of Hong
dynamic
mortgage
market, private
investors can
realize returns from Sha Tin before the lease expires.
77
Like
THE SETTING
Milton Keynes, the site
because
of
its
central
urban
flood
end
areas, and its
of Tolo Harbor.
land
proximity
to
immediate access to major
shallow cove on the southern
Surrounding this cove are foothills
to steep, high mountains that frame the valley's
environment.
on
its
The New Town will be built on a
plain around a wide,
leading
Sha Tin Mountain
features,
physical
transportation networks.
for Sha Tin was chosen
Since most of the city will be constructed
created from fill in
the shallow cove, massive
reclamation works will be required before actual development
can take place.
required
To date about three-fourths of the
relclamation is complete and construction on two
residential
areas, the town
center, and several private
developments is underway.
Except for fill areas, land not under construction in
Sha
Tin
Valley
to the local vil-
has been leased back
lagers mostly for agricultural purposes.
Of the eventual
500,000
the
people
who
will
reside
in
new
town,
approximately 45,000 currently live in the valley.
About
Land fill
78
General Land Use
79
half
of
this
projects
population
lives
in two
public housing
built since 1973, and the remaining people live
in villages scattered across the valley floor and nestled
in
the
foothills.
There are
approximately 35 villages
located within the boundaries of Sha Tin New Town and, as
stipulated
in
the New Territories
lease agreement with
China, villagers have rights to their land.
er
the
of
land
in
Sha
Tin Valley is
The remaindcrown land and
belongs to the British government.
Most
to
people living in the new housing estates travel
Kowloon
to work, while most
villagers living in the
low-lying areas grow vegetables and commercial flowers to
sell
Tourist Attractions
in Sha
Tin and Kowloon.
Tourism also provides a
major source of income for the local people, since a number
of Hong Kong's major
Sha
Tin Valley.
porate
cluding
Sha
many
tourist attractions lie in the
The development
office plans to incor-
of these attractions into
the new town in-
the historic walled village of Tsang Tai Uk, the
Tin Floating Restaurant, the
Temple of Ten Thousand
Buddhas, and the To Fung Shan Mission.
KEY
8 Village Location
--
Town Boundary
Planning Area Boundaries
37
00
800
_0
500
1000
Village Locations
There
are
manufacturing
employment,
dye works.
small
already some
operations
officially sanctioned light
in
the valley
including a cotton
offering local
yarn factory and textile
As in Ciudad Guayana, there are also numerous
scale
manufacturing
enterprises
scattered
throughout the valley that have been established primarily
by
short
Land and village
reclamation
squatters.
term
However, with the
leases, the government
exception of some
considers the latter
operations illegal.
Government
decided
planners
in the
development office have
which villages are most
compatible with the new
development
Several
and
villages
which
villages
have
already
redevelopment
or relocation, but
villagers
expensive,
is
time
must
been
be
relocated.
programmed
for
the cost of relocating
consuming
and sometimes
violent confrontations between villagers and the district
police.
Boat squatters near Sha
Tin
The villagers find it
ancestor's
farmers
in
land
to
Milton
find
Keynes.
new
difficult to leave their
employment,
Land in
as
did the
transition is not
easily
ed.
controlled, as the Ciudad Guayana planners learnUnguided squatting in these areas has led to confu-
sion, conflict and unintended land uses.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
PROFESSIONALS AND THE
LOCAL PEOPLE
Planning
tern
and design of Sha
methods.
the
The planners and
development
professionals
Tin New Town reveal wes-
are
on
the
western
institutions.
terplan
reflects
European,
engineers in charge of
and
design team
many of
the Asian
have educations from
Consequently,
the Sha
the spatial organization
Tin mas-
and land use
arrangements of other British new towns.
Like
New
site
the Milton Keynes planning
Town
Development
near the new town
above
office, the Sha Tin
Office is located
on the project
center in a building immediately
the regional District
Office.
The interdiscipli-
nary team of architects, engineers and planners are working
within
liberal
projects.
firm
planning and design
than
those
standards that are more
constraining
To address environmental
previous
Hong
Kong
issues a consulting
completed a landscape masterplan for the project in
April,
and
1977.
urban
provides
In addition to
delineating the landscape
design features of the
a wealth of data on
city, the master plan
natural systems in the Sha
Tin Valley.
However,
to
to date there has been no concurrent effort
evaluate the human or
valley.
social systems existing in the
The development office has not attempted to ac-
commodate impacts of the rapid population build up on the
government's
So
far
create
ability
to coordinate
the main thrust of
the Development Office is to
a physical place while
dinates
necessary services.
the District Office coor-
land transfers and relocates villagers or squat-
ters when necessary.
Attitudes of the
Professionals
The
tend
to
settlers,
the
professionals in the
Sha Tin Development Office
have a paternalistic
attitude toward the local
viewing themselves as the driving force behind
creation
of
the
new town.
counterparts,
they
insufficiently
educated
feel
that
and
too
Like their Venezuelan
the
local
unfamiliar
people
are
with
the
project to benefit the development process.
with
a
Sha
prevailing
Tin planning official
An interview
in 1976 revealed the
attitude of the professionals toward consult-
ing with local residents.
"Participation?; Oh yes...well, it doesn't work
here. Why, the reason for participation at all
is to help inform our planning decisions.
Look, in this housing crisis we don't have time
to
participate,
neither do the community
people.
We have looked at the problems, that
tells us what the needs are...then we set the
goals; that's planning."4
The
pressures
created
by
Hong
Kong's
exploding
population
are compounded by severe land constraints and
fueled
the tight time
by
government
horizon.
In this environment
staffing constraints and capital expenditures
have become criteria to justify urgent decisions that are
often
based
communication.
imal
modate
on insufficient
information and inadequate
As in Ciudad Guayana, there has been min-
effort to respond to
village problems or to accom-
squatter's needs.
However, unlike the Venezuelan
venture, social scientists and professionals from related
have
disciplines
government's
projects
new
not
planning
began,
been
encouraged
process.
Since
one conference on
to
the
aid
new
town
social planning in a
town was held at the Chinese University in 1975.
spite
the
In
of a large response from the public and university
researchers,
none of the
conference recommendations had
been implemented as late as 1977.
Once a public or private design plan has been submitted to the Development Office, the design review is coordinated
among
development
those agencies having
(often
departments).
developer
Private development design
proposal
has
as
many
Comments
the
as 32
are
through conferences with
staff.
Once
design,
detailed
tion.
the
In
approved
the
separate government
synthesized,
opportunity
changes
an interest in the
to
the
negotiate requested
the project management
plan may
design, working
At each threshold there
and
undergo schematic
drawings or construc-
is ample opportunity for
government team to evaluate the proposal critically.
spite
of
this thorough government
little room for local comment.
review, there is
Unlike
Keynes,
hibition
government
to view the overall master plan once at an exheld
in the
old
The
Sha
Tin town
center.
The
designers displayed a land use map as well as
model of the proposed
be
comment sought for Milton
Sha Tin villagers and residents have had the op-
portunity
a
the level of local
town center.
offered in a suggestion
planners
Suggestions could
box placed near the display.
were surprised that
so few responses were
received in the box, although one senior planner remarked
that the villagers needed no education on how to read and
understand
received
the
the
land
use
map.
The
district
office
a flurry of requests for more information about
status of villages and homes that were in clear con-
flict with proposed uses.
To
accommodate the existing villages
in Sha Tin the
Development Office has indicated which villages are to be
preserved, relocated, or redeveloped.
no
ment
The government has
jurisdiction within village boundaries until developrights have been acquired,
but once the rights are
acquired
be
redevelopment can begin.
preserved,
master
a
plan.
If
the village is to
village boundary is
delineated on the
In some cases
the boundary abuts the vil-
lage buildings, and in some cases a small green belt surrounding the village is included.
Economic Pressures
Delineating
ter
on
a boundary around a village does not al-
the pressures exerted by the surrounding development
land
values.
responding
forces.
to
In
Already villages
the rapidly changing
addition to
are showing signs of
social and economic
illegal industrial operations,
the widespread immigration of squatters into Sha Tin is a
predictable response to the growth of the new town.
the
Illegal development
is
Ciudad Guayana experience,
increasing.
limited
So far the
program to provide
Like
this rate of immigration
government has instituted a
squatter settlements but has
done little to guide the small scale industrial growth.
Unlike
improvement schemes for the existing villages
and commercial centers in Milton Keynes, at present there
are
no
plans
for
upgrading
village
areas
or
for
developing
likely
village
extension areas.
This condition is
to result in confusing land use, deterioration of
traditional village environments and unguided development
in the surrounding natural landscape, as it did in Ciudad
Guayana.
Village
likely
to
industrial and manufacturing enterprises are
continue
to spread as
the local economy and
life styles change, but there seems to be no institutional or legal mechanism short of police powers to cope with
the
type, style or tenure
appear.
Growing village
of these industries when they
Because of this lack of control, many of the in-
dustries are now becoming environmental hazards.
In
the
responding
were
fall of 1977 the
development office was not
to these problems; the planners and designers
busy solving Hong
Kong's housing crisis.
Repeated
attempts by junior Chinese planners to direct more effort
toward
The
Local illegal industries
city
the
villagers and squatters
development office, with its
in
ten
years,
did
not
were not effective.
mandate to construct a
have
enough
time
to
accommodate the increasing flow of immigrants or to guide
local "illegal" industries.
resorted
resolve
to
more
In the interim the villagers
active
means to express
conflicts in land
the need to
use, improve utility systems,
institute health care and coordinate social services.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
LOCAL PEOPLE AND THE LAND
The
Ming
Sha Tin Valley, which
Dynasty
(1368-1644),
has been farmed since the
has
historical
importance.
Flat land in the valley bottom is noted for its excellent
fertility
and
According
to
legendary
Emperor's
production
local
quality
table
of
large
history,
that
in
it
Sha
has
volumes
Tin rice
been
Peking.15 Today
of
rice.
is of such
served
at
the
these agricultural
lands produce rice, vegetables and commercial flowers.
Fung Shui and
Religious Beliefs
Many people in Hong Kong follow traditional religious
and mystical beliefs that blend elements of Confucianism,
Taoism,
and
Buddhism
into
a
form of
local religion.
Incense burning and direct communication with dieties are
integral
villagers
aspects
have
of
daily life.
been using "fung
In addition, Chinese
shui" for thousands of
years
to
ancient
select the best
practice
associated
with
(considered
will
the
is
based
hill (center)
Fung Shui
three
This
belief that spirits
and climatic shelter
essential life
giving elements)
provide the residents with good fortune, successful
rounding
be
on the
water, vegetation
livelihoods and wellbeing.
Yeun Chau Kok -
possible village sites.
Faced with change in the sur-
environment, villagers believe
taken
to soothe the disturbed
spirits.
The appeasing process
that steps must
fung shui and ancient
usually involves exten-
sive ceremonial rites and paying attention to the village
ancestors.
In
ners
the early stages of the development Sha Tin plandiscovered
they
must accommodate
these religious
beliefs
and therefore began working with local fung shui
experts
to
burial
choose
grounds.
relocation
sites
for
villages and
Since village burial grounds are as im-
portant to the residents as the village itself, the costly,
time consuming process of
has
been programmed into the annual development plan for
Sha Tin.
moving the burial grounds
Local Land Rights
Unlike
any
other
inhabitants of the
Hong Kong and
Kowloon colonial region, the villagers have historic land
rights.
The
British
protects
the
villagers' rights to
unless
the
rights
that..."there
the
will
are
lease
for
the
purchased.
New
Territories
their community land
The
be no expropriation
lease
states
or expulsion of
inhabitants of the district included within the (New
Territories)
extension, and that if land is required for
public offices, fortifications, or the like official purposes,
the
it
at a fair price."l6 Further,
treaty requires the government
lage
with an area for future growth.
portance
lows
the
shall be bought
of clan lineage to
to provide each vilBecause of the im-
the Chinese, the treaty al-
the sons of village elders to have housing space in
village
land
area, so each village
in Sha Tin must have
adjacent to the village designated as an "expansion
area."
Currently
taking
land
the government compensates the village for
and residential structures
by granting the
owner lease rights to a new lot and constructing a house.
The government provides these new houses at a rate of one
house for each 0.01 acres of land surrendered, whether or
not
there
is an
government
pansion
existing
structure on
provides compensation for
areas
replacement
by
giving
structure.
the
owner
In practice,
the lot.
The
use of village exa
new lot
and a
however, fung shui
and religious practices severely complicate the siting of
these new structures.
The
methods used to
compensate the local population
for adverse development impacts are similar to government
requirements
in Ciudad Guayana, except
that new Sha Tin
immigrants and squatters lack inherent rights to the land
and
are
While
of
only
indirectly
compensated
squatters sometimes receive
livelihood,
tenants
for
relocation.
compensation for loss
holding short
term land leases
lose their legal rights after the tenancy expires.
LAND TRANSFER POLICIES
Given
these
legal,
historic,
and
religious
complexities in the relationship between the local people
and
the
land,
the
government
has
adopted
policy
guidelines for land acquisitions in the development area.
There are six policies aimed at simplifying these complex
land transfers.
The policies include:
--relocating villages to another site more compatible
with the future development;
--purchasing development rights
compensation;
--acquiring development
change entitlements;
through direct cash
rights by
issuing land ex-
--relocating tenant farme::s to other areas of the New
Territories;
--housing squatters in public housing estates; and,
--preserving
location.
Village Relocation
The
first
location.
the
villages
in their
policy is to move
minent
form and
the village to another
This option differs significantly from any of
policy alternatives available
Ciudad
existing
Guayana or Milton Keynes.
engineering
programmed
works,
for relocation.
some
to the governments in
Already because of imvillages
are
being
Relocated homeowners receive
a new house and land at the government's exchange rate as
well as compensation for moving expenses.
Development Rights Transfer
The
to
second and third policies
establish
rely on market forces
appropriate levels of
compensation.
If a
village
is to be redeveloped,
between
cash compensation (the second policy choice) and
a
'letter
tion).
B'
The
development
building
land exchange entitlement
letter
rights
land
the landowner may choose
in
B entitlement gives
to
two-fifths
of
exchange for each
(the third opthe land owner
a unit
of urban
unit of rural land
surrendered.
These certificates are marketable in a series, starting
with
current.
several
title
by
open
the
oldest issue and
progressing to the most
Each New Town development office has designated
parcels of urban
B certificates.
development land for redeeming
Developers who
bid for the lease
purchasing the required number of certificates in the
market.
The price of
the certificates fluctuates
with the market value of the land to be developed.
Because
documents
the
government
began issuing
the letter B
over ten years ago and has only recently begun
to redeem them, certificate holders may have to wait some
time until the entitlement enters the market.
owners
cause
of
are
reluctant to participate
the certificates are not
in the program be-
tied to a specific piece
land, and the local landowners
have
Some land-
in the Sha Tin Valley
no guarantee that the certificates will be redeemed
in time to provide their needed compensation.
More
importantly,
the land exchange
program is now
close to a point where the number of outstanding certificates
will be greater than the amount of available urban
building land.
However, there is still village land that
must be taken for urban development in all three new town
projects.
ratio
The
move
have to revalue the
at which land is currently exchanged or offer cash
compensation
the
government may soon
only for taking land.
villagers
into
Sha
sell
or trade their
Tin public housing
area to enter the job market.
In either case, once
land they typically
or the Kowloon urban
Farmers
The
government's
fourth
policy is directed at the
farmers and some manufacturing enterprises in the Sha Tin
Valley.
In most cases the farmers
dustries
lease
and a few local in-
from the government
land
lagers to engage in their livelihood.
farmers,
the
they face a
lease
expires
development.
has
been
or other vil-
Like Milton Keynes
particularly uncertain future when
and
government
takes the
land for
In several cases the local district office
able
to
land outside the
lease agricultural
boundary of the new town and has provided it to the farmers,
the
but
unfortunately it is impossible
requests
to relocate farmers in
new territories.
port
to meet all of
other parts of the
There simply is not enough land to sup-
all of the Sha Tin farmers, and as in Milton Keynes
most will have to learn other skills.
The fifth policy addresses squatters who have settled
Squatters
in
the valley.
Some
government officials maintain that
among all the affected groups squatters benefit most from
the
new town because they
are moved into public housing
estates.
As
in Ciudad Guayana,
however, squatters are
arriving faster than the government can accommodate them.
In
particular,
squatters
and
ad
hoc
manufacturing
operators
are locating with surprising speed and density
near
existing village areas in
the
the head of Sha Tin
Valley.
In
Squatter village
1976,
the
Sha
Tin
Development Office
and the
District Land Office attempted to institute an experimental
reception area program, similar to the one in Ciudad
Guayana, by providing two "resite areas" in the new town.
The
areas
were
designated
for
officially
sanctioned
squatting and provided a site, sanitary services and minimal
to
building materials.
move
resite
came
squatters
from
The
existing
area and finally into
available.
government's strategy was
shanty areas
to the
public housing when it be-
The strategy proved
to be successful,
Boat village at low tide
but
as
limited
in
Ciudad
Guayana the overall
to provide an effective
influx of new settlers.
program was too
means to coordinate the
As the government planners in Ciudad Guayana learned,
it is difficult to ease the transition from squatter village
to
resite area and finally to
estate.
The
squatters,
task
farmers
and
more time than
houses
must
demolished,
time,
be
and
experience
with
villages has
is always expensive,
takes
Squatter village
government's
a flat in a housing
relocating
revealed that the
sometimes violent and usually
anticipated.
constructed
Further, new village
before
if the new village
old
homes
are
is not completed in
the government must pay the villagers' housing ex-
penses in the interim.
Village Preservation
Difficulties encountered with each of the five policy
alternatives,
relocation
decide
Tin
particularly
high
costs
associated with
efforts, has caused the development office to
that
the majority of the
Valley shall be preserved.
some
Chinese
this
policy
from
the government's desire
members of the
of
35 villages in the Sha
The local villagers and
development team fear that
blanket preservation
may have resulted
to avoid costly relocation
99
in
favor
of
things
the
way they
are in the
Current government publications reinforce this
villages.
point
leaving
of view by highlighting the importance of preserv-
ing the local lifestyle, culture and heritage.1 7
Unlike
Milton
development
the
those
are surrounded
that
is
As a result some villages, par-
preserved villages.
ticularly
office
the environment in
unconcerned with upgrading
presently
the
Keynes,
with high density
development or industrial zones, risk becoming small, imghettos
poverished
livelihood
are
assistance
some
gone.
traditional
the
once
Conversely,
may
villages
forms
of
without guidance and
become
light industrial
areas outside immediate government control.
of
Because
authority
over
developers
is
Even
the
village
Hong
Kong
land use,
leading to ad
government's
limited
speculation by local
hoc village redevelopment.
though the government intends to preserve most vil-
lages, land speculation will ultimately erode traditional
patterns
of
ownership
in many of
these villages.
For
100
in Tai Po a developer built 12 semi-detached, 3
example,
story
homes
flat basis.
and sold them as
condominiums on a flat by
If redevelopment of this nature were to take
place in Tsang Tai Uk, Sha Tin's historic walled village,
the
consequence would be a loss for the entire Hong Kong
community
Village in natural
landscape
ment
is
around
tions
as well as the new town.
currently
allocating resources
Tsang Tai Uk, no
have
been
Although the governfor open space
administrative or financial ac-
directed at
internally preserving the
village itself; there are no guarantees for its future.
As
move
in Ciudad Guayana, the
to
who
villagers who are able to
better living conditions will
remain
may become the victims
and unhealthy living conditions.
do so, but those
of poverty or unsafe
Development of the his-
toric Kowloon City demonstrates economic impacts that can
be
caused by surrounding a rural township with intensive
development
Village in development context
means
to
without providing the
improve
their
immediate
local settlers with a
environment
and to
stimulate commercial enterprises.
101
PATTERNS OF LOCAL
INFLUENCE AND
INSTITUTIONS
The
Sha
levels
of
housing
units.
Sixty percent of
be
public,
financed
three
and
employment
and
apartments
major
west
forty
have
placed on the balance
ing,
firms have been slow
sembly
percent will
ends of the new town
In
commute
availability of
all housing in Sha Tin
The
light industrial zones
course.
for balance between
and the
and houses.
race
residents
S
master plan calls
planned
will
~~ ~-
Tin
be privately
master plan shows
located at the east
and north of the Sha Tin
spite of the
importance the planners
between employment and housto relocate.
to work in
Current Sha Tin
Kowloon, do piecemeal as-
work at home or are employed in small illegal en-
M
terprises at the head of Sha Tin Valley.
M
A"
Whether employment will be available at the same rate
that
Light Industrial Zones
So
housing
far no new major
locate
the
is constructed is
in
Sha Tin.
an unanswered question.
manufacturing plants have chosen to
In
addition to uncertainties about
future availability of employment opportunities, the
development
office
planners
face
another
potentially
102
critical
that
problem:
recent environmental studies indicate
if automobile traffic
polluting
industries
locate
reaches predicted levels and
in Sha
Tin, air pollution
will become severe.
Ironically,
knowledge
the planners' concerns
reveal a lack of
about the distribution of work throughout Hong
Kong and the New Territories.
Many manufacturing and as-
sembly enterprises are decentralized; they are located in
small locally owned structures or on the first two floors
of
older
private
housing
estates.
The
potential for
siting small scale manufacturing enterprises within walking
at
distance of the workers' homes is evident by looking
existing situations in communities throughout the new
territories.
Perhaps
tion
that
Sha Tin planning is tied to the European nowork and industry must
dustrial zones away from housing.
Milton
Keynes
decentralizing
forced
the
be centralized in inEconomic conditions in
planners
some small scale
there
to consider
manufacturing to reduce
103
the
worker's
Sha
Tin
ignoring the land
are
scale
small
commuting distances.
--
development
use map and instituting
housing estates and
manufacturing near the
Their
villages.
actions
are
local people in
The
influencing the
already
activity abounds
business
in locations
contrary to the plan.
Although
an
process is to
development
component
important
Milton
Keynes,
the
Sha
Tin
provide neighborhood schools,
health and recreational facilities,
like
of
the Sha Tin plan,
space and con-
addresses physical
development programs.
than social
un-
By
struction
rather
providing
the appropriate physical facilities for social
welfare
activities, the planners hope that the voluntary
and charitable organizations (which traditionally provide
most
Hong Kong social services)
the necessary services.
not
Attempts to ensure that the ser-
will be provided at a
vices
as
comprehensive
will step in to deliver
or
level that meets demand are
coordinated
as
the
efforts
underway in Milton Keynes.
104
Local Organization
As
in Ciudad Guayana, however,
beginning
to
development
transition
ment.
Tsang
ment
organize and influence
office
from
because
of
the actions of the
problems in making the
the rural setting
to an urban environ-
In the South China Morning Post a village leader,
Ying-Chung, expressed his
office's
Mr.
the local people are
opinion of the develop-
attitude toward
the villagers' concerns.
Tsang said, "I am proud of our past and even prouder
to see a glorious future for Sha Tin.
wise
that the government will
those
that
who, after all, have
But I think it un-
not consider the views of
lived on and been developing
piece of land for generations,
land of mine and my
fellow Shatinians."18
In an effort to make
village needs known, a delegavisited London to dis-
tion
including Sha Tin residents
cuss
the future welfare of people in the New Territories
with
British
government leaders.
if
the
As
the Heung Yee Kuk
population
of
the
New
delegation
argued,
Territories
doubles by 1985, as projected, "better water
105
and
power
supplies,
medical
services,
educational
facilities and other amenities are urgently needed."1 9
This
London
not
plea for direct contact
with the government in
and greater local control
in the New Territories
only
Britain
achieved the desired
close contact with Great
but resulted in plans by
the Kuk to keep a per-
manent office in London.
When
the planning and development office sponsored a
symposium
in
1976
to address
social service planning,
government and academic speakers offered a range of views
on
the nature of the project
and health care delivery
services
chief
Tin
and ways to improve social
planner
for Sha Tin stated
in the new town.
The
that, "The aim of Sha
is not only to provide 500,000 people with satisfac-
tory homes and employment, but also to encourage the formation
basic
of
a
and balanced
community where the
needs of all its residents can readily be met:
identifiable
all
healthy
an
and meaningful community in which people of
ages and incomes can
live and develop healthily and
socially. ,20
106
However,
Local Government Needs
the
need
government
most
for
more
planning
of the
independent speakers stressed
frequent communication
officials and
between the
the local residents.
One researcher made three recommendations aimed at creating
more cohesive social
organizations at the community
level:
1.
Both government and public agencies should mobilize and organize the new residents to speed up
the natural formation of primary groups and
voluntary organizations which constitute a concurrent, solid and stable community.
2. Government must link and coordinate these primary
groups and organizations to form a solidary social network. This network in turn is the basis
for promoting community cooperation, fostering
community spirit, controlling crime and instituting a responsible political infrastructure.
3.
Physical facilities and carefully designed social
welfare p5Tgrams must be provided to enhance this
process.
The researcher went on to say that community development
especially at the grass roots level has significant
role
to
initiate
play
in Hong Kong and
community development
that government should
and participation rather
107
than
make sporadic responses
experience
that
of this native born
to local frustration.
The
Hong Kong researcher was
lccal people are willing to participate in planning
and
guiding their community's future
if they know their
efforts will bring results.
CONCLUSION
In the fall of 1977,
was
building
master
plan.
the
the Sha Tin Development Office
new town according
to the programmed
Perhaps because of cultural differences or
the overwhelming mandate to complete the project, opposition expressed by immigrants and the villagers was having
little effect on overall planning decisions.
In spite of
recommendations made at the symposium on social planning,
there
were no sociologists or Chinese community develop-
ment specialists on the development team.
was
growing
several
Chinese
Development
continued
concern
to
for
the
planners
Office.
The Sha
make
strategic
However, there
villages on
and
the part of
architects
in the
Tin planners and designers
decisions
in a
vacuum:
108
although
the
in
those
office
control
was
located on
of the
the project site,
development remained isolated
from
the farmers, villagers
and squatters.
were
made for engineering purposes,
Site visits
not to make contact
or enhance communication with villagers or squatters.
Like
Ciudad
Guayana,
these
early years
of formal
planning
and development have highlighted contradictions
between
the professional's view of the city and the more
immediate
sional
needs
of
the local
population.
The profes-
staff in both Sha Tin and Ciudad Guayana are par-
ternalistic
toward
the
local
residents.
Both
teams
operated as though the villagers, settlers, and squatters
are
not educated enough or
familiar enough with massive
engineering works to contribute in a constructive way.
Local
to
government in Sha Tin found that it was easier
influence project decisions by
the British government in London.
highest
power:
Ciudad
Guayana,
villagers
to
going directly to the
there
was
no effective
communicate the need
As in
means for the
for on site services
109
except
through
confrontations
protest.
with
At
times
in
disgruntled villagers
Sha
Tin
were violent
and police were needed to clear land or resolve disputes.
While
flux
the Hong Kong economy
remains strong, the in-
of squatters and unanticipated light industrial ac-
tivity
may affect locational
tors.
Most high income residents in Hong Kong live away
from
decisions of needed inves-
impoverished squatter settlements
and may not wish
to live in Sha Tin if there are immediate local problems.
There
could
be
an
emerging
conflict
between
the
government's new town vision and the reality at the site,
and
to
as in Ciudad Guayana the development office may have
these
solve
immediate problems in order to realize
their future goals.
So
far
the
truest sense.
cels
are
little
planners
Sha
Tin
and
master plan in the
Roadways, infrastructure and land use par-
fixed; many are
room
plan is a
in the
under construction.
plan for
designers
have
There is
substantial change.
not
analyzed what
The
to do
110
should
the social or economic climate of Sha Tin change.
Already
there is growing concern
about what to do about
the
potential air pollution problems.
not
built into the system as
and
will
be
difficult
Contingencies are
they were in Milton Keynes
to institute
within the plan's
rigid structure.
Sha
Tin
preserving
developers
fabric
in
did.
Milton
The rationale,
Keynes
of the new town
decisions about
designers
however, seems diftried
to
weave the
within and between the villages;
Sha Tin the town seems to be designed in spite of the
villages.
Village near borrow area
the same
local towns and villages as the Milton Keynes
professionals
ferent.
made
several
A
look
at the Sha Tin
situations where a
land use map reveals
village's location conflicts
with surrounding uses.
The
the
mandate
to develop Ciudad
Guayana was based on
desire to develop natural resources.
develop
planning
Milton
process
Keynes
to
grew
from a
accommodate
The mandate to
long term regional
urban
growth between
111
London
and
recognized
though
40,000
New development -
in background
villages
need
Sha
to house Hong
Tin's
mandate
is
Kong's population.
the
Even
the ultimate population targets differ, all three
projects
first
Birmingham.
have
influx
been
of
analyzed
residents;
and 50,000 residents.
at a time
each
just after the
project
had between
Hopefully, it is possible
to learn from the experience in Ciudad Guayana and Milton
Keynes
for the benefit of
the Development Office in Sha
Tin.
112
Chapter 6:
Three Villages
113
This
INTRODUCTION
chapter
outlines
strategies
for
resolving
The first village,
problems with three Sha Tin villages.
Tsang Tai Uk, was selected to illuminate problems and opexperienced when preserving a village in its
portunities
with
Sam, was
villagers participating in
the transition and
Finally, Wong Uk
outcome.
financial
village, Tin
can be redeveloped
illustrate
the
second
how a village
to
chosen
The
location.
existing
village gives ex-
amples of complexities encountered when relocating a village to another site.
My
decisions to recommend
gathered from the Sha Tin Development Office
information
(engineering
decentral
the
reports and landscape planning data) and my
while
process
working
in
Hong
for village level
new town development system.
outline
locational
grew out of published
these three villages
redeveloping
experience
preserving, relocating or
master
logic
--
two
of
the
There
is no
decision making in
Evaluating the Sha Tin
illuminates
plan
Kong.
contradictions
three
in
villages were
114
clearly
out
of
context
with
the
proposed
new
town
structure.
Cultural
of
the
lifestyle, culture and
and
preserved
of preserving
objective
government's
lagers'
ture
preservation issues were considered because
have
lifestyle
if a village
Clearly, cul-
heritage.
a far better
the vil-
chance of being
a rural location,
is moved to
rather than being retained in the urban core.
village's
for guiding the
transition are structured in response to ques-
asked
in the assessment
of Milton Keynes, Ciudad
and
Sha Tin New Town.
The suggestions look at
to structure interactions
between professionals in
tions
Guayana
ways
and recommendations
strategies
The
the development office and the local villagers.
The
land
recommendations will also
occupancy
lagers'
historic
recommendations
based
on
address problems with
an understanding
relationship to the
are
also
made for
land.
of the vilIn Tin Sam
squatters occupying
land near the village.
115
Finally,
this
what
local
In
cases the suggestions are in the form of procedural
some
organizational steps that should be taken by the vilthe development office.
lagers
and
mature
it may
take
suggests
needs are evident within each village.
institutional
or
chapter
be necessary to
responsibility
As these processes
institute committees to
to ensure that
the steps are taken
efficiently and effectively.
116
TSANG TAI UK -
Of
PRESERVATION
all the villages in
Sha Tin Valley designated to
be preserved, perhaps-the most important is Tsang Tai Uk.
This
village
retains special
historic significance be-
cause it was constructed early in the 19th century shortly after the British began to rule Hong Kong.
other
village
village
in
the valley, Tsang Tai
reflecting
traditional
Unlike any
Uk is a walled
Chinese
city
form.
Government publications note that the village is the best
\/
Tsang Tai Uk
-
preserved
walled
Kong
ample administrative laws
has
village in Hong
Kong.
Further, Hong
to protect historic
Surrounding
development
structures.
The
walled village is rectangular, approximately 300
feet (100 meters) long and 150 feet (50 meters) wide, and
the
walls
are
development.
tall
enough to accommodate
a two story
In 1976 it appeared that there were 600-800
people
living
within
the village walls.
in some 100 to
150 apartments and houses
The village is located on the
south side of the valley below the road leading from Lion
Rock Tunnel.
Tsang Tai Uk
117
Interactions Between the
Professionals and the
Local People
The
role
Sha
that
tourist
the
Development Office
village
attraction
development
front
Tin
of
Tsang
can and already
the new town.
had
Tai
allocated
Uk
to
and to accommodate
amenities
village
office
in
has recognized the
was in need of
does play as a
In late 1976 the
ample open
provide
for
recreational
parking for tourists.
The
renovation, and engineering work
was underway to solve flooding problems.
tions
space in
However, no ac-
had been taken to negotiate directly with the vilor
lagers
to
preserve
the
integrity of
the physical
The villagers did not know that their role in
structure.
the new town was to become a tourist attraction.
development
The
office
should form a
team to work
with the village leaders to insure that the villagers unand are prepared for their changing role in Sha
derstand
Tin.
The
development
professionals and
the villagers
should agree on what work is necessary to improve the existing
buildings.
accommodate
They
should
also
decide
how
to
any necessary expansion and work together to
118
bring
Tsang
Tai
Uk
within the
protection of historic
preservation laws.
The
team representing the
contain
cal
with
toric
the skills necessary to communicate with the lo-
villagers.
ganize
development office should
The team must also
a representative group from
be able to help orthe village and work
the central Hong Kong government to secure the hisstatus
of the village.
This
team should be com-
posed of:
--An architect with particular knowledge of or expertise
in architectural history and Chinese city form;
--A planner who speaks Chinese and who is knowledgeable
about Hong Kong's preservation laws;
--An engineer who is the professional that has handled
the site preparation work thus far;
--A
land
specialist
from the district
knows the status of home
village; and
land office who
ownership within the walled
--A "development specialist" with experience in working
at the community level, preferably one who has worked
with villagers in the past. This team member may come
or from the Chinese
office
district
the
from
University.
119
represented by their elders
villagers should be
The
and immediate leaders together with representatives electo
ted
on the district
sit
rural council.
Other vil-
lagers concerned with the status of homes within the vilThe village and
lage should also be on the village team.
on a date and place
the
development office should agree
for
a formal meeting between the village representatives
and
the development office team.
The first formal meet-
ing should be devoted to exchanging information about the
of
future
the village as
envisioned by the development
office and reviewing problems that the villagers currently experience or perceive they will experience as Sha Tin
is developed around the village.
Subsequent
meetings should address
of physical improvements.
timing
team
should also take the
plan
and
Tsang
the
Tai
need
to
The development office
lead in helping the villagers
prepare for expanding
Uk will be
the need for and
the village.
Expanding
particularly sensitive because of
preserve historic qualities
of the walled
village.
120
The development office team can provide the villagers
with
educational
information
team
can illuminate the villagers'
role in Sha Tin.
economic
about the
future and their new
express the interests of
villagers in development office decisions.
the
the
portantly,
professional
office team
development
expertise to the village
the
representatives.
the
villagers'
to
overcome
Most im-
should provide
at the request of
The professionals
desire
The
The role of the professionals
also include helping to
should
new town.
should support
administrative and
legal obstacles when dealing with the government.
Tsang
Local Relationship to
the Land
Tai
named Tsang.
years
in
lage
Uk
the home of
is
The village was originally founded over 120
ago as a rural
retreat from the urban settlements
Hong Kong and Kowloon.
has
descendents of a man
traditionally
The land adjacent to the vilbeen
farmed in
low lying rice
paddies.
If the village structure is not protected by historic
preservation
laws,
it
is
probable
that
ad
hoc
121
the village attractive.
make
historic qualities that
destroy the
will
redevelopment
is unclear whether the
It
understand their changing economic role in Sha
villagers
Tin or their changing relationship to the land.
They are
losing one source of livelihood (agriculture) and are assuming a different way of life (tourism).
1976 the villagers were
In
The paddies were drained
village.
The
grown.
and a few water buf-
on a small amount
grazing
were
falo
and along side the
land in front of
on
activity
tural
not engaging in agricul-
of grass that had
be engaged in
seemed already to
villagers
tourism or had found other means of employment.
Since
the village already had
become something of a
tourist attraction without resistance from the villagers,
the
from
transition
making
a
living
agriculture
is underway.
to alternate
However,
ways of
it is apparent
that
some villagers may have problems making the transi-
tion
because
office
should
they
help
lack
the
job
skills.
village
The development
initiate
a
training
122
program
Kong social welfare department
through the Hong
or private business in the new town.
Because
the treaty with China allows sons of village
elders to have homes within village boundaries, Tsang Tai
Uk
In 1976 there were no
may need space for expansion.
occupancy
immediate
enterprises,
industrial
and it appeared
that local en-
keeping adjacent land clear
was successful in
forcement
squatters or illegal
problems with
for site improvements and recreational development.
required by the villagers
expansion space be
Should
during negotiations with the development office team, additional space will have to be found near Tsang Tai Uk to
accommodate
the growth.
It appears
that
rear
site toward the nearby
in
form
hill.
this direction preserves the
and
dividual
without
village to grow on the
there is room for the
tion
allows necessary
houses
may
be
from a site evalua-
Providing for growth
integrity of the walled
expansion.
sited
on the
Alternately, innearby hillside
intruding visually or contradicting the scale of
the walled structure.
123
A physical layout plan for the village extension area
should
be prepared.
The layout should show the specific
land uses, the arrangement and location of structures and
detail
should
ments.
and
a phasing plan
The group representing
review the preparation of
Tai Uk.
for implementing improvethe village should guide
the layout plan for Tsang
The plan should also encompass the existing vil-
lage area and outline a strategy for physically upgrading
sanitary and housing conditions.
One
Local Institutional Needs
fice
the
of the initial problems that the development ofthe village representatives
and
appropriate strategy for preserving the physical in-
tegrity
between
development
the
village representatives
office that Tsang Tai
a tourist attraction, then
integral
However, once there is
the walled village.
of
consensus
as
should address is
and the
Uk is to be preserved
the villagers can play an
role in ensuring that the intended preservation
takes place.
124
The
first
step
should
be
to protect
the village
through Hong Kong's historic preservation laws.
the
village
tions
the
representatives should
However,
understand implica-
of the law for redevelopment and rehabilitation of
village.
The
development
office team
can be in-
strumental
in assisting the villagers in applying to the
Hong
Historical
Kong
status.
most
Society
After the village is
for
historical building
on the historic register,
of the necessary enforcement
can take place within
the village itself.
Perhaps
village
the
best
means toward this
representatives to review
end is for the
proposals for village
A set of preservation guidelines should be
improvement.
developed so that any changes or improvements to the village
reflect
necessary,
the
the traditional
architectural form.
When
the group could play a coordinating role with
Historical Society, the Hong Kong government and the
Sha Tin Development Office by reviewing redevelopment and
preservation proposals.
125
Options
for
growth
rehabilitation
and
should
be
explored by the development office team together with the
village
preferred
on
agreement
there
identified and scheduled
provements.
Physical improve-
The 1976 engineering report identified some
was unclear who would
village
agreed that the
in the correct order
of necessary improvements was
list
mutual
for capital expenditure im-
cost or whether the
the
incur
be
sewer connections, should
improvements, however it
physical
should
strategies.
including drainage and
ments,
be
and
representatives,
of priority.
village representatives, working
The
council,
could also help the
with the rural
district land office coor-
transfers within the
walled village it-
dinate
housing
self.
Should homes be sold or transferred to other vil-
lagers, the villagers could help insure that the physical
space
is maintained and improved
within the overall set
of preservation guidelines.
126
Finally, the village representatives and the development
office team should develop
a strategy for managing
Tai Uk as a tourist attraction.
Tsang
address
The groups should
how income can be generated from tourism through
concession sales and should define what areas of the village
are off limits to tourists.
The groups should also
decide how the village is to be policed in the future and
how the recreational and parking areas are to be managed.
The villagers should know whether they can charge admission to visitors and should establish what is the most
importantly,
must
to be offered.
mix of concession sales
beneficial
the
development
agree on who should
office and
More
the villagers
manage and derive revenue from
parking facilities and recreational areas adjacent to the
village.
The
villagers should have
a role in managing
these areas and should receive income from them as a form
of compensation for lost land.
The village representatives should develop a strategy
for
internally
distributing the
revenue generated from
127
For instance, the
tourism.
the
income
a
on
capita
basis
from which payment
fund
development
per
village could either divide
could be retained for
establish
a
is drawn for those
The balance of this
who work for the tourist operations.
fund
or
on-site improvements and in-
vested for the benefit of the village as a whole.
Tsang
Conclusion
Tai Uk should retain
its physical position in
the
development and has an economic
Tin
New
and
light in-
uncontrolled
activity are not problems in the area.
dustrial
the
Squatting
Town.
role to play in Sha
seem content with
villagers
in
role
integral
the village becoming a
The villagers can, however, play an
attraction.
tourist
Further
the development of Tsang
Tai Uk as a
preserved entity.
It
the
development
representatives.
with
enhance the relationship between
is important to
the
information
office
By
professionals
structuring
the
new
village
positive negotiations
villagers and by providing
about
and
town
an open avenue for
development,
the
128
an open avenue for
villagers and by providing
the
with
information
about
the
development
office
can
management.
The
on the
villagers,
local
enhanced
from
benefit
the
development,
town
new
other hand, should
the necessary steps to insure that preserving Tsang
take
Uk
Tai
that are economically
result in decisions
will
beneficial to the village.
preservation
Addressing
Uk
Tai
provide
enhanced
for
developing
in
building
development
villagers
The
management.
or
result
should
should
guidelines to review
the
upgrading
development
village.
office
issues in Tsang
and growth
schedule
capacity to
local
decisions
take
the
and local
lead
in
proposals for improving
They
and
could also
help the
approve
capital
improvements.
The village representatives should guide the preparation
of a physical plan for extending Tsang Tai Uk.
representatives
which
direction
The
can play an integral role in deciding in
the
village should grow
and in siting
129
individual
houses
near
Tsang
representatives
elected
of
Tai Uk.
the
The elders and
village
should
also
negotiate with the development office team to arrive at a
strategy for managing the adjacent land.
Structuring local institutions to address issues that
include
village preservation, income generation and dis-
tribution,
and
management
of the
adjacent land should
result in a development area that the villagers are willing to maintain because it is in their financial interest
to do so.
a
Ultimately, Tsang Tai Uk should become less of
burden on Sha Tin because the management and preserva-
tion enforcement can be accomplished locally.
130
TIN SAM TSUEN -
Tin
Sam Tsuen village provides
a prime example of a
REDEVELOPMENT
village
that will be out of context with the surrounding
new
town development.
Sha
Tin Valley on the south
should
on
Tin Sam is located at the head of
it be preserved, the
three
housing
side of the tidal cove, and
village would be surrounded
sides by high density
and
on
the
(10 to 20 story) public
fourth side by
a light industrial
zone.
The village is medium sized by Sha Tin standards.
There
appears to be 60-70 individual structures, and the
population is estimated to be at least 1000 people.
Government
publications originally
listed this vil-
lage as being scheduled for relocation because of primary
road
works and the adjacent high density public housing.
However,
there
the
Tin Sam Tsuen -
Surrounding development
a
1976
engineering report
were problems with finding
village
occupies
is
should be retained.
suited to denser
noted that because
a suitable resite area
The
land that Tin Sam
residential or commercial
development related to the surrounding housing estates.
131
For
tend
Tin Sam the available
beyond
should
preservation
include
or
policy choices should exrelocation.
the opportunity to
The options
redevelop Tin Sam in
cooperation with the villagers.
Interactions Between the
Professionals and the
Local People
Because
Tin
Sam
is
located
in
an
area
that is
strategically appropriate for higher density development,
the
village
ghetto
or
runs
the risk of
becoming an impoverished
an unofficial light industrial
preserved.
zone if it is
Early in 1977 several illegal industries were
already operating in the village area, some of which were
becoming safety and environmental hazards.
tory
had
repair
no fire fighting equipment
A rattan.fac-
at all and an auto
shop was spilling waste oil, damaging nearby com-
mercial fruit trees.
In
spite of these conditions, the development office
decided
that
preserve
Tin Sam and not recognize that the land was al-
the
most
appropriate
strategy
was
to
Tin Sam Tsuen
ready
in transition.
response
to
Redevelopment
was taking place in
the economic pressures on
the value of the
132
--
land
the villagers had decided to put their land to a
more productive use.
The
Sha Tin development office can build on this lo-
cal
initiative by structuring a process to redevelop Tin
Sam
with the villagers participating in planning for the
financial outcome.
transition
and
in the
as
far
back as 1977 indicated
values
Since land
that the area is
for redevelopment, the government should rezone the
ripe
land and offer the villagers joint development rights.
In forming a team of
Sam
professionals to work with Tin
villagers, the development
to
the
office should assign ex-
team formed for
Tsang Tai Uk.
pertise
similar
Instead
of retaining an architect experienced in history
and
tise
ment.
preservation, however, the
team will require exper-
in the procedural and financial aspects of developOther expertise --
planning, engineering, and land
transfers and community development specialists --
should
remain the same.
133
should have
villagers
The
village elders and
cluding
leaders, and representatives
to the district rural committee.
Representatives of home
Tin Sam and representatives
in
owners
broad representation in-
enterprises should also be
dustrial
of the light in-
included on the Tin
Sam team.
the village and
both
Once
the
assembled,
are
requiring
groups can set
negotiation.
of options for the
range
Alternatives
development office teams
The first step
is to outline a
future development of Tin Sam.
for consideration may
light industrial activity (with
the
an agenda on issues
range from expanding
the area becoming a
legitimate small scale light industrial zone) to creating
a
commercial
housing
shopping center that
estates.
connects to adjacent
Tin Sam may even be redeveloped into a
medium density commercial housing area.
Although the current activity indicates the villagers
have
office
adopted light industrial
activity, the development
may think the more appropriate use is residential
134
Alternatively,
development.
bridge some of
may
center
shopping
developing
a
commercial
these problems and
provide high income to the developers of the project.
a
Once
preferred
option
is identified
the groups
should agree on an overall phasing plan to guide the vil-
broad
The phasing plan should address such
transition.
lage's
as
issues
options
development
phasing
the
However,
the
to staging for
plan
for offering
timing
appropriate
the land clearance.
should also
detail a coor-
dinated strategy for redevelopment that ensures that villagers
are not left homeless
tion.
The
assisting
offering
during and after construc-
Hong Kong government
can be instrumental in
the villagers during this transition period by
low interest loans
repayable from the proceeds
of the villagers' interest in a transformed Tin Sam.
After
the
groups
have
agreed
to what
kind of of
development is appropriate for Tin Sam and a phasing plan
is set, they should achieve
consensus on a strategy for
acquiring and distributing revenue from the redevelopment
135
project.
The mechanism for administering the villagers'
interest
in
the
development
can
be
a
Community
Development Corporation described in the section on local
needs.
institutional
villagers
Tin
by
law must
Fair
fair compensation for losing village land.
receive
compensation
if
Sha
can be achieved
through a market mechanism
development rights in the
the villagers retain joint
new development.
relationship
The
the
between
office
development
professionals and villagers from Tin Sam should be one in
skills
entrepreneurial
the
support
professionals
the
which
evident
existing
village.
in the
As in
Milton Keynes, the planners and designers should help the
local
people
improve
their
existing
environments and
structure
economic links to the surrounding communities.
Conflicts
between
development
team
can
the
existing
be resolved and
can assist the Tin
village
and
the
new
the development office
Sam villagers in continuing the
redevelopment that started in 1977.
136
Local Relationship to
the Land
Sam
Tin
people from China
Chinese
the
Traditionally,
in the valley,
production
declined
commercial
flowers
into the New Territories.
villagers were farmers
the village.
surrounded
which
land
the oldest village
not
grown after World War II when there was an influx
having
of
is
as the villagers
and
on the paddy
However, the rice
turned to growing
ornamental trees
because these
crops were more lucrative.
With
the development of Sha Tin New Town most of the
agricultural
and
land near Tin Sam
public housing.
was taken for road works
The villagers responded to the con-
struction
activity in the same way that rice farming was
converted
to more valuable crops; they opened small com-
mercial
and light industrial
comes.
In
small
Tin
Sam agriculture ultimately
scale manufacturing
transitions
operations to maintain in-
indicate
gave way to
and industrialization.
that the
These
villagers accepted their
new economic activity; it was the development office that
thought the village should remain as it always had been.
137
The
Sha
construction
works and
development activity on
Tin resulted in limited squatting near Tin Sam, most
likely
because there were job
opportunities in the vil-
lage.
In 1977 the squatting seemed
to be contained on
the east side of Tin Sam near the roadway construction.
The
squatter
settlement
should be
included in the
phasing plan for redevelopment because it is an important
aspect
land in transition and
of
development
The
representatives
should
play
squatters
turing
be
professionals
office
should
in Tin
discuss what
were providing a source
the village
role the squatters
scheme.
The
of labor for manufac-
activities underway in 1977,
development
and
redevelopment
Sam's
required in future years.
the
Sha Tin's urban form.
From
office the area may
and their labor may
the point of view of
be suitable for an
official squatter location in the new town.
Local Institutional Needs
As the development office and the village representatives
form
a strategy to
accomplish the redevelopment,
there will need to be an institutional mechanism to guide
138
the
development process and
the
resulting
most
to distribute proceeds from
development.
As stated
previously, the
equitable and profitable means toward redevelopment
may
be for the Sha Tin
development office to offer both
the villagers and private entrepreneurs joint development
rights in the intended development project.
A village development corporation could be the representative
organization within the
redevelopment.
legal
This
village to coordinate
organizational
structure
enables
and administrative functions of a joint venture to
take
place
should
in
the
village.
take the lead in
The
village corporation
determining whose rights in the
village are honored and at what rate they will be valued.
A system similar to the letter B development entitle-
owners
in
be applied within the
could
ments
are compensated from
proportion
the
the development corporation
market
value
of
the
land.
Uk,
interests in the new
could be divided along
clan or family lines
Alternatively,
development
to
village so that land
as in Tsang Tai
139
or
be
could
distributed
on
capita basis.
The
is to design an equitable disbursement system,
objective
the villagers themselves
but
a per
should take the initiative
in defining what is equitable.
The
is
final duty that the village group should address
to institute a process
relocation.
in
for guiding individual family
The development corporation can be effective
coordinating
transitions by
these
working with the
Hong Kong housing authority, the district land office and
the
Sha
Tin development office.
Making the transition
between a traditional village environment and new housing
is rarely easy; it
estate
fusing and difficult.
is often time consuming, con-
The development corporation, aided
by the development office team, should contact the social
welfare
need
of
department to provide
assistance to families in
counseling, medical attention
or assistance to
ease these difficulties.
Studying
Conclusion
that
a land use map for Sha Tin New Town reveals
Tin Sam is not in scale with the proposed surround-
140
ing development.
A village the size of Tin Sam is out of
context with light industry and high density public housFurther,
ing.
changes
the villagers
themselves recognized the
these opportunities by opening
and responded to
illegal small scale manufacturing enterprises.
In spite of the lack of a suitable location to resite
the
village on another
and
the
location, the development office
villagers can cooperatively
redevelop Tin Sam.
It is uncertain whether the villagers will agree with any
redevelopment
proposal; what is certain is that they are
substantial portion of the
already
willing to convert a
village
and that the development
office did not approve
of the ad hoc redevelopment taking place in 1977.
The villagers can play an integral role in the future
physical
cal
and economic development process.
It is criti-
to structure a positive link between the village and
the development office by forming a team of professionals
with
diverse
from
the
skills
village.
to negotiate
These
meetings
with representatives
should
result in
141
villagers.
the
new town developers and
that benefit both the
decisions
It will also
be necessary to structure
local institutions to address development timing, phasing
distribution
and
of finances.
A community development
corporation
can provide the necessary administrative or-
ganization
to make decisions about land rights and local
compensation and can aid in relocating village families.
the
If
group
the
representing
village
openly
development
office
team
negotiate
development
office
team
is willing to
lagers
technically,
productive
More
a
decisions
about Tin
and appropriate to the
and
and
the
if the
assist the vilSam should be
needs of both groups.
importantly, the redevelopment process could become
precedent for organizing development and arriving at a
means
for
compensating villagers in other parts of the
new town.
142
.
WONG UK - RELOCATION
Wong
Yuen
Uk
Chau
Tin.
is
Kok,
a small village located
an important Fung
at the foot of
Shui mountain in Sha
The exact age and population of the village is un-
known,
but the houses in the
30
years old, and in 1977
in
the village.
Wong Uk
village appear to be 20 to
about 100 to 200 people lived
occupies an area approximately
825 feet (250 meters) long and 165 feet (50 meters) wide,
while
15
to
20 village structures
are well integrated
into the landscape of Yuen Chau Kok.
Near the village is
a burial ground located on the back side of the hill.
This
village
relocation
the
is
targeted
in
because of its small
surrounding development.
the master
plan for
size and conflicts with
The development office has
filled in the tidal basin fronting the village, and there
will be 15 to 20 story private housing constructed on the
new land.
be
Wong Uk -
Surrounding
development
High density private housing estates will also
developed
site.
The
immediately
Yuen
to
the right
Chau Kok mountain
of the village
will remain an open
space in Sha Tin new town.
143
MEME
In
fice
1977 the development office and district land ofhad
contacted the villagers
These discussions indicated that
for moving the village.
the
villagers
provided.
to begin negotiations
willing to move
were
if new houses were
However, the villagers disagreed with the num-
ber of new houses that the government offered.
Interactions Between the
Professionals and the
Local People
The
Tin
Development
Office and
District Land
have had extensive prior experience with relocat-
Office
ing
Sha
villages.
revealed
Early
negotiations
with
the villagers
that there was agreement that Wong Uk should be
moved; where to move the village had not been decided and
how
many new homes to
build was disputed.
The develop-
ment office should form a team with the district land office
to
negotiate
with
the
villagers and
professional
expertise to resolve
construction
and siting.
The
to provide
problems around house
team from the development
office should include:
Wong Uk
--an engineer who is familiar with site preparation work
for village resite areas;
144
--a representative from the district land office who has
worked with Wong Uk villagers;
--a Chinese speaking planner from the development office
who is familiar with available alternate sites for village development;
--a Fung Shui expert who can aid in the resiting of individual homes and the burial grounds; and
--an architect who can prepare site design alternatives
and communicate with villagers.
Since Wong Uk is so small, the traditional elders and
elected
leaders may be sufficient
to represent the vil-
lagers; however because resiting the village may have implications
for other Sha Tin
villages, Wong Uk's repre-
sentative to the rural council should also be a member of
the
team.
review
The village's size creates the opportunity to
site
plans
in
village-wide open
meetings when
broad consensus is required for making decisions.
Once
meet
the villagers have agreed to a date and time to
with the development office
team, the group should
resolve problems with the number of houses the government
is
willing
to
construct.
Regulations
allow
the
145
each
for
house
one
at the rate of
to provide replacement houses
government
acre
0.01
of
land
taken
for
If the result of this formula is to reduce
development.
total housing stock within the village, the develop-
the
ment office should consider replacing the total number of
houses.
shells for the additional houses requested and al-
basic
low
the government could provide
that is impossible,
If
the
resemble that of a
could
expense
gets
skills
area
struct
option
is
to
to complete
the house.
on
local entrepreneurial
provide extra land
in the village resite
which
builds
for additional housing.
additional
villagers.
minimized and the occupant
needed
labor
for
This process
self-help housing project; the
to the government is
credit
Another
the house.
villagers to complete
houses
A villager could then con-
to sell or
transfer to other
This added income to the village may be taken
as a form of compensation for moving the village.
146
After agreeing to the number of houses to be provided
in the
for
resiting the village.
and
master
required,
the
meetings
from the Fung Shui
Expertise
development
the
office
planner
will
be
because the location of the burial grounds and
orientation
It would
have
groups should evaluate options
new village, the
be
a whole is critical.
of the village as
beneficial at this
in the village so
stage to organize open
that all concerned villagers
an oppcrtunity to review
and comment on the siting
alternatives.
After
step
agreeing
should
chitect
and
to a location for
be to site the
the
fung
Tin Sam, the next
individual houses.
shui master
The ar-
should play primary
roles when working with villagers to locate houses on the
new
Tin Sam location.
These professionals should coor-
dinate choices for house location and community buildings
with
the engineer so that water and sewer infrastructure
may be constructed.
147
The
development
individually
with
office
professionals
home owners at
should
meet
this stage to resolve
any locational or orientation problems.
In addition, the
architect and fung shui expert should meet with groups of
families
because
of
fung shui
complexities or because
families may wish to cluster their houses.
Finally, a phasing plan for moving the village should
be detailed so that the villagers can see that there will
be
new
for
homes available before the
The transition for
development.
if the team of
eased
process
going
each
old village is taken
the village can be
professionals help insure that the
of moving is well coordinated and timed with ondevelopment
activities.
step that will have to
The
plan should outline
be taken to move individual
homes and all community structures, and the professionals
should
involve
the
villagers
in creating
the plan so
there is clear understanding of any difficulties that may
occur.
148
hill,
Shui
Fung
is small and borders the
the site for Wong Uk
Since
Local Relationship to
the Land
immediate problems with
there were no
Since the
in 1977.
or illegal light industry
squatting
village
had existed for approximately 30 years, the vil-
lagers,
like most villagers in Sha Tin, probably derived
and fishing.
livelihood from farming
their
However, by
1976 the cove in front of the village was reclaimed
late
underway for the residen-
site preparation work was
and
tial development planned for the area.
a rural
from
transition
the
begun
The villagers had
lifestyle to urban
existence.
major problem in Wong
The
the
necessary
resite
fung
Uk will be to accommodate
the village and burial
planning to
grounds in an appropriate
involving the villager's
These local beliefs
location.
of site
aspects
shui
relationship to the land; spirits must be respected.
When
the
siting a house or
spirits
consulted
so
associated
moving into a new apartment,
with
these
that the residents
elements
must
be
will have good fortune
149
learned
in
As
the development office
early stages of
Sha Tin, these factors
livelihoods.
successful
and
the
process of relocating villages.
must
be integral to the
When
designing the phasing plan,
to
sary
allow
ceremonies
time
for
the
it will also be necesappropriate
when the
place
rites
and
burial grounds are
to
take
is
possible to accommodate,
moved.
it
If
allow space for
should
site
farming.
Sha Tin valley were growing
the
the new village
Few villagers in
rice in the late 1960's
because most had found that income was greater from grow-
If
flowers and ornamental
commercial
ing
the village is to be resited on the hillside south of
be possible to
may
it
Tin,
Sha
agriculture
forms
of
space
than
ways
transition
of
life
and
may
allow space for these
because these
paddies
rice
hillside terraces.
al
and fruit trees.
do and can
crops require less
be grown on small
Maintaining as much of the traditionas possible will
result in an
ease the villager's
easier site selection
process.
150
Local Institutional Needs
Because
Wong
Uk is a small
village, the group that
represents the villagers should be able to be the primary
negotiators
But
with
the team from
the development office.
the village team should be supported with open meet-
ings for the entire village.
need
to form a Community
however,
Unlike Tin Sam, there is no
Development Corporation; it is
important to institute
a process that enhances
and facilitates village wide consensus.
All
have
villagers
a
and
hold land and
have the opportunity
of the village as
location
or groups of homes.
houses in Wong Uk
of site location decisions
stake in the outcome
should
homes
who
to approve the general
well as help site individual
It is therefore important for
the professionals to delineate options for the village to
the
consider;
options can be
reviewed and evaluated at
open village meetings.
village wide meetings should achieve consensus
Early
around
meetings
the
general location for Wong
Uk and later open
should set the specific site orientation of the
151
Options
village.
illuminate
should
aspects
that are presented
the
well
as
positive
at these meetings
as
negative
of the site; dialogue during the meetings should
result in consensus decisions.
group representing
the village should
relocation issues similar to
Tin Sam because it
Finally,
address
the
is
important to schedule the timing between construction
of
the new houses and
If
the development office needs
demolition of the old structures.
the village land before
the new homes are constructed, then the Hong Kong Housing
will be required to find and pay for temporary
Authority
accommodations.
a
a
within the village
group
problems
The transition may be easier if there is
that helps resolve these
and coordinate activities
involved with moving
the households.
Wong
Conclusion
Uk is in conflict with the proposed surrounding
development,
and
with
and in 1977 the
Sha Tin Development Office
the District Land Office had initiated consultations
the
villagers
about relocating
the village.
The
152
villagers
were
village,
houses
in agreement about the
need to move the
but there was disagreement around the number of
that the villagers
would receive as compensation
for losing their land.
development office should form an interdiscipli-
The
nary
team
to
on
build
disagreements
team
The
process.
with
self-help housing program
a
the
resolve
talks
the
villagers.
the villagers on a house for house basis or
Compensating
instituting
continue
past
that
from the
experience
in Wong Uk may
initially
halted
the
development office should
with relocating
villages by
fung shui experts and by reviewing options for
employing
relocating
the
village
at open
meetings.
Instituting
an open process for making relocation decisions may
such
in decisions that are
result
more timely and better un-
derstood by the villagers.
The
villagers should be led by a representative team
that
links
team
should
to the District
Rural Council.
coordinate relocation
The village
and siting decisions
153
with
other
members
of
the Rural
Council representing
villages near the chosen relocation site.
The
key to a more harmonious relocation process lies
in professional recognition of
respect
for
the
graves
of village
important
villagers'
desire to achieve the
village
and
ancestors.
in this instance
especially
new
traditional beliefs and
to retain, as
It is
to support the
best location for the
far as possible, their
traditional life styles and ways of making a living.
154
Sha Tin Development Office and the District Land
The
SUMMARY
Office should work with Sha Tin villagers on the suggested
the
strategies for preserving, relocating or transforming
The
long
and
medium
accommodating
redeveloping
of
involved
ments
(1) identifying employment
(2) upgrading the
opportunities;
(3)
affecting the villages.
range impacts
strategy should include:
ved;
be to offset short,
The objective should
villages.
villages to be preserland
in
shifts
areas.
some existing village
in implementing such
use;
and (4)
Key ele-
a strategy include
revising the Sha Tin development plan, preparing a physical
layout
municating
actions
village
residents.
(such as instituting
porations)
sure
with
that
areas, and com-
for village extension
connections to utility
as
(such
plan
should be taken to
Interim
measures
service) and long term
community development corguide the villages to en-
they will be preserved
in a way that comple-
ments the new town as well as the village.
155
employment
Local
patterns will shift
when the vil-
are no longer able to farm in the Sha Tin Valley.
lagers
unskilled
Typically,
engage
workers
should
industries
in
small
scale
assist residents who
be contacted to
Training courses in nearby
enter the job market.
cannot
organization.
The Social Welfare
manufacturing or assembly activities.
Department
will be
are unaccustomed to
industrial
and
mechanization
modern
villagers
these
those who
for
especially
limited,
for
opportunities
Employment
to help
should
be
structured
types
of
nonpolluting
upgrade this
labor force.
Certain
should be planned and encouraged.
link
nearby
to
Cottage
industry
of
this
or
through packaging,
constructing
kind
industries
Cottage industries can
light manufacturing
prefabricating,
sewing,
cottage
is
components.
already widespread
throughout
Hong Kong and does not seem to disrupt living
conditions
or social patterns.
encouraged
in
village
This development can be
extension
areas,
since
the
156
entrepreneurial
activity
will benefit
the villagers as
well as the local industries.
Finally,
grade
sanitary
Some
villages
most
village
water.
a top development priority should be to upconditions
lack sanitary
in the
preserved villages.
facilities completely, and
houses lack separate
kitchens and running
Open sewers often pose severe health problems.
Sha Tin will be the first development in Hong Kong to
have
central sewage treatment, and the villages that are
preserved
should
be connected.
In the short run these
facilities could be provided at a central location in the
village, and in the long run the village improvement plan
should provide water and sewer connections to each home.
157
Chapter 7:
Conclusion And Recommendations
158
The Ciudad Guayana and Milton Keynes cases reveal the
CASE COMPARISONS
importance
of accommodating the
needs of the indigenous
population
at
and integrating new im-
the project site
migrants into the development.
ferent
The cases illustrate dif-
approaches to working with
coordinate
the
transition
from
the local settlers to
rural
to
urban
environments.
The
Milton Keynes case
between
illuminates the relationship
the professionals and
local settlers.
The case
shows that it is possible to structure frequent and positive
interactions between professionals and local people
at the project site.
issues
and
in the relationship between the indigenous people
the land.
tered
The Ciudad Guayana case illustrates
when
This
large
case describes complexities encounnumbers
of
squatters
immigrated to
Ciudad Guayana.
Taken
together, these studies reveal the patterns of
influence and describe institutional relationships at the
local
level
rudimentary
of
government.
municipal and
Ciudad
Guayana
had
local government institutions
159
that
were
Milton
not
Keynes
coordinated with
was
development decisions.
developed in a
political economy in
which local institutions and government offices were well
staffed
and
highly
making.
Development
reviewed
and
integrated
by
public
several
decision
Keynes were
for Milton
decisions
approved
into
entities and
local
citizens at each stage of the planning effort.
In Ciudad Guayana the government learned that its efbecause Carracas based master
forts
were often thwarted
plans
failed to coincide with
site.
Immigration
tions,
squatting
to
tinued
conditions at the project
far exceeded
rampant and
was
traditional
follow
the planners' expectamost immigrants condevelopment
patterns.
Because the planners failed to solve development problems
by
preparing
physical
master plans 300
miles from the
site,
the government ultimately learned it had to open a
local
development
office
in Ciudad Guayana
and began
The develop-
working to resolve more immediate problems.
ment process became somewhat smoother once the Venezuelan
planners
learned
to
accommodate
needs
of
the
local
160
settlers
rather than to expect
that the master plan it-
self would create the new city.
In Milton Keynes local participation and consultation
on
by design.
development decisions was
involved
both
the
existing population
The government
and immigrating
The planners were able to change
people from the outset.
the design of the plan when economic conditions and local
revealed
choices
inadequacies in transportation system
provided
the best source
improvements
no
of information about necessary
in the quality
and local service needs.
were
problems
learned that the residents
They
housing densities.
and
with
of existing village centers
However, in Milton Keynes there
squatters
immigrating
to
the
(as there were in Ciudad Guayana), and the local
project
government was well organized and institutionally mature.
Case Study Outcomes
In summary, the first two
cases illustrate that ac-
the project site
and interactions with the
tivities
local
settlers can slow, halt,
Like
sions.
chose
at
to
Milton
locate
Keynes,
the Sha Tin
or alter strategic decithe Hong
Kong government
development office at the
161
project site; however, the professionals viewed the local
Class
did.
professionals
--
Guayana
Sha Tin are
distinctions in
to the Venezuelan operation
similar
Ciudad
the
as
paternalistically
people
the local people
are lower class and are so treated by the professionals.
Sha Tin the local
In
confrontations
authorities
At times violent
in Milton Keynes.
citizens
the
like
people are poorly informed un-
have
erupted
and villagers.
The
development
the
between
situation is similar to
Ciudad Guayana where the local settlers do not understand
the planning or development effort.
As
Milton
in
Keynes
there
is
tradition bound
a
population living in the Sha Tin villages.
The villagers
have historic land rights and, like Ciudad Guayana, these
villagers have been joined by an influx of squatters into
the region.
However, unlike squatters in Venezuela, Hong
Kong squatters have no legal occupancy rights.
In
fluenced
Ciudad
all three new town
development
Guayana
where
projects the local people in-
decisions.
the
Sha Tin
influence
was
is more like
ad
hoc
and
162
confrontational.
Interactions
with
local
people were
designed into the Milton Keynes development process.
Venezuelan
pressure
government ultimately responded
The
to the local
by opening an on-site office and being more at-
tentive to local problems.
To
on
avoid the pitfalls of Ciudad Guayana and to build
Milton
the
should
A
Keynes
experience,
local
consultation
become a part of the Sha Tin development process.
process of consulting with
the local citizens as sug-
gested
in Chapter 6 can foster
munity
on the part of the residents and should result in
a greater sense of com-
environments
more suitable to local needs.
interest
the professionals to
of
residents'
ability to pinpoint
It is in the
take advantage of the
problems before they be-
come insurmountable.
Consultation and local participation can be used as a
Participation Goals
way
to
people
Local
used
educate, inform, gather
of
the
information or convince
wisdom of pursuing
a certain objective.
project reviews, as in Milton Keynes, can also be
as a way to make local people more aware of changes
163
occurring
to
around them.
enhance
control.
decision
However,
making
the basic objective is
through
responsible local
Once the local residents demonstrate that they
have the capacity to provide relevant information and are
informed
about
their future, local
problems in Sha Tin
should be easier to coordinate and resolve.
In the
best
of
all possible
worlds a development
process should include both central and decentral ways of
consulting
local
people
and
making decisions.
As in
Milton Keynes, the local residents played a major role in
ensuring
that their environments were appropriate to the
intended development.
with
However, the process of consulting
the residents was central to and coordinated by the
development office.
The
that
chapter on three Sha Tin villages outlines steps
should
redeveloping
positive
local
be
taken
when
a village.
preserving,
relocating or
The chapter keys on structuring
relationships between the professionals and the
people
complexities
suggests
and
with
the
local
ways
to
people and
accommodate
the land.
By
164
building
problems
local
the
institutions
and
networks
chapter suggests that
to
solve
decision making and
participation should be decentral at the village level.
In Sha
Tin
there should also
be a centrally coor-
dinated process of consulting with the new town residents
similar
to
dinated
by the development office so that decisions made
at
village
the
Milton Keynes.
level
do
The
process should be coor-
not
adversely
affect other
aspects of the new town development.
Techniques
Techniques
cal
Tin.
similar to those used to consult with lo-
residents
in Milton Keynes can
also be used in Sha
Door to door surveys reveal not only attitudes (or
misconceptions)
that residents have
toward the project,
but
can also be a means toward assessing the environmen-
tal
quality
of villages that
may be preserved.
Public
meetings in Milton Keynes organized to review development
proposals
ultimate
generated
alerting
aided communication about
the new community's
form and implementation strategy.
at
the
such
meetings
development
can
office
be
to
The dialogue
instrumental
in
potential service
165
problems or land use
delivery
conflicts before a crisis
takes place.
local
strengthen
To
Yee Kuk, the rural
Heung
institutions,
the
committees and the urban coun-
should become part of the government's planning and
cils
design review process.
ing
government
development
These groups should begin review-
proposals
and
decisions
at strategic
The groups should become part of the development
points.
office's regular design review process and their comments
can
coordinated
be
with the
other government agencies
that review planning proposals.
Instituting
villagers
term
and
these forms of
new town residents will
interest of the Hong
result
spirit,
interaction with Sha Tin
of these measures
work in the long
Kong government.
The overall
should be heightened community
more informed planning
decisions and more posi-
tive relations with the development office.
166
Footnotes
CHAPTER THREE NOTES:
1. Lloyd Rodwin, "Planning Guayana: A General
ban Growth and Regional
Perspective," Planning
Development (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1969),
p. 13.
2.
Edward Hutchinson Robbins, "Alta Vista vs. the Plaza
Bolivar" Theses. Washington University 1972, p. 27.
3.
Robbins, p. 30.
4.
Arthur Stinchcombe, "Social Attitudes and Planning in
the Guayana," lannning-Urban-Growth andeagional
Development, ed., Lloyd Rodwin (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Press, 1969), pp. 415-416.
5.
Lisa Peattie, "Conflicting Views of the Project:
Caracas Versus the Site," Planning-UrbanGrowth-an
RegionalDevelopmenit, ed., Lloyd Rodwin (Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 1969), p. 445.
6.
Peattie, p. 455.
7.
J. S. MacDonald, "Migration and Population Policies for
Ciudad Guayana," Working Paper (n.p.: n.p., 1966), pp.
18-19.
8.
Rafael Corrada, "The Implementation of the Urban
Development Plan," PlanningUrban Growth-and Regional
Development, ed., Lloyd Rodwin (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Press, 1969), p. 213.
9.
William A. Doebele, Jr., "Legal Issues of Regional
Development," Planning Urban-Gr-th-and-ERaial1
DevgloMgnt, ed., Lloyd Rodwin (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Press,
1969) , p.
288.
167
10. Robbins, pp. 34-35.
11.
Robbins,
pp. 98-100.
12. Lisa Redfield Peattie, The.View from the Barrio (Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1968), p. 88.
13. Robbins, p. 130.
14. Anthony Downs, "Creating a Land Development Strategy
for Ciudad Guayana," Planning Urban Growth and Regional
Development, ed., Lloyd Rodwin (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Press, 1969), p. 212.
15. Robbins, pp. 133-137.
168
CHAPTER FOUR NOTES:
1.
Terence Bendixson, "Milton Keynes:
The Newest New
Towns," Architectural Review, 146 (August, 1969), 104.
2.
Llewelyn-Davies Weeks Forestier-Walker and Bor,
"Response to Brief for the Master Plan," p.l.
3.
Llewelyn-Davies Weeks Forestier-Walker and Bor, The
Plan for-MiltonKeynes, II (March, 1970), 96-98.
4.
"Milton Keynes: New City for the South-east,"
Architect's Journal, 149 (February, 1969), 6.
5.
Llewelyn-Davies Weeks Forestier-Walker and Bor,
"Response to Brief for Master Plan," p.2.
6.
Royal Town Planning Institute, "New Towns," Memorandum
(n.d.), p.2.
7.
Bendixson,
8.
Llewelyn-Davies Weeks Forestier-Walker and Bor, "The
Plan for Milton Keynes: Public Reaction to the Interim
Plan" (n.p.: n.p., 1969), pp. 12-16.
9.
University of Reading, Department of Agricultural
Economics and Management, "Milton Keynes Revisited:
1971," Miscellaneous Study No. 51 (June, 1972), p. 4.
103.
10. Milton Keynes Development Corporation, 369-370.
11. Llewelyn-Davies Weeks Forestier-Walker and Bor, "The
Plan for Milton Keynes: Public Reaction to the Interim
Plan," p. 9.
12. Sir William Hart, "Administration and New Towns," Town
andCountry Planning, 36 (Jan.-Feb., 1968), 34.
169
13. Llewelyn-Davies Weeks Forestier-Walker and Bor, .The
Plan for. Milton Keynes, p. 119.
14. Bendixson, 108.
170
CHAPTER FIVE NOTES:
1.
Hong Kong, New Territories Development Department, Hong
Kong's.NewTowns:iSha Tin (n.p., n.d.), p. 12.
2.
New Territories Development Department, p. 4.
3.
Norman J. Miners, The Government and Politics of Hong
Kong, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), p.
141.
4.
Hong Kong 1978, ed.,
n.d.), p. 224.
5.
Miners, p. 140.
6.
Hong Kong 1978,
7.
Miners, p. 144.
8.
Miners, p. 144.
9.
Hong Kong 1978,
Philip Rees (n.p.: J.R. Lee,
p. 224.
pp.
224-225.
10. Miners, pp. 145-146.
11. Hong Kong 1978,
p. 225.
12. Miners, p. 143.
13. Hong Kong Council of Social Services, Symposium on
"Social Planning in a New Town" Case Study: Shatin New
Town (Shatin: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1976),
p. 11.
14. Personal interview with Allan Crosby, Chief Planning
Officer, Sha Tin New Town Development Office, September
1976.
171
15. New Territories Development Department, p. 6.
16. Godfrey E. P. Hertslets, Hertslets China.Treaties. betweenChina and Foreign..Powers, 1, 3rd ed., (London:
Harrison and Sons, 1908), 121.
17. New Territories Development Department, pp. 6-8.
18. South China Morning Post (n.d.)
19. "NT Residents Promised Help," SouthChina Morning Post,
May 1977.
20. Hong Kong Council of Social Services, p. 11.
21. Hong Kong Council of Social Services, p. 62.
172
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The Newest New
"Milton Keynes:
Terence.
Bendixson,
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"The
Rafael.
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Regional Development. Ed. Lloyd Rodwin. Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 1969, pp. 236-251.
Crosby, Allan.
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September 1976.
"Legal Issues of Regional
Jr.
William A.,
Doebele,
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Development."
Cambridge, Mass.:
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"The Guayana Program in a Regional
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Mausell Consultants. Sha Tin NewTown Stage II Engineering
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176