United Nations Environ
Industry
UNEP
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
INDUSTRY AND ENVIRONMENT
39-43, QUAI ANDR-CITROEN
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nanny-7
-AT 1o -IZJIA
I-1 A.1I.
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204 997 F
(1)44 37 14 74
Copyright 1994 UNEP
All rights reserved. No part of this
publication may be reproduced, stored in a
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recording or otherwise, without permission
in writing from the copyright holders.
First edition 1994
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publication do not imply the expression of
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United Nations Environment Programme
concerning the legal status of any country,
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boundaries. Moreover, the views expressed
do not necessarily represent the decision
or the stated policy of the United Nations
Environment Programme, nor does citing of
trade names or commercial processes
constitute endorsement.
UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION
Sales No.
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INTRODUCTION
The idea of publishing a guidance and information document on the strategies
and policies that governments can use to stimulate cleaner production in
developing countries and economies in transition emerged at a joint workshop
sponsored by the United Nations Environment Programme Industry and
Environment Centre (UNEP/IE) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) in Paris, 7-8 June 1993. A list of those who attended
the workshop is given in the Appendix.
Although informed by the discussions at the workshop, this document is not a
workshop report, but rather a further development of the ideas discussed there.
UNEP
Cleaner
Production Programme
Cleaner Production Programme
The purpose of this report is
to explain to leaders in government and industry that cleaner production is
likely to lead to economic benefits as well as environmental ones, that
there is now an important window of opportunity that should be seized,
and that cleaner production is the best way of fulfilling the requirements of
Agenda 21;
·
*
·
to emphasize the importance of developing strategies and policies to
implement cleaner production;
to spell out an effective overall strategy in beginning a cleaner production
programme; and
to describe some of the instruments that are available to governments for
implementing cleaner production policies.
Cleaner production is an evolving concept, and experience of strategies and
policies that have helped promote cleaner production is limited. As more
experience is accumulated, UNEP will revise and expand this publication to
outline effective strategies for initiating cleaner production programmes. In this
respect, UNEP welcomes all comments and suggestions.
tEIr. I: 455
Nicholas Askounes Ashford, Professor
of Technology and Policy at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
United States, prepared the draft paper
on which this report is based. Robin
Clarke, working in close cooperation
with Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel,
Kirsten Oldenburg, Sybren de Hoo and
John Kryger of UNEP/IE, prepared the
final version, combining the ideas in
the draft paper with other documents.
CONTENTS
THE NEED FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
3
Cleaner production and sustainable development
6
Why invest in cleaner production
7
Cleaner production can be practised now
8
Fulfilling international obligations
8
THE OVERALL STRATEGY
10
Assess the existing system
10
Establish cleaner production programmes
II
Provide long-term finance and technical assistance
14
Moving forward
15
Applying regulations
-
9
Establish a shared vision and consensus
A TOOL-BOX OF POLICIES
2
3
What is cleaner production
16
16
Using economic instruments
19
Providing support measures
21
Obtaining international assistance
25
CONCLUSIONS
29
REFERENCES
30
APPENDIX
31
FURTHER INFORMATION
32
THE NEED FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
Developing countries face a dilemma today.
pollution, so that its effects are less
While economic development is solving
harmful or apparent;
problems of poverty it is causing new
thirdly, by trying to control the pollution
environmental problems. As a result, air,
and the wastes (the so-called 'end-of-
water and land become more polluted and
'Cleaner production ... isthe
continuous use of industrial
processes and products to
pipe' or pollution control approach); and
prevent the pollution of air,
water and land, to reduce
* fourthly, and most recently, by cleaner
degraded, and in the more advanced
developing countries there is already a need
production through the prevention of
for clean-up operations. Cleaner production
pollution and waste generation at the
can provide solutions to some of these
source of production.
wastes at source, and to
minimize risks to the human
problems. But it requires international
cooperation and new policies in the field of
The sequence of 'ignore, dilute, control and
industry and the environment that provide
prevent' is one which has culminated in an
incentives to adopt the cleaner production
activity which combines maximum positive
approach.
effects on the environment with substantial
population and the
environment.'
economic savings for industry and society.
Achieving this is, essentially, the goal of
WHAT IS CLEANER
PRODUCTION?
cleaner production-defined as the
Over the past 30 years, the industrialized
products to prevent the pollution of air,
nations have responded to pollution and
water and land, reduce wastes at source,
environmental degradation in four
and minimize risks to the human population
characteristic ways:
and the environment. The essential
continuous use of industrial processes and
elements of the cleaner production
* first, by ignoring the problem;
definition are summarized in the flow chart
* secondly, by diluting or dispersing the
below.
Essential elements of a cleaner production strategy
HUMANS
PRODUCTS
CONTINUOUS
:_~.
4
PREVENTATIVE
.
11
STRATEGY FOR
~
._
CLEANER
PRODUCTION
RISK REDUCTION
INTEGRATIVE
(air, water, land)
___J
PROCESSES
ENVIRONMENT
_ _
_
----.
_
_
_
l
--
3
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
1 1
0
.7
1 1-1
, i
-
t7
i_5'A
, ''M
iW*
IMPROVE HOUSEKEEPING
Reduce raw material and product loss due to leaks, spills, drag-out,
and off-specification solution.
Improve monitoring of operations and maintenance of all facets of the
production process.
Schedule production to reduce equipment cleaning-for example,
formulate light before dark paints so that vats do not have to be
cleaned out between batches.
Train employees in cleaner production.
Improve management of inventory of raw materials and products.
IN'
,
i
!1111
1124
WHIM""'g,
No
1111,1111,
Spray
cans: replace volatile
chemicals with water-soluble formulation
as aerosol.
Refrigerators: replace CFCs with ammonia or other environmentallysafe materials.
CHANGE INPUT MATERIAL
Printing: substitute water-based ink for chemical solvent-based ink.
Textiles: reduce phosphorus in wastewater by reducing use of
phosphate-containing chemicals; use ultraviolet light instead of
biocides in cooling tower.
FIPmn_mhnnn
..........
II~II.
~
...
__
an
__
-- __
---
CHANGE PROCESS TECHNOLOGY
-----
Filtration and washing: Use countercurrent washing, and recycle used
solvent.
Parts deaning: Use mechanical cleaning devices; improve draining
before and after cleaning; use plastic-bead blasting.
Surface coating: use electrostatic spray-coating system; use powder
coating systems; use airless air-assisted spray guns.
---
-
-
k-A
___
. P.1.........
~ ~nr
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- ....1
r.cn
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p-rl.ll
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with a dry system.
-
--------
------------
REUSE MATERIALS ON-SITE
Printing: use a vapour-recovery system to recover organic solvents.
Textiles: use ultrafiltration system to recover dye-stuffs from waste
water.
Metal rules: recover nickel-plating solution using an ion-exchange
unit
CHANGE PRODUCT
Batteries: replace heavy metals (such as cadmium, Iead, merary and
nickel) in batteries with less toxic materials.
Cleaner production can be applied to
extraction, through manufacturing and
the processes used in any industry
use, to the 'ultimate' disposal of the
industrial products themselves. For
product.
production precesses, cleaner
The key difference between pollution
production results from one or a
control and cleaner production is one
combination of the following measures:
of timing. Pollution control was an
conserving raw materials, water and
after-event, 'react and retreat'
energy, eliminating toxic and
approach; cleaner production is a
dangerous raw materials, and reducing
forward-looking, 'anticipate and
the quantity and toxicity of all
prevent' philosophy. Prevention, as
emissions and wastes at source during
well known, is always better than
the production process. For products,
cure.
cleaner production aims to reduce the
environmental, health, and safety
impacts of products over their entire
4
life cycles, from raw material
~~~-
-
-
This is not to claim that end-of-pipe
technologies will never be required.
The new approach is to tackle
problems using a cleaner production
------------------
-
THE NEED FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
It is important to stress that cleaner
.e,
_~u-
,
I,
production is not simply a question of
changing technology: changing attitudes
means finding a new approach to the
Cleaner production assessment identifies
relationship between industry and the
options for:
environment, and simply re-thinking an
industrial process or a product in terms of
*
X
IMPROVED PRODUCT DESIGN
cleaner production may produce the
IMPROVED MANAGEMENT
required results without importing new
IMPROVED HOUSEKEEPING
technology.
SUBSTITUTIONS FOR TOXIC
AND DANGEROUS MATERIALS
PROCESSMODIFICATIONS
INTERNAL REUSEOF WASTE PRODUCTS
Applying know-how means improving
efficiency, adopting better management
techniques, changing housekeeping
practices, and revising policies, procedures
These lead to better planning and
and institutions as necessary.
selection of
There are several ways of improving
saving US$350 000 a year-payback
technology. For example:
period was less than one year;
NEW PROCESS TECHNOLOGIES
* change process or manufacturing
which lead to increased efficiency,
and smaller and fewer
*
used cleaner production techniques
to improve process control, thus
Y
*
t a cement company in Indonesia has
END-OF-PIPE TECHNOLOGIES
technology;
* a metal treatment company in
Singapore installed a new cleaner
* change input materials;
production process that saved
· change the final product; and
US$87 000 a year--payback period
* reuse materials on-site, preferably within
was two years;
the process (off-site recycling is not part
of cleaner production, though it may
bring substantial environmental benefits).
philosophy, which will lead to a better
+ the decision to recycle chromium in a
Greek tannery reduced chromium
pollution and waste from about 30 to
selection and planning of technology.
Examples of these processes are given in
about 4 per cent, and saved
This will lead to a reduced need for
the box on page 4.
US$43 500 a year-payback period
was I I months;
end-of-pipe technologies and may in
some cases even eleiminate the need
for them altogether.
Individuals and industries may be richly
rewarded for taking preventive
+ a study of painting processes in a
environmental action in the form of cleaner
Polish steel industry suggests that
Cleaner production can be achieved in a
production. Experience in both developed
changing the painting technology
number of different ways, of which the
and developing countries shows that this
could reduce wastes, cut down on
three most important are:
new approach not only produces a cleaner
solvent and paint use, and save
environment but also results in substantial
thousands of dollars a year for a
* changing attitudes;
savings for industry and society (see box
capital investment that would be
* applying know-how; and
right).
repaid in a few months.
* improving technology.
5
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
Graph on right shows how costs of pollution
control technologies keep on increasing while
those of cleaner production soon level off
Investing in cleaner production has a payback
time as a result of lower costs. Investments
made in end-of-pipe technologies to control
pollution are never paid back
0
0
U
Time
Source: TME, The Netherlands, 1992
Cleaner production can be-and has already
environmentally-benign forms of development
been-applied to raw material extraction,
Cleaner production
manufacturing, agriculture, fisheries,
Cleaner production can contribute to the,
transportation, tourism, hospitals, energy,
sustainable forms of economic development
information systems (for example in process
endorsed in UNCED's Agenda 21 (see
control) and the organization of work.
chapters 20, 30 and 34). Cleaner
production can minimize or eliminate the
o* is the most fundamental approach;
need to make trade-offs between economic
o leads to product and process
CLEANER PRODUCTION
AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
improvements;
* saves on raw materials and energy,
and thus reduces production costs;
s increases competitiveness through the
use of new and improved technologies;
*: reduces the need for more
restrictions and prohibitions;
4* reduces risks from on- and off-site
growth and environment, between worker
safety and productivity, and between
consumer safety and competition in
Both developed and developing countries
international markets. Optimizing several
have often introduced technologies without
goals at the same time in this way leads to
realizing how much it was going to cst to
'win-win' situations in which everyone gains.
control pollution from them. They have then
Cleaner production is such a 'win-win'
argued that a trade-off has to be made
strategy: it protects the environment, the
treatment, storage and disposal of
between economic growth and the
consumer and the worker while improving
toxic wastes;
environment, and that some level of pollution
industrial efficiency, profitability and
must be accepted if reasonable rates of
competitiveness.
o improves the health and safety of
economic growth are to be achieved. This
employees;
* improves a company's public image;
and
*: reduces the cost of increasingly
expensive end-of-pipe solutions.
argument is no longer valid, and the UN
Cleaner production is also now especially
Conference on Environment and
attractive to developing countries and those
Development (UNCED), held in Rio de
undergoing economic transition because it
Janeiro in June 1992, established new goals for
provides industries in these countries, for
the world community which involve
the first time, with an opportunity to 'leap
6
_
____
_
_
I_
__
r
THE NEED FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
frog' over older, more established
of a problem rather than address its causes.
industries which are still saddled with costly
When cleaner production and pollution
pollution control technologies. Thus
control options that solve the same
countries that start to adopt cleaner
environmental problems are properly
production now will be able to take full
evaluated against one another, the cleaner
advantage of a rare window of opportunity
production options will usually be less
which for once favours developments in
costly to implement, operate and maintain
poorer countries over those in the
over the long term (or even the short
industrialized nations.
term) because of reduced costs for raw
material, energy, pollution control, waste
WHY INVEST IN
CLEANER PRODUCTION?
treatment and clean-up, and regulatory
compliance. Payback times can vary
between a few months to a few years. In
Investing in cleaner production, to prevent
addition, the environmental benefits and
pollution and to improve natural resource
performance are greater.
use, is cheaper than continuing to rely on
increasingly expensive end-of-pipe or
This latter benefit can be translated into
pollution control technologies. As the graph
market opportunities for 'greener'
on page 6 shows, the initial investment for
products. Systems and products for which
pollution control and cleaner production
good environmental performance has been
processes may be similar. But over time
factored in at the 'design' stage will be
pollution control costs continue to mount
cheaper to operate and maintain, as well as
while cleaner production investments level
less polluting and therefore less harmful to
off. By 1989, the OECD countries alone
human health. Cleaner production
were spending US$22 billion a year to
therefore provides industries with a new
control the spread of the 310 million
range of benefits (see box on page 6). It
tonnes of hazardous wastes generated
also introduces them to new tools such as
every year. I
Life Cycle Assessment and Eco-labelling.
As has been said, cleaner production is quite
Cleaner production is now especially
distinct from the traditional pollution control
important for developing countries, many of
strategy which relies on 'end-of-pipe'
which are expanding industrial production
technologies. Cleaner production is inherently
quickly. As much is clear from the
more preventive, whereas pollution control
remarkable increase in the chemical exports
strategies accept waste, emissions and
to developing countries, which almost
effluents as a 'given' and try to find ways to
doubled their share of worldwide trade in
handle them or minimize their effects.
chemicals from 7.4 per cent in 1980 to 12.9
Pollution control technology, once purchased,
per cent in 1991.2 With industries expanding
is often not properly maintained and its future
this fast, it will become imperative that
environmental benefits can therefore be
developing countries seize the opportunity
illusory. This is the inevitable result of a
to invest relatively cheaply in cleaner
technical fix that seeks to treat the symptoms
production now rather than pay heavily later
'... at the Beijing Brewery in
China, cleaner production
techniques, for example,
reduced beer losses by nearly
20 per cent, providing annual
savings of US$200 000 while
at the same time reducing the
chemical oxygen demand of
wastewaters. These changes
required no investments, only
management improvements.'
7
I
Ii
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
'Industries and nations
embracing cleaner production
will find that in so doing they
for clean-up operations, as the industrialized
partly on new or alternative technologies. It
nations have had to do. Doing so will also
can also be achieved through improved
provide developing countries with a
management techniques, different forms of
competitive edge over those firms long since
work organization and many other
established and now encumbered with
'software' approaches to industrial products
expensive end-of-pipe control technologies.
and processes. Cleaner production is as
will automatically fulfil many
of their international
obligations to the
environment'
much about attitudes, approaches and
Cleaner production is also important for
management as it is about technology. This
the former centrally-planned economies of
is why it is called cleaner production and
Eastern Europe where a transformation to
not cleaner technology. A good example of
cleaner production presents different
this occurred recently at the Beijing
challenges. While it is clear that cleaner
Brewery in China, where cleaner production
production policies cannot be transferred
techniques, for example, reduced beer
uncritically from industrialized countries to
losses by nearly 20 per cent and thus
developing or re-developing nations,
provided annual savings of US$200 000
carefully targeted, phased and staged
while at the same time reducing the
chemical oxygen demand of wastewaters.
approaches may be timely, and
economically and ecologically beneficial.
3
These changes required no investments,
only management improvements.
CLEANER PRODUCTION
CAN BE PRACTISED NOW
technologies do not yet exist and that,
FULFILLING
INTERNATIONAL
OBLIGATIONS
where they do exist, they are already
Finally, while cleaner production is a means
patented and can be obtained only through
of improving industrial performance and
expensive licences. Both statements are
protecting the environment, it is equally an
untrue.
effective device for complying with the
It is often claimed that cleaner production
complex array of rules and regulations
Cleaner production approaches are widely
designed to protect the environment. This is
and readily available, and techniques do
obviously true, for example, for local
exist for identifying and evaluating needed
government regulations that specify levels of
technologies. While it is true that cleaner
permitted discharges into the air and water.
production technologies do not yet exist
But it is also true of the new and more
for all industrial processes and products, it
demanding requirements for international
is estimated that 70 per cent of all current
adherence to conventions on ozone-
wastes and emissions from industrial
depleting substances, the discharge of toxic
processes can be prevented at source by
materials, climate change and biodiversity.
the use of technically sound and
Industries and nations embracing cleaner
economically profitable procedures.3
production will find that in so doing they
will more easily fulfil many of their
Secondly, cleaner production depends only
international obligations to the environment.
8
_
_
THE OVERALL STRATEGY
Five important steps are involved in
trying to do too much too quickly. This
establishing the necessary pre-conditions
approach also stresses the need to
for a cleaner production programme (see
distinguish the short from the long term.
. -a. a
a
*.*
.
a
illustration on page II):
The long-term goal may be to introduce
4* establish a shared vision of how to
cleaner production to every industry in the
UNIDO/UNEP are selecting a number of
promote cleaner production-'start
country through the establishment of key
countries for NCPCs from the following
small but think big';
advisory and information centres on cleaner
short list:
:- build a consensus that the best way
forward is through cleaner production;
* assess the existing system of
production and technology, and thus effect
a nation-wide transformation of industrial
+ Brazil
practice and philosophy.
* China
environmental and industrial policy-
+ India
with techniques and procedures for
The short-term goal may be simply to set
+ Indonesia
identifying areas and sectors requiring
up one effective cleaner production
* Mexico
change-and take corrective action;
demonstration project that will launch a
t Tanzania
snowball effect throughout a specific region
: Zimbabwe
· establish cleaner production
programmes such as demonstration
or industry sector, which will eventually
projects and similar small-scale activities;
spread to other regions and other
US-AID has NCPCs in operation in
and
industries.
- Tunisia
* provide long-term finance and technical
assistance.
*: Chile
It is no bad thing to start small, and it is a
mistake to imagine that because funds and
Malta has funded its own NCPC which is
'Start small but think big' is a strategic
human resources are limited nothing can be
already in operation.
approach that avoids the common pitfall of
done. The existence of both the United
The Australia Centre for Cleaner Production in Melbourne, Victoria,
was established in 1993 and works in close contact with the UNEP
*: helps with strategic development, process audits and opportunity
Cleaner Production Programme (see box on page 27). Its vision is
. provides information and technology transfer;
'to assist industry to achieve the dual goals of international
:. maintains close links with UNEP and similar programmes in
competitiveness and environmental excellence through cleaner
production'. It does this through consultation, education and
identification;
neighbouring countries; and
* catalyses collaboration between suppliers and customers.
technology transfer. More specifically, the Centre:
The Centre is expected to become self-financing within three
*- promotes cleaner production;
years, and was initially seeded with money from industry, the
*: provides an interface between industry, government and
Victoria Environment Protection Authority and the Department of
academia;
Business and Employment.
* helps set up demonstration projects in industry;
*. provides practical training courses and workshops;
9
I
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
main interest: environment
· politicians
* government departments concerned
with the environment, public health,
worker health and safety, and
consumers and product safety
*: non-government organizations
representing the environment and
consumers
** consumers
*. trade unions
o* consultants on the environment
National Cleaner Production Centre, for
Industry and Environment Programme
example, devotes a great deal of its time to
within it are proof that small beginnings can
presentations, lectures, writing articles and
lead to major results.
preparing training programmes.
An important key to establishing a shared
* academics and professionals
ESTABLISH A SHARED
VISION AND CONSENSUS
vision and consensus is for government to
The initial task in the development of a
priority. Several countries have already
shared vision and consensus is to identify
done this. For example, the US Pollution
proclaim cleaner production as a national
key people and key institutions that will
Prevention Act of 1990 states that 'The
form the backbone of the cleaner
Congress hereby declares it to be the
production initiative. It may be that the
national policy of the United States that
people and one of the key institutions can
pollution should be prevented or reduced
be combined to form the nucleus of a
at the source wherever feasible ...'. China,
Cleaner Production Centre. This has been
Denmark, France, India and Poland (see box
done in a number of industrialized countries, on page I) have also made similar
main interest industry
: politicians
+ government departments connected
with economic and industrial planning,
commerce and trade
*. multinational corporations
* large and small national companies
-: joint venture partnerships
· industrial managers
*: industrial suppliers
: industrial consultants
ot trade associations
*$ Chambers of Commerce
+ academics
including Australia, and in developing
pronouncements. At the same time, this
countries supported by the joint
national priority needs to be translated into
UNIDO/UNEP National Cleaner Production
action. Inevitably, this means providing
Centre Programme (Phase I of which is
financial encouragements, for example in
sponsored by Austria, Denmark and the
the form of grants or low-cost loans, for
Netherlands) or the US-AID Environmental
industries willing to take the first steps.
Pollution Prevention Programme (EP3).
Some centres have been financed by the
One of the first jobs for any national
countries themselves (see box on page 9).
cleaner production centre is to set up a
cleaner production network to link
: professional societies
*: financial institutions for venture
One of the first jobs of such a centre is to
together those interested in the subject
publicize, in a joint effort Wvith government,
within the country, and to put them in
the need for cleaner production and the
touch with experts elsewhere.
importance of the vision that it entails. It is
capital, and national and international
loans
* insurance companies
* trade unions
never sufficient simply to approach key
many, quite unexpected organizations are
ASSESS THE
EXISTING SYSTEM
likely to become involved in cleaner
Before cleaner production policies and
leaders in business and government because
main interest mixed
+ the media
production programmes. The list on the left programmes can be formulated and
+ politicians
+ interministerial committees
+ local government
·:+ financial institutions
+ Cleaner Production Centres
summarizes some of the more obvious.
implemented, governments need to gain a
Getting the message across to all these
system works. This will reveal a number of
groups means that the main job for those
obstacles that are likely to hinder adoption
who initiate cleaner production approaches
of cleaner production, and which will have
is information dissemination: Australia's
to be removed. In the process the
clear understanding of how their existing
10
__
Nations Environment Programme and the
___
_____ _I___
THE OVERALL STRATEGY
The overall strategy for cleaner production development
chapter.
In view of the need for a profound
reconstruction of Polish industry, a
Declaration on Cleaner Production has
been formulated by the Ministry of
Environment, Natural Resources and
Forestry and the Ministry of Trade and
Industry. The aim of this declaration is to
develop the economy and preserve the
natural environment
it is proposed to introduce the
principles of preventive environmental
management into the production and
development programme of companies in
order to achieve sustainable industrial
development.
These principles aim at minimizing
solid, liquid and gaseous wastes in the
production process, while simultaneously
providing economic benefits.
For the implementation of the
declaration:
might be found, for example, in:
ESTABLISH CLEANER
PRODUCTION
PROGRAMMES
The Enterprise
4 will prepare and implement a Cleaner
Production Project according to the
UN methodology;
: will introduce the Project into short-
* innovation policy;
DEVELOP CLEANER PRODUCTION VISION
'START SMALL BUT THINK BIG'
PROVIDE LONG-TERM
CLEANER
FINANCE AND TECHNICAL
PRODUCTION
ESTABLISH A CONSENSUS
ON THE NEED FOR
ASSISTANCE
DEVELOPMENT
CLEANER PRODUCTION
A
`I
ESTABLISH
ASSESS
THE
CLEANER PRODUCTION
.4
EXISTING SYSTEM
PROGRAMMES
opportunity can be taken to introduce
cleaner production approaches to industrial
point is examined in more detail in the next
and environmental legislation, and to
develop specific cleaner production
initiatives. A bias towards pollution control
A cleaner production programme
and long-term production and
industrial policy;
incorporates demonstration projects,
development plans and arrange for
* raw material pricing;
education, training, capacity building,
* trade policies;
outreach and institution building. For
· tax systems;
industry, the first job is to carry out the
. educational curricula;
oenvironmental regulations; and
. technology development.
same kind of assessment as governments
do, but at the manufacturing level. A
specific tool, the cleaner production
opportunities audit, is available for this
Governments must also understand exactly
purpose, and has been successfully used in
periodical reporting;
4 will designate a supervisor for the
Project.
Ministry of Environment, Natural
Resources and Forestry and Ministry
of Trade and Industry
: will organize training courses in the
methodology of Cleaner Production
design;
what cleaner production means at the level
many demonstration projects. It is used to
· will facilitate access to information
of industry. This is often misunderstood,
examine an industry's production
which leads to inadequate policies to
processes, evaluate the changes that could
about world solutions in this area;
*: will support enterprises seeking
finance for the most effective
undertakings resulting from Cleaner
Production Projects.
promote cleaner production or to the idea
be made and estimate their costs. One such
that cleaner production does not warrant
manual is available from UNEP and
separate attention at the policy level. This
UNIDO. 4 In practice, however, there is a
II
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
The UNEP/UNIDO cleaner
production assessment 4
PHASE : PREASSESSMENT
need to produce manuals for individual
companies take part in the development of
countries and, indeed, for different types of
policy studies which are then used to
industry within each country. Manuals of
provide a 'tailor-made' cleaner production
this type are now available in a number of
policy for each country. The Chinese
countries including the Austria, China,
project began with a series of wide-ranging
s
AUDIT PREPARATION
Denmark, India, the Netherlands, Norway,
: prepare audit team and resources
*:4 divide process into unit operations
o:* construct process flow diagrams
linking unit operations
Poland 6 , Sweden, the United Kingdom and
i~~
_ _______
___
--------
~ ~ ___
PHASE 2: MATERIAL BALANCE
United States. 7 In the Netherlands, the
· innovation and industrial policies;
PRISMA project, working with small and
: environmental policies at national level;
medium-sized firms, has successfully carried
. environmental policies at local level, with
some emphasis on the permit system;
out assessments and cleaner production
PROCESS
INPUTS
* determine inputs
* record water usage
4 measure levels of waste
reuse/recycling
P~~i~OCESS
INPUTS
assessments in five major areas:
j
J
demonstration studies in 10 industries.
· cleaner production policies abroad; and
Details of the UNEP/UNIDO and US
· the introduction and implementation of
EPA/PRISMA assessment approaches are
cleaner production in companies, and
illustrated on this and the facing page.
the obstacles that arose, on the basis of
a series of case histories.
I
PROCESS
OUTPUTS
: quantify products/by-products
:4 account for wastewater
. account for gaseous emissions
a& account for off-site wastes
i
i
i
i
one-off, start to finish procedure. Once the
These evaluations are made with the help
I
assessment has been made, and a cleaner
of in-depth interviews with important
i
I
DERIVEA MATERIALBALANCE
I
*: assemble input and output
information
I
* derive preliminary material balance
I
: evaluate and refine material
,/
I
balance
------------
Note that the assessment process is not a
I
PHASE 3: SYNTHESIS
production approach adopted, the results
individuals and collective brainstorming
must be monitored and evaluated. This
sessions in workshops involving
evaluation will provide feedback to improve
representatives from industry and
the innovations introduced; it will also
government. However, a key to their
suggest new areas for application of cleaner
success was the establishment of a number
production concepts. At this point the
of cleaner production demonstration
assessment cycle should be repeated.
projects in individual companies, where the
emphasis was on training and education of
IDENTIFYWASTEREDUCTION OPTIONS
:o identify obvious waste reduction
measures
- target and characterize problem
wastes
I
*: investigate waste segregation
: identify long-term waste reduction
measures
-
Chinese experts and on relatively cheap
applied in a much larger project in China,
ways of implementing cleaner production,
.s,,nnnrtdrihv I INFP/IF and the Wnrlr Rnan
notably:
(see box on page 27). This project was
i
EVALUATEWASTEREDUCTION OPTIONS
* undertake environmental and
economic evaluation of waste
reduction options
The lessons learned are currently being
I
designed to pay particular attention to the
: management improvements;
need for information by policy makers and
: good housekeeping;
to different dissemination strategies for
: substitution of toxic materials;
cleaner production. The China project is
: process modifications;
i
: internal reuse of wastes; and
part of a well designed demonstration
programme in which more than 30
:
changes in product design.
WASTEREDUCTION ACTION PLAN
: design and implement a waste
reduction plan to improve process
efficiency
.
12
Demonstration projects of this kind are
The diagram on the left reproduced from the
useful in revealing obstacles to progress
original publication, uses the term 'waste
both within companies and in the
reduction' in place of 'cleaner production'
relationship of companies to the outside
________________I______
_
THE OVERALL STRATEGY
world, notably with local and national
production. Many professionals in
government agencies.
companies and governments do not know
These obstacles are different in every
how to obtain information about cleaner
country. However, demonstration projects
production, often because it cuts across the
already carried out in Europe and Asia
conventional technical, economic,
show that five different kinds of obstacles
organizational, social psychological,
can exist (a finding that has been confirmed
environmental and managerial divisions.
The US EPA/PRISMA cleaner
production approach 5
RECOGNIZE NEED TO PREVENT
POLLUTION BY CLEANER
I
PRODUCTION
by research and demonstration projects in a
number of developing countries). These
Technical obstacles are common because
obstacles are:
technical changes are often involved in
* conceptual;
techniques of cleaner production
* organizational;
assessment and change installations, tools,
*: knowledge-based;
input materials, processes and products
PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION
o get management commitment
o: establish assessment organization
' set overall assessment goals
* overcome barriers
: technical; and
often reveals technical obstacles, sometimes
4: start preliminary study
* economic.
at the stage of technology development,
cleaner production. The need to master
sometimes during demonstration and
Governments need to have a clear picture
sometimes during dissemination.
of these obstacles in order to frame tailormade policies to overcome the obstacles.
Economic obstacles are also common, despite
the fact that cleaner production usually
Conceptual obstacles relate to issues which
results in potential savings for both
companies regard as important. Conceptual
industries and governments. Common
obstacles can include a lack of importance
economic obstacles include vested interests,
given to the environment, resistance to
shortage of investment funds, and
change, and poor environmental standards
incomplete or incorrect allocations of costs
in both companies and governments.
during the economic analysis of cleaner
ASSESSMENT
o: collect data on company and its
processes
: set priorities for flows of raw
materials, wastes and emissions
4 select assessment teams
:ovisit company facilities
: generate cleaner production
options
Organizational obstacles can be traced back
common economic obstacles is a pricing
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
· technical evaluation
to the way a company is organized, to the
policy that in effect subsidizes the use of
4 economic evaluation
ways in which companies work together
resources such as energy and, particularly,
and the ways in which government's
water.
production possibilities. One of the most
: environmental evaluation
* select options for implementation
environmental and innovation policies are
organized. In government, for example, it is
Cleaner production is an approach that can
difficult to give cleaner production proper
be successfully applied in small and medium-
priority if environmental policy is organized
sized enterprises as well as in large ones.
by individual sector, such as water, air and
Indeed, it may be that smaller companies
land, because cleaner production covers
need to adopt cleaner production
them all.
approaches more urgently than large ones
because small companies rarely have the
Knowledge-based obstacles usually relate to a
resources to stay in business if they make
lack of knowledge about cleaner
major mistakes. Adopting cleaner production
IMPLEMENTATION
* obtain funds
* install equipment
* implement project
* monitor and evaluate results
* adapt project as appropriate
* plan new projects
13
STRATEGIES AND POUCIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
'Another small UK company,
with a staff of only 13 people,
has developing a new method
of galvanizing steel that
eliminates conventional
wastes, uses less zinc, gives
better process control, reduces
labour and provides safer
working conditions. The new
plant pays for itself within
three years, reduces capital
investment by two-thirds and
costs only 18 percent of the
cost of the steel itself,
compared to 60 percent with
traditionalmethods.'
14
is a way of reducing risks, risks that smaller
plant pays for itself within three years,
businesses cannot comfortably afford to
reduces capital investment by two-thirds
take. Heavy fines, for example, imposed on
and costs only 18 percent of the cost of the
companies producing excessive waste have
steel itself, compared to 60 percent with
bankrupted many small businesses.
traditional methods.
There are many examples of successful
Kingdom, for example, a small research-
PROVIDE LONG-TERM
FINANCE AND TECHNICAL
ASSISTANCE
based company has developed a range of
Several types of technical assistance have
water-based adhesives to replace solvent-
already been mentioned in the description
based ones. Users have found that the new
of the establishment of a cleaner
products have many economic advantages
production programme. The emphasis
as well as being non-toxic and non-
should be on the need for a cleaner
polluting: they require three to five times
production assessment, cleaner production
less drying energy, reduce the need for
training and well-designed demonstration
safety precautions and solvent-recovery
projects. Long-term and ongoing support
systems, and save on equipment and raw
will also require appropriate institutions,
materials.
such as a National Cleaner Production
cleaner production innovations in small and
medium-sized companies. In the United
Centre.
Another small research team has produced
a means of optimizing the performance of
Long-term finance is an important aspect of
coal-fired cement kilns, thus saving an
launching a cleaner production programme,
Indonesian company 3 percent in fuel, 40
and can be provided in several ways. First, a
percent in off-specification product and
long-term commitment to finance a cleaner
increasing capacity by 9 percent. Another
production programme will show that
small UK company, with a staff of only 13
government really does give cleaner
people, has developed a new method of
production a high priority. Secondly,
galvanizing steel that eliminates
technical support can be financed by
conventional wastes, uses less zinc, gives
governments and industry organizations on
better process control, reduces labour and
a programmatic basis which has more
provides safer working conditions. The new
impact than the relatively isolated financing
1__1__
______
THE OVERALL STRATEGY
of individual cleaner production events.
Thirdly, 'revolving funds' can be established
for small and medium-sized companies. The
·money from such funds is used to finance a
cleaner production audit and select
beneficial options. Companies re-pay the
fund from the economies that they achieve.
MOVING FORWARD
A vision and a series of well designed
demonstration projects are sufficient to start
the cleaner production ball rolling. In China,
progress will be achieved in four stages:
preparation, demonstration, policy studies
and finally dissemination. Furthermore,
although the Chinese project is small in
relation to many development projects, it is
expected to result in the application of
cleaner production in more than 3000
Chinese companies within five years of the
start of the project. This is a good
example-and there are many others--of
how the 'start-small but think big' approach
can produce substantial yields.
These yields, however, will not be realized
unless government has also prepared an
appropriate environment in which to plant
the seeds of cleaner production. The
following chapter analyses the legislative and
economic tools available to governments
wishing to establish such an environment.
15
A TOOL-BOX OF POLICIES
'While it is industry that
ultimately must implement
cleaner production, the role of
government is to lead by
providing an environment that
will accelerate the process and
encourage industry to initiate
its own cleaner production
programmes.'
While it is industry that ultimately must
Regulations have not been introduced on
implement cleaner production, the role of
such a massive scale in developing
government is to lead by providing an
countries, and it is not yet clear whether
environment that will accelerate the
they will need to do so. They certainly do
process and encourage industry to initiate
not have to be in place before launching a
its own cleaner production programmes.
cleaner production offensive. The
implementation of cleaner production, with
The range of tools available for
its goals of zero emissions and full recycling,
governments trying to catalyse industry to
does not necessarily depend on the
adopt cleaner production is large, and
existence of an extensive regulatory system.
different countries will select those
Developing countries may well find it more
combinations of tools they regard as most
feasible to depend on raising awareness of
suited to their needs. The boxes on pages
the economic benefits implicit in cleaner
18-20 list a number of such policy
production. Coupled with suitable support
instruments, as examples. The text that
measures and the use of external assistance,
follows, however, analyses these and other
this will be enough to persuade many
tools under four different categories:
industrial leaders to adopt cleaner
production procedures, with regulations
*+applying regulations;
and economic instruments playing a less
* using economic instruments;
important role than they have in the
: providing support measures; and
industrialized countries.
* obtaining external assistance.
Nevertheless, all four sets of tools are
In industrialized countries, the first three of
described in detail below since all will be
these tools have generally been applied in
used to some extent. While regulations and
the order given above (see table opposite).
economic instruments have been
The last tool, obtaining external assistance,
extensively used to produce generalized
is specially relevant to developing countries
environmental improvements, there are
and those undergoing economic transition.
fewer examples so far of their specific use
Governments, in other words, have first
to catalyse cleaner production.
established regulations designed to limit
emissions to the air, water and onto land.
They have then introduced economic
APPLYING REGULATIONS
instruments that encourage the observance
Regulations can be used to specify an
of these regulations and penalize their
environmental goal-such as reduction of
infringement Finally, they have provided
carbon dioxide emissions to 1985 levels-
support for industries to enable the
without necessarily stating how the goal is
regulations to be more easily met. In the
to be achieved or what technology is to be
process, developed countries have acquired
used to achieve it. Alternatively, regulations
extensive and complicated regulatory
can specify that a certain technology must
systems.
be used in certain industries to reduce
pollution, but the environmental goal may
16
_-
A TOOL-BOX OF POLICIES
Differences in the use of policy instruments in the states of the European Union and the United States
NL
DK
SP
UK
FR
BE
GE
0
0
O
0
o
o
o0
·
0
O
O
0
·
0
*
A
·0
* .
·
*·
·
·
o
0
A
·
·
o
0
o
o
o
·
O
O
O
·
·
O
O
O
O
O
·
·
·
·
·0
0
O
·
0
*
O
*
O
O
A
0
·
0
0
0
*
0
· 0
*
·
A
0
0
0
0
0
0
*
0
*
*
0O
*·
0
O
O
O0
0o
A
0
0o
0
A
O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
·
*
0
PO
IT
GR
El
0
0
AL
0
0o
0
A
o
o
LU
USA
Legislation
Approval scheme including
cleaner technology
Voluntary agreements
Financial instruments
Tax, duties and fees
Grants and subsidies
Information and
education
Demonstration projects,
processes
Demonstration projects,
products
Consultant support
Centres of expertise
Newsletters
General manuals
Industry-specific manuals
Databases
Videos
Conferences and seminars
Research and development
programmes
6: yes
*·
*·
·
*
*
·
*
*
·
A : under preparation
0
·
A
*
0
*
·
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
·
0
O: no activities or no information
e
0
O
0
0
·
·
o
0o
0
0o
*
*
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
O
0
Sources: Commission of the European Union, DG XI,
Waste Management Clean Technologies-Update on
Situations in Member States, Brussels, June 1994, draft;
and J. Hirschhorn and K. Oldenburg, Prosperity without
be left unspecified. The most rigid
successful since the clean-up operations
regulations specify both the target and the
effected in the OECD countries, for
technology to be used to achieve it.
example, have significantly improved
environmental conditions. These countries
Specified and
negotiated compliance
have relied mainly, though not exclusively,
on what is known as 'specified compliance':
precise and specific demands have been
In the industrialized countries, regulatory
imposed on the regulated communities,
programmes are the foundation on which
with little bargaining allowed and few
environmental quality has been built. In this
exceptions made. This somewhat
sense, their use has been relatively
authoritarian style of government has
Pollution, Nostrand and Reinhold, New York, 1991.
Table above gives an overview of the large
differences that exist in the use of policy
instruments in the European Union Member
States and the United States. Cleaner
production is an emerging concept which is
being steadily incorporated into national
policy. The table does not imply anything
about the efficiency of the policy instruments
in place in each country.
17
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
SA
undoubtedly been successful in improving
in mind, it is important that governments
environmental conditions. However, it has
explicitly consider the implications of
its drawbacks: the regulated community
using these regulations for cleaner
tends to become alienated, and united in its
production, which may be profound and
not immediately apparent;
opposition to the rule makers; furthermore,
¢' although it is important for developing
ESTABLISH CLEANER
this approach encourages the use of
PRODUCTION PROGRAMMES
expensive pollution control technologies,
countries to establish their long-term
States and local governments can
establish cleaner production
programmes. These programmes can be
institutionalized within an environmental
or industry agency or within an academic
institution. The main purpose of these
programmes and their centres of
expertise is to increase awareness of
cleaner production and improve capacity
in government institutions and industries.
These centres of expertise can also play
an important role in research and
development on cleaner production, in
.the dissemination of information and in
training.
the adoption of which often reduces the
environmental goals, they need to allow
budget available for promoting cleaner
enough time for these goals to be
production; adapting, testing and putting
such techniques into practice can also take
attained;
: stricter requirements can often be made
as long as implementing cleaner production.
for new industries than for those already
Once a pollution control device is in place,
established, since the latter have to
there is little incentive to pay more money
make larger investments to reduce
out to reduce the need for the device.
emissions;
. there is no point in establishing goals if
The 'negotiated compliance' approach, by
they cannot be implemented and
contrast, seeks to obtain compliance by the
enforced, and if government is not able
use of general and flexible guidelines, and
to ensure compliance; this implies that
bargaining between the regulators and the
regulations must be effectively
regulated. This less adversarial approach, of
monitored, a process that can prove
costly;
which the ultimate expression is the
REQUIRE CLEANER PRODUCTION AUDITS
Require industrial firms to prepare
formal cleaner production audits of their
plants and set up implementation
schemes.
voluntary agreement or code of conduct,
* it is better to specify progressively
may be more useful to governments trying to
restrictive performance goals than to
promote cleaner production over the long
apply static requirements, since the
term. In very broad terms, experience in
latter often lead companies to apply
industrialized countries suggests that specific
compliance is the preferred option to achieve
PUBLISH ENVIRONMENTAL
PERFORMANCE DATA
Make public information on the
environmental performance of companies
and update the information on a regular
basis so that the community (and NGOs)
know how responsive local companies
are to the need to improve their
environmental performance.
PROVIDE TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
Set up teams of cleaner production
experts to provide free advice to
industry on how to audit their products
urgent, short-term goals while negotiated
compliance may be preferable over the long
term. But no government currently relies
exclusively on either approach.
pollution control technologies;
4 goals should be defined so that they
,
must be achieved first as a result of
the adoption of cleaner production,
followed by the application of pollution
control technology if necessary.
* discretionary regulations, which allow
General principles
flexibility as to how goals are to be
A number of general principles surround
achieved, are preferable to regulations
the efficient use of regulations in developing
that specify both what must be done
countries and countries in economic
and how it is to be done; and
transition:
* the use of voluntary agreements and
codes of conduct, backed up by
* since environmental regulations were
originally designed with pollution control
regulations, should be encouraged in
different industry sectors; if
compliance with such codes is
monitored, unnecessary legislation can
18
be avoided; supporting industry
-I-
----
-----
_____
A TOOL-BOX OF POLICIES
associations is one effective way of
cost or penalty for polluting. Indirectly they
stimulating voluntary agreements and
also improve the economic rewards for
monitoring.
adopting or developing cleaner production
by lowering the operating costs of cleaner
production relative to production systems
USING ECONOMIC
INSTRUMENTS
using polluting technologies.
Economic instruments can be used to make
Before any of these instruments are applied,
the cost of pollution more expensive than
governments need to analyse what forms of
the cost of cleaner production. They exist
economic instrument are already in
in two forms: those that provide rewards,
operation, either explicitly or implicitly.
such as tax rebates, for compliance, and
Among the latter are the frequent forms of
those that penalize, for example through
subsidy used to lower production costs and
fines, for non-compliance. The revenue
make industry more competitive with
generated through the latter should be
imports and foreign production in general.
used, at least partially, to help develop
Many of these policies lead to artificially low
cleaner production approaches.
prices for resources such as energy and
and processes, and how to devise and
evaluate cleaner production solutions.
REVISE EXISTING LAWS AND REGULATIONS
Encourage cleaner production through
existing laws and regulations by assigning
priority to cleaner production over
pollution control, and eliminate the
under-pricing of energy, water and raw
materials that favours end-of-pipe
technology.
SET NEW REGULATIONS
Set new regulations for specific industries
that will require them to adopt cleaner
production processes or redesign
products to meet new standards.
water. As a result, these resources are
Economic instruments can be used to shape
often used profligately, creating both
and direct technological investment, the
pollution and shortages. Government
purchase and use of materials and energy,
assessments are needed of industrial
and the management of pollution and waste.
policies such as these before other
They can provide incentives for cleaner
economic instruments are applied. In
production or they can, if unwisely
general, policies that result in prices that
fashioned, subsidize pollution control or
reflect the real costs involved should be
environmentally-harmful industrial activity
implemented before other economic
through, for example, inappropriate taxes
instruments are employed.
and subsidies.
Taxes
The range of economic instruments
includes the following:
Taxes on toxic or undesirable inputs and
feedstocks, pollution and waste, and energy
* taxes;
can go a long way towards discouraging
* reporting requirements and liability;
activities that contaminate the environment
* tax incentives; and
and work place, contribute to global
warming and perpetuate unsafe products.
* subsidies.
Indirectly, these taxes can establish a more
When carefully crafted, these economic
attractive economic environment for the
instruments discourage polluting
development and utilization of cleaner
technologies. In theory they are
production.
instruments that internalize the social cost
of production by imposing an economic
CHANGE PERMITTING SYSTEM
Make sure that a complete cleaner
production audit has been conducted to
determine what emissions could be
prevented. Then set permits allowing
emissions of only those wastes that a
firm cannot prevent.
ENCOURAGE VOLUNTARY
REDUCTION SCHEMES
Establish a programme to encourage
industry voluntarily to reduce the
generation of the most toxic pollutants
by 50 per cent or more within a few
(3-5) years, and publish the results
annually (for example, more than 300
chemicals are now included in the toxic
release inventory in the United States).
Use legislation if goals are not achieved
in due time.
(continued on page 20)
Many industrialized countries have used or
19
1
-
1
1
1
I--
t
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
(continued from page 19)
MAKE SPECIAL ENFORCEMENT PROVISIONS
Help industry by conducting research on
major environmental problems, and
provide cleaner production support to
industries affected by new regulations.
Where violations occur, arrange for
reductions in fines equal to a percentage
of the company's cost of implementing a
cleaner production solution to deal with
the problem.
are considering using emissions taxes. One
requirement which have been successful in
of the difficulties in applying such taxes is
that it is often not politically feasible to set
both increasing consumer awareness and in
stimulating the development of 'greener'
such taxes high enough to achieve specific
products.
environmental goals. While this is a
disadvantage, these taxes can still result in
Liability concerns similarly affect the image
real reductions in pollution levels, even
of the firm but can also exert a powerful
though these may not be of the desired
direct economic incentive to move away
magnitude. In addition, they will raise
from polluting technologies and unsafe
revenue, and this revenue can be used in
products towards cleaner production. The
other ways to encourage cleaner
success of liability systems, of course,
production, for example by financing tax
depends on how effective is the
CHANGE USE OF TECHNOLOGY STANDARDS
rebates for good environmental behaviour
enforcement and legal system of the
Increase flexibility at company level by
formulating standards on the basis of the
best available technology and give
freedom to industry to select the most
appropriate technologies that meet these
standards.
(this is known in the United States as the
country concerned. Several countries have
'feebate' system) or to finance cleaner
found that enforcing the concept of 'strict
production centres or assistance.
liability'-which means that firms are held
responsible for all the environmental
It is generally best to set taxes at a low
damage they cause, even if they have
level to start with so that firms have time
fulfilled their legal obligations-often leads
to adjust, and then to publish a schedule to
companies to try to minimize their risks
PROVIDE SUBSIDIES
higher levels that will allow industry to plan
and take preventative measures. A
Governments can help companies to pay
the costs of complying with
environmental regulation by subsidising
cleaner production solutions.
future policies and investments in a more
requirement that a cleaner production
effective way.
assessment should be carried out and
Taxes are an indirect way of influencing
production options in a way that affects
reported can help to identify cleaner
emission levels, and experience has shown
process technology choices and reduces the
OFFER GRANTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
that their effects are not always predictable.
need for end-of-pipe technologies. Both
CLEANER PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
It is therefore important that governments
types of report lead to innovations with a
Offer grants to firms and research
organizations to support the
development of cleaner processes and
products.
make regular evaluations of the effect of
strong cleaner production bias.
INVEST REVENUES FROM WASTE TREATMENT
AND TAXES IN CLEANER PRODUCTION'
DEVELOPMENT
Government revenues from waste
treatment and taxes on the use of toxic
materials and/or raw materials including
energy can be invested in promoting
cleaner production programmes.
20
emissions taxes in case they produce
unexpected and unwanted results.
Apart from sanctidns for particular activities
leading to harm to the environment or
Reporting requirements
and liability
persons, the requirement that companies
maintain sufficient capital reserves to cover
the cost of possible future pollution damage
Reporting requirements for pollution and
may provide a more powerful incentive to
waste can affect public demand and public
move towards cleaner production than
tolerance of polluting industries, and this
can change the behaviour of firms
sanctions alone. Since such a requirement
concerned about their public image or
firm, national and international lending
management-labour relations. Eco-labelling
institutions are in a position to encourage
schemes are a form of reporting
firms to invest in cleaner production.
can affect the required capitalization of the
A TOOL-BOX OF POLICIES
Tax incentives
The use of government funds derived from
the application of environmental sanctions
Preferential tax treatment of expenditures
to stimulate research on cleaner production
for pollution control equipment has been
is attractive (particularly since such
used in many countries to encourage firms
research is cheaper, and generally more
to purchase or install devices to control
effective, than basic research). An important
emissions. Similar subsidies exist for
form of subsidy is thus for government to
treating waste. While these provisions have
support not only individual research
a social purpose, they also create a bias
projects, but also to facilitate partnerships
(supporting perhaps an already-existing
between government and firms and
preference on the part of the firms to apply
between firms, as well as involve
pollution-control solutions rather than
consultants, academics and NGOs.
change their production systems) away
Government and industry can also fashion
from adopting cleaner production. Where
demonstration projects which show that an
cleaner production options exist or could
industrial transformation to cleaner
easily be developed, this preferential tax
production in a specific context can work
treatment may provide a perverse incentive
and is profitable.
Taxes are an indirect way of
influencingemission levels, and
experience has shown that
their effects are not always
predictable. It istherefore
important that governments
make regular evaluations of
the effect of emissions taxes
in case they produce
unexpected and unwanted
results.'
even though it may have been justified
when it was first adopted. Further,
policy to accelerate the faster retirement of
PROVIDING SUPPORT
MEASURES
older, polluting technologies and the
Although industry is the prime mover in
promotion of cleaner production.
implementing cleaner production,
government should consider revising tax
government support can play a critical role,
Subsidies
providing just that bit extra that industry
needs to be persuaded to take the plunge.'
Financial subsidies, in the form of low-
Attention should be directed at four key
interest loans, forgivable loans, direct
areas:
grants-in-aid, or shared funding can be
targeted to specific industries to stimulate
* providing information, about both the
either technology development or diffusion,
technology involved and the
as appropriate. Both are needed.
environmental tools industry needs to
make cleaner production assessments of
In countries where central banks are under
its activities and products;
government control, it is relatively easy to
* organizing training on cleaner
arrange that financing institutions provide
favourable terms for companies wishing to
production;
o helping to change educational curricula,
invest in cleaner production. Where banks
in order to integrate the environmental
are not under government control, the
dimension in all engineering and business
process is more complicated, and often
involves the establishment of special funding
management courses; and
* assisting key institutions.
'Incountries where central
banks are under government
control, it isrelatively easy to
arrange that financing
institutionsprovide favourable
terms for companies wishing
to invest in cleaner production.
Where banks are not under
government control, the
process is more complicated,
and often involves the
establishment of special
funding mechanisms under
government control.'
mechanisms under government control.
21
----"-
--
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
Providing information
governments decide to require companies
to make such audits, either regularly or for
8
89
One of the most commonly quoted barriers
new projects.
to cleaner production is lack of information
EM
;I
i
0
I
about appropriate technologies.
Regulations requiring environmental impact
Publications, newsletters and direct
statements for projects undertaken by
ICPIC was set up by UNEPIIE in 1990
contacts between cleaner production
either government or industry is a familiar
and can be accessed by anyone with a
experts and both government and industry
and well-developed means of evaluating
personal computer, a modem and access
will be badly needed. This is particularly
proposed industrial activities. These have
to a telephone line. It is a menu-driven
true for small and medium-sized companies.
been successfully used to promote pollution
system with access to several databases,
Guidelines are also important in
control, and the challenge now is to use
including those on cleaner production
communication. The World Bank/
them to promote cleaner production. The
case studies, seminars and conferences,
UNIDO/UNEP Pollution Prevention and
European Bank for Reconstruction and
publications, international contacts,
Abatement Guidelines are an example of this.
Development, operating in Central and
Eastern Europe, requires environmental
corporate programme summaries and
country programme summaries. ICPIC
One way of providing this information is
impact assessments that include alternative
information is soon to be made available
establishing clearinghouses for cleaner
approaches to production design and
on diskette and in printed form.
production technologies or cleaner
technologies. A comparative environmental
production centres. These systems should
impact analysis that includes a detailed
ICPIC's number in Paris, France, is
be interactive, and thus able to accept
technology options analysis could help
(331) 4579 4059. Further information is
information from other countries and
promote the development of new
available by voice from (331) 4437 1425.
international organizations. UNEP maintains
technologies for cleaner production.
its own clearinghouse, the International
22
_C
Cleaner Production Information
However, the success of such techniques
Clearinghouse, in Paris (see box). UNIDO
depends on the quality and user-friendliness
runs the Industrial and Technological
of the information available and the
Information Bank (INTIB) and several
expertise of government staff to interpret
country-level databases are available. It.is
the analysis. Environment agency personnel
important that information systems identify
should be helped by staff from commerce
environmentally unsound practices as well
and trade agencies and/or from cleaner
as cleaner production technologies.
production centres wherever possible.
Secondly, most industries need help in,
Government may also require a technology
locating information about how to assess
options analysis from the proponent of a
their own environmental impacts.
particular technology as well as a
Governments can publish and disseminate
comparative environmental impact analysis
information on how to perform the most
so that government can be fully informed of
widely used techniques, such as
the possible environmental consequences of
environmental impact assessments,
alternative choices. A technology options
technology options analyses, cleaner
analysis includes not only the technologies
production audits and product life cycle
currently used or proposed, but also
analyses. This is particularly important if
alternative technologies that could be
A TOOL-BOX OF POLICIES
adopted, adapted or developed. For
industry can deepen the understanding of
example, proponents of the addition of
the roles of each and facilitate meaningful
vapour recovery technology to their
partnerships in promoting cleaner
degreasing operations should also identify
production.
and evaluate ultrasonic cleaning as an
alternative technology.
Governments wanting to start up training
programmes are encouraged to contact the
In comparing alternative technological
Cleaner Production Programme in UNEP.
approaches, care should be taken to
Module 2 of Training Approaches'for
Environmental Management in Industry is
articulate all the environmental
8
consequences-ecosystem and human
devoted to cleaner production. UNEP's
health effects in the general environment,
Cleaner Production Programme is
the work place, and from exposure to
developing additional training materials,
consumer products. The life cycle approach
including modules that will focus on key
should be used in the assessment of
issues in starting up and implementing
technological options. Full life cycle analysis,
cleaner production programmes. Another
however, is often too expensive, too time
valuable source of information is the
consuming and demands too much data
UNIDO Training Course on Ecologically
Sustainable Industrial Development, which
collection to be worthwhile in all instances.
covers a broad field of environmental issues
Organizing training
In order to staff an infrastructure dedicated
to cleaner production, adequate training
including cleaner production.
'Part of any government's
long-term plan must be to
incorporate environmental
concerns into educational
curricula in general, and into
all engineering and business
management courses in
particular.'
Changing education curricula
initiatives must be provided. These
Part of any government's long-term plan
initiatives should be directed towards
must be to incorporate environmental
changing both the knowledge and the
concerns into educational curricula in
attitudes of the managers of firms,
general, and into all engineering and
government bureaucrats, technologists and
business management courses in particular.
academics, and NGOs. Those trained in
Doing so will eventually eliminate the need
science and engineering may not have the
for a substantial adult education programme
appropriate training to develop cleaner
in industry, which will often be needed for
production systems. Developed countries
some time before industrial managers
are just beginning to appreciate that the
(particularly in small and medium-sized
skills that are required for cleaner
firms) can be persuaded to think about
production are different from those
,environmental issues in anything but very
required for pollution control.
negative terms.
Furthermore, skills to manage technological
change are different from those needed for
This implies 'educating the educators' as
managing existing production systems
well as 'training the trainers'. A programme
efficiently. Exchange and rotation of
is best worked out jointly between the
personnel between government and
Ministries of Education, Industry and
23
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
Environment and the National Cleaner
specific plant or industry. Yet their
Production Centre (if there is one) or a
participation is crucial. NGOs may be
centre of expertise in another institution.
particularly important in building local
capacity and pressuring industry to adopt
'NGOs may be particularly
important in building local
capacity and pressuring
industry to adopt cleaner
production.'
Assisting key institutions
cleaner production.
Building infrastructure and capacity in
Government should support cleaner
government, industry and NGOs is essential
production networks which may operate on
for achieving advances in both development
a national, regional or local level. The
and environmental protection.
creation of interministerial committees or
Infrastructure includes both legislative and
working groups staffed at the highest level
institutional/organizational elements. They
is essential. Following this, cleaner
must all be in place if the initiatives
production centres need to be funded and
discussed above are to be implemented
established at both the national and regional
efficiently. Capacity refers to both
levels to demonstrate a commitment to
institutional capability and to individual
cleaner production and an institutional
capabilities in relation to production
mechanism for its implementation.
systems, policies, initiatives and
programmes. These capabilities include
Government-as already stressed-needs
understanding, assessing, designing,
to send strong signals that it intends to
implementing, maintaining, monitoring,
integrate environmental and industrial
evaluating and changing products, processes
development policies. Participation of
and policies.
government, industry, NGOs and others in
cleaner production projects may be the
'Technological cooperation
with foreign or international
partners and financial
institutionscan actually stifle,
rather than build, local
capacity if care is not taken to
make it a two-way process.'
Small and medium-sized enterprises, which
best capacity-building intervention.
are responsible for much pollution and
Theoretical knowledge and formal
waste and which could especially benefit
education can only go so far. Learning by
from a transformation based on cleaner
doing is particularly important for cleaner
production, are particularly lacking in the
production because both attitudes and the
capacity to assess their needs and to
knowledge base must be changed.
request and process information on cleaner
production. Written material, interactive
Technological cooperation with foreign or
information systems, and contacts with
international partners and financial
cleaner production centres, consultants,
institutions can actually stifle, rather than
academics and other firms are all necessary
build, local capacity if care is not taken to
to bridge the information gap on cleaner
make it a two-way process. Furthermore,
production. Similarly consumers, workers,
where capability development is at the core
NGOs and unions may initially lack the
of a particular technology transfer activity, a
tools and skills necessary to enable them to
longer-term commitment is required than is
participate as full partners in an industrial
usually offered in a single project.
transformation based on cleaner production
Ultimately, the responsibility for managing
on either a broad scale or with regard to a
technological change lies with the recipient
24
II
1__1
___1______1__1__1____________II
A TOOL-BOX OF POLICIES
country, which must take an active role in
done only if the National Plan of a
ensuring that technology transfer, whether
developing country gives high priority to
financed privately or through development
cleaner production. Many international
assistance, includes a capacity-building
institutions, however, are becoming more
component.
interested in cleaner production.
OBTAINING
INTERNATIONAL
ASSISTANCE
The European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, for example, has an
,U
ilEl
The World Bank
environmental mandate to promote
The European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development
environmentally sound and sustainable
The European Investment Bank
Assistance to developing countries or those
development. The Bank lends money or
The International Finance Corporation
with economies in transition can take the
takes an equity position on a country or
form of financial aid or transfer of
regional project-specific basis in Central and
information and know-how, education,
Eastern Europe, leaving sectoral and
training and hardware. The extent to which
structural loans to the World Bank. Both
the transfer of financial, intellectual and
private and public sector projects are
technical resources fosters self-reliance is of
sponsored. Project support can be provided
key importance in these activities. Capacity-
for environmental policy (regulatory)
building through technology cooperation
formation, environmental infrastructure and
must enhance the recipient country's ability
services (including the environmental goods
to manage technological change, and
and services industry), inter-country
permeate the culture rather than exist as
technical cooperation, the harmonization of
an isolated capability in a government
regulations and legislation, and sectoral
agency or industry.
studies. These studies can lead to the
The International Monetary Fund
The Inter-American Development Bank
The Asia Development Bank
The Nordic Environmental
Financing Corporation
The Nordic Investment Bank
The Global Environment Facility
The US Agency for
International Development
The Arab Fund for Economic and Social
Development
financing of future projects. The Bank can
International finance
Obviously, financial resources are needed
reject loans on the basis of environmental
impact assessments and can require public
participation in its loan agreements.
to effect a shift towards cleaner production.
The use of domestic funds and other means
The World Bank, in contrast, provides
of persuasion should be used as a lever to
government loans for projects and may
access the obviously more substantial funds
require full, partial, or no environmental
available from international financial lending
assessment. The Bank has produced
and aid institutions (see box).
environmental guidelines that have been
used by the Global Environment Facility, a
It is important for governments to realize,
joint venture with UNEP and UNDP, to
however, that most of the funds available
provide loans for protecting biodiversity,
for environmental purposes are directed at
the ozone layer and international waters,
pollution control. Thus it may be necessary
and for limiting greenhouse gas emissions.
to convince lending institutions to alter
The Bank also co-sponsored the
rules in order to make cleaner production
Environmental Action Program for Central
investment possible. Of course this can be
and Eastern Europe, focusing on policy
25
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
reform, institutional strengthening, and
for or work against, beneficial changes in
investment. However, this effort relies on
the domestic economy.
improvements in pollution control rather
'The establishment of
government assistance
mechanisms to promote the
export ofcleaner production
technologies by domestic
developers would provide not
only greater incentives for
development, but also revenue
that might be used to finance
other cleaner production
projects.'
than fostering pollution prevention and
In order to ensure that production
cleaner production.
technologies imported into a country meet
a minimum degree of environmental
The US Agency for International
performance, it could be required that joint
Development supports, among other things,
ventures or foreign-owned companies meet
the World Environment Centre (founded
the same environmental controls as those
by UNEP) to conduct studies, conferences,
encountered 'at home'. Some multinational
and training of both government officials
firms, concerned with their image back
and environmental managers of firms. It is
home, have stated agreement with this
sponsoring projects on cleaner production
practice and have signed the CERES
demonstration, training and technical
Principles as an expression of their
assistance involving industry, government
commitment. This is the practice already
and NGOs. US AID has a major initiative
required by the OECD Council Acts for
called Environmental Pollution Prevention
waste management. In the context of
Pays (EP3) which is promoting cleaner
multilateral lending institutions, the
production in several countries.
European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development requires project sponsors to
Access to the right kind of financing is,
follow the most stringent regulatory
however, still a serious problem. Cleaner
requirements among the partners in loans
production assessment and capacity building
for projects. Import tariffs could be placed
should be included in all major projects
on products regulated in other jurisdictions,
involving national and international business
or that are otherwise deemed
to prevent inappropriate development in
environmentally harmful; even import bans
the recipient country.
could be instituted. For these trade policies
to work, there must be both adequate legal
Technology cooperation
Technologies can rarely be transferred
machinery in place and the expertise to
track and assess the import of undesirable
production technologies and products.
without significant adaptation to developing
26
--
.lsl
-"---·-----1Llaprs
··---- "---· -----------------
countries. Not only are local physical
Like other economic instruments, trade
conditions likely to be different, but also
policies can serve a number of other
energy availability, labour availability and
purposes: to raise revenue, protect
factor costs, and technical know-how will
domestic industries and to minimize foreign
vary considerably from the donor country.
influence and maintain the character of a
Indeed, economic, social, cultural and
country's culture. Already existing tariffs
religious factors are of immense importance
and barriers could be relaxed in a targeted
in designing significant technology transfer
manner to encourage specific cleaner
mechanisms. Technology transfer from
production technologies to penetrate a
abroad must complement, not substitute
domestic market. Additionally, the
--~~~~~_
_
A TOOL-BOX OF POLICIES
utilization of a percentage of profits earned
medium-sized enterprises in developed
by multinational corporations for cleaner
countries are playing an increasingly
production development or diffusion within
important role. They are responsible for 50
the country could be required.
per cent of the environmental goods and
services in the OECD countries. These
The establishment of government assistance
goods and services, of course, include both
mechanisms to promote the export of
pollution control and cleaner production.
cleaner production technologies by
Unfortunately, many of these firms are not
domestic developers would provide not
equipped to enter developing countries'
only greater incentives for development,
markets nor to include a capacity-building
but also revenue that might be used to
component in their activities involving the
finance other cleaner production projects.
transfer of technology. Effective transfers
'between North and South should be 'needs
While multinational corporations are likely
driven' and involve the participation of a
to be significant sources of both technology
wide range of potential beneficiaries in the
transfer and financial assistance, small and
formulation of those needs, thereby
In 1993, China's National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA)
The main results of the preparation phase were the training of
launched a project promoting cleaner production in China. The
Chinese experts, a Chinese version of the Cleaner Production Audit
project is being co-funded by the World Bank. UNEP plays an
Manual for Companies, seven case studies and reports, an action plan
advisory role to both the World Bank and NEPA in the design,
for introducing cleaner production to China, and a greater
preparation and implementation of the project. The project seeks to
awareness of cleaner production among high-level Chinese officials.
show through training programmes, policy studies and
The expected results from the next phase will include:
recommendations, and more than 30 demonstrations at company
level, that cleaner production is an important option for China.
* more trained experts;
:* three industry-specific Cleaner Production Audit Manuals;
UNEP/IE carried out three missions to China in '1993. Fifteen senior
Chinese experts were trained in the cleaner production concept and
the use of cleaner production assessments in seven companies.
Substantial benefits have already been achieved:
* more company-specific reports on successfully implemented
cleaner production;
*: models for the dissemination of the cleaner production concept
to other regions and city areas in China;
* a policy study with recommendations on how to improve existing
* 67 changes, varying from alterations in operational procedures to
modification of process equipment, were implemented without
policies and legislation to help industry in implementing cleaner
production
external funding;
*: less than US$S 16 500 was invested and resulted in a saving of
more than US$350 000; and
* more than 50 per cent of the chemical oxygen demand in the
In addition, training materials and videos will be available for Chinese
trainers to use in disseminating the results of the project throughout
China.
waste waters produced was eliminated.
27
s
_
II_
_
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CLEANER PRODUCTION
F,t
generating a genuine ownership of the
that has been organized and financed
resulting actions rather than externally-
through international organizations. This
imposed changes.
project is expected to bring cleaner
production within five years to more than
The Polish Cleaner Production
Aside from the provision of funds to finance
3000 Chinese enterprises which are the
programme receives financial and
technology and information development
main sources of pollution in China. As
technical assistance from Norway. A year
and transfer, optimal use of the experience
already mentioned, a number of
after the programme begun, participating
of international organizations and agencies
international organizations are also
companies were asked to complete a
can also facilitate cleaner production. The
cooperating to assist in the development of
questionnaire in time for the first
OECD Environment and Development
national cleaner production centres.
national meeting of the cleaner
Cooperation Directorates, the United
production movement in Poland.
Nations Environment Program (UNEP), the
The box on the left gives details of another
United Nations Development Programme
internationally-funded programme: the
This meeting was attended by
(UNDP), the United Nations Industrial
Norway/Poland cleaner production
representatives of more than 150 large
Development Organization (UNIDO) and
programme.
industrial companies which have
the Commission on Sustainable
completed the cleaner production
Development (CSD) are rich sources of
training and design programme in Poland,
ideas and policy options.9 Access to these
and which have signed the Polish
institutions is easy and can provide
declaration on cleaner production (see
perspective on constructing the appropriate
page It ). About 60 companies had
benchmarks against which to evaluate
replied to the questionnaire, which
potential projects financed by the lending
revealed that the savings achieved in the
and aid institutions.
programme were already more than
three times its cost.
The box on page 27 provides details of a
major cleaner production project in China
28
I-
--
CONCLUSIONS
Implementing cleaner production requires
The first steps are to develop a shared
both willingness and capacity on the part of
vision and consensus, and to establish a
government and industry to bring about a
proper climate for financial and technical
transformation of their national economies.
assistance from both national and foreign
This transformation may involve both
institutions to facilitate cleaner production.
incremental and more radical changes,
They must be followed up by the specific
require careful targeting, staging and
strategies and policy instruments that have
phasing-in of different policies and
been discussed in this document. The
initiatives, and changes in the roles of
choice and implementation of specific
various stakeholders throughout the
measures in a particular country must be
transition to a cleaner production economy.
individually fashioned. No one formula will
Critical to the success of a cleaner
apply. The OECD counties are themselves
production strategy are:
still experimenting with appropriate
strategies and policies, and future editions
*: a shared vision of how to promote
of this publication will be produced to
cleaner production-'start small but
report on these developments, as well as
think big';
on the successes (and failures) of attempts
o a consensus that the best way forward is to catalyse the adoption of cleaner
through cleaner production;
production in developing countries and in
*: an assessment of existing policies,
countries undergoing economic transition.
followed by corrective action;
* a series of cleaner production initiatives
such as demonstration projects; and
*: long-term finance and technical
assistance.
These essential elements are illustrated in
the diagram on page II.
29
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_______··_I
-
I
REFERENCES
I. OECD, Technology and Environment:
8. Training Approaches for Environmental
Programme of Work, 1991-92, Paris, 1991.
Management in Industry, UNEP/WHO/ILO
Programme to Train the Trainers in
2. Chemical and Engineering News, 2 August
Industrial Environmental Management, Paris,
1993, p. 14.
1994.
3. L. W. Baas, M. van der Belt, D. Huisingh
9. see, for example, Technologies for Cleaner
and F. Neumann, Cleaner Production: what
Production and Products: Towards Technological
some governments are doing and what all
Transformation for Sustainable Development,
governments can do to promote
OECD, Paris, 1994.
sustainability, European Water Pollution
Control, vol. 2 no. I, 1992.
4. Audit and Reduction Manual for Industrial
Pollutants and Wastes, UNEP/ UNIDO, Paris,
1992.
5. see de Hoo, Sybren, and Dielman, Hans,
'Choosing prevention is winning: the
organization and results of the Dutch
pollution prevention project PRISMA' in
Industry and Environment, vol. 15, nos. 1-2,
January-June 1992.
6. Z. Novak, Polish Cleaner Production
Programme-NGOs in action. In Industry
and Environment, Vol. 16, No. 4,
October-December 1'993.
7. US EPA, Waste Minimization Opportunity
Assessment Manual and Facility Pollution
Prevention Guide (May 1992, EPA/600/R92/088).
l
i
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30
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__I_
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I
I
--
APPENDIX
Participants in the UNEP/IE and OECD Workshop on
Policies to Promote Cleaner Production in Developing Countries and
Countries in Transition
Paris, 7-8 June 1993
ORGANIZATION
INDIVIDUAL
Central Mining Institute, Poland
Professor Zygfryd A. Nowak
Department of Environment, Malaysia
Ms Wan Ramish Haji Wan Ibrahim, Senior
Environmental Control Officer
Development Alternatives, India
Dr Ashok Khosla, President
Environmental Protection Department,
Hong Kong
Mr J. E. Boxall, Assistant Director
Hirschhorn & Associates, United States
Dr Joel Hirschhorn
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
United States
Professor Nick Ashford
Professor of Technology, Policy and
Industrial Development
National Environment Protection Agency,
China
Ms Wang Ji, Deputy Chief,
Urban Environmental Management Division
OECD Environment Directorate
Ms Rebecca Hanmer
Mr Harvey Yakowitz
Ms Elaine Geyer Allely
Rendan A/S, Denmark
Ms Birgitte B. Nelsen
3M Europe
Mr Allen Aspengren, Manager,
Environment, Health and Safety
TNO Centre for Technology and
Policy Studies, Netherlands
Dr Jacqueline Cramer
UNIDO
Mr Skip Luken,
Senior Environmental Advisor,
University of Tokyo, Japan
Dr Eng. Kunitoshi Sakurai,
Professor of International Environmental
Planning, Department of Urban Engineering,
University of Tokyo, Japan
Dr E. A. Moore, Director,
Centre for Resource Management and
Environmental Sciences
University of the West Indies, West Indies
UNEP/IE
Ms Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel
Ms Kirsten Oldenburg
Mr John Kryger
Mr John Skinner
Ms Garrette Clark
31
_-
FURTHER INFORMATION
Further information and advice
is available from:
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
Industry and Environment
Cleaner Production Programme
39-43 quai Andre Citr6en
75739 Paris Cedex 15
France
Tel: +331 44 37 14 50
Fax: +331 44 37 14 74
32
__
_
_
........
U
. . .
,
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
INDUSTRY AND ENVIRONMENT
39-43. QUAI ANDRt-CITROEN
7s7tP
W!C~FYI
-.13 LJIhA 1
1)4437 1450
04 997 F
1)4437 1474
·_
CIII
-
-1-M~
KNIA2.