United States General Accounting Office
GAO
Testimony
Before the Committee on Governmental Affairs, U.S.
Senate
For Release on Delivery
Expected at 9:30 a.m.
Friday, June 28, 2002
HOMELAND SECURITY
New Department Could
Improve Coordination but
May Complicate Priority
Setting
Statement of Janet Heinrich
Director, Health Care—Public Health Issues
GAO-02-893T
Mr. Chairman and Members of the Committee:
I appreciate the opportunity to be here today to discuss the proposed
creation of the Department of Homeland Security. Since the terrorist
attacks of September 11, 2001, and the subsequent anthrax incidents, there
has been concern about the ability of the federal government to prepare
for and coordinate an effective public health response to such events,
given the broad distribution of responsibility for that task at the federal
level. Our earlier work found, for example, that more than 20 federal
departments and agencies carry some responsibility for bioterrorism
preparedness and response and that these efforts are fragmented.1
Emergency response is further complicated by the need to coordinate
actions with agencies at the state and local level, where much of the
response activity would occur.
The President’s proposed Homeland Security Act of 20022 would bring
many of these federal entities with homeland security responsibilities—
including public health preparedness and response—into one department,
in an effort to mobilize and focus assets and resources at all levels of
government. The aspects of the proposal concerned with public health
preparedness and response would involve two primary changes to the
current system, which are found in Title V of the proposed legislation.
First, the proposal would transfer certain emergency preparedness and
response programs from multiple agencies to the new department.
Second, it would transfer the control over, but not the operation of, other
public health preparedness assistance programs, such as providing
emergency preparedness planning assistance to state and local
governments, from the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)
to the new department.3 Title III of the proposed legislation would also
transfer responsibility for certain chemical, biological, radiological, and
nuclear research and development programs and activities to the new
department.4
1
U.S. General Accounting Office, Bioterrorism: Federal Research and Preparedness
Activities, GAO-01-915 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 28, 2001).
2
th
H.R. 5005, 107 Cong. (2002).
3
These changes are primarily covered by Sections 502 and 505, respectively, in Title V of
the President’s proposed legislation.
4
These changes are primarily covered by Sections 301, 302, and 303 of the President’s
proposed legislation.
Page 1
GAO-02-893T
In order to assist the Committee in its consideration of this extensive
reorganization of our government, my remarks today will focus on Titles
III and V of the President’s proposal and the implications of (1) the
proposed transfer of specific public health preparedness and response
programs currently housed in HHS into the new department, (2) the
proposed transfer of control over certain other public health preparedness
assistance programs from HHS to the new department, and (3) the
proposed transfer of responsibility for research and development on
chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear threats to the new
department. My testimony today is based largely on our previous and
ongoing work on homeland security,5 as well as a review of the proposed
legislation.
In summary, we believe that the proposed reorganization has the potential
to repair the fragmentation we have noted in the coordination of public
health preparedness and response programs at the federal, state, and local
levels. As we have recommended, the proposal would institutionalize the
responsibility for homeland security in federal statute. We expect that, in
addition to improving overall coordination, the transfer of programs from
multiple agencies to the new department could reduce overlap among
programs and facilitate response in times of disaster. However, we have
concerns about the proposed transfer of control of public health
assistance programs that have both basic public health and homeland
security functions from HHS to the new department. These dual-purpose
programs have important synergies that we believe should be maintained.
We are concerned that transferring control over these programs, including
priority setting, to the new department has the potential to disrupt some
programs that are critical to basic public health responsibilities. We do not
believe that the President’s proposal is sufficiently clear on how both the
homeland security and the public health objectives would be
accomplished. The proposed Department of Homeland Security would
also be tasked with developing national policy for and coordination of the
federal government’s civilian research and development efforts to counter
chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear threats. However, we are
concerned that the proposed transfer of control and priority setting for
research from the organizations where the research would be conducted
could also be disruptive to dual-purpose programs.
5
See “Related GAO Products” at the end of this testimony.
Page 2
GAO-02-893T
Background
Federal, state, and local government agencies have differing roles with
regard to public health emergency preparedness and response. The federal
government conducts a variety of activities, including developing
interagency response plans, increasing state and local response
capabilities, developing and deploying federal response teams, increasing
the availability of medical treatments, participating in and sponsoring
exercises, planning for victim aid, and providing support in times of
disaster and during special events such as the Olympic games. One of its
main functions is to provide support for the primary responders at the
state and local level, including emergency medical service personnel,
public health officials, doctors, and nurses. This support is critical because
the burden of response falls initially on state and local emergency
response agencies.
The President’s proposal transfers control over many of the programs that
provide preparedness and response support for the state and local
governments to a new Department of Homeland Security. Among other
changes, the proposed legislation transfers HHS’s Office of the Assistant
Secretary for Public Health Emergency Preparedness to the new
department. Included in this transfer is the Office of Emergency
Preparedness (OEP), which currently leads the National Disaster Medical
System (NDMS)6 in conjunction with several other agencies and the
Metropolitan Medical Response System (MMRS).7 The Strategic National
Stockpile,8 currently administered by the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC), would also be transferred, although the Secretary of
HHS would still manage the stockpile and continue to determine its
contents. The President’s proposal would also transfer the select agent
registration enforcement program from HHS to the new department.
Currently administered by CDC, the program’s mission is the security of
6
In the event of an emergency, the NDMS has response teams that can provide support at
the site of a disaster. These include specialized teams for burn victims, mental health
teams, teams for incidents involving weapons of mass destruction, and mortuary teams
that can be deployed as needed. About 2,000 civilian hospitals have pledged resources that
could be marshaled in any domestic emergency under the system.
7
The MMRS is a program that provides support for local community planning and response
capabilities for mass casualty and terrorist incidents in metropolitan areas.
8
The stockpile, previously called the National Pharmaceutical Stockpile, consists of two
major components. The first component is the 12-Hour Push Packages, which contain
pharmaceuticals, antidotes, and medical supplies and can be delivered to any site in the
United States within 12 hours of a federal decision to deploy assets. The second component
is the Vendor Managed Inventory.
Page 3
GAO-02-893T
those biologic agents that have the potential for use by terrorists. The
proposal provides for the new department to consult with appropriate
agencies, which would include HHS, in maintaining the select agent list.
Under the President’s proposal, the new department would also be
responsible for all current HHS public health emergency preparedness
activities carried out to assist state and local governments or private
organizations to plan, prepare for, prevent, identify, and respond to
biological, chemical, radiological, and nuclear events and public health
emergencies. Although not specifically named in the proposal, this would
include CDC’s Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response program and the
Health Resources and Services Administration’s (HRSA) Bioterrorism
Hospital Preparedness Program. These programs provide grants to states
and cities to develop plans and build capacity for communication, disease
surveillance, epidemiology, hospital planning, laboratory analysis, and
other basic public health functions. Except as otherwise directed by the
President, the Secretary of Homeland Security would carry out these
activities through HHS under agreements to be negotiated with the
Secretary of HHS. Further, the Secretary of Homeland Security would be
authorized to set the priorities for these preparedness and response
activities.
The new Department of Homeland Security would also be responsible for
conducting a national scientific research and development program,
including developing national policy and coordinating the federal
government’s civilian efforts to counter chemical, biological, radiological,
and nuclear weapons or other emerging threats. This would include
establishing priorities and directing and supporting national research and
development and procurement of technology and systems for detecting,
preventing, protecting against, and responding to terrorist acts using
chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons. Portions of the
Departments of Agriculture, Defense, and Energy that conduct research
would be transferred to the new Department of Homeland Security. For
example, the Department of Energy’s (DOE) chemical and biological
national security research and some of its nuclear smuggling and
homeland security activities would be transferred to the new homeland
security department. The Department of Homeland Security would carry
out civilian health-related biological, biomedical, and infectious disease
defense research and development through agreements with HHS, unless
otherwise directed by the President. As part of this responsibility, the new
department would establish priorities and direction for a program of basic
and applied research on the detection, treatment, and prevention of
Page 4
GAO-02-893T
infectious diseases to be conducted by the National Institutes of Health
(NIH).
Transfer of Certain
Public Health
Programs Has
Potential to Improve
Coordination
The transfer of federal assets and resources in the President’s proposed
legislation has the potential to improve coordination of public health
preparedness and response activities at the federal, state, and local levels.
Our past work has detailed a lack of coordination in the programs that
house these activities, which are currently dispersed across numerous
federal agencies. In addition, we have discussed the need for an
institutionalized responsibility for homeland security in federal statute.9
We have also testified that one key consideration in evaluating whether
individual agencies or programs should be included or excluded from the
proposed department is the extent to which homeland security is a major
part of the agency or program mission.10
The President’s proposal provides the potential to consolidate programs,
thereby reducing the number of points of contact with which state and
local officials have to contend. However, coordination would still be
required with multiple agencies across departments. Many of the agencies
involved in these programs have differing perspectives and priorities, and
the proposal does not sufficiently clarify the lines of authority of different
parties in the event of an emergency, such as between the Federal Bureau
of Investigation (FBI) and public health officials investigating a suspected
bioterrorist incident. Let me provide you with more details.
We have reported that many state and local officials have expressed
concerns about the coordination of federal public health preparedness and
response efforts.11 Officials from state public health agencies and state
emergency management agencies have told us that federal programs for
improving state and local preparedness are not carefully coordinated or
well organized. For example, federal programs managed by the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Department of Justice (DOJ),
9
U.S. General Accounting Office, Homeland Security: Responsibility and Accountability
for Achieving National Goals, GAO-02-627T (Washington, D.C.: Apr. 11, 2002).
10
U.S. General Accounting Office, Homeland Security: Proposal for Cabinet Agency Has
Merit, but Implementation Will be Pivotal to Success, GAO-02-886T (Washington, D.C.:
June 25, 2002).
11
U.S. General Accounting Office, Bioterrorism: Federal Research and Preparedness
Activities, GAO-01-915 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 28, 2001).
Page 5
GAO-02-893T
OEP, and CDC all currently provide funds to assist state and local
governments. Each program conditions the receipt of funds on the
completion of a plan, but officials have told us that the preparation of
multiple, generally overlapping plans can be an inefficient process.12 In
addition, state and local officials told us that having so many federal
entities involved in preparedness and response has led to confusion,
making it difficult for them to identify available federal preparedness
resources and effectively partner with the federal government.
The proposed transfer of numerous federal response teams and assets to
the new department would enhance efficiency and accountability for these
activities. This would involve a number of separate federal programs for
emergency preparedness and response, whose missions are closely
aligned with homeland security, including FEMA; certain units of DOJ; and
HHS’s Office of the Assistant Secretary for Public Health Emergency
Preparedness, including OEP and its NDMS and MMRS programs, along
with the Strategic National Stockpile and the select agent program. In our
previous work, we found that in spite of numerous efforts to improve
coordination of the separate federal programs, problems remained, and we
recommended consolidating the FEMA and DOJ programs to improve the
coordination.13 The proposal places these programs under the control of
the Under Secretary for Emergency Preparedness and Response, who
could potentially reduce overlap and improve coordination. This change
would make one individual accountable for these programs and would
provide a central source for federal assistance.
The proposed transfer of MMRS, a collection of local response systems
funded by HHS in metropolitan areas, has the potential to enhance its
communication and coordination. Officials from one state told us that
their state has MMRSs in multiple cities but there is no mechanism in
place to allow communication and coordination among them. Although
the proposed department has the potential to facilitate the coordination of
this program, this example highlights the need for greater regional
coordination, an issue on which the proposal is silent.
12
U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating Terrorism: Intergovernmental Partnership
in a National Strategy to Enhance State and Local Preparedness, GAO-02-547T
(Washington, D.C.: Mar. 22, 2002).
13
U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating Terrorism: Selected Challenges and Related
Recommendations, GAO-01-822 (Washington, D.C., Sept. 20, 2001).
Page 6
GAO-02-893T
Because the new department would not include all agencies with public
health responsibilities related to homeland security, coordination across
departments would still be required for some programs. For example,
NDMS functions as a partnership among HHS, the Department of Defense
(DOD), the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), FEMA, state and local
governments, and the private sector. However, as the DOD and VA
programs are not included in the proposal, only some of these federal
organizations would be brought under the umbrella of the Department of
Homeland Security. Similarly, the Strategic National Stockpile currently
involves multiple agencies. It is administered by CDC, which contracts
with VA to purchase and store pharmaceutical and medical supplies that
could be used in the event of a terrorist incident. Recently expanded and
reorganized, the program will now include management of the nation’s
inventory of smallpox vaccine. Under the President’s proposal, CDC’s
responsibilities for the stockpile would be transferred to the new
department, but VA and HHS involvement would be retained, including
continuing review by experts of the contents of the stockpile to ensure
that emerging threats, advanced technologies, and new countermeasures
are adequately considered.
Although the proposed department has the potential to improve
emergency response functions, its success depends on several factors. In
addition to facilitating coordination and maintaining key relationships
with other departments, these factors include merging the perspectives of
the various programs that would be integrated under the proposal and
clarifying the lines of authority of different parties in the event of an
emergency. As an example, in the recent anthrax events, local officials
complained about differing priorities between the FBI and the public
health officials in handling suspicious specimens. According to the public
health officials, FBI officials insisted on first informing FBI managers of
any test results, which delayed getting test results to treating physicians.
The public health officials viewed contacting physicians as the first
priority in order to ensure that effective treatment could begin as quickly
as possible.
Page 7
GAO-02-893T
New Department’s
Control of Essential
Public Health
Capacities Raises
Concern
The President’s proposal to shift the responsibility for all programs
assisting state and local agencies in public health emergency preparedness
and response from HHS to the new department raises concern because of
the dual-purpose nature of these activities. These programs include
essential public health functions that, while important for homeland
security, are critical to basic public health core capacities.14 Therefore, we
are concerned about the transfer of control over the programs, including
priority setting, that the proposal would give to the new department. We
recognize the need for coordination of these activities with other
homeland security functions, but the President’s proposal is not clear on
how the public health and homeland security objectives would be
balanced.
Under the President’s proposal, responsibility for programs with dual
homeland security and public health purposes would be transferred to the
new department. These include such current HHS assistance programs as
CDC’s Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response program and HRSA’s
Bioterrorism Hospital Preparedness Program. Functions funded through
these programs are central to investigations of naturally occurring
infectious disease outbreaks and to regular public health communications,
as well as to identifying and responding to a bioterrorist event. For
example, CDC has used funds from these programs to help state and local
health agencies build an electronic infrastructure for public health
communications to improve the collection and transmission of
information related to both bioterrorist incidents and other public health
events.15 Just as with the West Nile virus outbreak in New York City, which
initially was feared to be the result of bioterrorism,16 when an unusual case
14
The recently enacted Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and
Response Act of 2002 mandated development of a preparedness plan for state and local
governments building on core public health capacities, to include effective public health
surveillance and reporting mechanisms, appropriate laboratory capacity, properly trained
and equipped public health and medical personnel, and communications networks that can
effectively disseminate relevant information in a timely and secure manner. Pub. L. No. 107188, §101, 115 Stat. ____, ____ (adding section 2801 to the Public Health Service Act).
15
These include the Health Alert Network (HAN), a nationwide system that facilitates the
distribution of health alerts, dissemination of prevention guidelines and other information,
distance learning, national disease surveillance, and electronic laboratory reporting, and
Epi-X, a secure Web-based disease surveillance network for federal, state, and local
epidemiologists that provides tools for searching, tracking, discussing, and reporting on
diseases and is therefore a key element in any disease investigation.
16
U.S. General Accounting Office, West Nile Virus Outbreak: Lessons for Public Health
Preparedness, GAO/HEHS-00-180 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 11, 2000).
Page 8
GAO-02-893T
of disease occurs public health officials must investigate to determine
whether it is naturally occurring or intentionally caused. Although the
origin of the disease may not be clear at the outset, the same public health
resources are needed to investigate, regardless of the source.
States are planning to use funds from these assistance programs to build
the dual-purpose public health infrastructure and core capacities that the
recently enacted Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness
and Response Act of 2002 stated are needed. States plan to expand
laboratory capacity, enhance their ability to conduct infectious disease
surveillance and epidemiological investigations, improve communication
among public health agencies, and develop plans for communicating with
the public. States also plan to use these funds to hire and train additional
staff in many of these areas, including epidemiology.
Our concern regarding these dual-purpose programs relates to the
structure provided for in the President’s proposal. The Secretary of
Homeland Security would be given control over programs to be carried
out by HHS. The proposal also authorizes the President to direct that these
programs no longer be carried out through agreements with HHS, without
addressing the circumstances under which such authority would be
exercised. We are concerned that this approach may disrupt the synergy
that exists in these dual-purpose programs. We are also concerned that the
separation of control over the programs from their operations could lead
to difficulty in balancing priorities. Although the HHS programs are
important for homeland security, they are just as important to the day-today needs of public health agencies and hospitals, such as reporting on
disease outbreaks and providing alerts to the medical community. The
current proposal does not clearly provide a structure that ensures that the
goals of both homeland security and public health will be met.
Transfer of Control
and Priority Setting
over Dual-Purpose
Research and
Development Raises
Concern
The proposed Department of Homeland Security would be tasked with
developing national policy for and coordinating the federal government’s
civilian research and development efforts to counter chemical, biological,
radiological, and nuclear threats. In addition to coordination, we believe
the role of the new department should include forging collaborative
relationships with programs at all levels of government and developing a
strategic plan for research and development. However, we have many of
the same concerns regarding the transfer of responsibility for the research
and development programs that we have regarding the transfer of the
public health preparedness programs. We are concerned about the
implications of the proposed transfer of control and priority setting for
Page 9
GAO-02-893T
dual-purpose research. For example, some research programs have broad
missions that are not easily separated into homeland security research and
research for other purposes. We are concerned that such dual-purpose
research activities may lose the synergy of their current placement in
programs. In addition, we see a potential for duplication of capacity that
already exists in the federal laboratories.
We have previously reported that while federal research and development
programs are coordinated in a variety of ways, coordination is limited,
raising the potential for duplication of efforts among federal agencies.17
Coordination is limited by the extent of compartmentalization of efforts
because of the sensitivity of the research and development programs,
security classification of research, and the absence of a single
coordinating entity to ensure against duplication. For example, DOD’s
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency was unaware of U.S. Coast
Guard plans to develop methods to detect biological agents on infected
cruise ships and, therefore, was unable to share information on its
research to develop biological detection devices for buildings that could
have applicability in this area.
The new department will need to develop mechanisms to coordinate and
integrate information on research and development being performed
across the government related to chemical, biological, radiological, and
nuclear terrorism, as well as user needs. We reported in 1999 and again in
2001 that the current formal and informal research and development
coordination mechanisms may not ensure that potential overlaps, gaps,
and opportunities for collaboration are addressed.18 It should be noted,
however, that the legislation tasks the new department with coordinating
the federal government’s “civilian efforts” only. We believe the new
department will also need to coordinate with DOD and the intelligence
agencies that conduct research and development efforts designed to
detect and respond to weapons of mass destruction. In addition, the first
responders and local governments possess practical knowledge about
their technological needs and relevant design limitations that should be
taken into account in federal efforts to provide new equipment, such as
protective gear and sensor systems, and help set standards for
17
GAO-01-822.
18
U.S. General Accounting Office, Chemical and Biological Defense: Coordination of
Nonmedical Chemical and Biological R&D Programs, GAO/NSIAD-99-160 (Washington,
D.C.: Aug. 16, 1999), and GAO-01-822.
Page 10
GAO-02-893T
performance and interoperability. Therefore, the new department will
have to develop collaborative relationships with these organizations to
facilitate technological improvements and encourage cooperative
behavior.
The President’s proposal could help improve coordination of federal
research and development by giving one person the responsibility for
creating a single national research and development strategy that could
address coordination, reduce potential duplication, and ensure that
important issues are addressed. In 2001, we recommended the creation of
a unified strategy to reduce duplication and leverage resources, and
suggested that the plan be coordinated with federal agencies performing
research as well as state and local authorities.19 The development of such a
plan would help to ensure that research gaps are filled, unproductive
duplication is minimized, and that individual agency plans are consistent
with the overall goals.
The proposal would transfer parts of DOE’s nonproliferation and
verification research and development program to the new department,
including research on systems to improve the nation’s capability to
prepare for and respond to chemical and biological attacks. However, the
legislation is not clear whether the programmatic management and dollars
only would move or the scientists carrying out the research would also
move to the new department. Because the research is carried out by
multiprogram laboratories that employ scientists skilled in many
disciplines who serve many different missions and whose research
benefits from their interactions with colleagues within the laboratory, it
may not be prudent to move the scientists who are doing the research. One
option would be rather than moving the scientists, the new department
could contract with DOE’s national laboratories to conduct the research.
The President’s proposal would also transfer the responsibility for civilian
health-related biological defense research and development programs to
the new department, but the programs would continue to be carried out
through HHS. These programs, now primarily sponsored by NIH, include a
variety of efforts to understand basic biological mechanisms of infection
and to develop and test rapid diagnostic tools, vaccines, and antibacterial
and antiviral drugs. These efforts have dual-purpose applicability. The
scientific research on biologic agents that could be used by terrorists
19
GAO-01-822.
Page 11
GAO-02-893T
cannot be readily separated from research on emerging infectious
diseases. For example, NIH-funded research on a drug to treat
cytomegalovirus complications in patients with HIV is now being
investigated as a prototype for developing antiviral drugs against
smallpox. Conversely, research being carried out on antiviral drugs in the
NIH biodefense research program is expected to be useful in the
development of treatments for hepatitis C.
The proposal to transfer responsibility to the new department for research
and development programs that would continue to be carried out by HHS
raises many of the same concerns we have with the structure the proposal
creates for public health preparedness programs. Although there is a clear
need for the new department to have responsibility for setting policy,
developing a strategy, providing leadership, and overall coordinating of
research and development efforts in these areas, we are concerned that
control and priority-setting responsibility will not be vested in those
programs best positioned to understand the potential of basic research
efforts or the relevance of research being carried out in other, nonbiodefense programs.
In addition, the proposal would allow the new department to direct, fund,
and conduct research related to chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear,
and other emerging threats on its own. This raises the potential for
duplication of efforts, lack of efficiency, and an increased need for
coordination with other departments that would continue to carry out
relevant research. We are concerned that the proposal could result in a
duplication of capacity that already exists in the current federal
laboratories.
Concluding
Observations
Many aspects of the proposed consolidation of response activities are in
line with our previous recommendations to consolidate programs,
coordinate functions, and provide a statutory basis for leadership of
homeland security. The transfer of the HHS medical response programs
has the potential to reduce overlap among programs and facilitate
response in times of disaster. However, we are concerned that the
proposal does not provide the clear delineation of roles and
responsibilities that is needed. We are also concerned about the broad
control the proposal grants to the new department for research and
development and public health preparedness programs. Although there is
a need to coordinate these activities with the other homeland security
preparedness and response programs that would be brought into the new
department, there is also a need to maintain the priorities for basic public
Page 12
GAO-02-893T
health capacities that are currently funded through these dual-purpose
programs. We do not believe that the President’s proposal adequately
addresses how to accomplish both objectives. We are also concerned that
the proposal would transfer the control and priority setting over dualpurpose research and has the potential to create an unnecessary
duplication of federal research capacity.
Mr. Chairman, this completes my prepared statement. I would be happy to
respond to any questions you or other Members of the Committee may
have at this time.
Contact and
Acknowledgments
For further information about this testimony, please contact Janet
Heinrich at (202) 512-7118. Gene Aloise, Robert Copeland, Marcia Crosse,
Greg Ferrante, Gary Jones, Deborah Miller, Roseanne Price, and Keith
Rhodes also made key contributions to this statement.
Page 13
GAO-02-893T
Related GAO Products
Homeland Security
Homeland Security: Proposal for Cabinet Agency Has Merit, but
Implementation Will Be Pivotal to Success. GAO-02-886T.
Washington, D.C.: June 25, 2002.
Homeland Security: New Department Could Improve Coordination but
May Complicate Public Health Priority Setting. GAO-02-883T.
Washington, D.C.: June 25, 2002.
Homeland Security: Key Elements to Unify Efforts Are Underway but
Uncertainty Remains. GAO-02-610. Washington, D.C.: June 7, 2002.
Homeland Security: Responsibility and Accountability for Achieving
National Goals. GAO-02-627T. Washington, D.C.: April 11, 2002.
Homeland Security: Progress Made; More Direction and Partnership
Sought. GAO-02-490T. Washington, D.C.: March 12, 2002.
Homeland Security: Challenges and Strategies in Addressing Short- and
Long-Term National Needs. GAO-02-160T. Washington, D.C.:
November 7, 2001.
Homeland Security: A Risk Management Approach Can Guide
Preparedness Efforts. GAO-02-208T. Washington, D.C.: October 31, 2001.
Homeland Security: Need to Consider VA’s Role in Strengthening Federal
Preparedness. GAO-02-145T. Washington, D.C.: October 15, 2001.
Homeland Security: Key Elements of a Risk Management Approach.
GAO-02-150T. Washington, D.C.: October 12, 2001.
Homeland Security: A Framework for Addressing the Nation’s Efforts.
GAO-01-1158T. Washington, D.C.: September 21, 2001.
Public Health
Bioterrorism: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Role in
Public Health Protection. GAO-02-235T. Washington, D.C.:
November 15, 2001.
Bioterrorism: Review of Public Health Preparedness Programs. GAO-02149T. Washington, D.C.: October 10, 2001.
Bioterrorism: Public Health and Medical Preparedness. GAO-02-141T.
Washington, D.C.: October 9, 2001.
Page 14
GAO-02-893T
Bioterrorism: Coordination and Preparedness. GAO-02-129T.
Washington, D.C.: October 5, 2001.
Bioterrorism: Federal Research and Preparedness Activities. GAO-01915. Washington, D.C.: September 28, 2001.
Chemical and Biological Defense: Improved Risk Assessment and
Inventory Management Are Needed. GAO-01-667.
Washington, D.C.: September 28, 2001.
West Nile Virus Outbreak: Lessons for Public Health Preparedness.
GAO/HEHS-00-180. Washington, D.C.: September 11, 2000.
Chemical and Biological Defense: Program Planning and Evaluation
Should Follow Results Act Framework. GAO/NSIAD-99-159.
Washington, D.C.: August 16, 1999.
Combating Terrorism: Observations on Biological Terrorism and Public
Health Initiatives. GAO/T-NSIAD-99-112. Washington, D.C.:
March 16, 1999.
Combating Terrorism
National Preparedness: Technologies to Secure Federal Buildings. GAO02-687T. Washington, D.C.: April 25, 2002.
National Preparedness: Integration of Federal, State, Local, and Private
Sector Efforts Is Critical to an Effective National Strategy for Homeland
Security. GAO-02-621T. Washington, D.C.: April 11, 2002.
Combating Terrorism: Intergovernmental Cooperation in the
Development of a National Strategy to Enhance State and Local
Preparedness. GAO-02-550T. Washington, D.C.: April 2, 2002.
Combating Terrorism: Enhancing Partnerships Through a National
Preparedness Strategy. GAO-02-549T. Washington, D.C.: March 28, 2002.
Combating Terrorism: Critical Components of a National Strategy to
Enhance State and Local Preparedness. GAO-02-548T. Washington, D.C.:
March 25, 2002.
Combating Terrorism: Intergovernmental Partnership in a National
Strategy to Enhance State and Local Preparedness. GAO-02-547T.
Washington, D.C.: March 22, 2002.
Page 15
GAO-02-893T
Combating Terrorism: Key Aspects of a National Strategy to Enhance
State and Local Preparedness. GAO-02-473T. Washington, D.C.:
March 1, 2002.
Chemical and Biological Defense: DOD Should Clarify Expectations for
Medical Readiness. GAO-02-219T. Washington, D.C.: November 7, 2001.
Anthrax Vaccine: Changes to the Manufacturing Process. GAO-02-181T.
Washington, D.C.: October 23, 2001.
Chemical and Biological Defense: DOD Needs to Clarify Expectations for
Medical Readiness. GAO-02-38. Washington, D.C.: October 19, 2001.
Combating Terrorism: Considerations for Investing Resources in
Chemical and Biological Preparedness. GAO-02-162T.
Washington, D.C.: October 17, 2001.
Combating Terrorism: Selected Challenges and Related
Recommendations. GAO-01-822. Washington, D.C.: September 20, 2001.
Combating Terrorism: Actions Needed to Improve DOD Antiterrorism
Program Implementation and Management. GAO-01-909.
Washington, D.C.: September 19, 2001.
Combating Terrorism: Comments on H.R. 525 to Create a President’s
Council on Domestic Terrorism Preparedness. GAO-01-555T.
Washington, D.C.: May 9, 2001.
Combating Terrorism: Accountability Over Medical Supplies Needs
Further Improvement. GAO-01-666T. Washington, D.C.: May 1, 2001.
Combating Terrorism: Observations on Options to Improve the Federal
Response. GAO-01-660T. Washington, DC: April 24, 2001.
Combating Terrorism: Accountability Over Medical Supplies Needs
Further Improvement. GAO-01-463. Washington, D.C.: March 30, 2001.
Combating Terrorism: Comments on Counterterrorism Leadership and
National Strategy. GAO-01-556T. Washington, D.C.: March 27, 2001.
Combating Terrorism: FEMA Continues to Make Progress in
Coordinating Preparedness and Response. GAO-01-15.
Washington, D.C.: March 20, 2001.
Page 16
GAO-02-893T
Combating Terrorism: Federal Response Teams Provide Varied
Capabilities; Opportunities Remain to Improve Coordination. GAO-0114. Washington, D.C.: November 30, 2000.
Combating Terrorism: Need to Eliminate Duplicate Federal Weapons of
Mass Destruction Training. GAO/NSIAD-00-64. Washington, D.C.:
March 21, 2000.
Combating Terrorism: Chemical and Biological Medical Supplies Are
Poorly Managed. GAO/T-HEHS/AIMD-00-59. Washington, D.C.:
March 8, 2000.
Combating Terrorism: Chemical and Biological Medical Supplies Are
Poorly Managed. GAO/HEHS/AIMD-00-36. Washington, D.C.:
October 29, 1999.
Combating Terrorism: Observations on the Threat of Chemical and
Biological Terrorism. GAO/T-NSIAD-00-50. Washington, D.C.:
October 20, 1999.
Combating Terrorism: Need for Comprehensive Threat and Risk
Assessments of Chemical and Biological Attacks. GAO/NSIAD-99-163.
Washington, D.C.: September 14, 1999.
Chemical and Biological Defense: Coordination of Nonmedical Chemical
and Biological R&D Programs. GAO/NSIAD-99-160. Washington, D.C.:
August 16, 1999.
Combating Terrorism: Use of National Guard Response Teams Is
Unclear. GAO/T-NSIAD-99-184. Washington, D.C.: June 23, 1999.
Combating Terrorism: Observations on Growth in Federal Programs.
GAO/T-NSIAD-99-181. Washington, D.C.: June 9, 1999.
Combating Terrorism: Analysis of Potential Emergency Response
Equipment and Sustainment Costs. GAO/NSIAD-99-151.
Washington, D.C.: June 9, 1999.
Combating Terrorism: Use of National Guard Response Teams Is
Unclear. GAO/NSIAD-99-110. Washington, D.C.: May 21, 1999.
Combating Terrorism: Observations on Federal Spending to Combat
Terrorism. GAO/T-NSIAD/GGD-99-107. Washington, D.C.: March 11, 1999.
Page 17
GAO-02-893T
Combating Terrorism: Opportunities to Improve Domestic Preparedness
Program Focus and Efficiency. GAO/NSIAD-99-3. Washington, D.C.:
November 12, 1998.
Combating Terrorism: Observations on the Nunn-Lugar-Domenici
Domestic Preparedness Program. GAO/T-NSIAD-99-16. Washington, D.C.:
October 2, 1998.
Combating Terrorism: Observations on Crosscutting Issues. GAO/TNSIAD-98-164. Washington, D.C.: April 23, 1998.
Combating Terrorism: Threat and Risk Assessments Can Help Prioritize
and Target Program Investments. GAO/NSIAD-98-74. Washington, D.C.:
April 9, 1998.
Combating Terrorism: Spending on Governmentwide Programs
Requires Better Management and Coordination. GAO/NSIAD-98-39.
Washington, D.C.: December 1, 1997.
Disaster Assistance
Disaster Assistance: Improvement Needed in Disaster Declaration
Criteria and Eligibility Assurance Procedures. GAO-01-837.
Washington, D.C.: August 31, 2001.
Chemical Weapons: FEMA and Army Must Be Proactive in Preparing
States for Emergencies. GAO-01-850. Washington, D.C.: August 13, 2001.
Federal Emergency Management Agency: Status of Achieving Key
Outcomes and Addressing Major Management Challenges. GAO-01-832.
Washington, D.C.: July 9, 2001.
Budget and Management
Budget Issues: Long-Term Fiscal Challenges. GAO-02-467T.
Washington, D.C.: February 27, 2002.
Results-Oriented Budget Practices in Federal Agencies. GAO-01-1084SP.
Washington, D.C.: August 2001.
Managing for Results: Federal Managers’ Views on Key Management
Issues Vary Widely Across Agencies. GAO-01-592. Washington, D.C.:
May 25, 2001.
Page 18
GAO-02-893T
Determining Performance and Accountability Challenges and High
Risks. GAO-01-159SP. Washington, D.C.: November 2000.
Managing for Results: Using the Results Act to Address Mission
Fragmentation and Program Overlap. GAO-AIMD-97-146.
Washington, D.C.: August 29, 1997.
Government Restructuring: Identifying Potential Duplication in Federal
Missions and Approaches. GAO/T-AIMD-95-161. Washington, D.C.:
June 7, 1995.
Government Reorganization: Issues and Principles. GAO/T-GGD/AIMD95-166. Washington, D.C.: May 17, 1995.
Grant Design
Grant Programs: Design Features Shape Flexibility, Accountability, and
Performance Information. GAO/GGD-98-137. Washington, D.C.:
June 22, 1998.
Federal Grants: Design Improvements Could Help Federal Resources Go
Further. GAO/AIMD-97-7. Washington, D.C.: December 18, 1996.
Block Grants: Issues in Designing Accountability Provisions.
GAO/AIMD-95-226. Washington, D.C.: September 1, 1995.
(290216)
Page 19
GAO-02-893T