Research and Development for Improved Fire
Prevention and Suppression in Rural Victoria1
James R. Barber2
This paper gives a broad brush presentation of
the rural fire problem in Victoria, Australia, and
some research and development being undertaken to
reduce it.
Victoria (fig. 1), is the second most compact
of the Australian States (22.8 mha--2.94 percent
of the total) with a relatively high population
(3,645,276--26.8 percent of the total). Its annual
grassland fire danger period commences in December
and extends through to April, although early rains
of the Autumn "break" may decrease this period.
Abstract: Victoria's wildfire problem results from
a combination of extreme fire weather, highly
flammable vegetation and people--on farms, in
towns and around cities which often abut bushland
or forest. The CFA administers an extensive volunteer fire service and supervises fire prevention
activity in the community. It conducts applied
research for improved fire prevention and develops
vehicular design, communication and training to
improve suppression capability.
fully cured in many areas. 17 holiday makers lost
their lives on one highway, total deaths 21. 1977
February 12. 11 large fires, majority in Western
District. 5 lives lost. Other losses table 1--from
CFA Records.
Table 1--Summary of Losses in Eleven Major Fires
February 12, 1977.
Fire
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Figure 1--Australian States and Territories
The significance of wildfires in Victoria is
established by the factual data of its fire history
--the frequency and magnitude of fires, human
fatalities, stock and property losses in a recurring sequence annually and in major proportions
periodically. Some major fire occurrences:
1939 January. Most disastrous bushfires ever
swept over three-quarters of the State. Deaths 71.
Hundreds of homes, many towns, devastated.
1944 January 14. Three large fires in Western
District joined after the south west change,
440,000 ha burnt. Damage $3m (1944). Heavy loss
of life--15 people died within 25 km of one rural
settlement (Foley 1947).
1969 January 8. A day of severe meteorological
conditions though tempered by grasslands not being
Area
Burnt
(ha)
1100
7300
19410
3500
22400
4500
35300
1200
1600
2600
1700
Capital Assets Destroyed
Sheep Cattle Bales Houses Other Fenc
Hay
Bldgs -ing
(000)
(km)
200
2
13
1
6
74
11000
104
60
0
13
222
42200 1291
301
13
159
910
1700
113
1.4
5
3
105
60000
748
356
38
100+
981
3400
25
11.1
12
22
188
72500 1067
417
19
n.a.
1434
200
15
14.7
3
n.a.
68
2000
0
21.8
0
n.a.
68
1600
0
3
1
3
50
40
0
0.3
1
4
43
Total 100610 194840
3365
1199
Estimated unit
value ($000) .012
Total value ($m) 2.34
93
.075
0.25
.001
30.3
1.20 2.79
1
310+
2
10.0
3.10
4143
1.25
5.18
Total estimated damage--$14.86 million
1
includes
2
some allowance for contents
includes some allowance for farm machinery
There are, however, many intangibles which must
be considered in assessing total losses in rural
fires, e.g., damage to pastures, disruption to
breeding lines, loss of breeding potential in
sheep.
FREQUENCY and DISTRIBUTION of fires are
signifi-cant particularly in suppression strategy.
Daily fire occurrences reported to the CFA during
an average annual fire danger period are
illustrated in figure 2. On January 8, 1969, CFA
recorded 253 fires across the State whilst on
February 12, 1977 60 fires (11 of major
proportions) occurred. Mul-tiple fire occurrences
strain resources and lines of communication and
may require massive deployment of fire vehicles
and volunteer crews.
1
Presented at the Symposium on Dynamics and
Management of Mediterranean--type Ecosystems,
June 22-26, 1981, San Diego, California.
2
Assistant Chief Officer,
Country Fire Authority, Victoria, Australia.
490
Causes of wildfires are numerous. A major cause
is associated with the use of fire--burning off
excess vegetation and rubbish and the fire escapes
(25-30 percent of total rural fires). Children
with matches and overhead power lines clashing on
days of high winds are also major contributors.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-58. Berkeley, CA: Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture; 1982.
Figure 3--Synoptic Situation, Noon, December 22,
1980. High fire danger in Victoria. Hot northerly airstream over the State--wind NW, 25 km/h,
40 km/h. Highest Temperature 42°C; other places
40°C, 41°C. R.H. 10--13 per cent. Cold front
entering Western Victoria--wind SW 25km/h, Gusts
50 km/h.
Figure 2--Number of fires reported to CFA Headquarters during months of high fire danger 1979-80.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE FIRE PROBLEM
Wind is generally the most important daily
weather element governing the outbreak and spread
of fires in Victoria. In the fire danger period
with grassland vegetation fully cured, high temperatures (30°-40°C) and low humidities (20-10 percent)
strong winds from most directions will result in a
high incidence of fires with rapid rates of spread.
Time since last good rain is a further factor.
Strong dry gusty north to north west winds are the
most dangerous. These winds, associated with the
west to east passage of anticyclones south of
latitude 20° followed by troughs of depression,
are extremely hot and dry, bringing in air from the
dry interior of the continent. Foley (1947).
As the cold front passes across the State the
north winds back west to south west, creating
turbulent conditions and causing breakaways from
the eastern flanks of going fires. Cooler and
more humid conditions, frequently with showers,
follow and decrease the fire danger. Normally such
extreme fire danger lasts less than 48 hours.
However, a stationary anti-cyclone or "blocking
high" may be located over the New South Wales coast
causing fire weather in Victoria to persist for
several days.
When extreme conditions are forecast the CFA
Chief Officer, after consultation with the Forests
Commission, may declare a total fire ban. Such
Declarations prohibit the lighting of any fire
whatsoever for the period of the ban. Figure
3 represents a total fire ban situation.
The mediterranean-type climate in southern
Australia favours grassland vegetation having an
annual life cycle as shown by Parrott (1964,
Fig. 4.
Figure 4--A generalised diagram of the life cycle
of an annual sward at Adelaide S.A.--Parrott (1964).
Native grasses and pasture association of ryegrasses (Lolium spp) and clovers (Trifolium spp)
are dominant in the improved pastures covering most
pastoral areas, whilst Phalaris tuberosa also grows
strongly. In non-irrigated areas average height
(ungrazed) of ryegrass may be 40--44 cm, whilst
clovers may reach 12--14 cm, with a representative
average pasture density of 14.0 tonnes/ha (field
weight). Grazed pasture would be less, depending
on stocking rate. In most northern and some southern areas in Victoria, cereal crops are also grown,
viz., wheat, oats, barley.
The decreasing moisture content of pastures and
cereals during senescence (curing) is a significant
factor in an approaching fire danger period as is
fuel quantity with its influence on fire intensity.
Luke and McArthur (1978).
In Victoria the relative intensity of farming
practices, the population expansion in the outer
urban/rural interface, proliferation of 2; 4-and
20-ha hobby farms and recreational activity create
a high fire loss potential whilst the more closely
settled areas experience increasing fire
occurrences.
491
COUNTRY FIRE AUTHORITY ORGANISATION
The devastating fires of 1939 and 1944 caused
significant changes in the attitudes of people and
government to fire in Victoria. The CFA was established by Act of Parliament in 1944 based on
recommendations from a Royal Commission, Stretton
(1939). Since its inception the CFA has embodied
research and development in fire prevention and
suppression in the rural sector of Victoria.
An operational chain of command from individual
rural and urban fire brigades to the Chief Officer,
together with appropriate administrative sections,
was established (fig. 5). Volunteer officers are
in charge of most brigades and all groups, whilst
permanent officers are in charge of regions and
zones. 21 urban brigades are staffed by permanent
officers (including 12 also with permanent firemen)
to support the volunteers in large urban/industrial
centres. Current strength:
215 urban brigades-- 6241 registered volunteers
1067 rural brigades--100820 registered volunteers
with 319 permanent operational personnel, 169 in
various services and 60 in administration.
SECURITY--for firemen, equipment and fire area;
ADMINISTRATION--backup support for operations;
MORALE--motivate brigades to increase efficiency;
MOBILITY--groups of radio equipped vehicles moving and deployed as a controlled force;
CONCENTRATION--have the right force at the right
place and time--never "too little too late";
ECONOMY--use forces necessary for the operation
but over ensure rather than under ensure;
CO-OPERATION--an automatic reflex for fire service;
COMMUNICATION --the flow of information--leaders
require information for decision making.
The application of these principles is an
essential feature of command in any successful
fire fight and officers should learn to think in
these terms.
RESEARCH IN FIRE PREVENTION
The philosophy of the CFA toward research is
. it is an important component of the Authority's
duty under the Country Fire Authority Act 1958;
. rural research should be a primary objective;
. applied research should be carried out for
direct benefit to the volunteer firefighter, the
fire prevention planner and the general public.
Joint research arrangements with "outside"
bodies avoids duplication of effort and combines
expertise and facilities for mutual benefit.
The dissemination of research findings is an
important function of the Research Unit. Training
notes and articles are prepared for in-service use
or incorporated in the Authority's fire prevention
literature. Research papers are published.
Research Projects
(1) Fire Behavioural Studies: e.g., Maldon Fire,
Central Victoria, December 26, 1980.
Figure 5--CFA Organisation
The CFA has established operational principles
as guidelines for carrying out the AIM of the
Authority, viz., the PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF
FIRES, with maximum efficiency. These are
MAINTENANCE OF THE AIM--a continuing function;
FORESIGHT--preplan for operations and support
SPEED--react to fires and give support with
greatest possible speed (with safety)
FLEXIBILITY-- ability to react to new or unforeseen situations, requires holding a reserve;
492
Cause--heated bearing from harvesting machine.
Fuel--wheat crop, native grasses, clover (Trifolium
spp), ryegrass (Lolium spp), pasture, light
eucalypt woodland. Undulating topography with
some steep hills and rock outcrops. Area dissected
by creeks and eroded gullies made access difficult.
Fire Behaviour--rapid fire spread up to 15 km/hr.
One spot fire occurred ahead of main fire. Sudden
westerly wind change without customary lull caused
breakaways on eastern flank when gale force winds
spread fire in long fingers from the main perimeter.
Township endangered. Rapid deployment of a large
number of firefighting vehicles--105 CFA and many
private units--provided concentrated attack.
Weather--30-40 km/hr winds from N-NW experienced
during early stages of the fire, then wind change
SW-S, T 40°, RH 16 percent.
Lessons learnt/confirmed--anticipating wind
change and moving equipment to meet threat on
eastern flank important. Green firebreaks on
northern rural interface protects houses. Width
of perimeter to be secured was considerably
greater than that necessary for normal wind
conditions. Burning trees near fire edge should
receive particular attention.
Figure 6--The Maldon Vic. Fire December 12, 1981
(ii) Grassland Curing Project--effective procedures for obtaining field data to monitor the
approaching fire danger period and to aid fire
behavioural studies have been determined. Barber
and Pratt (1980). The programme requires repetitive field sampling (18--21 days or less if possible), Statewide, October to February and laboratory measurements of fuel moisture content (FMC),
soil moisture content (SMC) and fuel quantity
(tonnes/ha). Both FMC and SMC are plotted (as
percentage of oven dry weight) against time.
(fig. 7).
(iii) Remote Sensing in Fire Prevention--the
application of Landsat multi-temporal, multi-spatial technology to monitor vegetation as a possible
alternative to the previously described labour intensive and time consuming procedure is being studied. The project is part joint research by CFA,
Monash University and IBM (Australia) Limited using
the ERMAN II package. Other digital and analogue
analysis methods will be studied to ascertain the
most practical within constraints of economy and
time. Classification character maps of training
fields are studied in conjunction with ground
data and aerial photography (vertical [70 mm] and
oblique [35 mm]) at the time of each acquisition
to test classifier accuracy. Regard is paid to
vegetation strata; species dominance; plant height,
density and moisture content; soil moisture and
reflectance measurements in the simulated MSS
bands 4--7. The relationships of total biomass and
plant moisture content to reflectance in visible
and near IR wavelengths are currently being
studied.
(iv) Fire Hazard Mapping--described by Morris
and Barber (1980). The method is applicable in
municipalities planning new residential or other
development and involves preparation of a medium
scale map (1:50,000), a detailed report and area
specific recommendations on future land use.
Areas of high fire hazard are where fires are most
likely to occur and where such fires would create
danger for both residents and firefighters.
The potential fire hazard may be assessed by
rating the following ten criteria (with built in
weighting factor) from 1 to 5, for increasing
hazard, when applied to each discrete homogeneous
area in the municipality:
1
2
3
4
5
6
FREQUENCY OF FIRE SEASON
LENGTH OF FIRE SEASON
SLOPE--ASPECT
SLOPE--STEEPNESS
VEGETATION--GROUND COVER
VEGETATION--AVERAGE
ANNUAL DRIEST STATE
7
8
9
10
FIRE HISTORY
AMOUNT OF EXISTING
DEVELOPMENT/USE
EGRESS FROM AREA
FIRE SERVICES
AVAILABLE
The ten hazard scores are added to give a total
fire hazard rating which then determines the
hazard category for each area. The map is marked
up accordingly.
Figure 7--Variation in FMC & SMC, Donald, Vic.
1979/80 (Two locations).
Recommendations and guidelines relating to land
use and development control for the protection of
life and property are included in the report, e.g.,
(a) Applications for subdivision and development
in very high hazard areas should be discouraged and
in some cases prohibited. Where development is
permitted it should be preceded by a comprehensive
fire protection plan incorporating strategic fire
breaks and buffer zones, fire access tracks and
water supplies, property layout and building design.
(b) Any development which is likely to involve
large numbers of people (e.g., school camps),
should not be permitted in areas of very high and
high hazard. Special care should be taken in
locating such development.
493
(v) Design and Siting Guidelines--describes
"built in" fire protection for rural properties,
large and small (Morris and Barber 1980). Such
fire protection measures should be incorporated
in new developments and progressively in modification of existing properties (fig. 8).
promotes the planning and construction of linear
fire prevention measures and aids to fire suppression. Also Legislation provides for advisory
committees in municipalities and regions for fire
prevention planning.
The CFA appreciates that firebreak and buffer
zone construction methods may modify the environment. Therefore planners should be aware of
methods that may degrade those attributes important
to successful land management, and appreciated by
residents and visitors, and at the same time
achieve maximum firebreak effectiveness.
In the high fire-hazard Dandenong Ranges area
east of Melbourne, the Victorian Government has
acquired private property which is set aside from
residential development and managed as a fire
buffer zone by the Forests Commission.
DEVELOPMENT OF SUPPRESSION CAPABILITY
Primary factors for improved suppression capability are an efficient fleet of vehicles, adequate
communications and highly trained brigade personnel
The CFA has built up a large fleet of fully
equipped fire fighting vehicles distributed to
brigades as support for local equipment:
Aerial Appliances
5
Urban Pumpers
1600--3000 1pm
236
Rural Tankers
1000--4000 (4x4&4x2)
1097
Trailer Units
Pumps
84
Tankers
190
Hose Trailers
104
Such wide distribution allows brigades to attack
a fire with speed and concentration. In rural
brigades the CFA units may be the only equipment
immediately available for turnout, farm vehicles
being engaged in bulk grain or hay cartage.
Figure 8--Layout of well-protected property.
The location and siting of dwellings should have
regard to the direction of prevailing fire danger
weather, slope and aspect, proximity to bushland,
the manner of setting the house on a slope, static
water supplies and fire access tracks. Existing
features, e.g., roads and streams, are ready-made
fire breaks and should be used to advantage.
Flexibility, simplicity and reliability of
operation are important design criteria for vehicles operated by firemen in high-stress situations.
One new CFA design is shown in figure 9, with
specifications as indicated.
(vi)
Electric Fences--a fire hazard?
Circumstances in which electric fences may ignite
grassland fuels were tested (McCutchan and Pratt
1980). Flashover across the surface of green
leaves between a live conductor and earthed metal,
with very dry finely divided plant material in
close proximity, is the most likely mechanism to
cause a fire. A series output resistor will
minimize the chance of ignition. Fires caused
by electric fences are statistically improbable
but are still possible.
(vii)
494
Firebreaks and Buffer Zones--The CFA
Figure 9--CFA Rural Tanker, New Design.
Cab/Chassis--International ACCO 61OA 4 x 4
Engine--V345 8-cylinder petrol (150 hp)
Water Tank--3,000-litre capacity fibreglass
Pump--2 stage, 370 litres/minute @ 700 KPa powered
by 15-hp Briggs and Stratton engine.
This unit will replace many other vehicles.
Two important communication facilities are
telephone alerting system for volunteer fire
brigades where fire stations are unattended and
two-way radio communications between fire
vehicles, a mobile command vehicle and their
headquarters.
Three separate Fire Reporting Services have been
designed and implemented. These services are comprehensive and reliable intercepting and signaling
systems which utilize the existing private telephone services installed in volunteer residences.
The systems allow the volunteer to answer the fire
call, speak to the caller and if necessary activate the fire siren. They also provide a conference
facility to allow the volunteer officers to confer
with others prior to answering the call.
FRS. Installations--Type 1 cities and towns
--Type 2 small rural communities
--Type 3 sparsely populated districts
173
360
318
Two-way radio was introduced into fire brigades
after World War II. Much equipment was ex-Service
privately purchased. Brigades formed radio networks to ensure their mobility and rural fire
fighting became a group operation. Since then more
efficient equipments have been installed and maintained by the CFA. High frequency (2-4mhz) SSB
networks provide Statewide communications for Zone
and Regional officers whilst VHF 163mhz is used
intraregion. The advent of VHF has required
remotely sited base stations on hill tops with
control by land line or radio link. Some solarpowered remote installations have been designed
and constructed.
Equipments in operation include:
Base Stations Mobiles
CFA owned
458
1,532
Group & Brigade owned
261
2,185
With the development of increasingly sophisticated equipment and deployment of vehicles and
crews Statewide to major fires, training of large
numbers of volunteers became necessary. The CFA
established a Training Wing on a 140 ha site 60
km north west of Melbourne with facilities for 50
live-in and 150 daytime students. CFA philosophy
is that the Training Wing trains volunteer and
permanent officers who in turn conduct training
in their home regions for group and brigade
personnel. Subjects include fire suppression
strategy and tactics, communications, use and care
of specialised equipments, e.g., breathing apparatus, and methods of extinguishing specialised
fires, e.g., L.P. gas and flammable liquids. The
Training Wing operates 7 days per week for 44
weeks each year. Training in 1980 included
Volunteers Schools
Permanent Staff Schools
Outside Groups Schools
Numbers of
Courses Students
79
2,552
39
271
38
697
Advanced training is underway with the introduction in 1980 of the National Command Course
sponsored by the Australian Assembly of Fire
Authorities for senior officers of fire services
from all Australian States.
SUMMARY
Wild fires in rural Victoria are largely the
result of vegetation becoming highly flammable at
the time of seasonal high fire danger weather.
People are directly or indirectly the cause of the
majority of the fires whilst in the event of a
fire occurring, people, their stock and property
are at considerable risk and often suffer severe
losses.
The Country Fire Authority was established to
mitigate such losses and has set up an effective
Statewide organisation with principles of operations clearly defined. Rural orientated research
has commenced to improve understanding of fire
behaviour and fire prevention methods whilst
development in suppression capability is proceeding through improved vehicular design, communications and training.
LITERATURE CITED
Barber J.R.; Pratt B.T. The Flammability of Grasslands; Operations Supplement No.93, The Fireman
June 18, 1980, Vol.34 No.12; ed. 11 Chester
Street, Oakleigh, Vic. Aust.
Foley J.C. A Study of Meteorological Conditions
Associated with Bush and Grass Fires and Fire
Protection Strategy in Australia; Bulletin No.38
Bureau of Meteorology, Aust. 1947, P.96
Foley J.C. ibid. P.53
Luke R.H.; McArthur A.G. Bushfires in Australia;
Australian Govt. Publishing Service, Canberra,
1978, P.78
McCutchan J.; Pratt B.T. Electric Fences--A Fire
Hazard; Operations Supplement No.89, The Fireman,
February 20, 1980, Vol.34 No.8.
Morris Wendy; Barber J.R. Fire Hazard Mapping;
Operations Supplement No.96, The Fireman,
September 17, 1980, Vol.35 No.3.
Morris Wendy; Barber J.R. Design and Siting
Guidelines : Bushfire Protection for Rural
Houses; Operations Supplements Nos. 98 & 99, The
Fireman, Vol.35 Nos.5, 6.
Parrott R.T. The Growth, Senescence and Ignibility
of Annual Pastures. Thesis, Waite Agricultural
Research Institute, University of Adelaide, S.A.,
Aust. 1964, P.5.
Stretton L.E.B. Report of the Royal Commission to
Inquire into the Causes of and Measures Taken to
Prevent the Bush Fires of January 1939 .......
A/Government Printer, Melbourne, Aust. 6912/391939, P.20.
495