Planning Issues for the Management of
Mediterranean-Type Vegetation in
Australia1
A. Malcolm Gill2
The classic Mediterranean climate features
warm to hot dry summers and mild to cool wet
winters. In Australia, this description excludes
the northern half of the country because of its
summer-rainfall emphasis and it excludes
the interior because of its low-and erratic
-1
rainfall of less than 250 cm yr . Areas
included by the definition are the southwestern
corner of Western Australia, the southeastern
parts of South Australia and small parts of
western Victoria.
Abstract: Southeastern and southwestern
Australia have quasi- and classical-Mediterranean climates respectively. Vegetation
varies widely from forests to woodlands to
shrublands. Attitudes to landscape have been
important in allocating land use in these areas
with a general contrast between what is
"practical" and what is "picturesque". The
allocation of land to nature conservation has
risen dramatically since the 1960's and scientific survey has helped this process. Management
of these reserves requires suitable frameworks
of management and attention to the hazards posed
by fires and exotics. Increased input of
manpower and finance would be desirable.
Two particular issues will be expanded below
and both relate to vegetation management planning.
The first is the allocation of land to particular
uses, a problem that has challenged man since
the beginning of european settlement. The second
is the management of land once it has been
reserved: in our case, this topic will be
confined to non-agricultural land.
ALLOCATION OF LAND USES
Productive Uses or Non-productive Uses?
The remainder of well-watered southern
Australia may be designated as "quasiMediterranean". Here, summer rainfall may be
greater than in classic-Mediterranean areas but
because of high evaporation and the greater
uncertainty of summer rainfalls, these areas may
be regarded as having, in effect, a modified
Mediterranean climate.
By including both classic and quasi-Mediterranean regions of Australia, I have defined,
for most part, the areas of most reliable annual
rainfall (Leeper, 1970), the major agricultural
regions of Australia (e.g. winter cereals Forster, 1970), the climate giving most human
comfort (Hallsworth, 1976) and supporting the
greatest population, the major hardwood timber
areas of the continent, and the zone colonized
by Mediterranean annuals (Donald, 1970). Also,
these regions, with their summer fire occurrence,
experience some of the fiercest forest fires in
the world.
The natural vegetation of both the classic
and quasi-Mediterranean regions is very varied
and includes forest, shrublands and woodlands.
This heritage has been treated in the many ways
open to people with tool kits ranging from
fires to axes, saws, ploughs and bulldozers.
The earliest european settlers of Australia
found themselves in a landscape that was to them
weird, grotesque and monotonous (Elliott, 1967).
Their initial purpose was to feed and house
themselves. Utility of the landscape was of
prime concern; amenity was regarded as unimportant.
There has been tension between these two
views of landscape - amenity and utility - for
most of the european history of Australia, and
it is still a major issue (Lowenthal, 1976).
Just what is meant by "amenity" and "utility"
may have changed from time to time but their
expression in the reservation of natural landscapes
or allocation to the production of food and fiber,
respectively, has not changed. Some people
have contrasted the "picturesque" or "philosophical"
with the "practical". The "practical" view
involves economic values directly; the "philosophic" view involves aesthetic and spiritual
values. More recently "conservation" has been seen
as the wise use of land for particular purposes,
whether these purposes be for agriculture,
forestry or nature conservation (Downes, 1975).
Such nomenclature plays down polarization and
may assist in rational land-use planning.
CSIRO Division of Plant Industry, P.O. Box 1600,
Canberra City, A.C.T. 2601, Australia.
Because Australia has been so economically
dependent on agriculture, setting land apart for
this purpose has been very prominent in the
region under discussion. As technology advanced,
pasturing on native grasses gave way to cropping
and improved pasture. A Mediterranean annual,
Trifolium subterranean, became a key element in
pasture improvement while additions of superphosphate enhanced the fertility of some of the
546
Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-58. Berkeley, CA: Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture; 1982.
1
Presented at the Symposium on Dynamics and Management of Mediterranean-type Ecosystems, June 22-26,
1981 San Diego, California.
2
most infertile soils in the world.
At first little need was seen for the
preservation of natural areas because there
seemed to be so much land in this condition
already. As land development became widespread,
however, this position changed (Australian
Academy of Science, 1965). Foresters, in
particular, became worried and "many controversies
occurred between the Lands Departments, anxious
to provide more land for settlement, and the
Forestry Departments wishing to preserve forests"
(Wadham, Wilson and Wood, 1957).
Land set aside for ecological reserves has
traditionally been land of little value for
agriculture or forestry and could therefore be
reserved without economic loss (Slatyer, 1975).
New discoveries have changed land of no previous
value to agriculture to profitable pasturage,
however, and have thereby required a change in
attitude to land if it was to be set aside for
naturalness. Alienation of large areas of
Western Australia for agricultural and pastoral
purposes from the 1950's was paralleled by the
first major expansion of reserves there (Ride,
1975). Reserves in South Australia expanded
particularly in the late 1960's and 70's (Harris,
1974), reflecting the position in Australia as a
whole. Australia's conservation reserves
increased in area from about 8.5 million ha. in
1967 (Mosley, 1968) to nearly 29 million in 1979
(Aust. Ranger Bull. 1, 3).
Natural areas have been reserved as
forestry operations have intensified. The
initiation of export woodchip industries in both
southeastern and southwestern Australia led to
considerable debate over land use and new reserves
for nature conservation were proclaimed in the
concession areas (Ride, 1975; Senate Standing
Committee on Science and the Environment, 1977).
The land-use debate continues in various
forms with the "productive" versus "nonproductive" uses of land underlying most issues.
While the traditional arenas for debate remain unalienated lands of governments - new arenas are
the reserves themselves (Recher, 1976) where
conflict arises over use for recreation
(productive?) versus use for nature conservation
(non-productive?).
Most reserves in the past have been
allocated to nature conservation in an ad hoc
manner (Mosley, 1968). As more land is
allocated to urban or agricultural use the number
of options on future land use decline. Deciding
which land should remain in its natural state
(and thereby retaining most options for future
"use"), which land uses should take place side
by side, and which combinations of land use
should occur on the same area of land is
difficult and remains a continuous challenge to
planners.
Scientific Contributions to Decisions on LandUse Allocation
Science has affected the allocation of uses
to land in many ways. Notable have been the
successes of the agricultural scientists in
discovering nutrient deficiencies in plants and
animals and introducing productive plant species
for pastures and crops, but my emphasis here
will be on the contributions of science to the
issues of shape, size and location of reserves
for effective nature conservation. Concern over
recreational impacts is set aside here but note
that the arguments used by Hallsworth (1976) in
predicting recreational demand for beaches could
be adapted to that for reserves.
Many areas have been assigned as reserves
in the past with little knowledge of their
value for nature conservation. Only recently
have serious attempts been made to ascertain
how effectively various plant alliances and
rare and endangered species have been conserved
(Specht et al., 1974). Stimulated by the "Specht
Report", refinements and adjustments are being
made to lists of plants at risk (Hartley and
Leigh, 1979) and cases are being made for
reservation of particular plant alliances at
present poorly conserved (e.g. Senate Standing
Committee on Science and the Environment, 1977).
We may regard these activities as the habitat
approach to planning for nature conservation.
For animals there has been no survey yet
completed comparable to that of Specht et al.
(1974). The assumption is that if the plants as part of the animal habitat - are conserved,
the requirements of animals can be met at the
same time. A prerequisite of course is that
the sizes and shapes of the reserves are
adequate.
Questions of size and shape for reserves
received much attention with the development of
the equilibrium theory of island biogeography
(MacArthur and Wilson, 1967). Reserves for
conservation were seen to be, or become, "islands"
isolated for each other by "seas" of agriculture,
intensive forestry or urbanization.
The basic ideas of island biogeographic
theory are that as area increases so do the
number of species (maximum area equals maximum
number of species); that there are movements of
species between areas (representing local
extinctions and immigrations); and that an
equilibrium number of species will be maintained
on an island although the particular species
present may alter with time. As "islands" become smaller and more "isolated" from each
other it may be expected that local extinctions
would increase and immigrations decline. Fewer
species would be conserved.
For nature conservation the conclusions
which may be reached from this are that reserves
should be as large as possible and that not
547
all species can be reserved in perpetuity (Slatyer,
1975). Many have used the equilibrium theory of
island biogeography as the basis for scientific
discussion on reserve shape, size and location
but, recently, after a thorough review of the
theory, Gilbert (1980) concluded that "the
equilibrium theory remains insufficiently validated to permit its widespread application to many
problems of biogeography, ecology and nature
conservation".
Gilbert's paper is an important one in terms
of the development of ecological theory and its
application to practical situations. I quote:"There is no evidence that any extinctions in
reserves have been due directly to any decrease
in area.... "; "The apparent lack of conformity
of the model when any taxon other than that of
birds is considered points to a major flaw in its
derivation...." Clearly, anomalies in the
equilibrium-theory approach need to be cleared
up before it can be used without prejudice.
One of the deficiencies of the theory is
that is does not accommodate habitat variety.
It is a commonplace observation, however,
that the plant and animal diversity within a
region is likely to be greatest where habitat
diversity is greatest. Such "horizontal" diversity may be enhanced by "vertical" diversity;
e.g. greater diversity of birds may be expected
where "foliage height diversity" is greatest
(Recher, 1969).
Some geographic regions have a much more
diverse flora than others. Southwestern Western
Australia, for example, has remarkable plant
species richness and high endemism especially in
its heathlands (George et al., 1979). If this
area were annexed completely for nature conservation (an impossibility of course) it would quite
possibly contain a greater proportion of the total
flora of the nation than a similar area of any
other region in Australia. By choosing specific
areas because of their richness it is theoretically possible to find the total flora and fauna
in much less than the total area of the continent.
If a natural ecosystem is to be preserved it
will include its full complement of animals as
well as plants. The design of reserves will
need to take account of migrations overland as
well as insuring that areas are sufficiently
large to maintain genetic diversity.
The habitat approach, the island-biogeographic approach and the genetic approach are
all potentially useful in assigning land for
purposes of nature conservation. However, the
past dictates the terms within which land
allocations for specific purposes can now take
place. Many plant species at risk are not
conveniently located in areas where large
conservation reserves can be created. The road
verges of rural Mediterranean lands in Western
Australia, South Australia and Victoria provide
examples. Specialist theory is not needed here
for species conservation but appropriate
legislation and enforcement are essential.
Effective allocation of lands for all our
needs depends on integration of the information
and expertise of science, law, history, sociology
and economics.
MANAGEMENT OF "NATURAL" LANDSCAPES, ESPECIALLY
CONSERVATION RESERVES
Because of problems that have arisen from
recreation, fire, and exotic species the need
for management has became well recognized.
Manpower and money, management systems, and
hazard assessment are considered as the major
issues of management in the region in question.
Manpower and Money
A Committee of Enquiry into the National
Estate (1974) noted that field staff employed
to operate Australia's conservation reserves in
1973 numbered 661 of whom 103 were graduates of
tertiary institutions (this includes diplomats):
at that time the nature-conservation estate
6
was about 17 x 10 hectares, i.e. approximately
25,000 hectares per person employed! The
International Union for the Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) recommended
10,000 hectares per person working full time at
management and supervision (Burbidge and Evans,
1976).
"Conservation reserves" include not only the
preservation of natural ecosystems in their
charter, Other uses may include passive and
active recreation, water catchment and storage,
protection of aboriginal relics, wilderness, and
even mining in some areas. Below, I emphasize
the management of conservation reserves for
nature conservation only.
Management Systems
Genetic diversity is a function of population size in animals and "theoretical evidence
suggests that the minimal population size for
retention of a substantial degree of genetic
variation . . . is of the order of thousands"
(see Slatyer, 1975). Sizes appropriate for the
conservation of thousands of large animals for
a thousand generations may be extreme but
necessary if plant-animal interactions are to be
conserved as well as the animals themselves.
Unlike genetic diversity in animals, genetic
diversity of plants may be stored as seeds in
soils.
548
Proposals for management systems - if they
are to be practical - should take into account
the present lack of personnel and finance but
also look to the future when needs may be better
met. The same applies to management of
research: management of conservation reserves
should be based on knowledge but our understanding
of natural systems is poor.
Research into the function of natural
ecosystems in Australia has usually been ad hoc
or moulded and directed by an outstanding
management problem: Shea (this volume) provides
an example of the latter. More often the
problem is not well defined and the need is
for an overall understanding of the ecosystem.
Overseas models of attempts to do just this have
been the large and expensive programs of the
International Biological Program of the USA, the
less intensive Hubbard Brook study, the strategic
workshop style of Holling (1978) and the selected
biome approach of the South Africans. Each has
involved focus on a particular ecosystem and
area and each has been typified by periods of
short-term intensive involvement and interdisciplinary co-operation.
The challenge to planners in Australia who have limited finance and many areas of
diverse ecosystems to consider - is to produce a
low-cost system which allows a quick assessment
of current knowledge and an appreciation of
deficiencies in that knowledge. If it could
also be used for risk assessment, record
keeping and monitoring, its value would be
greatly enhanced. Such a system would be
explicit, not consisting only of files and
publications and integrated in the mind of
only one person, but readily available in an
up-to-date synthesis. Integrated planning astute
management and a modest injection of finance
could produce such a system for Australian
needs based on the pioneering research of
Kessell (1976).
Kessell's method has been to make an
inventory of the landscape (which can include
vegetation, floristics, fauna, streams, roads,
slopes, aspects, elevations, rock types, fuel
loads etc.) on a grid system at a suitable scale
(depending on scale of variation, finance
available, state of existing data base etc).
Biological characteristics are linked to the
physical through an ordering procedure.
Process can be introduced by including the time
element and appropriate attributes of plants
for example (Cattelino et al., 1979). Real-time
fire information can he obtained when
appropriate data are included in the system.
Without the computer, of course, such a system
is impossible. At present, there is no computer
system operating at a management level in this
way in Australia although appropriate systems
are being developed.
The systems devised by Kessell have
great potential but require administrative,
managerial and research hack up. They can warn
the manager of data which is based on limited
information and thereby alert him to research
topics to be allocated among students,
professional researchers and competent amateurs.
They can be developed to guide decisions on
fires and could be improved by a consideration
of hazards.
Monitoring is a challenge rarely faced yet
monitoring is the way in which the effectiveness
of management could be assessed. Two types of
monitoring can be distinguished. The first can
be called "non-target monitoring" and is that
used for no particular purpose but provides a
valuable record of condition and change : e.g.
photographs from satellites and planes. The value
of ground photography may be seen in research
at Koonamoore in South Australia (e.g. Noble,
1977) and at Kosciusko National Park in N.S.W.
(Wimbush and Costin, 1979). The second type
may be called "target monitoring" i.e. where
monitoring is for more specific purposes e.g.
the monitoring of population sizes of rare and
endangered species.
Management - including aspects of inventory,
monitoring, operations and research - can take
place at many different scales and appreciation
of this is most important. Flexibility in
management systems may be needed to account for
this. This is true also of the understanding
of the natural ecosystem in which scientific
management should be based.
Hazard Assessment
Under this general heading I identify three
issues pertinent to vegetation-management
planning in Mediterranean-type vegetation.
They concern the problems of boundaries, and of
fires and exotics, and are considered in terms of
hazard because each problem is associated with
risks to the achievement of the aims of
management. Insufficient attention has been
given to these problems and quantitative
assessments of risk are needed to rationalize
the planning process (e.g. Gill, 1977).
Boundaries mark differences in land-use and
define limits of responsibility for particular
areas. Thus, smoke management, fire management,
fertilizer application, spraying of herbicides
and insecticides etc. need to be contained
within the system for which they are designed.
Land-use planners can minimize any adverse
effects of non-complementary land uses being
adjacent to each other by allocating land around
conservation reserves as buffers.
Urbanization is a particular problem.
Many reserves are near to or enclosed by cities
and towns. This often leads to problems with
fire: the natural fire regime is upset by the
fragmentation of the landscape in the first
place; and altered by increased and unwanted
ignitions from people in the second; thirdly,
"natural" fire in the reserve may pose a threat
to the surrounds so prescription burning is
introduced to protect property and people
beyond the boundary. Thus, a buffer area within
the reserve is being managed, not for any
internal purpose, but to protect values
outside the reserve. The effective area of the
reserve for nature conservation may be greatly
reduced while the more appropriate solution to
the problem may have been to have the
549
conservation reserve bounded by a buffer area,
not by houses.
Natural ecosystems in this region have
evolved under particular combinations of fire
types, frequencies, seasons of occurrence and
intensities (each combination being a particular
"fire regime"). Recognizing this assists the
manager in planning because then it is realized
that the events following any one fire are also
related to the effects of previous fires. Man
has altered fire regimes by affecting rate of
ignition and extents of fires so we can no longer
assume that a "natural" regime can be maintained
in a small reserve.
Most fires today are caused by people
although lightning is an important factor. With
ignitions being more frequent the manager is
faced with a dilemma. He knows he can reduce
fuel on his area by prescription burning and
thus reduce any impact of fires on people and
property but it is possible to burn too
frequently and thereby adversely affect the
resource. Establishing reserves only in remote
areas has been precluded by history in many cases,
so short-term plans need to consider strategic
burning.
Maintaining fires, whether natural or manignited, within areas of management responsibility poses particular problems in this region.
Fires may be ignited during thunderstorms in dry
weather after a long drought or be lit by
arsonists during similar conditions. The result
-1
fire of enormous intensity - up to 60,000 Kw m
(Luke and McArthur, 1978) - and impossible to
control directly. Such fires send fire-brands
ahead of themselves causing further ignitions.
Under such circumstances the usual fire breaks
become insignificant. The spread of fires by the
spot-fire mechanism and the severity of Australian
forest fires have been a strong influence in
determining the fire-management systems operating
today. They are the background against which
many decisions are taken. They stimulated the
introduction of prescription burning to reduce
fire "hazard".
Fire "hazard" has too often been considered
as a variable unrelated in any specific way to
people, buildings or the achievement of stated
objectives. For people and buildings, hazard
will vary with distance as well as fuel loads
and weather conditions. For nature-conservation
values it could be defined, for example, according
to the vulnerability of species, soils or water
quality. It also would need to he defined in
relation to the keeping of fire within the
reserve. The challenge remains as to how
hazards can be defined and modified especially in
relation to high intensity fires. Large-area
prescription burning has been the common answer
to the problem of high intensity fire since the
1960's with fires being lit, often aerially,
under mild conditions at times of year when
severe fires are most unlikely.
550
Fire may prepare the way for weeds, and
feral animals as may other events. Whatever the
cause, exotics are becoming more common in some
areas. The alpine region of Kosciusko National
Park, though by no means an "island" in the
sense of being surrounded by an exotic landscape,
has had an increase in exotic plant species from
6 in 1951 to 27 in 1979: the natural flora
there is about 200 species (Costin et al., 1979).
Some areas have inherited exotics because
of land use prior to their being established as
conservation reserves. One such is Cleland
Conservation Park in South Australia (South
Australian National Park and Wildlife Service,
1979). Of this area approximately 75% is
considered to be "weed infested" and several
feral vertebrates are common.
Kings Park in Perth, W.A., is an example
of a situation where frequent fires and
firebreaks have aided the spread of exotics
particularly in or near firebreaks or where the
soil has been disturbed (Baird, 1977).
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The attitudes and perceptions of people
have been important forces in determining land
use. These have changed with time. A shift in
balance to "amenity" was indicated in the 1960's.
The extent of clearing, the intensification of
forest management, perhaps the rise of aeriallyignited management fires and certainly the
general rise in awareness of the environment by
the general public assisted this process.
Scientific survey and debate over the sizes,
shapes and numbers of reserves also contributed.
Land-use planning is needed to optimize the
choice of land for nature conservation in a
society where pressures for the use of land for
urbanization, recreation and the intensive
production of food and fibre are increasing.
In lands set aside for nature conservation
the planning challenge is to develop frameworks
for management within the context of available
manpower, money and technology. Inventory,
monitoring, record-keeping, risk assessment and
research should all be considered in the system
of management.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Mr. A. Fox and Drs. J.H. Leigh,
R. Story and G. Yapp for their comments on the
draft manuscript.
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