Chapter 27
Mortality of Marbled Murrelets in Gill Nets in North America
Harry R. Carter1
Michael L.C. McAllister2
Abstract: Mortality of Marbled Murrelets (Brachyramphus
marmoratus) due to accidental capture in gill nets is one of the
major threats to murrelet populations. Gill-net mortality of
murrelets throughout their range has been occurring for several
decades and probably has contributed to declines in populations,
in conjunction with loss of nesting habitat and mortality from oil
spills. Gill-net mortality has been best studied in Prince William
Sound, Alaska, and in Barkley Sound, British Columbia. However, gill-net fishing occurs widely and it is likely that: (1)
several thousand to tens of thousands of murrelets are killed
annually in Alaska; (2) hundreds to thousands are probably killed
annually in British Columbia; and (3) tens to hundreds may be
killed annually in Washington. In the 1980’s, hundreds also were
killed in central California although recent regulations have markedly reduced this mortality. Despite the potential impacts of gill-net
mortality on murrelet populations, little has been done to examine
the degree of mortality or to develop long-term solutions to
reduce or eliminate net mortality. Gill-net mortality should be
assessed by management agencies through the establishment of
more observer programs, especially in Alaska, British Columbia,
and Washington.
Gill-net fisheries have occurred off the Pacific coast of
western North America throughout this century. Following
World War II, these fisheries expanded to cover large
geographic areas, including most nearshore and offshore
waters. Concern has been expressed repeatedly over the last
3 decades about the excessive mortality of seabirds and
marine mammals in gill nets in many areas of the North
Pacific Ocean (see reviews in DeGange and others 1993;
Jones and DeGange 1988; King 1984; King and others 1979).
Most attention has been paid to offshore international fisheries
where hundreds of thousands of seabirds are killed annually.
Less attention has been directed towards lower levels of
mortality in nearshore gill-net fisheries, even though this
mortality can have serious impacts to local seabird populations
(Atkins and Heneman 1987; Carter and Sealy 1984; DeGange
and others 1993; Piatt and Gould, in press; Piatt and others
1984; Takekawa and others 1990).
There has been mounting concern about the impacts of
gill-net mortality on the Marbled Murrelet (Brachyramphus
marmoratus) (Carter and Morrison 1992, Carter and Sealy
1984, DeGange and others 1993, Marshall 1988a, Sealy
and Carter 1984). Murrelets become tangled and drown in
gill nets while swimming under water. Gill-net fishing is
conducted with either drift or set nets. Drift nets are operated
1 Wildlife Biologist, National Biological Service, U.S. Department
of the Interior, California Pacific Science Center, 6924 Tremont Road,
Dixon, CA 95620
2 Wildlife Biologist, Wildland Resources Enterprises, 60069 Morgan
Lake Road, La Grande, OR 97850
3 Commercial Fisherman, 9229 Emily Way, Juneau, AK 99801
(Deceased June 1993)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
M.E. “Pete” Isleib3
from a boat and are free to move with the currents, whereas
set nets are anchored at both ends and can be set at any
depth. Other forms of net fishing tend to be much less
destructive to birds. Seine fishing is known at times to
cause mortality.
At-sea mortality from gill nets and oil spills has been
identified as a significant conservation problem for the
Marbled Murrelet (Carter and Morrison 1992; U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, in press). Gill-net mortality may act
separately or in concert with the loss of nesting habitat
and mortality from oil pollution to threaten survival of
several populations. In this paper, we: (1) review factors
that lead to mortality of murrelets in gill nets; (2) discuss
known and suspected levels of mortality of Marbled
Murrelets in gill and seine nets throughout their range in
North America; and (3) indicate management actions that
have been considered to stop or reduce the impacts of gillnet mortality. Information is presented by state and province
from north to south. Information for the three southern
states was collated for the Marbled Murrelet Recovery
Plan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in press.)
Alaska
Large net fisheries have existed in many areas of Alaska
for decades. These fisheries target mainly salmon
(Onchorynchus sp.), although other fish also are taken (e.g.,
herring Clupea harengus). Salmon fisheries are broken
down into 12 statistical areas with many districts and
subdistricts in each area. The salmon gill-net fishery targets
specific stocks of fish as they return to rivers to spawn, and
can occur within 3 miles of land in a river, river delta,
embayment, or fjord. Open fishing periods vary between a
half day and 7 days per week, depending on run strength of
fish stocks, harvest levels, and numbers of fish reaching
spawning areas. Some districts are opened for only one
year out of five.
Types of Nets
Drift nets are about 900-1200 feet (275-365 m) long
and are fished as a single unit. Set nets are about 300-900
feet (90-275 m) long, but are usually broken down into
subunits as short as 60 feet (18 m) long. Gill nets in most
areas are restricted to 60 meshes deep. In Bristol Bay, there
is a 28-meshes deep maximum for both set and drift nets.
Stretched mesh sizes vary from 4.5-9.0 inches (11.4-22.9
cm) although restrictions apply in certain districts and at
certain times. Thus, a net with a mesh size of 5.5 inches (14
cm), with 60 meshes, would be about 30 feet (9 m) deep.
When restrictions do not apply, nets are often set at 120-150
meshes deep. Further discussion of various aspects relating
271
Carter and others
Chapter 27
to how murrelets become tangled in gill nets can be found in
Carter and Sealy (1984).
Behavior Near Nets
Isleib (1982) observed Marbled Murrelets feeding close
to nets, as well as elsewhere, but birds appeared to be displaced
by a vessel or activity aboard a vessel. Young of the year
showed little fear of vessels. Isleib usually observed murrelets
swimming along the nets in singles or pairs, frequently
diving, often surfacing on one side and then the other of the
net. This occurs with nets 60 feet (18 m) deep, with mesh
sizes of 5.5 inches (14 cm). Isleib suggested that they may
actually be going through these nets, but more than 80
percent of the birds were caught at night. Isleib felt murrelets
are likely caught while pursuing small feed fishes, including
juvenile herring, sand lance (Ammodytes hexapterus), capelin
(Mallotus villosus), needlefish (Strongylura exilis), and
various salmon fry. This may not be the case for some of the
juvenile murrelet mortalities where juveniles tend to dive
from suspected danger on the surface while adults tend to
fly. Murrelets are caught at varying depths in the nets, from
the surface to 10 meters, mostly 3 to 5 meters down. Beyond
60 meshes deep, murrelets do not appear to be caught.
Historical Records of Mortality: 1950s to 1980s
Historical documentation of gill-net mortality of murrelets
(and other seabirds) in Alaska before the 1970s is poor. An
observer program for determining incidental mortality of
seabirds in offshore net fisheries in Alaska began in 1974
(King and others 1979), but a similar observer program for
nearshore waters, where murrelets primarily occur and are
killed, was not instigated by the National Marine Fisheries
Service until 1990 in Prince William Sound (DeGange and
others 1993, Mendenhall 1992, Wynne and others 1991). At
least 3 scraps of information indicate that gill-net mortality
occurred in the 1950s and 1960s: (1) Sealy and Carter (1984)
reported an adult murrelet in breeding plumage was killed at
a depth of 25-30 feet in a gill net near Little Port Walter on
Baranof Island in southeastern Alaska between 29 July and 6
August 1958 (Sealy, pers. comm.); (2) a molting murrelet
was reported killed in a fishing net at Coho Beach, in the
northern Gulf of Alaska, in August 1959 (Smith 1959); and
(3) two adults in breeding plumage were killed in gill nets
near Cordova, in the northern Gulf of Alaska, in 1969 (Carter,
unpubl. data in Mendenhall 1992).
In the 1970s, the only documentation of mortality of
murrelets in gill nets in Alaska was obtained by one of us
(Isleib). Below we summarize the information and
observations, taken largely from a letter to the senior author
(Isleib 1982). Most of Isleib’s observations are from Statistical
Area E, the Prince William Sound/Copper-Bering River
Districts. Specific districts have different opening periods
by gear type.
The number of murrelets that are killed is difficult to
determine. Isleib estimated that the degree of magnitude for
all the districts of Area E was “several hundreds” annually.
272
Mortality in Gill Nets
He felt that the numbers had increased in the past 20 years
due to several factors: the vessels are continuously fishing
around the clock; the use of finer web; and more boats are
actively fishing (Isleib 1982). He observed that murrelets
are killed throughout the fishing season, with most (80+
percent) killed at night.
He felt that the major locations of kills were as follows.
In the Copper and Bering River Districts, murrelets are not
numerous, except during brief migration periods in early
September, and most birds occur offshore. These districts
front the open Gulf of Alaska. Here, most murrelets are
caught between 0.5 and 3 miles (0.3-1.9 km) offshore, where
water depth is about 10 fathoms (18 m). His best estimate of
murrelet mortality in these districts is from 100 to 300
annually. A similar number, or slightly higher mortality of
Common Murres (Uria aalge) also occurs here.
In the Coghill-Unakwik and Eshamy districts, murrelets
were numerous in the 1970s: 10,000+ Kittlitz’s Murrelets
(Brachyramphus brevirostris) and 100,000+ Marbled
Murrelets. These districts are either within or at the mouths
of fjords. Isleib estimated the annual kill at about 500 birds.
In the Bristol Bay area, murrelets are very rare. Isleib fished
Bristol Bay for 3 years and only 3 Common Murres were
killed in 1981.
While the above observations apply mainly to the 1970s,
more recent comments by Isleib reflected similar or greater
amounts of mortality continuing throughout the 1980s (see
DeGange and others 1993). For southeastern Alaska, Isleib
had estimated in DeGange and others (1993) up to 1,000
Marbled Murrelets were taken annually, but it is unclear if
this estimate is based on more data than available in 1982.
At this time, he had “no first hand knowledge”, but suspected
mortality at similar levels as found in Prince William Sound
(Isleib 1982). His suspicion was based on fishing effort,
fishing locations near murrelet aggregations, and types of
fishing gear (Isleib, pers. comm.). For the same reasons, he
suspected similar mortality along the Alaska peninsula during
the 1970s and 1980s (Isleib, pers. comm.).
Isleib observed that murrelets are captured in the same
locations year after year throughout the season. Young of
the year, first noted in mid-July, are killed in a higher
proportion to their respective numbers than adults.
Historical Records of Mortality: 1980s and 1990s
From 1983-1993, one of us (McAllister, unpubl. data)
conducted surveys of murrelets throughout most coastal regions
in the Gulf of Alaska. Preliminary population estimates for
the Gulf of Alaska are similar to estimates generated more
recently from the Outer Continental Shelf Environmental
Assessment Program (OCSEAP)(Piatt and Ford 1993; Piatt
and Naslund, this volume). The sub-area found to support the
greatest populations (45,000-70,000 birds [McAllister, unpubl.
data]) is Southeast Alaska. Three major nesting areas (each
containing approximately 5,000-10,000 birds) occur in
southeastern Alaska: the west slopes of Admiralty Island; the
mainland slopes of Stephens Passage (Juneau south to Tracy
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
Carter and others
Chapter 27
Arm); and the mainland slopes near Wrangell (Stikine River
south to Ernest Sound). At-sea foraging areas occur near
these and other nesting areas, resulting in a complex pattern
of aggregations throughout much of southeastern Alaska (figs.
1 and 2). There are three fishing subdistricts where intensive
gill-net fishing overlap with at-sea foraging aggregations of
Marbled Murrelets: (1) Area 1B, located at the south end of
Revillagigedo Channel near the Canadian border; (2) Area
6A, located near Point Baker in Sumner Strait; and (3) Area
11B, located south of Juneau in the central part of Stevens
Passage. Gill-net fisheries in subdistricts 6A and 11B are
targeted on fish stocks returning to the Stikine and Taku
rivers, respectively. Area 1B receives the most fishing pressure
and is open for the longest period each year (June-October).
Although murrelets are not found to aggregate in large
numbers in Area 1B at present, it is possible that large numbers
formally occurred in Boca de Quadra, Behm Canal, and Carol
Mortality in Gill Nets
Inlet before being reduced by gill-net mortality and logging
of nesting habitats in old-growth forests. Area 1F is an offshore
area where murrelets are not found in aggregations. In Areas
6A and 11B, large numbers of gill-net boats congregate
from June through August, and these could have decimated
local populations. In Area 6A, dense murrelet foraging
aggregations occur at Point Baker and along the north shores
of Zarembo Island during gill-net openings. This would be a
prime area in southeastern Alaska to monitor the ongoing
impacts of gill-net fishing on the Marbled Murrelet. In Area
11B, McAllister (unpubl. data) retrieved two floating dead
Marbled Murrelets in the vicinity of gill-net boats fishing at
Taku Harbor. A former gill-net fisherman reported to
McAllister that Marbled Murrelets were killed regularly in
area 11B in the late 1970s, stating that up to 12 Marbled
Murrelets were found in nets upon retrieving gear at dawn
near Taku Harbor in Area 11B. Murrelet mortality does not
Figure 1—North portion of Southeastern Alaska indicating 1988 fishing districts (numbered) with locations of Marbled Murrelet at-sea aggregations, potential old-growth
forest nesting areas, and gill-net fishing areas (McAllister, unpubl. data). Murrelet
information for Glacier Bay is not included.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
273
Carter and others
Chapter 27
Mortality in Gill Nets
Figure 2—South portion of Southeastern Alaska indicating 1988 fishing districts
(numbered). Other symbols and sources as in fig. 1.
occur to a significant degree in subdistricts 15A and 15C in
southern Lynn Canal, because birds in this region forage to
the south in northern Steven’s Passage and in Icy Straits.
Also, gill-net fishing tends to occur in this subdistrict
mainly in July to October, after most birds have left the
area. It is difficult to estimate the true magnitude of impact,
but when actively foraging aggregations of murrelets overlap
with gill-net gear, the potential for mortality is high (Carter
and Sealy 1984).
Purse seine fishing occurs more extensively than gillnet fishing throughout most of Southeast Alaska. McAllister
(unpubl. data) has observed no mortalities of Marbled
Murrelets in 10 years of fishing in the area, although fishermen
have reported “dozens” of Common Murres and Rhinoceros
Auklets (Cerorhinca monocerata) per net and smaller numbers
of Cassin’s Auklets (Ptychoramphus aleuticus) being killed
in seine nets in a year, especially in fishing district 4 (fig. 2).
This mortality could amount to many thousands of dead
274
birds. Murrelets are frequently trapped inside encircled nets,
but almost always escape by swimming and hopping over or
through spaces between the floats that line the top of nets.
On five occasions in late summer, McAllister retrieved and
released live murrelets from encircled nets near Cape Chacon
in district 2 (fig. 2) that were not able to escape over the
floats, including juveniles and adults undergoing prebasic
molt. A seine fisherman has reported to McAllister similar
entrapment of murrelets in seine nets in August at Stepovak
Bay on the Alaska Peninsula.
In Prince William Sound and Cook Inlet, Isleib (pers.
comm.) indicated continued mortality of Marbled Murrelets
in the 1980s and 1990s, at levels similar to or greater than
that reported in the 1970s (DeGange and others 1993). In
addition, Kuletz (pers. comm.) reported catching a few
murrelets per year from 1982-1988 during set-net fishing on
the east side of the middle of Cook Inlet. This mortality
occurred while fishing with nine nets, set a few days per
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
Carter and others
Chapter 27
week during the summer. Fishermen have reported further
(DeGange, pers. comm.) that murrelets have been killed
occasionally near Raspberry Island at the northwest end of
Kupreanof Strait, involving mostly juveniles. In other areas
near Kodiak Island (e.g., Cape Uganik and the south side of
Kupreanof Strait), none were known to be killed. A few
murrelets per year also were reported killed in nets on the
east side of Cook Inlet near Clam Gulch (between Kenai and
Homer). This mortality occurred during nine net sets over
the fishing season, whereas about 150 net sets occur in this
area throughout the year. Puffins (Fratercula sp.) and other
seabirds (possibly including murrelets) are taken occasionally
in nets set near Chisdik Island on the west side of Cook Inlet.
However, no seabirds were reported killed in nets while
fishing north of Chisdik Island.
Since 1990, official observers were placed on fishing
boats in Prince William Sound and near the Copper River
delta by the National Marine Fisheries Service (Mendenhall
1992). Observers reported mortalities of 36 and 25
Brachyramphus murrelets (84 percent Marbled Murrelets) in
1990 and 1991 (Wynne and others 1991, 1992). Extrapolating
from observed fishing effort (3.9 percent and 3.5 percent nets
observed in 1990 and 1991, respectively), then, as many as
923 and 714 murrelets may have been killed in gill nets in
Prince William Sound in 1990 and 1991, respectively (Piatt
and Naslund, this volume; Wynne and others 1991, 1992).
Extrapolating 1990 data from mean catch per week data,
Wynne and others (1991) estimated that 1,468 seabirds (95
percent confidence limits: 836-2,100) were killed in Prince
William Sound in 1990, 97 percent of which were murrelets.
Using this level of observed mortality in Prince William
Sound, Piatt and Naslund (this volume) estimated annual
mortality of 900, 1100, and 300 murrelets in Southeast Alaska,
lower Cook Inlet, and along the Alaska Peninsula, respectively.
Thus, the Alaska total may approach about 3,300 birds
annually. However, it is likely that gill-net mortality rates
differ in other areas, and it may be inappropriate to apply
mortality rates from Prince William Sound elsewhere.
Offshore Mortality
Only one bird was reported killed in offshore high-seas
drift-net fishery near the western Aleutian Islands through
1988 (DeGange 1978, DeGange and others 1985, Mendenhall
1992, Sealy and Carter 1984). However, murrelets do not
usually occur far offshore, and there does not appear to be a
significant problem in offshore fisheries.
Outlook
Additional observer programs are required to estimate
total mortality of Marbled Murrelets and other seabirds
throughout Alaska (see DeGange and others 1993). Effort
should focus on American nearshore fisheries. In 1992, a
United Nations resolution was passed which ended largescale pelagic driftnet fisheries, and this problem appears to
be resolved for the time being. On the other hand, declining
populations of Marbled Murrelets in Alaska cannot sustain
the apparent levels of mortality in fishing nets. Great efforts
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
Mortality in Gill Nets
should be made to reduce this mortality to much lower levels.
Carter and Sealy (1984) pointed out two main methods of
reducing gill-net mortality: (1) exclude fishing from areas
with high murrelet densities at sea; and (2) allow daylight
fishing only, since most murrelets are caught in nets at night.
These solutions often may not apply to other seabird species.
Another factor affecting levels of mortality is the future of
these fisheries themselves, if fish stocks decline. However,
gill-net fishing is likely to continue at high levels due to
climbing value of salmon, limited entry of fishermen, and
constant fishing pressure during openings. It is clear that gillnet mortality has the potential to be the greatest conservation
problem for Marbled Murrelets in Alaska since it occurs
annually throughout almost all at-sea foraging areas during
the breeding season when murrelets are aggregated.
British Columbia
Large salmon gill-net fisheries have existed off the mouth
of the Fraser River and in the Skeena River area since the
turn of the century. In the 1950s, other large fisheries
developed in other parts of British Columbia as the Fraser
fishery declined, due to severe landslides and other problems
upriver (Larkin and Ricker 1964). Small coastal fisheries
expanded with the development of a mobile fleet of gill-net
boats that travelled widely in relation to regulated openings.
The British Columbia gill-net and seine fishery is broken
down into 32 statistical areas and subdistricts (figs. 3 and 4).
Certain portions of these areas are closed to net fishing. Like
Alaska, open fishing periods vary considerably within areas
and districts. Gill nets used have a 115-mm minimum mesh
size and vary from 100-500-m length maximum (Department
of Fisheries and Oceans Canada 1978).
Historical documentation of gill-net mortality of murrelets
and other seabirds in British Columbia is lacking. In 1979,
Marbled Murrelets were first reported in gill nets in Barkley
Sound on the west coast of Vancouver Island in Statistical
Area 23 (Carter and Sealy 1984, see below). It is likely that
gill-net mortality has occurred widely and for many decades
in British Columbia. Carter (unpubl. data) travelled widely
around the coast of British Columbia while conducting seabird
surveys in 1974-1977 (e.g., Campbell and others 1990,
Vermeer and others 1983). From 4-7 July 1976, he noted
two areas in the inside passage from Prince Rupert to Campbell
River where many gill-net fishing boats and Marbled Murrelets
co-occurred: (1) between Namu and Fairmile Inlet in Fitz
Hugh Sound in Statistical Area 8 (fig. 3; see brief reference
in DeGange and others 1993); and (2) in Johnstone Strait,
west of Port Neville, in Statistical Area 12 (fig. 4). Mortality
of murrelets probably has occurred in many areas of British
Columbia, but has not been properly documented, except in
Barkley Sound (below).
In 1979 and 1980, Carter and Sealy (1984) documented
mortality of Marbled Murrelets in gill nets in Barkley Sound.
A total of 28 dead Marbled Murrelets (including 26 breeding
adults, 1 nonbreeder and 1 juvenile), 10 Common Murres and
1 Rhinoceros Auklet were recovered from 5 fishermen, a
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Carter and others
Chapter 27
Mortality in Gill Nets
Figure 3—Fishing statistical areas in northern British Columbia (Source: Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada).
276
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
Figure 4—Fishing statistical areas in southern British Columbia (Source: Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada).
Carter and others
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
Chapter 27
Mortality in Gill Nets
277
Carter and others
Chapter 27
fisheries patrol boat, or were found floating in the water. All
birds were killed between 11 June and 17 July in multifilament
nylon nets, 135-375 m in length, less than 10 m in depth, with
mesh sizes of 10-13 cm. Most murrelets were killed at night
off Cape Beale and south Trevor Channel near Bamfield
where large numbers of boats (average about 70/census)
fished in densities of 1-4 boats/km2. In the same area, Marbled
Murrelets also occurred in large numbers (average about
266/census) and in high densities (average 11.3 birds/km2).
Murrelets also were observed in small flocks sitting and
diving near nets during the day and may have been attracted
to nets to feed on small fish. Other details on gill-net mortality
in Barkley Sound can be found in Carter and Sealy (1984).
Carter and Sealy (1984) estimated a minimum of 175250 murrelets were killed in 1980, representing 6.2 percent of
the breeding population or 7.8 percent of the potential fall
population. They pointed out that the long-term impacts of
such mortality could be great, but the degree of impact depended
upon continued high fishing effort in Barkley Sound. In August
1987 and December 1989, local people in Bamfield indicated
that gill-net fishing had not occurred every year since 1980
(Carter, unpubl. data; see brief reference in DeGange and
others 1993). Nonetheless, gill-net mortality may have
contributed to the decline (>50 percent) of Marbled Murrelets
that has been estimated in Trevor Channel and Barkley Sound
between 1979-1980 and 1992-1994 (Burger, this volume b;
Kelson, pers. comm.). However, a large decline (about 40
percent) also has occurred in Clayoquot Sound, further west
on the west coast of Vancouver Island, where gill-net fishing
does not occur (Kelson and others, in press). This decline in
Barkley Sound probably reflects losses of old-growth forest
habitat and mortality from the Nestucca oil spill, in addition to
gill-net mortality (Burger, this volume b; Carter and Kuletz,
this volume; Rodway and others 1992). The decline in Clayoquot
Sound has been attributed mainly to the loss of nesting habitats
in old-growth forests (Kelson and others, in press).
Marbled Murrelets were not recovered from purse seines
in Barkley Sound in 1979-1982, although hundreds of
Common Murres were recovered (Carter, unpubl. data in
DeGange and others 1993). Similarly, murrelets were not
observed among floating carcasses of Common Murres off
Carmanah Point north of Cape Flattery on the west coast of
Vancouver Island in Statistical Areas 20, 21, and 121 in
August 1979 (Carter, unpubl. data in Vermeer and Sealy
1984; DeGange and others 1993). Marbled Murrelets were
not reported among Ancient Murrelets (Synthliboramphus
antiquus) and Rhinoceros Auklets killed in gill nets in July
1970-1971 and 1978 near Langara Island in the Queen
Charlotte Islands (Statistical Area 1)(Vermeer and Sealy
1984). However, Marbled Murrelets were caught frequently
on sports fishing lures near Campbell River in the 1960s
(Campbell 1967). In 1979-1980, sports fishermen in Barkley
Sound also reported catching murrelets on sports fishing
lures (Carter, unpubl. data).
To examine the potential for gill-net mortality of Marbled
Murrelets in British Columbia, we have summarized recent
data on gill-net and seine fishing effort for all Statistical
278
Mortality in Gill Nets
Areas in 1992 (table 1). Gill-net fishing occurred in almost
all areas, but the largest gill-net fisheries (>2,000 days fished)
occurred in Statistical Areas 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 14, 21, and 23 in
the general vicinity of the Southeast Alaska border, Prince
Rupert, Rivers Inlet, Smith Inlet, Queen Charlotte/Johnstone
straits, Comox/Qualicum, Pachena Point to Bonilla Point,
and Barkley Sound, respectively (see figs. 3 and 4). Marbled
Murrelets occur throughout the coasts of British Columbia,
including almost all fishing Statistical Areas (Campbell and
others 1990, Rodway and others 1992, Vermeer and others
1983). At present, it is difficult to assess the overall degree
of gill-net mortality in British Columbia, given incomplete
knowledge of the at-sea distribution and population sizes.
However, hundreds to thousands of murrelets may be killed
annually due to the extensive nature of these fisheries
throughout the province.
In five statistical areas (3, 4, 9, 10, and 23), extensive
fishing effort occurred in July when large numbers of murrelets
are feeding chicks at the nest, aggregate in high densities,
and may be more susceptible to mortality (Carter and Sealy
1984, 1990). Notably, Barkley Sound is among these earlier
fisheries. Heavy gill-net fishing effort occurs mainly in the
fall (August to November) in many Statistical Areas (table
1) which may avert high levels of mortality. Murrelets are
undergoing a flightless pre-basic molt during this period and
tend to occur in lower densities and closer to shore in many
areas (Carter and Stein, this volume).
In 1992, extensive seine fishing effort tended to occur in
conjunction with high gill-net fishing effort in most statistical
areas (table 1). However, in Barkley Sound in 1979-1980,
seine fishing occurred in a different area (with low densities
of murrelets) than where gill-net fishing occurred, apparently
to prevent interference. Seabird mortality (primarily Common
Murres) in seine nets did occur in the fall in Trevor Channel
when gill-net fishing had moved farther up the Alberni Canal
and seine fishing occurred in central Trevor Channel (Carter
and Sealy 1984).
Gill-net and seine fisheries should be examined
throughout British Columbia for bycatch of Marbled Murrelets
and other seabirds. Extensive mortality may be occurring
annually in many areas. Efforts should be taken to reduce or
stop such mortality immediately.
Washington
In Puget Sound and the Columbia River area (fig. 5),
large gill-net and purse seine fisheries, which target several
species of salmon, have existed since at least the 1940s.
These fisheries peaked in the 1970s and 1980s and have
recently declined because of reduced catch, increasing
regulation, and declining salmon populations. These fisheries
involve both native and non-native fishermen and are managed
by state (Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife
[WDFW]) and federal (National Marine Fisheries Service
[NMFS]) agencies, native nations, and tribal (Northwest
Tribal Fish Commission) and non-tribal (Bureau of Indian
Affairs [BIA]) fishing groups.
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Chapter 27
Mortality in Gill Nets
Table 1—Fishing effort in boat-days fished for gill-nets (G) and seine-nets (S) in various fishery statistical areas on the Northern and
Southern coasts of British Columbia by month in 1992 (Source: Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada 1992). No gill- or seinenet fishing occurred from January to March 1992
Statistical area1
Northern
British Columbia
1
2E
2W
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
30
Taku River2
Stikine River2
Southern
British Columbia
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Fishing gear
Apr
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
May
Jun
Jul
36
76
10
5
156
5
Month
Aug
63
123
Sep
22
40
762
259
29
43
3,168
738
8,681
145
249
68
5
133
32
5
840
737
3,412
3
38
808
563
3,700
251
151
63
19
69
46
10
175
127
322
5,676
365
25
180
121
150
80
30
1
1,884
32
3,695
866
285
281
1,607
1,185
3
Dec
2
178
109
21
923
294
228
154
1
2,279
306
951
369
980
2
7
39
1,378
186
68
1
41
43
2
954
4
2,620
1,475
Total effort
121
239
764
259
32
81
4,143
1,301
12,597
396
400
131
24
202
256
124
1,192
864
3,734
0
6,041
0
0
0
327
0
260
0
211
301
70
Nov
157
900
70
8
Oct
65
1,885
0
6,941
1,505
1,464
804
2,358
186
0
0
1,011
71
342
0
1,021
0
0
0
1,689
1,185
2,625
1,475
(continues)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
279
Carter and others
Chapter 27
Mortality in Gill Nets
Table 1—continued
Statistical area1
22
23
24
25
26
27
Fraser River3
Total
Fishing gear
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Month
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
2,560
21
79
181
3
2
4
523
683
2,446
56
526
53
7
25,198 16,757
1,966 3,827
3,146
856
8,416
2,151
2,476
225
72
0
1
14
20
31
14
0
20
0
240
0
104
Total effort
0
0
2,625
202
0
0
1,212
0
0
0
1
0
3,257
0
56,339
9,025
1
See figs. 3 and 4 for locations of statistical areas
These rivers reach the ocean in southeastern Alaska
3
Includes areas 28, 29A-E in fig. 4
2
Seabirds have been known to die in these fisheries for
some time, although there has been little documentation of
the degree of mortality (DeGange and others 1993, Speich
and Wahl 1989, Wahl 1981). Observer programs for marine
mammal bycatch in certain fisheries have been in place since
the 1970s, but there was little focus on seabirds. Speich and
Wahl (1989) reported that Western Grebes (Aechmophorus
occidentalis), Common Murres, and Marbled Murrelets were
frequently killed, based on reports by local fishermen (Speich,
pers. comm.; Wahl, pers. comm.). Because significant mortality
of murrelets was recorded in nearby Barkley Sound, British
Columbia (see above), it is reasonable to assume that murrelet
mortality occurs in Washington waters also.
Marbled Murrelets occur throughout most of northern
Puget Sound and the San Juan Islands where the bulk of the
Washington breeding population occurs (Speich and others
1992; Speich and Wahl, this volume; Wahl and others 1981).
Recent concern about the potential impacts of net fisheries
on Marbled Murrelets in Washington prompted the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of Interior, NMFS,
and BIA to develop additional tribal and non-tribal fishery
observer programs in 1993 to better assess impacts to seabirds,
especially Marbled Murrelets (see U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service 1993b,c). Information on seabird mortality from
non-native fisheries in 1993 is just now becoming available,
whereas some 1993 data from tribal fisheries have not been
released. Below, we summarize what information is available
to date, as collated for the Marbled Murrelet Recovery Plan
(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in press):
280
Pacific Salmon Commission - In 1993, a test fishery
using monofilament gill nets was conducted at the south
entrance to the San Juan Islands (off San Juan and Lopez
islands) by the Pacific Salmon Commission, a Canadianbased fisheries group (Craig and Cave 1994). Fishing occurred
between dusk and dawn from 23 June to 7 August. One
murrelet was caught on 4 July 1993 off Iceberg Point, Lopez
Island. Another murrelet was caught in a gill net during test
fishing in this area in 1990, but no other details were provided.
Most test fishing occurred further offshore than where most
murrelets were observed foraging. Thus, more murrelets
may be killed than indicated by this sample. A total of 64
Common Murres and 9 Rhinoceros Auklets also were killed
in 1993. A similar program will occur in 1994.
Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife - In 1993,
a limited gill-net monitoring program for non-tribal fisheries
was conducted by WDFW in certain parts of Puget Sound
where high concentrations of seabirds occur but few murrelets.
A preliminary report is presented in a Biological Assessment
(WDFW 1994). No murrelets were encountered, but 42 dead
birds, mainly Common Murres, were recorded. A more
extensive program is planned for 1994.
Purse Seine Vessel Owners Association - In 1993, two
Marbled Murrelets among about 50 seabirds were noted caught
during the Seabird Observer Program for the Non-Tribal
Purse Seine Fishery (Natural Resources Consultants 1993).
A total of 702 net sets were observed (about 3.9 percent of all
non-tribal purse seine effort) in many areas from the Canadian
border, through the San Juan Islands, to southern Puget Sound
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
Carter and others
Chapter 27
and Hood Canal. Common Murres and Rhinoceros Auklets
were the most frequently caught species. On 25 August 1993,
two murrelets were captured at 0657 hrs in the same purse
seine set about 500 m off Village Point, Lummi Island, in the
San Juan Islands. Both birds were captured alive and released
within 10-15 minutes. Almost all seabirds captured during
this program also were released shortly after capture. A
similar program is envisioned for 1994.
Point Roberts Tribal Fishery - In February and March
1993, a small tribal fishery (involving 10 boats) for herring
occurred in the Point Roberts/Semiahmoo Bay area.
Observers reported no entanglements or mortalities of
murrelets (BIA 1993).
Beached Birds - Kaiser (1993) reported two dead juvenile
murrelets and hundreds of other seabirds, especially Common
Murres and Rhinoceros Auklets, washed ashore in Boundary
Bay, British Columbia, in August 1993. Boundary Bay is
located just across the border from areas where high numbers
of murrelets and gill-net fishing areas co-occur.
Grays Harbor - No Marbled Murrelets have been recorded
as killed in gill nets in Grays Harbor during observer programs
in summer and fall 1991, 1992, and 1993 for non-tribal
fisheries (Jefferies and Brown 1993, WDFW 1994). Between
4 and 10 percent of nets were monitored each season and
year. Bycatch included Common Murres, Rhinoceros Auklets,
and loons. Some unidentified alcids and birds were recorded
which may have included murrelets.
Willapa Bay - No Marbled Murrelet bycatch was observed
in Willapa Bay during observer programs in summer and fall
1991, 1992, and 1993 for non-tribal fisheries (Jefferies and
Brown 1993, WDFW 1994). Between 1 and 13 percent of
nets were monitored each season and year. Bycatch included
Common Murres, cormorants, loons, grebes, and other alcids.
Some unidentified alcids and birds were recorded which
may have included murrelets.
Columbia River - No Marbled Murrelets have been
recorded as killed in gill nets in the Columbia River during
observer programs in winter 1991, 1992 and 1993 (Jefferies
and Brown 1993). Bycatch included Common Murres,
cormorants, Western and unidentified grebes, and Surf Scoters
(Melanitta perspicillata). Some unidentified alcids and birds
were reported which may have included murrelets.
With available information, it is not yet possible to
accurately determine the extent of mortality on Marbled
Murrelets in Washington. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(1993b,c) stated in a biological opinion that a mortality of
less than ten murrelets recovered from nets during the
observer programs would not jeopardize the continued
existence of the Marbled Murrelet in Washington. Additional
information on mortality must be derived from tribal and
non-tribal fisheries, especially within and north of the San
Juan Islands, northern Puget Sound, along the northern side
of the Olympic Peninsula, and in the Cape Flattery area.
It is likely that significant mortality of murrelets is
occurring and has occurred in northern Puget Sound and
around the San Juan Islands. The large amount of fishing
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
Mortality in Gill Nets
effort that occurs throughout this area is likely to cause
mortality on the scale of tens to hundreds of murrelets at a
minimum. Mortality extrapolations using 1979-1980
mortality rates in relation to fishing effort and murrelet
densities from Trevor Channel in Barkley Sound, British
Columbia (Carter, unpubl. data; Carter and Sealy 1984), in
association with murrelet densities and fishing effort in
various fishing areas in northern Puget Sound and around
the San Juan Islands (Speich and others 1992; Speich and
Wahl, this volume; Wahl and others 1981), yielded potential
annual mortality estimates in the high hundreds (Wilson,
pers. comm.). However, fishing effort is more intensive
and murrelet densities are lower in northern Puget Sound
which may act to produce different mortality rates than
observed in Barkley Sound. Observer programs should be
continued and augmented to better describe gill-net mortality
in northern Washington.
Oregon
Gill-net fishing has been prohibited in estuaries, bays
and along the outer coast of Oregon since 1942 (Nelson and
others 1992). No net-caused mortalities of murrelets are
known in Oregon.
California
Nearshore gill- and trammel-net fisheries have existed
in Central and Southern California since the early 1900s,
and increased dramatically in size during the 1970s and
1980s. These fisheries have targeted a wide array of fish,
including halibut and flounder (Bothidae and Pleuronectidae),
croaker (Sciaenidae), shark, rockfish (Scorpaenidae), and
others. The catch from these fisheries peaked during the
1980s and early 1990s, but has since declined because of
regulations aimed at reducing mortality of marine birds and
mammals. These fisheries are managed primarily by the
California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG) which
operated a bycatch monitoring program from 1983 to 1989.
This observer program has been continued by NMFS from
1990 to 1994. These fisheries are managed through a series
of CDFG fishing regions (fig. 5).
Northern California - Gill-net fishing is prohibited north
of Point Reyes, Marin County.
Central California - Small numbers of birds were killed
in gill nets before the late 1970’s (Sowls and others 1980).
From 1979 to 1987, more than 70,000 Common Murres were
killed in regions 3 and 4 (fig. 5), mainly in the summer and
fall, which contributed to a severe decline in the local breeding
population (Carter and others 1992, DeGange and others
1993, Takekawa and others 1990). Thousands of other seabirds
including Marbled Murrelets, and marine mammals also were
killed. Carter and Erickson (1988, 1992; also see Sealy and
Carter 1984) summarized known evidence of mortality of
murrelets from this fishery. Three birds were noted in the
monitoring program: (1) two birds in Monterey Bay on 3
281
Carter and others
Chapter 27
Mortality in Gill Nets
Figure 5—Locations of gill-net fisheries along the coasts of California, Oregon
and Washington. Numbers refer to fishing areas referred to in the text. In central
and southern California, numbers 3, 4, 5, and 6 refer to California Department of
Fish and Game fishing districts D10, D17, D18, and D19/D20, respectively.
December 1981; and (2) one bird off San Gregorio Creek,
San Mateo County, on 21 November 1986. More than 100
dead murrelets also were found on beaches in the Monterey
Bay area (regions 4A and 4B)(fig. 5) during the winter of
1980-1981. Carter and Erickson (1988, 1992) estimated that
at least 150 to 300 birds were killed from 1979 to 1987.
A series of small, patchwork fishing closures were
implemented by CDFG from 1982 to 1984 in an attempt to
reduce seabird mortality. These efforts proved to be
ineffective. Following consideration of the problem for several
years (Atkins and Heneman 1987, Salzman 1989), severe
restrictions were implemented by CDFG in 1987 which
282
closed waters less than 40 fathoms (80 m) in regions 3 and
4A (fig. 5) to gill-net fishing. These regulations eliminated
most fishing in these areas, although a small gill-net fishery
for rockfish still exists outside of the Farallon Islands. Fishing
was further restricted in the Monterey Bay and south-central
coast area in 1990 to further reduce mortality of marine
mammals (especially sea otters Enhydra lutra) and seabirds.
Fishing was prevented in waters shallower than 30 fathoms
(60 m), as well as in much of inner Monterey Bay, in regions
4B and 5A (fig. 5).
Most murrelets from the Central California population
(that nest in San Mateo and Santa Cruz counties) forage
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
Carter and others
Chapter 27
throughout the year in waters less than 80 m in depth in
regions 3 and 4A, or in waters less than 60 m in region 4B
(fig. 5). Thus, 1987 and 1990 CDFG regulations should
protect most birds from future gill-net mortality. No mortalities
of Marbled Murrelets that could be related to gill-net fishing
have been recorded since 1987. However, murre mortality
has continued in winter in northern Monterey Bay, especially
south of Año Nuevo State Reserve between Waddell Creek
and Santa Cruz (near the border of regions 4A and 4B).
Westfall (pers. comm.) also reported mortality of several
Marbled Murrelets on sports fishing lines near Santa Cruz.
This mortality is important because of the small size and
poor health of the central California population (Carter and
Erickson 1992).
Southern California - From 1983 to 1989, several thousand
cormorants (mainly Brandt’s Cormorants, Phalacrocorax
penicillatus) probably were killed in gill-net fisheries in
Southern California (Carter, unpubl. data). Mortalities were
recorded both near the northern Channel Islands, as well as
along the mainland coast, in regions 5B and 6. Because of
concerns by several interest groups, gill-net fishing was
prohibited in state waters within 3 miles of shore in these
regions by CDFG regulations in January 1994, except for
some areas near the northern Channel Islands, where fishing
is still allowed outside of 1-2 miles from islands.
No mortality of Marbled Murrelets that could be attributed
to gill-net and trammel-net fishing has been recorded south
of Monterey Bay. Small numbers of murrelets occur in
nearshore waters in this area during winter. These birds
probably represent some limited southward dispersal of birds
in the non-breeding season from the Central California
breeding population. Marbled Murrelets have not been
recorded at the Channel Islands.
Discussion
Mortality in gill nets may be one of the greatest
conservation problems facing the Marbled Murrelet. In Alaska
and British Columbia, levels of mortality need to be better
established, but available evidence indicates that several
thousands are killed annually. The large numbers of murrelets
killed in nets in Alaska and British Columbia has not been
fully appreciated in previous reviews (DeGange and others
1993, Mendenhall 1992, Rodway and others 1992, Sealy
and Carter 1984). Since these levels of mortality probably
have been focused on certain populations over the past few
decades, gill-net mortality alone may have already been an
important factor of the decline in Alaska and British Columbia
populations. Coupled with the loss of old-growth forest
nesting habitats and mortality from oil spills which may
affect the same populations, it is clear that survival of
populations in many areas in the center of its range may be
difficult if such problems continue. Lower numbers of birds
killed in central California and Washington also have had
relatively large impacts on these small populations and may
have contributed significantly to their potential future
extirpation (see Carter and Erickson 1992).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.
Mortality in Gill Nets
Even the very few dead murrelets reported anecdotally
or from observer programs probably are significant because
few people (aside from fishermen) could report mortalities,
carcasses are discarded shortly after death and either sink or
are taken by predators soon thereafter, fishermen typically
do not divulge knowledge of such mortality due to fear of
affecting their livelihoods, and only a small fraction of nets
are examined in certain localities during monitoring programs.
For example, in Monterey Bay, California, only two birds
were noted in the observer program, whereas more than 100
were found on nearby beaches and 150-300 birds were
estimated killed over several years in the early 1980s (Carter
and Erickson 1992). Similarly, Carter and Sealy (1984)
recovered only 28 dead murrelets, but fishermen reported
catching larger numbers and a minimum of 175-250 murrelets
were estimated to have been killed in 1980 in Barkley Sound,
British Columbia. We feel that the large size of gill-net
fisheries, and their extensive coverage of almost all coastal
areas throughout the range of the Marbled Murrelet, places
gill-net mortality among the most significant problems for
the species.
We suggest that a detailed examination of Marbled
Murrelet and other seabird mortality in all coastal gill-net
and seine fisheries is required throughout the range of the
murrelet, especially in Alaska, British Columbia, and
Washington. It is likely that relatively minor modifications
can be made to gill-net fisheries to vastly reduce mortality
quickly without significant impact to fisheries, by either
stopping fishing in small at-sea areas where murrelets are
aggregated, preventing night fishing in certain areas, or both.
Similarly, mortality or injury in seine nets probably can be
greatly reduced by ensuring that spaces occur between floats
along the top of the nets which allow murrelets and other
seabirds to escape from encircled nets. If populations become
(or are) too small, even low levels of gill-net and seine-net
mortality or injury will have or has a greater relative effect.
Under these conditions, it may be necessary to stop all
mortality by considering more drastic changes, including
stopping gill-net fishing in much larger areas, changing
fishing methods altogether, or both. To avoid severe
confrontation in the future, it is clear that this issue should
be addressed immediately.
Acknowledgments
J. Engbring (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service), C. Haugen,
M. Vojkovich, and P. Wild (California Department of Fish
and Game), and D. McMullin, S. Benoit, and K. Lorette
(Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada) provided many
valuable reports and comments. Additional information was
provided by R. Brown, T. Clockson, A.R. DeGange, C.
Haugen, S. Jefferies, K. Kuletz, G.S. Miller, J.F. Piatt, J.
Scordino, S.G. Sealy, S. Speich, T. Wahl, P. Wild, and J.
Wilson. G. McChesney and L.L. Long assisted figure
preparations. This summary has benefitted from reviews and
editing by A.R. DeGange, L.L. Long, J.F. Piatt, C.J. Ralph,
and M.G. Raphael.
283
284
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-152. 1995.