Wildland
Planning Glossary
Charles F. Schwarz
Edward C. Thor
Gary H. Elsner
PACIFIC SOUTHWEST
Forest and Range
Experiment Station
FOREST SERVICE
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
P.O. BOX 245, BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA 94701
USDA FOREST SERVICE GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-13 /1976 Schwarz, Charles F., Edward C. Thor, and Gary H. Elsner.
1976. Wildland planning glossary. USDA Forest Serv. Gen Tech. Rep.
PSW-13, 252 p. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn.,
Berkeley, Calif.
More than 1400 terms useful in wildland and related resource planning
are defined. The purpose of the work is to facilitate communication be-
tween professionals, not to provide them with exhaustive vocabularies of each other's specialties. Definitions are drawn from many sources, includ-
ing public laws and government manuals, but are not intended to establish legally binding definitions. A list of terms and list of sources are included.
Oxford: 911(038)–(73)
Retrieval Terms: wildland planning; land utilization; range management; forest management; terminology.
The Authors
CHARLES SCHWARZ is a landscape architect in the Station's research
unit on forest recreation and landscape planning, at Berkeley. Before joining the Station staff in 1975, he was a research assistant at the University
of California's Institute of Urban and Regional Development, Berkeley.
EDWARD C. THOR is an economist with the research unit. He was formerly a post-graduate research economist at the University of California,
Berkeley, on assignment to the Station under a cooperative agreement.
GARY H. ELSNER is in charge of the unit.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402–Price $2.45
Stock Number 001-001-00413-8 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
FOREST SERVICE
Washington, D. C. 20250
┌
To: The Readers
└
A primary goal of the Land Use Planning Unit is to establish a
communications network among all planners and those interconnected
with planning. There is a basic need for quick transfer of methodology and techniques to support an effective job of planning with
a minimum of duplication and effort.
Good communications demand common agreement on the meanings of
words. This is particularly true in scientific and professional
disciplines, and especially critical where quantified techniques
must be used. Agreement comes from understanding and acceptance
over time.
This "Wildland Planning Glossary," prepared by the Pacific Southwest
Forest and Range Experiment Station, is a good beginning towards
obtaining common understanding and acceptance of the meanings of
words. This glossary is the first edition in a series which will
become even more comprehensive as new wildland planning terms and
concepts are added. Many words, if not most, will be immediately
understood and accepted by all who read it. Other words may cause
controversy and not be accepted by some. Suggestions for improvement of meaning and additional terms should be addressed to:
Unit Leader
Systems Application Unit for
Land Use Planning
3825 East Mulberry
Fort Collins, Colorado 50371
All readers are invited to participate by commenting on these meanings
when they do not agree or understand. Comments or suggestions for
improvement should provide references or justification for change.
New editions incorporating suggested changes and additional terms
and definitions will be prepared by the Systems Application Unit.
THOMAS C. NELSON
Deputy Chief
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Individual acknowledgment for the help received in shaping this glossary is
not possible because so many people participated. For example, more than 50
people reviewed the first and second drafts, and a number of others made
valuable contributions.
Employees of the following agencies and organizations participated in the
review of this glossary.
University of California: Cooperative Agricultural Extension Service, Natural
Land and Water Reserve System.
California State Cooperative Soil-Vegetation Survey.
Lake Tahoe Area Research Coordination Board.
Soil Conservation Society of America: Land Use Planning Subcommittee,
Natural Vegetation Subcommittee, California Chapter Conservation Research
Committee.
U.S. Department of Agriculture: Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Office; Soil Conservation Service, California State Office.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: Resource Planning Act Team
(WO); National Forest System—Land Use Planning Unit, Watershed and Minerals
Management Staff (WO), Regional Office Land Use and Multiple Use Planning
Units; State and Private Forestry—Area Planning and Development Staff (WO)
(Comprehensive Land Use Planning Group and Cooperative Planning and Rural
Development Group); Research—Forest Economics and Marketing Research
Staff (WO), Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Surface Environment and Mining Team (SEAM), Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.
Work on the Wildland Planning Glossary was supported in part under Cooperative Agreement 21-314 with the Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California, Berkeley.
ii
PREFACE
National recognition of the importance of land use planning in the management
of the Nation's wildlands is growing steadily. Many local and State governments
have already passed land use planning laws. The Federal Government, in stages
marked by the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 and the
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, has been gradually moving toward comprehensive land use planning, and a national land use planning act will probably be
passed before long. The U.S. Forest Service has already adopted land use planning
procedures for management of all National Forests.
Such growth, as might be expected, has been attended by problems of communication—coordination, definition, and exchange of information. Wildland planning
has brought together the wildland manager (usually trained in forestry or range
management), the professional planner (usually trained in city or regional planning), and specialists in any of a dozen or more natural, physical, or social sciences.
Most of these people have only limited knowledge of the concerns, methods, and
terminology of special fields other than their own.
In the absence of a standard reference work, the terminology of wildland planning has become a haphazard accumulation of technical terms–many duplicating
others in meaning, many used differently by different people, and some having no
precise meaning at all. Obviously, such terminology can only aggravate the difficulties of communication.
This book is an attempt to alleviate the problem by providing definitions of the
terms currently used in wildland planning. The purpose here is to facilitate communication between professionals, not to supply them with exhaustive vocabularies
of each other's specialties. Accordingly, only those terms of each discipline that are
most important to wildland planning are listed. Less frequently used terms may be
found in glossaries of special fields. Many such works are listed here under Sources.
We do not present this book as a final product. Just as the rapid growth of
wildland planning has made the glossary necessary, so continued growth will make
it obsolete; new terms will be developed and some of those given here will drop out
of use. A glossary, though giving temporary stability and unity to terminology,
should not cause stagnation. Our hope is that this first effort will be followed by
expanded and revised editions, keeping pace with the evolution of wildland planning, and thus contributing to it.
The forms of entry and definition used in this book vary somewhat from those
of standard dictionaries and glossaries.
Alphabetizing. All entries are listed in strict alphabetical order, regardless of
word breaks. For example, Mine tailings follows Mineral soil and precedes Mining,
area strip. However, clusters of multiple-word terms are entered under the main
word: for example, Erosion, accelerated and Erosion, raindrop follow Erosion.
Synonyms. Where several similar terms for one concept are in use, or where
various terms are used interchangeably with a variety of meanings (sometimes contradictory), the main entry is the preferred or standard term. Preference is usually
determined as the original or apparently most common usage. Less acceptable terms
follow the main entry in parentheses. The terms in parentheses are not necessarily
accurate synonyms for the main entry.
iii
Boldface terms. A boldface term within a definition is being used precisely and is
itself defined in the glossary.
Sources. The definitions given come from many sources, including public laws or
Government manuals. We have made no attempt, however, to establish legally
binding definitions or official doctrine. Some officially stated definitions are not in
agreement with common usage, but they are included because planners often need
to be aware of them.
Each definition is followed by an abbreviated source citation in parentheses;
complete citations are listed at the end of the book. Definitions followed only by
initials are those originated for this glossary by one of the authors or by a reviewer.
List of terms. A simple listing of all terms included precedes the glossary. This
list allows the user to determine quickly the form of the main entry for the
particular term needed. It can also serve as a thesaurus of terms for the writer who
is groping for the right word.
iv
LIST OF TERMS
Abiotic Abiotic commodity Abiotic productivity. See Productivity, abiotic
Absentee ownership
Absolute poverty. See Poverty, absolute
Accelerated erosion. See Erosion,
accelerated
Acceptable material
Acceptable risk. See
Risk, acceptable
Acceptability test
Accessibility
Accessory use. See Secondary use
Acculturation
Acquisition of development rights. See
Development rights, acquisition of
Acquisition of land
Acre-foot
Action plan. See Activity planning
Active fault. See Fault, active
Activity planning
Adaptive planning
Additive weighting
Administration
Administrative unit
ADT. See Average daily traffic
Adversary procedure
Adverse land use
Advocacy planning
Aerial logging. See Logging, aerial
Aerial perspective. See Perspective, aerial
Aesthetic recreational carrying capacity.
See Carrying capacity,
wildland recreation (5)
Aesthetics
Aesthetic zoning. See
Zoning, aesthetic
Affirmative easement. See
Easement, affirmative
Afforestation
Agricultural land
Agricultural zoning. See
Zoning, agricultural
Agriculture
Air Pollution
Air rights
Air shed
Algal bloom
Alienated Land. See Land, alienated.
All-aged stand. See Uneven-aged stand
Allocation. See Resource allocation and
Land use allocation
Allotment. See Range allotment
Allowable cut
Allowable harvest. See Allowable cut
Allowable use. See Use, allowable
Alluvial
Alluvial land
Alluvial valley floor
Alluvium
Alternate grazing. See Grazing, rotation
Alternative
Alternative futures. See Futures
Alternative life styles. See Life styles
Ambient
Amenity
Anadromous fish
Analysis
Angle of repose
Animal community. See
Biotic community
Animal month
Animal unit conversion factor
Animal unit month
Annual cut. See Allowable cut (2)
Annual flood. See Flood, annual
Annual pasture. See Pasture, annual
Annual range. See Range, annual
Annual yield. See Allowable cut (2)
Antagonism
Antecedent moisture
Antiquities Act
Approximate original contour. See
Contour, approximate original
Aquifer
Archeological area
Archeological resource
Area guide. See Planning area guide
Area of critical environmental concern
Area planning. See Regional planning and
Planning area
Area reconnaissance
Area strip mining. See Mining,
area surface
Area surface mining. See Mining,
area surface
Aspect
1
Biome-type Biophysical Biophysical determinism
Biosphere
Biota Biotic Biotic association. See Biotic community Biotic carrying capacity. See Carrying capacity, ecological (4)
Biotic climax. See Climax community (3)
Biotic community
Biotic diversity. See Biologic diversity
Biotic potential
Biotic productivity. See
Productivity, biotic
Black box
BLM
Blob diagram. See Diagrammatic
representation
Block diagram
Bloom
Blow down. See Windthrow
Board foot
BOD. See Biological oxygen demand
Botanical area
Boundary species. See Species, peripheral
Browse
Brush
Brush control
Brush management
Buffer
Buffer strip. See Buffer
Buffer zone. See Buffer
Bulk density
Bundle of rights. See Property rights
Cable logging. See Logging, cable
Calefaction. See Thermal pollution
Canopied landscape. See
Landscape, canopied
Capability
Capability, inherent. See Capability
Capability, intrinsic. See Capability
Capability, natural. See Capability
Capacity, highway
Capital
Capital good
Carbon cycle
Cardinal unit. See Cardinal value
Cardinal value
Carnivore
Association. See Biotic community
Assumption Attitude Auger mining Autotrophic organism
Average daily traffic Avoidable risk. See Risk, avoidable Azonal soil. See Soil horizon (2)
Backcountry
Background Background level Back lighting Balanced objectivism
Balance of nature
Bank erosion. See Erosion, bank Basal area Base flow Base map Base property. See Commensurate property
Basic assumption. See Assumption (2)
Basic productivity. See Productivity,
primary
Beach erosion. See Erosion, beach
Bedload
Bedrock
Belief
Benchmark
Benefit
Benefit-cost analysis
Benefit-cost ratio
Benthos
Bequest motive. See Existence value
Biochemical oxygen demand. See
Biological oxygen demand
Biodegradables
Biogeochemical
Biogeochemical cycle
Bio(geo)c(o)enose, See Ecosystem
Bio(geo)c(o)enosis. See Ecosystem
Biogeophysical
Biological management unit
Biological oxygen demand
Biological potential. See Biotic potential
Biological primacy. See
Biophysical determinism
Biologic diversity
Biologic stability. See Ecologic stability
Biomass
Biome
2
Cluster zoning. See Zoning, cluster
Coastal state Coastal waters. Coastal zone Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 COD. See Chemical oxygen demand Cold-water fishery Colluvium
Commensurability Commensurable values Commensurate property Commercial/industrial land Commodity Common law. See Law, common Common variety mineral. See Mineral, common variety
Community. See Biotic community
or Human community
Community biomass. See Biomass (2)
Community development
Community services land
Compartment. See Timber
management compartment
Compatible uses
Compensable regulation
Competition
Complement
Complementary uses
Complete clearcutting. See Clearcutting (2)
Completeness test
Complete protection
Comprehensive development plan. See
Comprehensive plan
Comprehensive plan
Computer graphics
Computer information system
Computer program
Concentrated recreation. See
Recreation, concentrated
Concentration time
Concern
Condemnation
Condemnation, inverse. See
Condemnation, reverse
Condemnation, reverse
Conflicting uses
Conservation
Conservation District. See
Soil Conservation District
Conservation easement. See
Carrying capacity
Carrying capacity, aesthetic recreational.
See Carrying capacity,
wildland recreation, (5)
Carrying capacity, ecological Carrying capacity, economic recreation Carrying capacity, facility Carrying capacity, natural. See Carrying capacity, ecological
Carrying capacity, optimal. See
Carrying capacity, wildland
recreation (4)
Carrying capacity, physical. See
Carrying capacity, ecological
Carrying capacity, psychological
Carrying capacity, range
Carrying capacity, social. See
Carrying capacity, psychological
Carrying capacity, visitor. See
Carrying capacity, economic recreation
Carrying capacity, wildland recreation
Carrying capacity, wildlife
Catchment area. See Watershed
Catchment basin. See Watershed
Census tract
Central city. See Urbanized area
CEQ
Channel storage
Characteristic landscape. For U.S. Forest
Serv. usage see Visual landscape
character
Character subtype. For U.S. Forest Serv. usage
see Visual character subtype
Chemical oxygen demand
Choropleth map
City planning
Claim. See Mining claim
Classification
Class, social. See Social class
Clay
Cleaning
Clearcutting
Clearcutting system
Climate
Climax community
Climax species
Climax vegetation
Closed area
Closed range. See Range, closed
Cluster development
3
Cubic feet per second Cultural adaptation Cultural change Cultural eutrophication Cultural history resource Cultural resource. See Cultural history resource (2)
Culture
Cumulative use
Cunit
Cut
Cut and fill
Cut-over forest
Cutting
Cutting cycle
CZMA. See Coastal Zone Management
Act of 1972
Data
DBH. See Diameter at breast height
Decision theory
Decomposer organism
Decreaser. See Decreaser plant species
Decreaser plant species
Deferred grazing. See
Grazing, deferred rotation
Deferred rotation grazing. See
Grazing, deferred rotation
Degree of use. See Use, degree of
Delphi method
Demand. See Demand schedule
Demand schedule
Depletion
Derived demand
DES. See Environmental impact
statement, draft
Design
Design solution
Desirable plant species
Desires. See Needs
Detailed landscape. See
Landscape, detailed
Detailed reconnaissance soil map. See
Soil map, detailed reconnaissance
Detailed soil map. See Soil map, detailed
and Soil survey
Detailed soil survey. See Soil map,
detailed and Soil survey
Detention storage
Deterministic model. See
Model, deterministic
Easement, conservation
Conservation plan
Conservation treatment unit
Conservation zoning. See
Zoning, conservation
Constitutional determinism
Consumer organism
Consumer surplus
Consumptive use
Contingency planning. See
Adaptive planning
Continuing easement. See
Easement, continuous
Continuous grazing. See
Grazing, continuous
Contour
Contour, approximate original
Contour interval
Contour line. See Contour
Contour map
Contour strip mining. See
mining, contour surface
Controlled burn
Coordinating criteria
Coordinating requirements
Cord
Cost
Cost-benefit analysis. See
Benefit-cost analysis
Cost-benefit ratio. See Benefit-cost ratio
Cost effective analysis
Cost-revenue analysis. See
Revenue-cost analysis
Cost-utility analysis. See
Benefit-cost analysis
Cover
Cover type
Cow month
CPM. See Critical path method
Creep. See Soil creep
Crisis
Criteria
Critical area. See Area of critical
environmental concern
Critical distance
Critical path method
Cropland
Cross section
Crown
CTU. See Conservation treatment unit
4
Easement, affirmative
Easement, conservation
Easement, continuing
Easement, discontinuous
Easement, negative
Easement, recreational
Easement, scenic
Ecoclass
Ecological determinism
Ecological land unit
Ecological water unit
Ecologic community. See
Biotic community
Ecologic competition. See Competition
Ecologic diversity. See Biologic diversity
and Species diversity
Ecologic indicator. See
Indicator, biologic
Ecologic niche. See Niche (2)
Ecologic pyramids
Ecologic stability
Ecologic succession. See Succession
Ecology
Econometrics
Economic analysis
Economic base analysis. See
Export base analysis
Economic depletion. See Depletion
Economic determinism
Economic enterprise
Economic externalities
Economic growth
Economic life
Economic scarcity
Economic subregion
Economic unit. See Economic enterprise
Ecosystem
Ecotone
Ecotype
Edaphic
Edaphic climax. See
Climax community (3)
Edaphic factor
Edge
Edge species. See Species, edge
Effectiveness-cost analysis. See
Cost-effectiveness analysis
Effectiveness index
Effectiveness test
Efficiency test
Detritivore. See Detrivore Detrivore Developed recreation area. See recreation area, developed
Developer
Development
Development planning
Development rights
Development rights, acquisition of
Development rights, transfer of
Development type
Development zoning. See
Zoning, development
Diagrammatic representation
Diameter at breast height
Direct effect
Disadvantaged groups
Discharge
Discontinuous easement. See
Easement, discontinuous
Discounting
Discount rate
Disjointed incrementalism. See
Incrementalism
Dispersed recreation. See
recreation, dispersed
Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen concentration
Dissolved oxygen level. See
Dissolved oxygen concentration
Dissolved solids
Diversity index. See
Species diversity index
DO. See Dissolved oxygen
DOL. See Dissolved
oxygen concentration
Dominant
Dominant use
Dominant use management
Draft environmental impact statement.
See Environmental impact
statement, draft
Draft environmental statement
Drainage basin. See Watershed
Durability
Duration curve. See Flow duration curve
Dynamic programming
EAR. See Environmental
analysis report
Easement
5
Environmental setting. For U.S. Forest
Serv. usage see Management situation
Environmental statement. See
Environmental impact statement
Environmental system
Environment, human
Ephemeral stream
Erosion
Erosion, accelerated
Erosion, bank
Erosion, beach
Erosion, geologic
Erosion, gully
Erosion, natural
Erosion, normal
Erosion, raindrop. See Erosion, splash
Erosion, rill
Erosion, sheet
Erosion, soil
Erosion, splash
Erosion, surface
ES. See Environmental impact statement
Esthetics. See Aesthetics
Estuarine area
Estuarine sanctuary
Estuary
Euclidean zoning. See Zoning, Euclidean
Eury– organism
Eutrophication
Evaluation
Even-aged management
Even-aged stand
EWU. See Ecological water unit
Excepted mineral. See Mineral, excepted
Exception. See Special exception
Exclusive use zoning. See
Zoning, exclusive use
Exclusive zoning. See
Zoning, exclusive use
Exempt stock
Exhaustible resource. See
Nonrenewable resource
Existence value
Exotic organism
Exotic species. See Exotic organism and
Species, exotic
Expectations
Export base analysis
Exposure
Extensive recreation. See
Effluent Egalitarianism
EIS. See Environmental impact statement Elasticity Element. See Plan element
or Program element
Elites
Elitism. See Pluralism
ELU. See Ecological land unit
Eltonian pyramid. See Pyramid
of numbers
Eminent domain
Enclosing landscape. See
Landscape, enclosing
Endangered species. See
Species, endangered
Endangered Species Act of 1973
Endangered Species Conservation Act
of 1969. See Endangered Species Act
of 1973
Endemic organism
Endemic species: See Endemic organism
Energy resource planning
Engineering solution
Environment
Environmental analysis. See
Environmental impact analysis
Environmental analysis report
Environmental assessment. See
Environmental impact analysis
Environmental corridor
Environmental durability. See Durability
Environmental fragility. See Fragility
Environmental hazard. See
Natural hazard
Environmental impact analysis
Environmental impact assessment. See
Environmental impact analysis
Environmental impact statement
Environmental impact statement, draft
Environmental impact statement, final
Environmental index. See Index
Environmental modification
Environmental planning
Environmental psychology
Environmental quality
Environmental Quality Improvement
Act of 1970
Environmental quality index. See
Environmental quality and Index
6
Flow duration curve Flow resource. See Renewable resource Fluvial Focal landscape. See Landscape, focal Folkway Food chain Food-web Forage Forage acre Forage acre requirement Forage, green Forage production Forage, unavailable Forage yield. See Forage production Forb Forecast Foreground Forest Recreation, extensive
Externalities. See Economic externalities
Extinct or possibly extinct species. See
Species, extinct or possibly extinct
Extractive economics
Extraordinary planning
Extrinsic resource
Farmstead
Fault
Fault, active
Fauna
Feasibility
Feasibility evaluation. See Feasibility
Feature dominated landscape. See
Landscape, feature-dominated
Federal lands
Feed
Feedback loop
Fee simple ownership. See
Ownership, fee simple
Felling
Felling cycle. See Cutting cycle
Felling rotation. See Rotation
Feral species. See Species, feral
Fertility. See Soil fertility
FES. See Environmental impact
statement, final
Filter strip. See Buffer (2)
Final cutting
Final environmental impact statement.
See Environmental impact
statement, final
Final environmental statement. See
Environmental impact
statement, final
Fire break Fire planning Fire, prescribed. See Prescribed burn Fish Fishery Flood Flood, annual Flood basin Flood frequency
Flood peak Flood plain Flood plain zoning. See Zoning, flood plain
Flood stage
Flora
Forest and Rangeland Renewable
Resources Planning Act of 1974
Forest coordinating requirements. See
Coordinating requirements
Forest cover type. See Cover type Forest land Forest land use plan Forest plan. See Forest land use plan Forest type Forest use zoning. See Zoning, forest Forest zoning. See Zoning, forest Fragile lands Fragile or historic lands Fragility Framework studies and assessments Free range Frost heave Fuel break Full use Functional plan. See Functional planning Functional planning Futures Game. See Species, game
Game species. See species, game
Game theory General assumption. See Assumption Generalized soil map. See Soil map, general
General plan. See Comprehensive plan (1)
General purpose local government
General soil map. See Soil map, general
7
Gross residential density. See
Residential density
Ground-lead logging. See Logging,
ground-lead
Groundwater
Groundwater recharge area. See
Groundwater and Recharge
Groundwater table. See Water table
Group. See Social group
Group culture. See Subculture
Group cutting
Guide. See Planning area guide
Guideline
Gully
Gully erosion. See Erosion, gully
Habitat
Hardpan
Hard pesticides. See Persistent pesticides
Harvesting
Hayland
Hazard
Heat island
Heavy grazing. See Grazing, heavy
Heavy metals
Hedging
Herb
Herbage
Herbicide
Herbivore
Heterogeneous
Heterotrophic organism
Hierarchical
Highwall
High-lead logging. See Logging, high-lead
Historical area
Historic and cultural sites
Historic preservation
Historic Sites Act
Holding capacity. See Carrying capacity
Holistic
Homeostasis
Homogeneous
Homogeneous response unit
Hot spoils. For mining usage see Mining
debris, hot
Human and Community Development
System
Human community
Human environment. See Environment,
human
General soil survey. See Soil map, general
and Soil survey
General systems theory
General welfare
Geographic specific
Geological area
Geologic erosion. See Erosion, geologic
Geologic materials
Geomorphic processes
Geomorphic province. See Region,
physiographic
Geomorphology
Goal
Goal programming
Graphic scale
Grazing
Grazing, alternate. See grazing, rotation
Grazing capacity
Grazing capacity, maximum
Grazing, continuous
Grazing, continuous use. See
Grazing, continuous
Grazing, deferred
Grazing, deferred rotation
Grazing district
Grazing, heavy
Grazing, intermittent
Grazing land, native
Grazing, light
Grazing management plan
Grazing, moderate
Grazing permit
Grazing preference
Grazing, premature
Grazing pressure
Grazing privilege
Grazing, proper. See Use, proper
Grazing rate. See Stocking rate
Grazing, rest-rotation
Grazing right
Grazing, rotation
Grazing season
Grazing, selective
Grazing, spot
Grazing system
Grazing trespass
Grazing unit
Great soil group. See Soil great group
Green belt
Green forage. See Forage, green
8
Input-output analysis Inputs Institutional land uses Institutions Institutions, legal Institutions, social Intangible value Intensive recreation. See Recreation, intensive
Interaction matrix
Interdisciplinary approach
Interdisciplinary team
Interest group. See Special interest group
and Pressure Group
Interflow
Intermediate cutting
Intermittent grazing
Intermittent stream
Interspecific competition. See
Competition (2)
Intraspecific competition. See
Competition (2)
Intrazonal soil. See Soil horizon (2)
Intrinsic capability. See Capability
Intrinsic resource
Intrinsic suitability. See Suitability,
intrinsic and Capability
Introduced species. See Species, exotic
Invader. See Invader plant species
Invader plant species
Inventory
Inverse condemnation. See
condemnation, Reverse
Irreplaceable asset. See Unique resource
Irreversible effect
Isochrons
Isohyetal line
Isolated land. See Alienated land
Issue
Jackson turbidity unit. See Turbidity
JTU. See Turbidity
Just compensation
Key area. See Key grazing area
Key facility
Key grazing area
Key management species
Key site
Keystone species. See Species, keystone
Key utilization species
Key winter range. See Range, key winter
Humphrey-Rarick Act. See Forest and
Rangeland Renewable Resource
Planning Act of 1974
Hydraulic mining. See Mining, placer Hydric. See Hygric Hydrograph Hydrologic cycle Hydrology
Hydrosere. See Succession (1) Hygric Ice cream species
Igneous rock. See Rock, igneous Implementation plan Implementation studies Imponderable value. See Intangible value Improvement cutting Income distribution effects Incommensurable values Incompatible uses Increaser. See Increaser plant species Increaser plant species Incrementalism
Incremental planning. See Incrementalism
Index Index, economic Index number. See Index Index species. See Indicator species Indicative planning Indicator, biologic Indicator organism. See Indicator species Indicator plant. See Indicator species Indicator species
Indices. See Index Indifference curve Indifference map Indigenous, species. See Species, indigenous
Indirect effect
Individual distance
Induced output. See Output, induced
Inexhaustible resource. See renewable
resource
Infiltration
Infiltration capacity. See infiltration rate
Infiltration rate
Information system
Infrastructure
Inherent carrying capacity. See Carrying
capacity, ecological and Capability
Inherent suitability. See Capability
9
Land use Land use allocation Land use capability. See Capability Land use constraints Land use feasibility. See Feasibility Land use plan Land use planning
Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act
Land use practice
Land use suitability. See Suitability
Land use survey
Land use type
Large-lot zoning. See Zoning, large-lot
Large scale development
Law, common
Law, natural
LD 50 . See Median lethal dose
Leasable mineral. See Mineral, leasable
Legal institution
Leontief analysis. See Input-output
analysis
Lexicography
Life cycle
Life history
Life quality index. See Quality of life
and Index
Life style
Life zone
Light grazing. See Grazing, light
Limiting factor
Limits
Linear perspective. See
Perspective, linear
Linear programming
Litter
Littoral
Lobbying
Local economic effects
Local government
Local overgrazing
Local species. See Species, local
Locatable mineral. See Mineral, locatable
Locatable mineral deposits. See
Mineral, locatable
Location
Location theory
Lode mining. See Mining, lode
Logged-over forest
Logging
Land Land, alienated Land and Water Conservation Fund Act Land and Water System
Land capability Land capability class Land capability classification Land capability map Land capability subclass Land capability unit Land capability zoning. See Zoning,
land capability
Land classification
Land district
Land evaluation
Land feasibility. See Feasibility
Land form
Landform
Land management
Land, marginal
Land region
Land resource area
Land resource region
Land resource unit
Land sales or development project.
See Project
Landscape
Landscape, canopied
Landscape, cultural
Landscape, detailed
Landscape, enclosing
Landscape, feature-dominated
Landscape, focal
Landscape, panoramic
Landscape planning
Landscape unit
Land sensitivity. See Sensitivity, land
Landslide
Landslide hazard
Landslip. See Landslide
Land stratification. See Stratification
Land subdivision. See Subdivision
Land, submarginal
Land suitability. See Suitability
Land system
Land systems inventory
Land tenure
Land type
Landtype
Land units
10
Mesoclimate
Metamorphic rock. See Rock,
metamorphic
Metropolitan state economic area. See
State economic area (2)
Microclimate
Microeconomics
Microrelief
Microtopography. See Microrelief
Middle distance. See Middleground
Middleground
Middle term planning. See
Mid-range planning
Mid-range planning
Mineral
Mineral, common variety
Mineral cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle
Mineral entry
Mineral entry, withdrawals
Mineral, excepted
Mineralization
Mineral, leasable
Mineral, locatable
Mineral location. See Location
Mineral rights
Mineral soil
Mine tailings
Mining, area strip. See Mining, area surface
Mining, area surface
Mining, auger
Mining claim
Mining claim, patented
Mining claim, valid
Mining, contour surface
Mining debris, hot
Mining debris, sweet
Mining, hydraulic. See Mining, placer
Mining, lode
Mining, open cast. See Mining, open-pit
Mining, open-pit
Mining, pit
Mining, placer
Mining, pre-law strip
Mining reclamation. See Reclamation
Mining refuse
Mining spoils
Mining, strip
Mining, surface
Mining waste. See Mining spoils
Minority groups
Logging, aerial
Logging, cable
Logging, ground-lead
Logging, high-lead
Logging, low-lead. See Logging,
ground-lead
Logging, skyline
Logging, tractor
Long-range planning
Low-lead logging. See Logging,
ground-lead
Macroclimate
Macroeconomics
Majority determinism
Major land use
Management area
Management direction
Management goal. See Goal
Management objective. See Objective
Management policy. See Policy
Management program
Management situation
Management unit
Management zone
Map, operational
Map overlay
Map plan. See Paper plan
Map, planimetric
Marginal land
Market place
Market price. See Market value
Market value
Mass diagram
Mass instability
Mass movement
Mass-wasting
Mast
Master plan
Material cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle
Matrix
Maximax
Maximin
Maximum grazing capacity. See Grazing capacity,
maximum
MBF
Meadow
Median lethal dose
Median tolerance limit
Merit-weights
Mesic
11
Miscellaneous land type Mission Mobility, social. See Social mobility Model Model, deterministic Modeling. See Model Model, probabilistic Model, stochastic. See Model,
probabilistic
Modulation
Mores, social. See Social mores
Morphogenetic region. See Region,
morphogenetic
Morphologic. See Physiographic.
Morphological map
Morphological region. See Region,
morphological
Morphology
Most probable number
MPN. See Most probable number
Muddling through. See Incrementalism
Multidisciplinary team
Multifunctional
Multiple use
Multiple use management
Multiple use planning
Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act
Multiplier
MU-SY. See Multiple Use-Sustained
Yield Act
Myth
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
National economic development
National economic effects
National Environmental Policy Act
National Forest land use plan. See Forest
land use plan
National Forest System
National Historic Landmark
National Historic Preservation Act
of 1966
National Land Use Policy Act. See Land
Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act
National Natural Landmark, See National
Registry of Natural Landmarks
National Register of Historic Places
National Registry of Natural Landmarks
National Trails System Act
Native grazing land. See Grazing
land, native
Native organism
Native pasture. See Pasture, native Native pasture land. See Pasture, native Native species. See Native organism
Natural Natural Area. See Natural Area Preserve and Natural Area, Research
Natural Area Preserve
Natural Area, Research
Natural capability. See Capability
Natural carrying capacity. See Carrying
capacity, ecological
Natural erosion. See Erosion, natural
Natural hazard
Natural hazard lands
Natural history resource
Naturalized species. See Species,
naturalized
Natural law. See Law, natural
Natural preserve. See Natural Area
Preserve and Natural Area, Research
Natural region. See Region, natural
Natural Reserve. See Natural Area
Preserve and Natural Area, Research
Natural resource
Natural resource district. See Soil
conservation district
Natural resource zoning. See Zoning,
natural resource
Natural vegetation
Nature Preserve. See Natural Area
Preserve and Natural Area, Research
Nature Reserve. See Natural Area
Preserve and Natural Area, Research
Needs
Negative declaration. See Negative
declaration statement
Negative declaration statement
Negative easement. See Easement,
negative
Negative feedback. See Feedback loop
Nekton
Neoteric area
NEPA. See National Environmental
Policy Act
Net residential density. See Residential
density
New study area. See Wilderness study area
New wilderness study area. See Wilderness
study area
12
Opinion Opportunity cost Optimum land use Option value Ordinal value Ordinance Ordinary planning Organic soil Orphan banks. See Orphan lands Orphan lands Outdoor recreation. See Recreation (3) Niche Nitrogen cycle Noise Noise pollution Nonapparent easement. See Easement, discontinuous
Nonconforming use. See Use,
nonconforming
Nonconsumptive quality
Nonconsumptive use
Noncontinuous easement. See
Easement, discontinuous
Non-Federal lands
Non-market good valuation
Non-metric scaling
Nonpersistent pesticide
Non-point pollution source. See
Non-point source pollution
Non-point source pollution
Nonrenewable resources
Nonselected inventoried roadless area.
See Nonselected roadless area
Nonselected roadless area
Non-use. See Use, nonNon-utilization. See Use, nonNorm
Normal erosion. See Erosion, normal
Normative
Noxious species
NPS
Nutrient cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle
Nutritive value
OBERS projections
Objective
Observer inferior
Observer normal
Observer superior
OMB requirements
Omnivore
Open cast mining. See Mining, open-pit
Open-cut mining. See Mining, open-pit
Open-pit mining. See Mining, open-pit
Open range
Open space
Open-space zoning. See Zoning,
open-space
Operational map. See Map, operational
Operational planning. See Ordinary
planning and Project planning
Operations research
Outdoor Recreation and
Wilderness System
Output Output, induced Output, primary
Overburden Overgrazing, local Overland flow Overlay map. See map, overlay
Overstocking Overstory Overuse. See Use, over-
Ownership Ownership, fee simple
Ownership rights. See Property rights Palatability Paleontological area Panoramic landscape. See landscape, panoramic
Paper plan Paradigm
Parent material Parent plan Parent rock
Pareto optimum
Part per million Pasture Pasture, annual Pastureland Pasture land, native. See Pasture, native Pasture management Pasture, native Pasture, permanent Pasture, rotation Patch cutting Patented mining claim. See Mining claim, patented
Peak discharge
13
Physiographic site phase Physiographic site type Phytoplankton. See plankton Pit mining. See Mining, pit Pitting Placer claim
Placer mining. See Mining, placer Plan Plan controls Plan element Plan goals. See Goal
Planimetric map. See Map, planimetric Plankton Planned grazing system
Planned unit development. See Cluster development
Planned unit development zoning. See
Zoning, cluster
Planner
Planning
Planning agent
Planning, anticipatory
Planning area
Planning area guide
Planning horizon
Planning level
Planning process. See Planning (1)
Planning-Programming-Budgeting System
Planning unit
Plan objective. See Objective
Plan selection
Plant association. See Plant community
Plant community
Plant cover type. See Cover type
Plant retrogression
Plant succession. See Succession
Plat
Pluralism
Pluralistic society
Plutonic rock. See Rock, igneous (1)
Point pollution source. See Point source
pollution
Point source pollution
Police power
Policy
Policy plan
Political boundary
Political determinism
Political institutions
Pollution
Perched groundwater table. See Water
table, perched
Perched water table. See Water
table, perched
Percolation
Perennial stream
Performance standard zoning. See
Zoning, performance
Performance zoning. See Zoning,
performance
Periodic allowable cut. See
Allowable cut (2)
Periodic allowable yield. See
Allowable cut (2)
Periodic cut. See Allowable cut (2)
Periodic yield. See Allowable cut (2)
Peripheral species. See Species, peripheral
Permanent pasture
Permanent water
Permeability
Permissible cut. See Allowable cut (2)
Permissible soil loss. See Soil-loss
tolerance
Permissible yield. See Allowable cut (2)
Persistent pesticides
Personal distance. See Individual distance
Personal space
Persons at one time
Perspective
Perspective, aerial
Perspective, linear
PERT
Pesticide
pH
Photomontage
Phreatophyte
Physical carrying capacity. See Ecologic
carrying capacity (5)
Physical life
Physical planning
Physiographic
Physiographic climax. See Climax
community (3)
Physiographic determinism
Physiographic production
Physiographic province. See Region,
physiographic
Physiographic region. See Region,
physiographic
Physiographic site class
14
Productivity, primary
Productivity, secondary
Productivity, tertiary
Profile. See Profile view or Soil profile Profile view Program
Program element Program evaluation and review technique See Critical path method
Programming
Prohibition zoning. See Zoning,
prohibition
Project
Projection
Proper grazing. See Use, proper
Proper stocking. See Stocking, proper
Property
Property rights
Proper use. See Use, proper
Proper utilization. See Use, proper
Prospecting
Proxemics
Proxy value
Psychological carrying capacity. See
Carrying capacity, psychological
Public domain
Public involvement
Public land
Public participation. See Public
involvement
PUD. See Cluster development
Pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of energy
Pyramid of food production rates. See
Pyramid of energy
Pyramid of numbers
Quality of life
Questionnaire
Raindrop erosion. See Erosion, splash
Rainfall intensity
Range
Range allotment
Range, annual
Range, closed
Range condition
Range condition class
Range improvement
Range, key winter
Rangeland
Rangeland Grazing System
Pollution criteria. See Criteria
Pollution standard. See Standard
Positive feedback. See Feedback loop
Possibly extinct species. See Species,
recently extinct or possibly extinct
Potential. See Biotic potential
Poverty, absolute
Poverty, relative
Power. See Social power
PPBS. See Planning-ProgrammingBudgeting System
PPM. See Parts per million
Prairie
Pre-existing use. See Use, pre-existing
Preferable species
Preference. See Grazing preference
Pre-law strip mining. See Mining,
pre-law strip
Premature grazing. See Grazing, premature
Prescribed burn
Prescribed cut. See Allowable cut (2)
Prescribed yield. See Allowable cut (2)
Pressure group
Prestige. See Social prestige
Primary conversion
Primary effect. See Direct effect
Primary facility
Primary output. See Output, primary
Primary range. See Range, primary
Primary sewage treatment. See Primary
wastewater treatment
Primary succession. See Succession,
primary
Primary treatment. See Primary
wastewater treatment
Primary wastewater treatment
Prime agricultural land
Primitive Area
Primitive recreation. See Recreation,
primitive
Principles and Standards
Private property
Probabilistic model. See Model,
probabilistic
Process
Producer organism
Producer surplus
Production function
Productivity, abiotic
Productivity, biotic
15
Refuse. See Mining refuse Regeneration Regeneration cutting Region Regional climate Regional economic development Regional plan Regional planning
Region, morphogenetic Region, morphological Region, natural Region, physiographic Register of National Natural Landmarks. See National Registry of Natural
Landmarks
Regolith
Regulatory standard. See Standard
Relative poverty. See Poverty, relative
Release cutting
Relic
Relict
Relief
Remote sensing
Removal cutting
Removal regeneration cutting
Renewable resource
Renewable resource assessment. See
Forest and Rangeland Renewable
Resources Planning Act of 1974
Renewable resource lands
Renewable resource program. See Forest
and Rangeland Renewable Resources
Planning Act of 1974
Reproductive capacity. See Biotic
potential
Reproductive potential. See Biotic
potential
Research Natural Area. See Natural
Area, Research
Reservation and other tribal lands
Reservoir Salvage Act
Residential density
Residential land
Resident species. See Species, resident
Resource
Resource allocation
Resource analysis unit
Resource area. See Land resource area
Resource bearing capacity. See Carrying
capacity, ecological
Range management Range, open Range, planning. See Range management Range, primary
Ranger District multiple use plan Range readiness Range, secondary
Range site Range suitability Range, suitable Range, transitory Range, unsuitable Range use. See Use, degree of Rare and Endangered Species Act. See Endangered Species Act of 1973
Rare species. See Species, rare
RAU. See Resource analysis unit
Raw land
RCD. See Soil conservation district
RCU. See Resource capability unit
Recently extinct species. See Species,
recently extinct or possibly extinct
Recharge
Reclamation
Reclamation, effective
Reconnaissance soil map. See Soil
map, reconnaissance
Reconnaissance soil survey. See Soil map,
reconnaissance and Soil survey
Reconnaissance survey
Recreation
Recreational easement
Recreational experience levels
Recreational experience quality
Recreational quality
Recreational river area
Recreation and park planning
Recreation area, developed
Recreation, concentrated
Recreation day
Recreation, dispersed
Recreation, extensive
Recreation, intensive
Recreation land
Recreation, primitive
Recreation resource
Recursive
Reducer organism. See Decomposer
organism
Reforestation
16
Rotational deferment Rotation grazing. See Grazing, rotation Rotation pasture. See Pasture, rotation RPA. See Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act
Runoff
Sacrifice area
Sacrifice site
Salvage cutting
Sand
Sanitary landfill
Sanitation cutting
Sapling
Satisficing
Scale
Scarcity. See Economic scarcity
SCD. See Soil conservation district
Scenario
Scenic area
Scenic corridor
Scenic easement. See Easement, scenic
Scenic river
Schematic diagram. See Diagrammatic
representation
SCS
Secondary effect. See Indirect effect
Secondary facility
Secondary range
Secondary sewage treatment. See
Secondary wastewater treatment
Secondary succession. See Succession,
secondary
Secondary treatment. See Secondary
wastewater treatment
Secondary use
Secondary wastewater treatment
Second growth
Sediment
Sedimentary rock. See Rock,
sedimentary
Sediment discharge
Sediment load. See Sediment discharge
Seed tree
Seed tree cutting
Seed-tree removal cutting
Seismic
Seismic hazards
Selection cutting. See Selection logging
Selection logging
Selection system
Resource capability unit. See Ecological
land unit (2)
Resource conservation district. See
Soil conservation district
Resource conservation planning
Resource depletion. See Depletion
Resource, extrinsic. See Extrinsic resource
Resource, intrinsic. See Intrinsic resource
Resource Management System
Resource plan
Resource region. See Land resource region
Resource scarcity. See Economic scarcity
Resources Planning Act. See Forest and
Rangeland Renewable Resources
Planning Act
Resource Unit. See Land resource unit
Response form
Response unit. See Homogeneous
response unit and resource
capability unit
Rest-rotation grazing. See Grazing,
rest-rotation
Retention
Revegetation
Revenue-cost analysis. See Cost-revenue
analysis
Reverse condemnation. See
Condemnation, reverse
Right-of-way
Rights, mineral. See Mineral rights
Rights, subsurface. See Mineral rights
Rights surface. See Surface rights
Rill erosion. See Erosion, rill
Riparian
Riparian rights
Risk
Risk, acceptable
Risk, avoidable
Risk cutting
Risk, unacceptable
River basin. See Watershed
River basin plan
River basin planning
Roadless and undeveloped areas
Rock, igneous
Rock, metamorphic
Rock, plutonic. See Rock, igneous (1)
Rock, sedimentary
Role. See Social role
Rotation
17
Social analysis Social benefits Social carrying capacity. See Carrying capacity, psychological
Social class
Social costs
Social determinism
Social distance
Social dynamics
Social engineering
Social equity
Social group
Social inequality
Social institutions. See Institutions, social
Social mobility
Social mores
Social norms
Social planning. See Advocacy planning
Social power
Social prestige
Social primacy. See Social determinism
Social role
Social status
Social well-being
Soft pesticides. See Nonpersistent
pesticides
Soil
Soil and water conservation. See
Conservation (1)
Soil and water conservation district.
See Soil conservation district
Soil association
Soil climate
Soil complex
Soil condition class
Soil conservation district
Soil creep
Soil erosion
Soil family
Soil fertility
Soil great group
Soil horizon
Soil liquefaction
Soil loss equation
Soil loss-tolerance
Soil map
Soil map, detailed
Soil map, detailed reconnaissance
Soil map, general
Soil mapping unit
Selective grazing. See Grazing, selective Selective logging. See Selection logging Selectivity Sense of community. See Human community (1)
Sense of scale
Sensitivity analysis
Sensitivity, land
Sensitivity level. For U.S. Forest Serv.
usage see Visual sensitivity level
Seral
Sere
Servient
Sheet erosion. See Erosion, sheet
Sheet flow. See Overland flow
Shelterwood cutting
Shelterwood system
Short-range planning
Shrink-swell potential
Silt
Silvics
Silviculture
Simulation
Sink
Site
Site capacity
Site class
Site design. See Site planning
Site index
Site plan
Site planning
Site quality
Site region
Site specific
Site type
Skidding
Skyline logging. See Logging, skyline
Skyline yarding. See Logging, skyline
Slash
Slope
Slope gradient. See Slope steepness
Slope orientation
Slope stability
Slope steepness
SMSA. See Standard metropolitan
statistical area
Snag
Snow avalanche
Snow avalanche hazard
Snowslide. See Snow avalanche
18
Spot zoning. See Zoning, spot Stability. See Ecologic stability Stand Standard
Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area Standard of living Stand cutting Standing crop Stand tending. See Intermediate cutting State economic area Station point Status, social. See Social status Status undetermined species. See Specie status undetermined
Steno- organism
Stochastic model. See Model, probabilistic
Stochastic process
Stocking level
Stocking plan
Stocking, proper
Stocking rate
Stock resource. See Nonrenewable
resource
Storie index
Strategic planning
Strategy
Stratification
Stream load
Strip cutting
Strip mining. See Mining, strip
Strip pit
Stumpage value
Subclimax
Subculture
Subdivision
Submarginal land
Suboptimization
Subsidence
Subsoil
Subsurface rights. See Mineral rights
Succession
Succession, primary
Succession, secondary
Suitability
Suitability, inherent. See Capability
Suitability, intrinsic
Suitability, managed. See Suitability
Suitable range
Supplement
Supply schedule
Soil map, reconnaissance Soil order
Soil permeability Soil phase Soil profile Soil region Soil resource inventory. See Soil survey Soil series Soil subgroup Soil survey Soil taxon. See Soil taxonomic unit Soil taxonomic unit Soil texture Soil type Soil variant Soil zone. See Soil horizon Solitude Solum
Special cutting Special exception Special interest area Special interest group Special management zone Species biomass. See Biomass (2) Species diversity Species diversity index Species, edge Species, endangered Species, endemic
Species, exotic Species, feral Species, game
Species, indigenous Species, introduced Species, keystone
Species, local Species, native Species, naturalized Species, peripheral Species, rare Species, recently extinct or possibly extinct
Species, resident
Species, status undetermined
Species, threatened
Species, unique
Splash erosion. See Erosion, splash
Spoil bank
Spoils. See Mining spoils
Spot grazing
19
Thermal pollution Thinning Thixotrophy. See Soil liquefaction Threatened species. See Species, threatened
Surface erosion. See Erosion, surface Surface mining. See Mining, surface Surface restoration. See Reclamation Surface rights Surface soil Surface storage Surface water Suspended load Suspended sediment Suspended solids
Sustained production. See Sustained yield
Sustained yield
Sweet spoils. For mining usage see
Mining debris, sweet
Synergism
System
System planning. See Functional planning
Systems analysis
Tailings. See Mine tailings
Taking
Target
Taxonomy
Technological assessment
Technological change
Technological forecasting. See
Technological assessment
Technological solution
Temporary license. See Temporary permit
Temporary pasture. See Pasture,
supplemental
Temporary permit
Terminal facilities
Term license. See Term permit
Term permit
Terrain
Terrain analysis
Terrain evaluation. See Land evaluation
Terrain factor
Terrain studies
Terrane. See Terrain
Territoriality
Tertiary facility
Tertiary sewage treatment. See Tertiary
wastewater treatment
Tertiary wastewater treatment
T factor. For Soil-erosion-related usages
see Soil loss tolerance
Thermal enrichment. See Thermal
pollution
Threshold level Timber management compartment Timber planning
Timber Resource System
Timber type. See Cover type (1) Time zoning. See Zoning, time
TL m . See Median tolerance limit Tolerance Topography
Topsoil Tractor logging. See Logging, tractor
Trade-offs
Traffic classification. See Traffic
composition
Traffic composition Traffic volume Trampling Transitory range. See Range, transitory Transportation network Transportation planning Transportation services land Travel influence zone Trophic level Turbidity Type conversion Unavailable forage Unacceptable risk. See Risk, unacceptable
Uncertainty
Underprivileged groups. See
Disadvantaged groups
Understocking
Understory
Undesirable species
Undeveloped land
Uneven-age management
Uneven-age silviculture. See Uneven-age
management
Uneven-aged stand
Unique resource
Unique species. See Species, unique
Unit. See Planning unit
Unit plan
Unit planning
20
Visitor day Visual character subtype Visual character type Visual landscape. See View landscape Visual landscape character
Visual quality objective Visual resource Visual subtype. For U.S. Forest Serv. usage see Visual character subtype
Visual sensitivity level
Visual variety class
Visual vulnerability
Wants. See Needs
Warm-water fishery
Water bloom. See Bloom
Water influence zone
Water pollution
Watershed
Watershed management
Watershed protection
Water table
Water table, perched
Watertype. See Landtype
Water year
Water yield
Weather
Weed cutting
Weeding. See Weed cutting
Weighting
Welfare. See General welfare
Wetlands
Wet meadow
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act
Wilderness
Wilderness Act
Wilderness area. See Wilderness (2)
Wilderness study area
Wildfire
Wildland
Wildlife
Wildlife and Fish Habitat System
Wildlife land
Wild river area
Willingness-to-pay
Windfall
Windfirm
Windthrow
Woodland
Working circle
Working group
Universal soil loss equation. See Soil
loss equation
Unpalatable species
Unsuitable range. See Range, unsuitable
Urban and built up land
Urban forestry
Urban fringe. See Urbanized area (1)
Urbanized area
Urban land
Urban planning
Urban sprawl
Use
Use, allowable
Use capability
Use, degree of
Use district
Use factor
Use, feasibility
Use, full
Use, nonUse, nonconforming
Use, overUse, pre-existing
Use, proper
Use suitability
USGS
Utilitarianism
Utility
Utility theory
Utilization. See Use
Util. See Utility theory
Valid mining claim. See Mining
claim, valid
Value added
Value, amenity. See Amenity
Value judgement
Values
Value systems. See Values
Variance
Vegetation cover type. See Cover type
Vegetation type
Veto group
Viewer inferior. See Observer inferior
Viewer normal. See Observer normal
Viewer superior. See Observer superior
View landscape
Virgin forest
Visible area
Visitor carrying capacity. See Carrying
capacity, economic recreation
21
Zoning, exclusive use Zoning, flood plain Zoning, forest Zoning, land capability Zoning, large-lot Zoning, natural resource Zoning, open space Zoning ordinance Zoning, performance Zoning, prohibition Zoning permit Zoning, spot Zoning, time
Zoning variance. See Variance
Zoological area Zooplankton. See Plankton Working plan WRC Xeric Xerosere. See Succession (1) X section. See Cross section Yarding Yarding, skyline
Zonal soil. See Soil horizon (2)
Zoning Zoning, aesthetic Zoning, agricultural Zoning, cluster
Zoning, conservation Zoning, development Zoning, Euclidean 22
A
Abiotic
The nonliving, material (as opposed
to conceptual) components of the environment such as air, rocks, soil (in
general), water, coal, peat, plant litter,
etc. (C.F.S.)
resources while following the WRC
principles and standards.
The "acceptability test" refers to
the workability and viability of the
plan in the sense of acceptance by the
public and compatibility within
known constraints. (U.S. Dep. Agric.
1974)
Abiotic commodity
A broad class of resource products
which includes all material yields of
commercial value whose initial condition was that of a nonliving substance—such as water, steam, minerals,
sand, gravel, petroleum, and natural
gas. (C.F.S.)
Accessibility
1. The relative ease or difficulty of
getting to or from someplace. For
example, a potential land use evaluation procedure may locate areas with
characteristics highly favorable for use
but which are separated from the
nearest road by some impediment to
travel–such as bluffs or a river. Such
an area would be characterized as
having low accessibility. (C.F.S.)
2. Range management usage. The
ease with which animals penetrate and
graze an area. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Abiotic productivity. See Productivity,
abiotic.
Absentee ownership
The holding of property by a person or persons not living or working
on the premises and not regularly present to oversee its use or maintenance.
(Abrams, 1971)
Accessory use. See Secondary use.
Absolute poverty. See Poverty, absolute.
Accelerated erosion. See Erosion, accelerated.
Acculturation
The processes and results of contact
between two or more different cultures.
Generally, acculturation brings
about considerable diffusion of cultural traits in one or more directions.
However, other change-processes also
occur, such as development of new
intercultural roles, the growth of new
customs not found in either culture
and the disintegration of older cultural
forms. (O'Connell 1974)
Acceptable material
Mining reclamation usage. Any soil
material within the waste materials
overlying a mineral deposit to be removed by surface mining which (based
on soil fertility evaluation and other
tests) possesses (or can be readily modified to possess) chemical and physical
properties making it a satisfactory medium for growth of plants common in
the area. (Counc. Agric. Sci. Technol.
1973)
Acquisition of development rights. See
Development rights, acquisition of.
Acceptable risk. See Risk, acceptable.
Acceptability test
U.S. Water Resources Council
(WRC) usage. One of the tests to be
applied in choosing among alternatives
in planning for water and related land
Acquisition of land
Purchase of full land ownership
rights. (C.F.S.)
Also see Property rights.
23
weightings of alternative resource yield
mixes is used as the basis for making
choices.
Maximization of the net social yield
of resource use is either the mix which`
maximizes the sum of the additive
weights, if numerically larger weights
are assigned to more important values,
or minimizes the sum, if relative importance values are assigned on the
basis of rankings, with 1 being the
most important type of yield and successively less important yields being
assigned higher numbers. (C.F.S.)
Acre-foot
A water or sediment volume measurement term, equal to the amount of
water which would cover an area of
one acre to a depth of one foot–i.e.,
43,560. cubic feet or 325,851 gallons.
(E. C. T.)
Action plan. See Activity planning.
Active fault. See Fault, active.
Activity planning (Functional planning)
U.S. Forest Service usage. Under
the "multiple use planning" system
"activity planning" referred to the
functional plans for such items as timber management, recreation, transportation and fire protection. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2111.9, Sept. 1972)
Under the newly adopted "land use
planning" system, activity plans are
called "functional plans". (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 8213, Oct. 1973)
Also see Functional planning.
Administration
Execution of an organizational policy to reach predetermined objectives.
(U.S. Forest Serv. 1971)
Administrative unit
U.S. Forest Service usage. An area
under the administration of one line
officer. Examples include the Forest
Service California Region, a National
Forest, and a Ranger District.
This term includes a single National
Forest or National Grassland or portion thereof, or a Ranger District or
separate portion thereof. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2624.3, Sept., 1970)
Adaptive planning (Contingency planning)
A planning strategy whereby planning efforts are directed toward
meeting temporary crises which arise
in response to changing conditions.
The planner responds to external
forces influencing the area, identifies
potential and current crises, takes advantage of externally developed resources (such as a new Federal program), and attempts to forestall or
solve the crises by creating the proper
response to the pressures generated by
those forces. (After Bolan 1967)
ADT. See Average daily traffic.
Adversary procedure
Involving the Anglo-American system of procedure for conducting civil
trials under strict rules of evidence
with the right of cross examination
and argument, one contestant with his
witnesses striving to prove the facts essential to his case and the other
striving to disprove those facts or to
establish an affirmative defense. (Webster 1963)
This procedure is sometimes advocated as a best method for resolving
(in or out of court) land use planning
issues having or involving readily identified, opposing, antagonistic parties or
interests.
Additive weighting
Decisionmaking method whereby a
number of very different kinds of potential resource yields (whose values
can not be directly compared by conversion to common units of measurement, such as dollars) are assigned
numerical values on the basis of some
more or less objective, common-sense
notion of their relative importance.
The simple summation of the
24
Aesthetics
1. Evaluations and considerations
concerned with the sensory quality of
resources (sight, sound, smell, taste
and touch) and especially with respect
to judgment about their pleasurable
qualities. (C.F.S.)
2. Pertaining to the quality of
human perceptual experience (including sight, sound, smell, touch,
taste, and movement) evoked by phenomena or elements or configurations
of elements in the environment. (L. W.)
Its theoretical strength lies in the
strong presentation and contrasting of
both pro and con interpretations of
what the real facts are for the judging
parties. Its theoretical weaknesses lie
in the distortions of the relative merits
of the opposing cases that may result
from unequal (1) ability to finance
presentations and defenses, (2) access
to information, (3) theatrical and intellectual abilities in making presentations and cross examinations and, (4)
limits on the ability of judging parties
to be truly objective. (C.F.S.)
Aesthetic zoning. See Zoning, aesthetic.
Adverse land use
1. Not in conformity with the
planning or social requirements of the
community. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
2. Use of land which results in soil
erosion rates greater than the soil-loss
tolerance values (which have been
established by use of the soil loss equation). (After W.A.B.)
Affirmative easement. See Easement,
affirmative.
Afforestation
The establishment of a tree crop on
an area from which it has always or
very long been absent. (FordRobertson 1971)
Agricultural land
Land used primarily for the production of farm commodities.
The categories of "agricultural
land" are: cropland and pasture; orchards, groves, vineyards, bush fruits,
and horticultural areas (such as nurseries); feeding operations; and other.
(Anderson, et al. 1972)
Advocacy planning
1. The practice of professional
planners voluntarily helping underprivileged sections of society to give
expression to their hopes for a better
environment. (Ashworth 1973)
2. More generally used in the sense
of planners working directly with socioeconomically defined special interest
groups to translate their aspirations for
a living environment into formal planning goals and a set of procedures for
attaining those goals. Presumably conflicts between different socioeconomic
groups' values are to be resolved by
adversary procedures during which the
arguments for and against all proposals
are presented. (C.F.S.)
Agricultural zoning. See Zoning, agricultural.
Agriculture
1. A broad class of resource uses
which includes all forms of land uses
for the production of biotic crops–
whether animal or plant.
Where large amounts of wildlands
are contained in planning units it is
useful to subdivide agriculture in its
broadest sense into subcategories
which make a distinction between harvesting where little or no management
inputs are made to increase natural
biotic productivity (as in wildland
range, most timber, fish and wildlife
harvesting uses) and a subcategory
Aerial logging. See Logging, aerial.
Aerial perspective. See Perspective, aerial.
Aesthetic recreational carrying capacity.
See Carrying capacity, wildland recreation, definition 5.
25
which includes all desirable biotic productivity which has been significantly
increased over natural rates by management inputs–including such uses as
cultivated and/or irrigated farming and
managed pasture. (C.F.S.)
2. The use of the land for agricultural purposes, including farming,
dairying, pasturage, agriculture, apiaries, horticulture, floriculture, viticulture, and animal and poultry husbandry, and the necessary accessory
uses for packing, processing, treating
or storing the produce; provided, however, that the operation of any such
accessory uses shall be secondary to
that of normal agricultural activities
and provided further that the above
uses shall not include the commercial
feeding of garbage or offal to swine or
other animals. (Eisner 1969)
Although not as well defined, this
concept is comparable to a watershed.
(Sesco, et al. 1973)
Algal bloom (Bloom, Water bloom)
A readily visible, high concentration of algal growth or aggregation of
algae in or on the surface layer of a
body of water. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
Alienated land. See Land, alienated.
All-aged stand. See Uneven-aged stand.
Allocation. See Resource allocation and
Land use allocation.
Allotment. For range management usage
see Range allotment.
Allowable cut (Prescribed cut, Prescribed
yield, Permissible yield, Allowable harvest)
1. The volume of timber which can
be cut, under specified management
plans during a given period. (Sesco, et
al. 1973)
2. The amount of forest productivity that may be harvested, annually
or periodically, from a specified area
over a stated period, in accordance
with the objectives of management.
For timber productivity "allowable
cut" is usually stated in terms of wood
volume, number of stems of certain
size categories or area that can be cut
over.
When "allowable cut" is expressed
as the amount that can be removed on
an annual basis it is termed "annual
(allowable) cut" or "annual (allowable) yield". When expressed as the
amount that can be removed at recurring time periods of greater than a year
it is termed "periodic (allowable) cut"
or "periodic (allowable) yield". The
amount actually prescribed to be cut is
termed the "prescribed yield", "prescribed cut", "permissible yield" or
"permissible cut". (After FordRobertson 1971)
The common usage of all these
terms carries with it an implicit conno-
Air pollution
Any substance or energy form
(heat, light, noise, etc.) which alters
the state of the air from what would
naturally occur.
Especially associated with those altered states whose physical, chemical,
biological, psychological or aesthetic
impacts have been decreed to be undesirable by human value judgments.
(E. C. T.)
Air rights
The right to the use of air space
over property owned by another.
Air rights can be sold or leased.
Through the erection of a platform
over the existing use, additional
"land" can, in effect, be created.
(Abrams 1971)
Air shed
1. A region with common sources
and problems of air pollution; it may
coincide with a watershed or be a
part of a large urban agglomeration.
(Durrenberger 1973)
2. The air encompassing a specific
geographic region.
26
Alternative futures. See Futures.
tation of an overall rate of harvesting
which is in dynamic balance with the
ability of the forest to replace what
has been removed with new wood
growth. (C.F.S.)
Alternative life styles. See Life styles.
Ambient
1. Referring to surrounding, external or unconfined conditions. (C.F.S.)
2. Referring to the quality of some
specific environmental factor–such as
the "ambient" temperature or "ambient" air pollution levels. (C F. S. )
Allowable harvest. See Allowable cut.
Allowable use. For range management
usage see Use, allowable.
Alluvial
Pertaining to material that is transported and deposited by running
water. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Amenity (Amenity value)
l. An object, feature, quality, or
experience that gives pleasure or is
pleasing to the mind or senses. (After
Webster 1963)
2. The pleasurable or aesthetic, as
contrasted with the utilitarian, features of a plan, project, location or resource.
The term amenity is now used so
broadly that it can refer to just about
anything that makes life more agreeable-from a temperate climate to an
intellectual climate. (Abrams 1971)
3. (Amenity value.) Typically used
in land use planning to describe those
resource properties for which market
values (or proxy values) are not or cannot be established. (E. C. T.)
Alluvial land
1. An area of unconsolidated alluvium, generally stratified and varying
widely in texture, ‘recently’ deposited
by streams and subject to frequent
flooding. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
2. U.S. Soil Conservation Service
usage. A miscellaneous land type in
the U.S. Soil Conservation Service
Land Classification System characterized by the deposits and processes
given in definition 1. (C.F.S.)
Alluvial valley floor
The unconsolidated stream-laid deposits holding streams where water
availability is sufficient for subirrigation or flood irrigation agricultural activities. (Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act of 1975)
Anadromous fish
Those species of fish which mature
in the sea, and migrate into streams to
spawn. Salmon, steelhead, and shad
are examples. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1963.
FSM 2605, Sept. 1974)
Alluvium
Material, including clay, silt, sand,
gravel and mud, deposited in riverbeds,
lakes, alluvial fans, valleys and elsewhere by modern streams. (Durrenberger 1973)
Analysis
1. A detailed examination of anything complex in order to understand
its nature or determine its essential
features. (Webster 1963)
2. A separating or breaking up of
any whole into its component parts
for the purpose of examining their nature, function, relationship, etc. (Webster 1963)
3. In mathematics and computer
science, it pertains to solving problems. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
Alternate grazing. See Grazing, rotation.
Alternative
The different means by which objectives or goals can be attained.
They need not be obvious substitutes for one another or perform the
same specific function. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1972B)
27
Annual range. See Range, annual.
Angle of repose (Critical slope)
1. The angle between the horizontal and the maximum slope that a soil
or loose rock fragments assumes
through natural processes. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
2. The maximum slope or angle at
which a material, such as soil or loose
rock, remains stable. (Amer. Geol.
Inst. 1962)
Annual yield (Annual allowable yield).
See Allowable cut, definition 2.
Antagonism
The combined action of two or
more agents that is less than the sum
of the actions of each of the agents
acting separately or independently.
(Webster 1963)
See Synergism for combined actions which are greater than a simple
summation of individual actions.
Animal community. See Biotic community.
Animal month
A month's tenure upon range by
one animal. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Antecedent moisture (Antecedent soil
water)
The degree of wetness of the soil at
the beginning of a runoff period,
expressed as an index or as the total
inch-depth-equivalents of water stored
in the soil. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Animal unit conversion factor
A numerical grazing measurement
figure which allows conversion from
one kind or class of animal to another.
Such a conversion factor is satisfactory in respect to the amount of forage required to maintain an animal,
but may have no application in determining stocking rates for range use for
particular kinds or classes.
Conversion
factors
generally
accepted are: mature cow with calf,
1.0; mature bull, 1.25; weaned calf,
0.6; yearling over 12 months and
under 17 months, 0.7; yearling from
17 to 22 months, 0.75; two-year old
from 22 to 32 months, 0.9; elk, 0.7;
white-tail deer, 0.14; mule deer, 0.2;
mature ewe with lamb, 0.2; ram, 0.2;
weaned wether, 0.17; doe goat with
kid, 0.17; buck, 0.17; weaned wether,
0.14 and grown horse, 1.25. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Antiquities Act (34 Stat. 225)
The Antiquities Act of 1906 provides for the protection of historic or
prehistoric remains, or any object of
antiquity, on Federal lands; establishes
criminal sanctions for unauthorized
destruction or appropriation of
antiquities and authorizes scientific
investigation of antiquities on Federal
lands, subject to permit and regulations. (U. S. Forest Serv., FSM
2361.01, Feb., 1974)
Approximate original contour. See Contour, approximate original.
Aquifer
A geologic formation or structure
that transmits water in sufficient
quantity to supply the needs for a
water development, such as a well.
The term "water-bearing" is sometimes used synonymously with "aquifer" when a stratum furnishes water
for a specific use.
Aquifers are usually saturated
sands, gravel, fractured rock, or cavernous and vesicular rock. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Animal unit month (AUM)
The quantity of forage required by
one mature cow (1000 lbs) or the
equivalent for one month. (Dyrland
1973)
Annual cut. See Allowable cut, definition
2.
Annual flood. See Flood, annual.
Annual pasture. See Pasture, annual.
28
controlled or incompatible development could result in significant damage to the environment, life or property, or the long term public interest
which is of more than local significance.
Three specific classes of critical
areas are defined in the Act– fragile or
historic lands, natural hazard lands,
and renewable resource lands. States
may also add additional types of areas
of critical concern.
Coastal areas are specifically deleted from the definitions of the types
of areas of critical environmental concern. In an amendment relating the
Coastal Zone Management Act to this
Act the words "coastal wetlands,
marshes, and other lands inundated by
the tides, beaches, dunes and significant estuaries" were deleted from the
definition of fragile or historic lands.
A state is free to add these areas to its
state land use program. However, the
state need not do so, but rather can
keep such areas separate and accountable only to the requirements of
the Coastal Zone Management Act.
The Land Use Policy and Planning
Assistance Act did not require the
Federal government to designate such
areas on Federal land. Areas of critical
environmental concern are to be designated only on private, state and Indian lands.
These definitions were purposely
left legally incomplete, in accordance
with the purpose of the Act, to improve the states' ability to devise and
implement their own land use policies.
By further refining these definitions
the states make the first basic policy
decisions concerning the scope and the
thrust of the state land use programs.
For example, major policy decisions
are involved in determining what is a
"shoreline". Is it a shoreline of all
bodies of water or only bodies of a
certain size? Is it limited to relatively
undeveloped shoreline? Is its extent
Archeological area
U.S. Forest Service usage. Sites and
areas which have been designated by
the Forest Service as containing important evidence and remains of the
life of man on earth between the time
of his first appearance and the development of written history.
Archeological remains are the sole
kind of evidence that applies to prehistory and provides information
about all aspects of human life
throughout this period. (After U.S.
Forest Serv., FSM 2361.21, July,
1973)
Areas of this type and all other
special interest areas are identified and
formally classified primarily because
of their recreational values. (W. W.)
Archeological resource
The subclass of cultural history resource planning considerations which
includes all remaining physical evidence of former occupation by now
extinct cultural groups–including skeletons, settlement remains, implements,
artifacts, monuments and inscriptions.
In the United States this subclass is
most easily distinguished from its
more recent counterpart "historical
resources" by establishing a dividing
point in time between the two at the
beginning of movement of settlers into
an area.
This resource class does not include
any of the more recent physical products of contemporary native cultural
groups such as may exist on Indian
reservations. (C.F.S.)
Area guide. For U.S. Forest Service usage
see Planning area guide.
Area of critical environmental concern
(Critical area)
Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for
a National Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act.
Areas, as defined and designated by
states on non-Federal lands, where un-
29
1. Something that is taken for
granted or accepted as true. (After
Webster 1963)
2. A judgmental decision by planners which supplies missing values, relationships or societal preferences for
some informational component necessary for making a decision.
The true nature of such missing information is either unknown or cannot
be readily ascertained within the time
and/or budgetary constraints on the
need for the planning decision. (C.F.S.)
four hundred feet inland of the water,
four hundred yards, or to the extent
of any land the use of which has a
direct impact on the water? What are
"major recreational lands and facilities"? What are "issues of more than
local significance" in the judgment of
the state?
This category is not designed to be
a "no growth" category. Only uncontrolled development is unwanted. The
adjective "incompatible" is present to
make certain that development is to be
allowed which is compatible with the
basic environmental or renewable resources values or safety problems of
the land in question. Multiple use,
when planned, is clearly expected. The
category "Areas of critical environmental concern" has been subdivided
into subcategories to pinpoint the
basic values of the land involved so as
to better provide opportunities for
development which can demonstrate
its compatibility with such values.
(U.S. Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973)
Attitude
1. A learned predisposition manifesting itself in a general state of readiness either to evaluate or to react toward an object or class of objects in
either a favorable or unfavorable manner in a more or less consistent and
characteristic way.
Attitudes are relatively stable and
are comprised of three components: a
cognitive or belief component, an affective or feeling component, and a
conative or action-disposition component.
Although behavior may be a function of attitude at times, attitudes are
not necessarily predictors of behavior
under all circumstances. Consequently,
changes in attitudes do not always recult in changes in behavior. (O'Conner
1974)
2. Behavior representative of
feeling or conviction. A disposition
that is primarily grounded in affect
and emotion and is expressive of opinions rather than beliefs. (Webster
1963)
Also contrast with Belief and Opinion.
Area planning. See Regional planning and
Planning area.
Area reconnaissance
Engineering and surveying usage.
The projection of feasible road routes
on an area topographic map and their
delineation on aerial photographs.
(U.S. Forest Serv., FSH 7140, 1973)
Area strip mining. See Mining, area surface.
Area surface mining. See Mining, area surface.
Aspect (Exposure, Slope orientation)
The compass direction that the
slope of a land surface faces toward
(e.g., north, northwest, south). (After
Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Auger mining. See Mining, auger.
Autotrophic organism
An organism capable of synthesizing organic matter from inorganic
substances. (Geckler, et al. 1963)
In contrast, a heterotrophic organism must have organic matter as its
Association. See Biotic community.
Assumption (Basic assumption, General
assumption)
30
otherwise stated, the period is 1 year.
(U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 7720.5, Oct.,
1970)
source of food. (After Geckler et al.
1963)
Average daily traffic (ADT)
The average 24-hour volume of traffic, being the total volume of traffic
during a stated period divided by the
number of days in that period. Unless
Avoidable risk. See Risk, avoidable.
B
Backcountry
1. An imprecise term often used to
refer to all those portions of wildlands
in which usually there are no permanent, improved or maintained access
roads or operational, fixed facilities–
such as lumber mills, ski resorts, or settlements with permanent residents.
Deteriorating, unused and unoccupied
structures may be present. Those roads
which are present are only usable by
trucks or 4 wheeled-drive vehicles and
typically dead-end in the "backcountry", rather than continue
through it. Any presently active uses
only have primitive facilities–e.g.,
backwoods cabins, base camps, undeveloped campgrounds.
In common usage, primitive and
wilderness areas are backcountry types
of wildlands which show no obvious
evidence of permanent human uses or
occupancy. (After A. W.M.)
2. Any area where the management
objectives stress dispersed, off-road
recreation activities–e.g. hiking, trail
bike riding, hunting, fishing.
"Backcountry" is defined as a recreation area while "wilderness" is defined primarily as a large natural ecosystem, to be experienced as it is. Recreational opportunities can be enhanced or even created in "backcountry", but not in "wilderness".
(Lucas and Stankey 1974)
Azonal soil. See Soil horizon, definition
2.
behind something and providing harmony or contrast. (Webster 1963)
3. The portions of a view between
3 or 5 miles from the observer and as
far into the distance as the eye can
detect the presence of objects.
Skylines or ridge lines against other
land surfaces are the strongest visual
elements of the "background". (After
Litton 1968)
Also see Foreground and Middleground.
Background level (Background, Natural
background level)
The ever-present environmental
conditions or effects above which a
phenomenon must manifest itself in
order to be detected. (U.S. Dep. Def.
1968)
Back lighting
1. A viewing situation in which
sunlight is coming toward the observer
from behind a feature or elements in a
scene. (After Litton 1966)
2. The viewing condition whereby
an observer looks toward the light
source. Solid objects are seen in shadow, silhouette, translucence and/or
with highlighted edges. (After Litton
1966)
Balanced objectivism
An idealistic point of view which
advocates that resource use decision
should be reached in a completely objective manner–not disproportionately
influenced by any special interest
group pressure tactics, nor special consideration for any particular segment
Background
1. The distant part of a scene, landscape, etc. (Webster 1963)
2. Surroundings, especially those
31
2. The area of the cross-section of a
tree stem near its base, generally at
breast height and inclusive of bark.
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
Also see Diameter at breast height
of society (whether priviledged or disadvantaged) nor any of the other planning value determinisms–biophysical,
social, economic.
Balanced objectivism is conceptually unrealistic because it seeks to ignore the political reality of pressure
groups, fails to recognize that issues
(i.e. value conflicts between resource
use audience members) are typically
the impetus for any planning effort
and that most value system clashes
cannot be satisfactorily resolved by rational arguments. (C.F.S.)
Base flow
That portion of the water flowing
in a stream which is due to ground
water seepage into the channel. (After
Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Base map
A map showing certain fundamental information, on which is compiled additional data of specialized nature. (C.F.S.)
Balance of nature (Ecologic stability)
The apparent stability of the population density relationships between
the many species of organisms that
make up a biotic community is often
spoken of as the "balance of nature".
The concept of such a balance has
been severely criticized. It has been
pointed out that the population density of each of the species in a biotic community may fluctuate more
or less widely from time to time (e.g.,
existence of population explosions,
die-offs, epidemics, irregular migrations, succession etc.) and that the
density of no species remains at a
fixed value.
The fluctuations in the numbers of
each species, however, usually have
fairly definite limits. The usage of the
term `balance' includes the recognition
that the population densities of every
species making up a community fluctuate from season to season and from
year to year. (Dice 1952)
Also see Ecologic stability.
Base property. For range management
usage see Commensurate property.
Basic assumption. See Assumption, definition 2.
Basic productivity. See Productivity, primary.
Beach erosion. See Erosion, beach.
Bedload
The sediment in a stream channel
that mainly moves by jumping, sliding
or rolling on or very near the bottom
of the stream. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Bedrock
1. The more or less solid rock is
place either on or beneath the surface
of the earth. It may be soft or hard and
have a smooth or irregular surface.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
2. Any in place, solid rock exposed
at the surface of the earth or overlain
by unconsolidated material. (Amer.
Geol. Inst. 1962)
Bank erosion. See Erosion, bank.
Belief
Basal area
1. Range management usage. The
area of ground surface occupied by the
stem(s) of a range plant, as contrasted
with the full spread of its herbage or
foliage, generally measured at one inch
above soil level. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
An unmeasurable and unprovable
assertion based on one or more fundamental assumptions. (O'Connell 1974)
Also contrast with Attitude and
Opinion.
Benchmark
1. G.A. Hills land evaluation ter32
Benthos
minology. Certain existing examples
or conditions in the field which are usable as established standards or definitions suitable for practical comparison
of his "use capability" classes. This is
the concept by which units of equal
"use capability", but possessing markedly different physical features or appearances, can be recognized as being
equal. (Belknap and Furtado 1967)
2. The use of assessed "land capability" to serve as a basis from which to
estimate the effects on the land of
alternative patterns of management.
(U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2813, Oct.,
1973)
The whole group of bottomdwelling organisms in a water body.
The benthos includes all organisms
which crawl about on the bottom, or
burrow into the bottom or grow at
tached to the bottom.
Those aquatic organisms that are
carried passively by water currents or
the wind are termed plankton and
those that swim actively and may
move long distances for feeding or
breeding purposes nekton. (Southward
1965)
Bequest motive. See Existence value.
Biochemical oxygen demand. See Biological oxygen demand.
Benefit
1. An assessment of the value of
the expected outputs. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1972B)
2. Desirable effects of a plan or action. (P. M. R.)
Also see Social benefits.
Biodegradables
Chemicals or substances which can
be readily utilized as part of the biological food chain and so broken into
their component parts. (E. C. T.)
Benefit-cost analysis (Cost-benefit analysis)
An analytical approach to solving
problems of choice which identifies
for each objective, that alternative
which yields the greatest benefit for a
given cost or that alternative which
produces the required level of benefits
at the lowest cost.
This same analytical process has
also been referred to as cost effectiveness analysis when the benefits of the
alternatives cannot be quantified in
terms of dollars. (U.S. Gen. Account.
Off. 1969)
Also see Cost-effectiveness analysis
and Revenue-cost analysis.
Biogeochemical
1. Relating to the relationship of
the earth's chemicals to plant and animal life.
Relating to the chemical relationships between the geology of an area and
its plant and animal life. (After Webster
1963)
2. As used in land use planning, the
term is more often used to refer, with
one word, to all of the naturally occurring objects, processes and interrelationships in an area than in specific
reference to biogeochemical cycles.
Often used in the sense of the "biogeochemical parameters" of a planning
area or its "biogeochemical environment." In such usages the term "biogeochemical" is approximately equivalent to the natural ecosystem and ecosystem functions of a planning area.
This composite term is based on the
assumption that all naturally occurring
things can be classified as being either
biological, geological or chemical.
(C. F. S. )
Benefit-cost ratio (Cost-benefit ratio)
l. An economic indicator of efficiency, computed by dividing benefits
by costs. Usually, both the benefits
and the costs are discounted so that
the ratio reflects efficiency in terms of
the present value of future benefits
and costs. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off.
1969)
33
Biogeochemical cycle (Mineral cycle, Nutrient cycle, Material cycle)
1. The circulation (cycling) of
chemical elements such as nitrogen,
carbon, etc. in specific pathways from
the abiotic portions of the environment into the organic substances in
the flora and fauna and then back
again into abiotic forms. (After Hanson 1962)
2. All of the mineral and nutrient
cycles involving man, animals, and
plants–such as the carbon cycle, phosphorus cycle, nitrogen cycle, etc. (After Durrenberger 1973)
as recognized by cooperating states
even though it may not be strictly a
herd unit. It may include a drainage
system in the case of fishery management, any unit for species management, or any unit of intensive or special management. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2624.3, Sept., 1970)
Biological oxygen demand (BOD, Biochemical oxygen demand)
A measure of the demand on a
water body's dissolved oxygen supply
which will be generated (over some
specified period of time) by the biological decomposition of various additions of organic wastes.
A high BOD may temporarily, or
permanently, so deplete oxygen in
water as to kill aquatic life. The determination of BOD is perhaps most useful in evaluating impact of wastewater
on the receiving water bodies. (After
Feth 1973)
Also see Chemical oxygen demand.
Bio(geo)c(o)enose. The translated Germanic and Slavic language equivalent
of Ecosystem.
Bio(geo)c(o)enosis. The translated Germanic and Slavic language equivalent
of Ecosystem.
Biogeophysical
A composite term often used to encompass, in one word, reference to all
of the naturally occurring materials,
processes, and relationships operating
in an area.
Often used in the sense of the "biogeophysical parameters" of a planning
area, or its "biogeophysical environment." In such usages the term "biogeophysical" is approximately equivalent to the natural ecosystem and ecosystem functions of a planning area.
The word was constructed on the
assumption that all the natural objects
and processes operating in an area can
be classified as being either biological
(i.e, plant and animal species, ecological interactions, biotic productivity,
etc.) or geological (i.e., rock types, soil
types, geomorphic history, sedimentation, erosion, etc.), or physical (i.e.,
heat, light, electrical, gravitational,
etc.) (C.FS.)
Biological potential. See Biotic potential.
Biological primacy. See Biophysical determinism.
Biologic diversity (Species diversity, Biotic diversity)
In common usage "biologic diversity usually equivalent to specie
diversity–i.e., the number of different
species occurring in some location or
under some condition such as pollution.
"Biologic diversity" may also be used
in a more general sense to refer to the
number of higher taxonomic levels or
types and amounts of organismal relationships in some location or under
some condition–e.g., number of genera, families, orders or phyla present;
or the number of biotic communities
present; or the number of energy,
nutrient, or food chain pathways present. (C.F.S.)
Biological management unit
U.S. Forest Service usage. This term
includes a big-game management unit
Biologic stability. See Ecologic stability.
34
tion of physical principles and methods to biological problems.
Involving biological and physical
factors or considerations. (Webster
1963)
2. In land use planning the term is
used to encompass, in a single word,
reference to all the naturally occurring
objects and processes of an area.
The word is used in such a sense on
the assumption that all naturally occurring things can be classified as being
either living (i.e., biotic) or nonliving
(physical or abiotic). (C.F.S.)
Biomass (Protoplasm mass)
1. The total weight of the living
organisms in some biological system.
(Odum 1971)
2. The total quantity (at a given
time) of living organisms of one or
more species per unit of space (species
biomass), or of all the species in a biotic community (community biomass), (Hanson 1962)
Biome
A major biotic community composed of all the plants and animals and
smaller biotic communities, including
the successional stages of an area. The
smaller communities in a biome possess certain similarities in gross external appearances (e.g., deciduous trees,
coniferous trees, grasslands, savanna/
woodlands) and environmental conditions present (especially gross climatic
conditions–e.g., desert, tropical, temperate, tundra). The North American
Grassland is an example of a named
biome. (Hanson 1962)
While a particular biome is defined
in terms of both the plants and animals present in an area, it is usually
identified and named in terms of the
characteristic vegetation forms. (Webster 1963)
Also see Biome-type.
Biophysical determinism
A particular point of view in planning which advocates making resource
allocation and use decisions primarily
on the basis of the inherent ability of
the resource to sustain use–i.e., an
ecologic carrying capacity concept of
resource capability. Economic and
social system needs and desires are
viewed as being completely subordinated to this inherent capacity of the
resource to meet any and all demands
while maintaining its natural integrity,
condition, and performance of other
natural processes at a desirable level.
Economic and social demands can
only be satisfied within the ecologic
carrying capacity constraints.
The terms "biological primacy,"
"physiographic determinism," and "ecological determinism," in their common
usage, are equivalent to biophysical
determinism–though
"biophysical"
more clearly implies concern with
both physical and biological processes.
(C. F. S. )
Biome-type
A group of similar Biomes–e.g., the
temperate deciduous forest biometype includes all areas dominated by
deciduous forests in eastern Asia,
China, Manchuria, Europe and North
America. (Hanson 1962)
Some other examples are the tropical rain forest biome-type, tropical
savanna biome-type, northern coniferous forest biome-type, temperate
grassland biome-type. (C.F.S.)
Biosphere
That part of the earth's crust,
waters and surrounding air-layer which
is inhabited by living organisms. (Dansereau 1957)
Also see Biome.
Biota
The plants and animals of an area,
taken collectively. (After Webster
1963)
Biophysical
1. Of or relating to the physics of
living organisms. Involving the applica35
of algae) to the most complex ecosystem (as a multistoried rain forest).
(Carpenter 1938)
Biotic
All the natural living organisms in a
planning area and their life processes.
The term "biotic" in land use planning contexts is most commonly used
as a resource classification category
which subdivides the natural resources
and properties into either the biota
and living characteristics or the abiotic
(nonliving) entities and characteristics.
Man and his activities are not usually grouped with either of these categories because he is not considered to
be a part of a planning area's natural
entities or characteristics. This latter
rationale for exclusion becomes tenuous when one encounters situations in
which native cultures have been actively influencing the course of biotic
activity for centuries. (C.F.S.)
3. The word community may be
used for any large or small assemblage,
of organisms. It can be used in an
abstract or a concrete sense. (Daubenmire 1968)
4. An aggregate of organisms which
forms a distinct ecological unit. Such a
unit may be defined in terms of flora,
of fauna, or both.
Community units may be very
large, like the continent-wide coniferous forest, or very small, like the
community of invertebrates and fungi
in a decaying log. The extent of a
community is limited only by the
requirement of a more or less uniform
species composition.
A different community occurs in
each different habitat and environmental unit of larger size, and in fact the
composition and character of the community is an excellent indicator of the
type of environment that is present.
Since "plant communities" and
"animal communities" occur together
in the same habitat and have many
interrelations, the one can scarcely be
considered independently of the other.
Together they make up the "biotic
community". (Kendeigh 1961)
Biotic association. See Biotic community.
Biotic carrying capacity. See Carrying
capacity, ecological, definition 4.
Biotic climax. See Climax community,
definition 3.
Biotic community (Community, Association, Biotic association, Ecologic community)
1. A "biotic community" is any
assemblage of populations living in a
prescribed area or physical habitat; it
is a loosely organized biotic unit to the
extent that it has characteristics additional to its individual species and
populations components. Communities have functional unity, characteristic trophic structures and patterns of
energy flow. They also have taxonomic unity (in that there is a certain
probability that certain species will
occur together) and a relatively uniform appearance. Communities may
be sharply defined. Very frequently,
however, communities blend gradually
into one another. (Odum 1959)
2. A general term used to designate
biotic sociological units of all degrees
from the simplest (as an unrooted mat
Biotic diversity. See Biologic diversity.
Biotic potential (Reproductive potential,
Biologic potential, Reproductive capacity)
The inherent ability of an organism to multiply in the absence of
extrinsic controlling factors.
This potential depends on the number of live, fertile offspring produced
at each reproduction, the frequency of
reproduction and, where sex is involved, the sex ratio. (Soc. Amerc.
For. 1958)
Biotic productivity. See Productivity, biotic.
36
Botanical area
U.S. Forest Service usage. An area
which has been designated by the Forest Service as containing specimens or
group exhibits of plants, plant groups,
and plant communities which are significant because of form, color, occurrences, habitat, location, life history,
arrangement, ecology, environment,
rarity, and/or other features. (U.S.
Forest Serv., FSM 2362.43, July, 1973)
Areas of this type and all other
special interest areas are identified and
formally classified primarily because
of their recreational values. Areas with
similar types of values of scientific
importance are formally classified as
"Research Natural Areas" (See Natural
Area, Research). (W. W.)
Black box
An unknown and often unknowable mechanism or system whose operation is judged solely by observation
of its inputs and outputs. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1972B)
BLM
Bureau of Land Management, U.S.
Department of Interior.
Blob diagram. See Diagrammatic representation.
Block diagram
A drawn illustration of a piece of
land (or water) in three dimensions
which displays the land's surface appearance bounded around the exposed
sides by a cutaway representation of
the underground (underwater) conditions at those edges. Commonly the
land surface is tilted toward the viewer
and image size is not reduced with
distance from viewer–as would truly
occur in accordance with the rules of
perspective.
The end result is a pictorial representation which appears as if a block
of land (or water) had been cut out of
its true surroundings and lifted up so
as to reveal both its surface and underground characteristics. (C.F.S.)
Boundary species. See Species, peripheral.
Browse
1. That part of the current leaf and
twig growth of shrubs, woody vines
and trees available for animal consumption. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
2. Act of consuming browse. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Brush
1. A growth of shrubs or small trees
usually of a type undesirable to livestock or timber management. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
2. A collective term that refers to
stands of vegetation dominated by
shrubby, woody plants or low growing
trees–regardless of whether some of
the components are cropped. (After
Sampson and Jespersen 1963)
Bloom (Algal bloom, Water bloom)
1. A readily visible, concentrated
growth or aggregation of plankton
(plant and/or animal). (Geckler, et al.
1963)
2. A prolific growth of plankton. A
"bloom" of algae may be so dense that
it distinctly colors the water. (Veatch
and Humphreys 1966)
Blow down. See Windthrow.
Brush control
Reduction of brush to: (1) reduce its
competition for space, moisture, light
and nutrients with plant species that are
more preferred by grazing animals, or,
(2) to reduce the wildfire hazard by
reducing the amount of fuel present.
(After Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964
and T.E.A.)
Boardfoot
Lumber or timber measurement
term. The amount of wood contained
in an unfinished board one inch thick,
12 inches long, and 12 inches wide.
(E. C. T.)
BOD. See Biological oxygen demand.
37
2. A strip of undisturbed vegetation
that retards the flow of runoff water,
causing deposition of transported material and thereby reducing sedimentation
of receiving streams. (U.S. Environ.
Prot. Agency 1974)
Also see Environmental corridor.
Brush management
Management and manipulation of
stands of brush by mechanical, chemical, or biological means or by prescribed burning. (After D.E.H. and
B. W.)
Buffer (Buffer strip, Buffer zone, Environmental corridor, Filter strip)
1. A designated land or water area,
along the perimeter of some land use,
whose own use is regulated so as to
resist, absorb or otherwise preclude
unwanted development or other intrusions into areas beyond the buffer. (After
U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Buffer strip. See Buffer.
Buffer zone. See Buffer.
Bulk density
The mass or weight of oven-dry soil
per unit of bulk volume, including air
space. (Hanson 1962)
Bundle of rights. See Property rights.
C
alternative site or resource management
inputs.
G. Angus Hills was probably the
first prominent wildland planner to recognize the importance of retaining
the distinction between these and other
types of evaluations in a process for
land use planning. Hills used the terms
use capability to refer to evaluations
based on a resource's inherent or present condition abilities, use suitability
for evaluations based on potential
management inputs, and use feasibility
to refer to usability potential ratings
based on an evaluation of offsite factors–such as accessibility present and
forecasted socioeconomic conditions,
technological developments, etc. (Belknap and Furtado 1967; Hills, Love and
Lacate 1970)
Perhaps even earlier than Hills, the
U.S. Soil Conservation Service began
widespread use of its land capability
classification system (Wohletz and
Dolder 1952) which also uses "capability" evaluation in the sense of an inherent ability rating.
To avoid confusion in the future we
recommend that the Hills and Soil Conservation Service usages be recognized
as having established the precedent for
Cable. logging. See Logging, Cable.
Calefaction. See Thermal pollution.
Canopied landscape. See Landscape, canopied.
Capability (Inherent capability, Inherent
carrying capacity, Natural capability,
Natural carrying capacity, Physical
carrying capacity, Resource bearing
capacity, Site capacity)
1. In land use planning literature the
widely used terms "suitability" and
"capability" (whether alone or accompanied by various modifiers) are often
used interchangeably to refer to ratings
based on two basically different evaluation procedures. One basic type of evaluation procedure is the rating of use or
productivity potentials based on the
present state of the resource. This type
of rating therefore is an evaluation
based on the resource's inherent, natural or intrinsic ability to provide for
use and includes that existing ability
which is the result of past alterations or
current management practices. A second basic type of evaluation procedure
rates the potential ability of a resource
to produce goods or services on the
basis of the maximum possible outputs
for a given type and level of future,
38
tion consisting of property from which
an income is derived, expressed in terms
of money. Popularly, the term is frequently used interchangeably with capital good. (Sloan 1961)
the proper usage of these terms, thus
"capability" should be used when referring to evaluations for usability based
on the present state of the resource and
"suitability" should only be used for
evaluations based on assumptions about
potential usability or productivity if
specified management alterations were
to be made–such as drainage improvements, added irrigation and/or fertilization, etc.
Better yet, both terms should be
accompanied by modifiers which make
it absolutely clear just what type of an
evaluation procedure is implied by the
rating given. Thus the word capability
should always be presented as "inherent
capability", "intrinsic capability", or
"natural capability". Similarly "suitability" could be referred to as "managed suitability". (C.F.S.)
2. The intrinsic ability (i.e., ability
unaltered by any level of potential,
future human management activities or
other type of alternation) to support a
given use type, intensity, and quality on
a sustained basis (i.e., without significant resource deterioration over the
time span of renewing biogeochemical
cycles). (C.F.S.)
Capital good
A material economic good other
than land which is used for the production of wealth. Capital goods are created by man., Capital goods are sometimes called "intermediate goods"
because of their function of serving
consumers only indirectly in satisfaction of their wants. (After Sloan 1961)
Carbon cycle
1. The sequence of transformation
undergone by carbon utilized by organisms wherein it is used by one organism,
later liberated upon the death and
decomposition of the organism, and
returned to its original state to be reused by another organism. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
2. The name given to the biogeochemical cycle involving the carbon
dioxide of the atmosphere in the metabolism of organisms. The cycle begins
with: (1) the photosynthesis of carbohydrates by plant chlorophyll from
atmospheric carbon dioxide and water.
(2) These carbohydrates are then transformed by plants and animals into the
structures and energy for their growth
and life processes. (3) The carbon
dioxide is returned to the atmosphere
by the excreta and decay of their
bodies. This third step is aided by- the
action of bacteria and other microorganisms and by combustion. The
carbon cycle operates concurrently
with the nitrogen cycle and the oxygen
cycle. (Marsh 1964)
Capability, inherent. See Capability.
Capability, intrinsic. See Capability.
Capability, natural. See Capability.
Capacity, highway
The maximum number of vehicles
which has a reasonable expectation of
passing over a given section of a lane or a
roadway in one direction (or in both
directions for a two-lane or a three-lane
highway) during a given period of time
under prevailing roadway and traffic
conditions. In expressing capacity it is
essential to state the "prevailing roadway and traffic conditions" under
which the capacity is applicable.
(Highw. Res. Board 1965)
Capital
Cardinal value (Cardinal unit)
The numerical values assigned to a
variable which relate directly with some
physical property (height, weight, etc.).
Each number has some meaning by itself about the measured property.
(E.C.T.) Also see Ordinal values.
One of the major factors of produc-
39
Carnivore
An organism (plant or animal) that
feeds on animal substances. (After
Hanson 1962)
Also see Herbivore, Omnivore, and
Detrivore for the other types in this
classification of organisms by their
dominant eating styles.
be made before ecological carrying
capacity can be operational for setting ting levels of use. (C.F.S.)
4. "Biotic carrying capacity" used
in a recreational context. That level of
development and use beyond which
the site's capacity to provide a sustained high level of satisfaction
becomes impaired due to severe
damage. (La Page 1963)
5. "Physical carrying capacity".
The effect of use on the nonliving
aspects of the habitat–e.g., the ability
of a particular terrain to resist trail erosion, but also the ability of the terrain
to absorb trails, roads, and other manmade objects. (Conserv. Found. 1972)
Carrying capacity (Holding capacity)
All definitions of the concept
"carrying capacity" (as it relates to
wildland planning) must involve specification of some (1) level of use (2
which will allow for the perpetual
maintenance (3) of some level of environmental quality (4) within some
management objective level set with
respect to the cost of maintenance
resource quality (5) at a level which
will provide resource user satisfaction.
(After G.P.)
Carrying capacity, economic recreation
(Visitor carrying capacity)
The econometrically determined
number of people which maximizes total social benefit; the number of recreationists represented by the high point
on a cumulative benefit curve–with
some measure of "enjoyment" on the
vertical axis and the number of recreationists on the horizontal axis. At this
high point on the curve, no further
overall "enjoyment" is gained by adding other recreationists. Rather, adding still more results in a net decline
in the totaled "enjoyment" of all recreationists. (After Alldredge 1972)
Carrying capacity, aesthetic recreational.
See Carrying capacity, wildland, recreation, definition 5.
Carrying capacity, Ecological (Inherent
capability, Inherent carrying capacity,
Natural capability, Natural carrying
capacity, Physical carrying capacity,
Resource bearing capacity, Site capacity, Biotic carrying capacity)
1. The number (or weight) of
organisms of a given species and
quality that can survive in, without
causing deterioration of, a given ecosystem through the least favorable environmental conditions that occur within a stated interval of time. (FordRobertson 1971)
2. The limit of a natural ecosystem's ability to sustain user impacts.
(After Conservation Foundation 1972)
3. Strictly speaking, any level of
use greater than zero will always result
in some alteration of natural environments, and therefore, it is not useful
to define ecological carrying capacity
in "no change" terms. Some decision
about what is an acceptable amount of
alteration of natural values must first
Carrying capacity, facility
1. The number of people which
installed facilities have been engineered
to handle. (After Alldredge 1972)
2. The maximum capacity of the
developments and facilities–e.g. number of rooms, etc. (After Sudia and
Simpson 1972)
3. The number of users which facilities are able to (or designed to)
support, within some acceptable rate
for facilities deterioration (in relation
to amount or intensity of use) and at
some level of facilities maintenance–
while providing a desirable level of service for users. (C.F.S.)
40
Carrying capacity, natural. See Carrying
capacity, ecological.
time interval and which is developed at
a certain level without causing excessive
damage to the physical environment or
the experience for the visitor. (After
Lime and Stan key 1971)
3. The number of persons for which
an area can provide recreation while
maintaining the conditions that originally made it desirable for that purpose. (After Sudia and Simpson 1972)
4. The level of use at which the
natural resources do not deteriorate
faster than they can be restored by a
reasonable level of maintenance ("optimal carrying capacity" definition).
(After Sudia and Simpson 1972)
5. La Page's "aesthetic recreational
carrying capacity". La Page considered
"recreational carrying capacity" to
have an "aesthetic recreational carrying
capacity" and a "biotic carrying capacity" component.
His "aesthetic recreational carrying
capacity" is that level of development
and use beyond which measurable
decreases in average satisfaction occur
as a direct result of gross numbers of
recreationists. (La Page 1963)
For La Page's "biotic carrying capacity" see carrying capacity, ecological, definition 4.
6. The substitution of the terms
"use limits" or "use-intensity-quality
relationships" in place of "recreation
carrying capacity" and "social carrying
capacity" when it is being used in the
latter sense has been advocated. The
argument is that rather than having a
single capacity, which is seen to be
implied by using the term "carrying
capacity," each site has a whole range of
potential capacities, each providing different consequences. Therefore, even if
it can be shown how areas and experiences will change with various levels of
use and various management practices,
someone must still decide what changes
are acceptable. Defining what is accepttable is a value choice rather than a
technical issue. (After Wagar 1974)
Carrying capacity, optimal. See Carrying
capacity, wildland, recreation, definition 4.
Carrying capacity, physical. See Carrying
capacity, ecological.
Carrying capacity, psychological
The level of use beyond which the
sensory and conceptual quality of the
resource begins to deteriorate for some
particular user group because of an unacceptable amount of contact with
other similar users or proximity to
types of use incompatible with their
mental image of an acceptable quality
resource environment.
The notion of psychological carrying
capacity essentially revolves about the
conceptual level of utilization at which
resource users (especially wildland recreationists) begin to feel that the number of simultaneous users has become so
great that the resource is too crowded
to satisfy their demands. (C.F.S.)
Carrying capacity, range
In its true sense, the maximum number of individual animals that can survive the greatest period of stress each
year on a given land area. It does not
refer to sustained yield.
In range management, the term has
become erroneously synonymous with
grazing capacity. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Carrying capacity, social. See Carrying capacity, psychological.
Carrying capacity, visitor. See Carrying
capacity, economic recreation.
Carrying capacity, wildland recreation
1. The level of recreational use an
area can withstand while providing a
sustained quality of recreation. (After
Wagar 1964)
2. The character of use that can be
supported by an area over a specified
41
Characteristic landscape. For U.S. Forest
Service usage see Visual landscape charter.
Carrying capacity, wildlife
1. The number of animals of a given
species that a habitat supports, measured at the low stage of any annual
population cycle. (After Allen 1958)
2. The upper limit of population
growth beyond which no major increase
can occur. (After Odum 1959)
3. The number of animals that a
habitat can maintain in a healthy, vigorous condition. (After Dasmann 1945)
4. The level at which a population is
normally held by hunting and predation. (After Errington 1945)
5. The level of population above
which intraspecific tolerance permits
no further increase. (After Leopold
1933)
Character subtype. For U.S. Forest Service
usage see Visual character subtype.
Character type. For U.S. Forest Service
usage see Visual character type.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
A measure of the amount of a water
body's dissolved oxygen supply that
would be used up in completely oxidizing added inorganic oxidizable compounds–such as in the oxidation of
ammonia to nitrate. (After Feth 1973
and Wash. State Univ., Coop. Ext.
Serv. 1972)
Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
Tests can only measure the biodegradable fraction of the total potential dissolved oxygen consumption by added
wastes; however, COD tests may be
used to measure the oxygen demand
created by toxic organic or inorganic
compounds as well as by biodegradable
substances. A standard COD test, therefore, can be used to evaluate many
industrial type wastes not readily analyzed for water quality factors by the
sewage-oriented BOD test. (After
McGauhey 1968)
Also see Biological oxygen demand.
Catchment area. See Watershed.
Catchment basin. See Watershed.
Census tract
U.S. Bureau of the Census usage.
Census tracts are small areas into which
large cities and adjacent areas have been
divided for statistical purposes. In each
standard metropolitan statistical area,
tracts were established by the Bureau of
the Census in cooperation with a local
committee. Tracts were generally designed to be relatively uniform with
respect to population characteristics,
economic status, and living conditions.
The average tract has about 4,000 residents. Tract boundaries are established
with the intention of being maintained
over a long time so that comparisons
may be made from census to census.
(U.S. Bur. of the Census 1971)
Choropleth map
A map showing discrete areas, such
as counties, soil units, vegetation types.
These units are considered to be uniform with respect to the statistics collected within them. (Amidon 1972)
Central city. See Urbanized area.
City planning (Urban planning)
The process of guiding growth and
change in urban areas.
"City planning" aims at fulfilling
certain social and economic objectives
which go beyond the physical form and
arrangement of the parts of the physical
urban environment. (Howard 1961)
CEQ
Council on Environmental Quality,
U.S. Presidential.
Channel storage
The volume of water which is temporarily present (stored) in a stream
channel and its flood plain while enroute to an outlet. (After Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Claim. See Mining claim.
42
than 45 percent sand-sized particles.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
4. Material behavior usage. A natural, inorganic material with plastic
properties. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
5. Engineering usage. A fine-grained
soil that has a high plasticity index in
relation to the amount of water it can
hold without losing its plasticity. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1962)
Classification
1. The forming, sorting, apportioning, grouping, or dividing of objects into
classes to form an ordered arrangement
of items having a defined range of characteristics. Classification systems may
be taxonomic, mathematical, or other
types, depending upon the purpose to
be served. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. The ordering or arrangement of
objects into groups or sets on the basis
of their relationships. These relationships can be based on observable or
inferred properties.
The paramount purpose of classification is to describe the structure and
relationships of the constituent objects
to each other and to similar objects, and
to simplify these relationships in such a
way that general statements can be
made about classes of objects.
"Natural classification" schemes
attempt to reflect the natural processes
that have led to the observed arrangement of objects. From such an ordering
it is hoped to learn about the laws governing the behavior of these objects.
All classifications aim to achieve
economy of memory and an ease of
manipulation. (After Sokal 1974)
Also see Taxonomy.
Cleaning cut
Timber management usage. Cleaning is applied to stands not past the
sapling stage. Usually, if otherwise
practical, this is best done as soon as
the stand has passed browse height,
but not until the removal cut has been
completed.
At this stage, genetic differences are
likely to be easily recognized; opportunity to improve species composition
is at a maximum; and not much production loss to unusable stems will
have to be accumulated–with the possible exception of areas where rainfall
exceeds vegetative needs. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2471, June, 1973)
Clearcutting
1. Removal of virtually all the
trees, large or small, in a stand in one
cutting operation.
This is the meaning of "clearcutting" in its narrowest sense and in
its usage as a technical term of silviculture. The true clearcutting method
lays bare the area treated and leads to
the establishment of an even-aged
stand. (Smith 1962)
2. The term "clearcutting" is also
loosely applied to any type of cutting
in which all the merchantable timber
is cut and all trees that cannot be utilized profitably are left.
This broader usage of the term is
technically incorrect but is so common
that it is sometimes prudent to speak
of clearcutting in the silvicultural
method sense as "complete clearcutting". (Smith 1962)
Also see Cutting and Logging, defi-
Class, social. See Social class.
Clay
1. "Particle size" usage. Rock type
particles which are less than 0.002 (or
0.005 or 0.074) millimeters in equivalent diameter. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970 and Amer. Geol. Inst.
1962)
2. "Clay Mineral." Naturally occurring inorganic, crystalline minerals
composed of fragments of hydrous
aluminum silicate minerals found in
soil and other earthy deposits. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
3. "Soil texture" usage. A soil texture type consisting of 40 percent or
more clay-sized particles, less than 40
percent silt-sized particles and less
43
nition 2, for the distinction between
Silviculture and Harvesting.
ridge.
An "edaphic climax" is a "climax"
determined largely by the nature of
the soil conditions–e.g., a saltgrass
marsh in a poorly drained, alkaline depression in grassland.
A "biotic climax" is a "climax"
caused by a permanent influence or
combination of influences caused by
one or more kinds of organisms, including man. (Hanson 1962)
4. That point in the development
of a community when the changes that
normally occur in ecological succession cease. The main biotic components are not overthrown by new invaders. No new species become dominant in the biotic community. The
environmental conditions of the habitat are relatively stabilized. (After
Woodbury 1954)
Also see Succession.
Clearcutting system
A silvicultural system in which all
the trees are cleared over a considerable area at one time. Regeneration is
generally artificial, but natural regeneration is sometimes possible by seeding
from the air, from adjacent stands, or
from seed and/or advance growth already on the ground. (Ford-Robertson
1971).
Also see Silviculture or Logging for
the distinction between these terms
and Harvesting and Cutting.
Climate
The average course or condition of
the weather at a particular place over a
period of many years as exhibited in
absolute extremes, means, ranges and
seasonal distribution of air temperature, wind velocity and direction, precipitation type, duration and amount,
humidity and other weather elements.
(After Webster 1963)
Also contrast with Weather.
Climax species
The members (or a member of)
those plant and animal species present
in a climax community.
Frequently used in the sense of
species usually present (or at least
common) only as members of a climax
community. (C.F.S.)
Climax community (Climax)
1. The final or stable biotic community in a developmental series
(sere); it is self-perpetuating and in
equilibrium with the physical habitat.
(Odum 1971)
2. The plant community which, in
a given area, perpetuates itself indefinitely on the best-drained land form
and the most differentiated (welldeveloped) soil. (Dansereau 1957)
3. The kind of biotic community
capable of self perpetuation under the
prevailing climatic and soil conditions;
the terminal stage of a sere under the
prevailing conditions.
A "physiographic climax" is a "climax" determined in large measure by
the nature of the topography or soil–
e.g., a particular type of forest may be
the "climax" on a north-facing slope
while a grassland may be the "climax"
on the south-facing slope of the same
Climax vegetation
1. The group of plant species
which is the culminating stage in plant
succession for a given set of environmental conditions. (C.F.S.)
2. A relatively stable type of vegetation in equilibrium with its environment and with good self perpetuating
reproduction of the dominant plant
species. (After Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
3. The aggregate pattern or complex of climax plant communities
(which corresponds to the pattern of
changing environmental factors and
their values) over an area. (After Hanson 1962)
Also see Climax species.
Closed area
Range management usage. Any area
44
the Great Lakes area, the waters within the territorial jurisdiction of the
United States consisting of the Great
Lakes, their connecting waters, harbors, roadsteads, and estuary-type
areas such as bays, shallows, and
marshes and (2) in other areas, those
waters, adjacent to the shorelines,
which contain a measurable quantity
or percentage of sea water, including,
but not limited to, sounds, bays,
lagoons, bayous, ponds, and estuaries.
(Coastal Zone Manage. Act 1972)
closed for management purposes for
certain types of use. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Closed range. See Range, closed.
Cluster development (Planned unit development, PUD)
1. The grouping of the structures
in a housing development more tightly
together and using the open land thus
saved for common greens and squares.
(Whyte 1964)
2. Residential development in
which the subdivision and zoning regulations apply to the project as a whole
rather than to its individual lots (as in
most tract housing). Densities are calculated on a project-wide basis, permitting among other things the clustering of houses and provision of common open space.
Potential advantages include: an improved site design free of standard lot
pattern limitations; lower street and
utility costs made possible by reduced
frontages; more useful open space due
to reduction or elimination of the unusable side and front yards required by
traditional zoning; greater flexibility in
the mixing of residential building
types; the possibility through its greater freedom in design of increasing
over-all densities without loss of essential amenities. (Abrams 1971)
Coastal zone
Coastal Zone Management Act
usage. The coastal waters (including
the lands therein and thereunder) and
the adjacent shorelands (including the
waters therein and thereunder), strongly influenced by each other and in
proximity to the shorelines of the
several coastal states, including transitional and intertidal areas, salt
marshes, wetlands, and beaches. The
zone extends, in Great Lakes waters,
to the international boundary between
the United States and Canada and, in
other areas, seaward to the outer limit
of the United States territorial sea.
The zone extends inland from the
shorelines only to the extent necessary
to control shorelands, the uses of
which have a direct and significant impact on the coastal waters. Excluded
from the coastal zone are lands the use
of which is by law subject solely to the
discretion of or which is held in trust
by the Federal government, its officers
or agents. (Coastal Zone Manage. Act
1972)
Cluster zoning. See Zoning, cluster.
Coastal state
Coastal Zone Management Act
usage. A state of the United States in,
or bordering on, the Atlantic, Pacific,
or Arctic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico,
Long Island Sound, or one or more of
the Great Lakes. For the purposes of
this title, the term also includes Puerto
Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and
American Samoa. (Coastal Zone Manage. Act 1972)
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972
(P.L. 92-583) 86 Stat. 1280)
Finds and declares that it is the
national policy (A) to preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to
restore or enhance, the resources of the
Nation's coastal zone for this and
succeeding generations, (B) to encourage and assist the states to exercise
effectively their responsibilities in the
Coastal waters
Coastal Zone Management Act
usage. "Coastal waters" means (1) in
45
(Durrenberger 1973)
coastal zone through the development
and implementation of management
programs to achieve wise use of the
land and water resources of the coastal
zone giving full consideration to ecological, cultural, historic, and esthetic
values as well as to needs for economic
development, (C) for all Federal agencies engaged in programs affecting the
coastal zone to cooperate and participate with state and local governments
and regional agencies in effectuating
the purposes of this title, and (D) to
encourage the participation of the
public, of Federal, state, and local
governments and of regional agencies
in the development of coastal zone
management programs. With respect to
implementation of such management
programs, it is the national policy to
encourage cooperation among the
various state and regional agencies including establishment of interstate and
regional agreements, cooperative procedures, and joint action particularly
regarding environmental problems.
Authorizes the Secretary of Commerce to make annual grants to any
coastal state for the purpose of assisting in the development of a management program for the land and water
resources of its coastal zone. (Coastal
Zone Manage. Act 1972)
Commensurability
Range management usage. Capacity
of a permittee's base ranch property to
support permitted livestock during the
period such livestock are off public
land. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Commensurable values
1. Having a common unit of measure. (Webster 1963)
2. The state of being proportionate. (Webster 1963)
3. Resource yields which can be
objectively compared because their
values can be expressed quantitatively
on the same measurement scale (such
as in dollars, pounds, or cubic feet).
(C. F. S. )
Commensurate property (Base property)
Range management usage. Land or
controlled livestock water which qualifies a person for a grazing preference
on other land, either public or private.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Commercial/industrial land
Land used primarily for buying,
selling, and processing goods and services and including sites for stores, factories, shopping centers, and industrial
parks, together with necessary adjacent facilities such as underground and
surface utilities, access streets and alleys, and other servicing structures,
appurtenances, and measures. (U.S.
Soil Conserv. Serv. 1970)
COD. See Chemical oxygen demand.
Cold-water fishery
Stream and lake waters which support predominantly cold-water species
of game or food fishes, which have
maximum, sustained water temperature tolerances of about 70 degrees
Fahrenheit in the summer. Salmon,
trout, grayling, and northern pike are
examples. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
2605, Sept., 1974)
Commodity
A transportable resource product
with commercial value; all resource
products which are articles of commerce. (C.F.S.)
Common law. See Law, common.
Common variety mineral. See Mineral,
common variety.
Colluvium
Mixed deposits of soil material and
rock fragments accumulated near the
base of steep slopes through soil creep,
landslides, and local surface runoff.
Community. See Biotic community or
Human community.
Community biomass. See Biomass, definition 2.
46
This is a means of strengthening
zoning by providing compensation for
controlled land. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor
Recreation 1974)
Community development
Deliberate efforts to foster sociocultural change on the community
level, change of a kind seen as valuable
or progressive.
Generally, the goals of development
include an improved quality of life
through increases in resources, skills,
facilities, technology, social competence, and social power. (O'Connell
1974)
Competition (Ecologic competition)
1. The general struggle for existence (and dominance) in which living
organisms compete for a limited supply of the necessities of life. (Carpenter 1938, citing Yapp 1925)
2. The condition of rivalry
between organisms that exists when a
number of organisms (of the same or
of different species) utilize common
resources that are in short supply; or,
if the resources are not in short supply, the condition that occurs when
the organisms seeking that resource
nevertheless harm one or other in the
process. (Birch 1957)
Competition typically results in ultimate elimination of the less effective
organism from that particular ecological niche. (Webster 1963)
Competition may be interspecific
(i.e., between two or more different
species) or intraspecific (i.e., between
numbers of the same species). (Krebs
1972)
Competition is usually confined to
closely related species which eat the
same types of food and live in the
same sorts of places. (Krebs 1972)
Community services land
Land used primarily for schools,
hospitals, churches, libraries, sewerage
and water treatment plants, sanitary
land fills, public parking areas, and
other community service facilities, together with necessary adjacent facilities such as underground and surface
utilities, access streets and alleys, and
other servicing structures, appurtenances and measures. (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1970)
Compartment. See Timber management
compartment.
Compatible uses
Land uses which can exist together,
so that no one use improves nor detracts from the quality of another. In
practice this definition is usually relaxed to include uses which can coexist and conflict only slightly.
(E. C. T.)
Also see Incompatible uses, Conflicting uses and Complementary
uses.
Complement
To mutually supply each other's
lack. (A design for a site complex
which indicates the specific locations
of buildings, parking lots, etc. complements the management plans which do
not contain this information). (After
U.S. Forest Serv. 1971)
The distinction between complements and supplements of plans is that
complements and the larger plan to
which they relate can be viewed as
being mutual supplemental because
each supplies something which the
other lacks; however, plan supplements do not gain anything themselves
Compensable regulation
Land use regulations which, while
restricting the uses which may be
made of land, compensate the property owner for any decrease in the
value of his land caused by the regulations.
The property is first valued as in a
condemnation proceeding. Once a fair
value is ascertained and agreed upon,
the state guarantees the owner that
value for his land. The owner then
agrees to place the land under regulations controlling its use.
47
by their addition to a plan. (C.F.S.)
Also see Supplement.
changeably with the terms "general
plan" and "city plan" and is probably
most familiarly or notoriously known
as a "master plan". (Abrams 1971)
2. Comprehensive planning–the
process of designing futures not only
of three dimensional accomplishments
in space but also social mechanisms
such as laws, regulations, policies and
forms of organization. (Branch 1967)
When used in this sense, comprehensive planning is conceptually similar to extraordinary planning.
3. U.S. Bureau of Land Management usage. "Comprehensive Plan" is
intended to include the following: (1)
a land plan map which would show the
location of all Bureau land, the interrelationship between all of the uses
proposed on said land, the circulation
system required to serve the uses existing or proposed, and the relationship
between the Bureau land and nonBureau land within a reasonable area
of influence. (2) Land use policies related to the resources management,
conservation and disposal of public
lands. (3) Land use policies related to
the activities and the regulations thereof as they affect portions of the Bureau land. (4) Implementation schedules which establish priorities for Bureau programs in management, mapping, engineering and public works. (5)
A program for the coordination of
land use and activity programs with
Federal, state, regional, county and
other local agencies as well as with private applicants. (Eisner 1969)
4. "Comprehensive planning" includes the following, to the extent
directly related to area needs or needs
of a unit of general purpose local government: (A) preparation, as a guide
for governmental policies and action,
of general plans with respect to (1) the
pattern and intensity of land use, (2)
the provision of public facilities (including transportation facilities) and
other government services, and (3) the
Complementary uses
Land uses, each of which is im
proved in quality or quantity by the
other uses existing with it in the same
area. (E. C. T.)
Also see Incompatible uses, Conflicting uses and Compatible uses.
Complete clearcutting. See Clearcutting,
definition 2.
Completeness test
U.S. Water Resources Council
(WRC) usage. One of the tests to be
applied in choosing among alternatives
in planning for water and related land
resources while following the WRC
principles and standards.
The "completeness test" requires
that an alternative plan provide and account for all necessary investments or
other actions that will be needed to
assure the full realization of the contributions provided by the plan to the
components of the objectives specified
for the planning area. (U.S. Dept. of
Agri. 19 74)
Complete protection
Range management usage. The
withdrawal of all grazing animals from
a given range. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Comprehensive development plan. See
Comprehensive plan.
Comprehensive plan (Comprehensive
development plan, General plan, Master plan)
1. City planning usage. An official
document adopted by a local government setting forth its general policies
regarding the long-term physical development of a city or other area. The
plan should be broad enough to include all aspects of a development or
redevelopment program as distinguished from sporadic, isolated, or
piecemeal planning. It is used inter-
48
effective development and utilization
of human and natural resources; (B)
long range physical and fiscal plans for
such action; (C) programming of capital improvements and other major expenditures, based on a determination
of relative urgency, together with definitive financing plans for such expenditures in the earlier years of the program; (D) coordination of all related
plans and activities of the state and
local governments and agencies concerned; (E) preparation of regulatory
and administrative measures in support
of the foregoing. (Intergovernmental
Cooperation Act of 1963, PL 90-577,
Sec. 109)
5. A plan for the development of
an area including policies, goals, and
interrelated plans for private and public land use, transportation systems,
community facilities, and all other elements and features that, in composite,
represent the decisions of local people.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
6. Also see Master plan and contrast with Incrementalism.
problem on a computer. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1972B)
Concentrated recreation. See Recreation,
concentrated.
Concentration time
The time required for water to flow
from the most remote point of a
watershed (in a hydraulic sense) to the
outlet. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Concern
1. Public apprehension about
whether some land use action might
produce some more or less vaguely defined undesirable results. (C.F.S.)
2. A point of dispute which can
only be vaguely defined or in which
the potential undesirable results of a
land use action are more speculative
than documentable.
When the relationship between the
action and undesirable result can be
sharply defined, a point of dispute is
referred to as an issue rather than a
concern. (C.F.S.)
Also see Crisis.
Computer graphics
Visual displays of information produced by an electronic computer. This
includes both ‘hard copy’ (paper, film)
and cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays.
Among the common computer graphics are maps, graphs, still drawings, and
motion pictures. (E. C. T.)
Condemnation
In real property law, the process by
which property of a private owner is
taken for public use, without his consent, but requiring payment of just
compensation. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor
Recreation 1974)
Also see Condemnation, reverse.
Computer information system
Two or more interacting electronic
computer programs designed to facilitate storage, editing, organization, and
rapid retrieval and display of large
amounts of related information.
(E. C. T.)
Condemnation, inverse. See Condemnation, reverse.
Condemnation, reverse (Inverse condemnation)
Land use planning regulations may,
for the public benefit, sometimes restrain the economic uses which may be
made of private property without
making any provision for compensating the owner. Such occurrences are
sometimes referred to as being reverse
condemnation and therefore implicitly
constituting a violation of the Fifth
Computer program
1. A complete set of instructions
which cause an electronic computer to
perform a set task. Several computer
programs may operate together to
form a computer system. (E. C. T.)
2. A plan or routine for solving a
49
Amendment's prohibition of taking
property without just compensation.
However state land use regulations
based on the police power authority
may substantially diminish the economic value of private property without giving rise to an obligation to
com-pensate the owner. (After U.S.
Dep. Justice comments in U.S. Congr.,
Sen-ate, Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973)
Also see Eminent domain and Police power.
law enforcement, habitat acquisition
and maintenance, propagation, live
trapping, and transplantation, and, in
the extraordinary case where population pressures within a given ecosystem cannot be otherwise relieved, may
include regulated taking. (Endangered
Species Act of 1973)
4. The continuing protection and
management of natural renewable resources–e.g., soil, water, wildlife, forest–in accordance with principles that
assure their optimum economic and
social enjoyment. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
5. The protection of the renewable
resources–e.g., water, forests, fisheries, wildlife, etc. –of man's environment against depletion or waste and
the safeguarding of its beauty. (After
Abrams 1972)
This term has come to mean many
different things to many different people. To the naturalist and nature lover
it means preserving wild areas in their
pristine virginity. To the lumbermen it
means harvesting a stand of timber
which is no longer producing adequate
new annual increments of wood. To
the hunter it means increasing or maintaining the abundance of his favorite
game. To the hydroelectric engineer,
conservation means the building of
dams and reservoirs. There are many
other meanings. Insofar as these concepts, and similar concepts, mean the
elimination of waste they are in a
proper sense, conservation. (Marsh
1964)
7. Planned management of a natural resource to prevent exploitation,
destruction, or neglect. Webster 1963)
8. "Conservation" is concerned
with the time distribution of use. More
specifically conservation is defined in
terms of changes in the intertemporal
distribution of physical rates of use. In
conservation the redistribution of use
is in the direction of the future. More
use (or emphasis on the availability of
Conflicting uses
Land uses by which the quality of
each individual use is harmed by the
others when they occur together in the
same area–due to either competition
for limited resources or use byproducts which damage alternative uses. In
the extreme when one use prevents
another, "conflicting uses" become incompatible uses. (E. C. T.)
Also see Incompatible uses, Compatible uses and Complementary
Uses.
Conservation
1. U.S. Soil Conservation Survey
usage. Soil and water conservation
means the development, use, and management of soil, water, and related resources in a way that will restore, enhance, protect, and maintain their
quality and quantity for the benefit of
man and his environment now and
into the future. (U.S. Soil Conserv.
Serv. 1970)
2. Any policy or practice which
seeks to increase future usable supplies
of a resource by present actions.
(Sesco, et al. 1973)
3. The use of all methods and procedures which are necessary to bring
any endangered species or threatened
species to the point at which measures
provided pursuant to this Act (Endangered Species Act of 1973) are no
longer necessary. Such methods include, but are not limited to, all activities associated with scientific resources
management such as research, census,
50
and manner of use of natural resources
of all kinds. (After Lapedes 1974)
use) of a resource is allocated for times
more distant in the future than for use
in times closer to the present. Conservation always implies comparison of
two or more time distributions of use.
For example that concept is used
when comparing expected use if new
practices are adopted with what use
would have been if the old practices
had been continued.
Conservation in itself cannot mean
non-use. For nonrenewable (stock) resources, conservation is meaningless
when used in the sense of keeping
them permanently undiminished and
unimpaired. In that sense rates of use
would have to remain zero and that
portion of the environment could not
be considered to be a resource.
Interpretations of conservation as
being "wise use" or "the greatest use
to the greatest number over the greatest length of time" has little precise
meaning and is of no value for economic analysis.
"Conservation" is also sometimes
defined as keeping use constantly at or
less than the rate of regeneration of
renewable resources–i.e., the sustained
yield concept. Such a usage excludes
all those cases in which an attempt is
made merely to slow down rather than
to stop the decreasing rate of regeneration and use. Yet different levels of
sustained yield are frequently economic alternatives. Whether any rate of use
should be maintained indefinitely may
be less relevant economically than
what such a rate should be. (After Ciriacy-Wantrup 1968)
9. The concept of "conservation"
is concerned with the rate, purpose,
and efficiency of utilization of natural
resources.
Conservation receives impetus from
the social conscience awareness of an
obligation to future generations. All
the varying definitions of the nature of
"conservation" as a utilization policy
deal with the judicious development
Conservation district. See Soil Conservation District.
Conservation easement. See Easement,
conservation.
Conservation plan
1. U.S. Soil Conservation Service
usage. A document containing all major material needed for making decisions that will assure that the soil and
water resources of a unit of land (or
group of units of land) will be used
and treated so as to achieve the
conser-vation objectives which have
been set forth.
A "conservation plan" includes but
is not limited to "conservation plan
maps"; water, plant, animal and other
inventory and management information with needed interpretations and
evaluations; a record of the decisions
made contributing to sound land use
and conservation treatment; the alternatives for sound land use(s) and conservation treatment for which conservation decisions have not yet been
made (including positive statements
about critical problems such as soil
erosion, sedimentation, land use and
agricultural pollutants); records of understandings as to cooperative agreements between individuals, groups or
government representatives and resource conservation districts; and other
information useful to the deci-sion
maker. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
2. Usage for farm, ranch, or nonagricultural land units. The properly
recorded decisions of the cooperating
landowner(s) or operator on how it is
planned, within practical limits, to use
the land in an operating unit within its
capabilities and to treat it according to
the needs for maintenance or improvement of the soil, water and plant resources. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
51
Conservation treatment unit (CTU)
A field or group of fields or other
units of land with similar soil and
water conservation problems requiring
similar combinations of land use and
conservation treatment. (U.S. Soil
Conserv. Serv. 1970)
tween the price that a consumer pays
for a good or a service and the amount
that he would be willing to pay rather
than be deprived of the good or service. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969)
Also see Producer surplus and Willingness-to-pay.
Conservation zoning. See Zoning, conservation.
Consumptive use
1. Those uses of resources that reduce the supply–such as logging and
mining. (C.F.S.)
"Consumptive use" as a category
does not make any distinction between resources whose supply will,
sooner or later, build up again after
the initial reduction (i.e., renewable resources) and resources whose supply
will essentially never be renewed (i.e.,
nonrenewable resources). (C.F.S.).
For example, for water some "consumptive uses" are irrigation and domestic and industrial use, while nonconsumptive uses would include direct
power generation as well as boating,
swimming, etc. (E.M.G.)
2. The quantity of water used and
transpired by vegetation plus that
evaporated. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Contingency planning. See Adaptive planning.
Constitutional determinism (Judicial determinism, Legal determinism)
A point of view which places emphasis on the legal and judicial environment within which resource use
planning decisions must be made. Because resource use planning must operate within such constitutional constraints and provisions as due process,
property rights, taking without compensation and protection of public
health safety and welfare, the legal aspects of planning are seen as of primary importance in the planning process. All other planning considerations
are considered to be subservient to legal considerations. (C.F.S.)
Consumer organism (Consumer)
1. An organism which ingests other
organisms or food particles. They may
be further classified as "primary consumers", "secondary consumers", etc.
depending upon their position in the
food chain. (Hanson 1962)
The "primary consumers" (herbivores) feed directly on plants, and
"secondary consumers" (carnivores)
feed on the primary consumers.
(Odum 1953)
2. Organisms, (including some
non-green plants but chiefly animals)
which ingest and utilize other organisms or particulate organic matter.
(Odum 1971)
3. For the other two divisions in
this particular classification of biotic
community organisms also see producer
organism
and
decomposer
organism.
Continuing easement. See Easement, continuing.
Continuous grazing. See Grazing, continuous.
Continuous use grazing. See Grazing, continuous.
Contour (Contour line)
1. An imaginary line on the earth's
surface connecting points of the same
elevation.
A line drawn on a map connecting
points of the same elevation. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Contour, approximate original
That surface configuration achieved
by backfilling and grading of the
mined area so that it closely resembles
Consumer surplus
In economics, the difference be52
tween resources, uses, activities, or
ecological systems to meet the objectives set forth in the planning area
guide. Coordinating requirements state
the minimum coordination required in
planning and carrying out activities.
They consider assumptions about future public demands upon national
forest land and forest service management policy. The result is a series of
specific statements directing management actions and considerations on a
national forest.
Forest "coordinating requirements"
supplement management direction
contained in the planning area guide.
The forest coordinating requirements may be more specific or restrictive than that stated in the guide, but
in no case may they reduce the standards set in the guide. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 8225, Oct. 1973)
that surface configuration of the land
prior to mining and blends into and
complements the drainage pattern of
the surrounding terrain, with all highwalls, walls, spoil banks and depressions
eliminated ... except water impoundments. (Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act of 1975)
Contour interval
The vertical distance between contour lines. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Contour line. See Contour.
Contour map
A map which portrays the elevational features of an area by joining
points of equal elevation with continuous lines, called contour lines. (C.F.S.)
Contour strip mining. See Mining, contour surface.
Cord
Cut or pulpwood measurement
term. The equivalent of a stack of
wood four feet by four feet by eight
feet, or 128 cubic feet. (Webster 1963)
Controlled burn
1. The planned application of fire
to natural fuels, residue left on a site
after a logging operation and other
slash, with the intent to confine it to a
predetermined area. (After FordRobertson 1971)
2. Any deliberate application of
fire to an area where control is exercised in some particular respect.
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
Also see Prescribed burn.
Cost
The negative (adverse) effects.
Costs may be monetary, social, physical, or environmental in nature. (After
U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
Also see Social costs.
Cost-benefit analysis. See Benefit-cost
analysis.
Coordinating criteria
U.S. Forest Service usage. Policy
statements of the opportunities and
constraints to be applied in carrying
out the more intensive planning of
planning units. (U.S. Forest Serv.
FSM 8222.2, Oct., 1973)
Cost-benefit ratio. See Benefit-cost ratio.
Cost effective analysis
1. A benefit-cost analysis process
utilized when all benefits of the alternatives cannot be quantified in terms
of dollars. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off.
1969)
2. Cost effectiveness analysis compares alternatives in terms of their contribution to a goal by using costs and
other effectiveness criteria. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1974A)
Also see Revenue-cost analysis and
Benefit-cost analysis.
Coordinating requirements (Forest coordinating requirements)
U.S. Forest Service usage. Statements of management policy in a national forest land use plan.
Coordinating requirements are
policy statements establishing the relationships that are to be maintained be53
Cost-revenue analysis. See Revenue-cost
analysis.
which a decisive change is impending.
(Webster 1963)
2. A psychological or social condition characterized by excessive stress
and either endangering or felt to endanger the continuity of the individual
or his group. (Webster 1963)
Also see Concern and Issue.
Cost-utility analysis. See Benefit-cost
analysis.
Cover
1. The proportion of the ground
surface under live aerial parts of plants
or the combined aerial parts of plants
and mulch. (After Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
2. The shelter and protection for
fish, wildlife and/or domestic animals.
(After Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
The plants or other objects used by
wild animals for nesting, rearing of
young, resting, escape from predators,
or protection from adverse environmental conditions. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
3. The plants or plant parts, living
or dead, on the surface of the ground.
(Hanson 1962)
Criteria
1. Regulatory and pollution criteria usages.
A. Measurements which are used to
examine the relative degrees of desirability among alternatives or the degree to which a course of action meets
an intended objective. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969)
B. The quality level of a resource
necessary for it to be acceptable for a
specific beneficial use. (After McGauhey 1968)
C. A scientific requirement on
which a decision or judgement may be
based concerning the suitability of a
resource's quality to support a designated use. The terms "criteria" and
"requirements" can be used interchangeably. (U.S. Fed. Water Pollut.
Control Adm. 1968)
Unlike regulatory standards, "criteria" carry no connotations of more
or less subjectively determined, authoritarian decisions as to acceptable
resource quality levels. Rather, "criteria" are resource quality levels which
have been determined by the accumulation of scientific data showing the
relationship between levels of quality
and damage to the resource. "Criteria"
should be capable of quantitative evaluation by acceptable analytical procedures. Criteria should also be capable of definitive resolution, i.e., their
controlling relationship to acceptable
quality levels should not be clouded
by possible synergisms, antagonisms,
or other effects. (After McKee and
Wolf 1963)
For example, one of the criteria for
public drinking water supplies is that
Cover type (Plant cover type, Vegetation
cover type, Forest cover type)
1. A forest type now occupying the
ground, no implication being conveyed as to whether it is temporary or
permanent–e.g., aspen (type 217),
lodgepole pine (type 218).
Differences in state of development
are subordinate to differences in species composition for the purposes of
distinguishing cover types. (Soc. Amer.
For. 1950 and 1962)
2. "Cover type" sometimes refers
to actual stands of any vegetation
type, whether dominated by tree,
shrub, or grass species. (C.F.S.)
Cow month
The tenure on range or artificial
pasture of a cow for one month.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
CPM. See Critical path method.
Creep. See Soil creep.
Crisis
1.
An unstable state of affairs in
54
of completion. (U.S. Gen. Account.
Off. 1969)
fecal coliform counts have an MPN of
not more than 1 per 100 milliliters.
This criterion reflects (1) epidemiological evidence on the relationship of
indicator species (E. Coli) abundance
to incidence of the waterborne disease
typhoid fever, (2) Technical and economic limitations on the ability to
sample and measure indicator species
abundance, and (3) on technological
and economic limitations on the ability of water suppliers to reasonably
control the abundance of the indicator
species. (C.F.S.)
2. Predetermined rules for ranking
alternatives in order of desirability to
facilitate and expedite the decisionmaking process. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
3. A rule, or test, by which something can be judged. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1971)
Also see Standard, definition 2.
Cropland
Land used primarily for the production of adapted cultivated and closegrowing crops for harvest, alone or in
association with sod crops, and open
land recently in such uses.
In some states land in fruit and nut
trees, grapes, etc., is designated orchard land or vineyard land rather
than "cropland". (U.S. Soil Conserv.
Serv. 1970 and U.S. Dept. Agric.
1967) Also see Agricultural land.
Cross section (X section)
1. Graphic methods usage. A twodimensional pictorial representation
method which shows the characteristics and relationships between land
(and/or water) characteristics that
would be observed in a vertical slice
through that portion of the earth.
(After Durrenberger 1973)
2. In land use planning, cross sections frequently only show land surface conditions (soil, soil moisture,
vegetation type distributions, elevation
slope steepness, etc.), though they
may also be used to illustrate subsurface geological structures, groundwater
relationships, etc.
The vertical scale of projection is
frequently exaggerated in relation to
the horizontal to emphasize topographic relationships–e.g., while the
scale of horizontal projection may be
1 in = 10 ft, the vertical projection
scale may be 1 in = 1 ft. Thus slopes
will appear steeper and elevation
changes more rapid than they truly
are.
This graphical method is frequently
used to analyze or show the impacts
that would result from potential land
uses or use practices on an area, by
superimposing over the natural profile
the changes in land surface (and/or
subsurface) conditions that would
result. (C.F.S.)
Critical area. See Area of critical environmental concern.
Critical distance
Environmental psychology usage.
The zone which separates "flight distance" (the distance within a personal
space where an intruder will cause a
retreat or flight) and "attack distance"–the distance within a personal
space where an intruder will force an
animal to feel cornered and attack instead of retreating. (After Worthington
1974, citing Heidiger 1961)
Critical path method (CPM)
The CPM (Critical path method)
and PERT (Program evaluation and review technique) are network analysis
models. Each has its own modeling
language, but they differ in only one
fundamental respect: CPM seeks to
determine the expected times of completion of the total project and times
of completion of the subprojects of
which it is composed. PERT goes further and seeks to estimate variances
associated with these expected times
55
55
2.
Also see Profile view.
mounds, petroglyphs, etc.) and conceptual content or context (as a setting for legendary, historic, or prehistoric events, as a sacred area of
native peoples, etc.) of an area which
is useful or important for making land
use planning decisions.
In the land use planning process it
is frequently convenient to subdivide
the cultural resource category into
four parts for inventory and evaluation
purposes:
(1)
"archeological"–resource values associated with former
occupancy by native cultural groups;
(2) "historical"–values dating from
first occupancy by settlers; (3) "relic
cultural groups"–resource values associated with the existence of native
people who continue to live in groups
practicing the cultural life styles of
their ancestors; and (4) "neoteric"–
outstanding examples of contemporary culture representing achievements
which, in the future, are likely to become historically significant. (C.F.S.)
Crown
The upper part of a tree or other
woody plant carrying the main branch
system and foliage above a more or
less clean stem(s). (Ford-Robertson
1971)
CTU. See Conservation treatment unit.
Cubic feet per second (c.f.s. or ft3/s)
The amount of water, measured in
cubic feet, which flows by a point in a
channel (or is discharged from a discharge point) in one second. (E.C.T.)
Cultural adaptation
The typically human manner of
coping with changes in physical environment and interpersonal relations.
Instead of adapting physically to
changed conditions, as animals do in
order to survive and thrive, human
beings modify their common patterns
of thought and behavior, especially
their technologies. (O'Connell 1974)
Cultural resource. See Cultural history resource, definition 2.
Cultural change
The modification of a society
through innovation, invention, discovery or through contact with other
societies. (Webster 1963)
Culture
1. That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
custom and any other capabilities and
habitats acquired by man as a member
of society. (O'Connell 1974)
The total pattern of human behavior and its products embodied in
thought, speech, action and artifacts
and dependent upon man's capacity
for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations
through the use of tools, language and
systems of abstract thought. (Webster
1963)
2. A distinctive, separable bundle
of traditions, one that develops historically and is handed down from generation to generation. "Culture" is inherited from the past and has weight and
force to determine the content and
limits of a group's behavior.
Cultural eutrophication
Eutrophication which has been
caused by man–i.e., nutrient enrichment of a body of water which stimulates the growth of algae to such abundance that it produces more organic
matter than the self-purification processes can overcome. (After Natl.
Acad. Sci. 1969 and Durrenberger
1973)
Cultural history resource
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Potential knowledge about human cultural
systems, in the form of historic and
prehistoric products and byproducts
of man. (U.S. Forest Serv. FSM
2361.05, July, 1973)
2. "Cultural resource". The physical remains (artifacts, ruins, burial
56
tion. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
2. The depth below the original
ground surface to the excavated surface. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
3. To lower a land surface by
removal of earth materials. (C.F.S.)
4. For tree cutting usage see Cutting.
The body of customary beliefs,
social forms, and material traits constituting a distinct complex of tradition of a social group with that complex whole including knowledge,
belief, morals, law, customs, opinions,
religion. Typical behavior or standardized social characteristics peculiar to a
specific group. (Webster 1963)
3. A fixed pattern of norms or acceptable behavior standards, prescriptions about what one can and proscriptions about what one cannot do in a
given society.
Essentially derived from the concept of "custom", this definition overemphasizes the ways social groups
stress and obtain behavioral conformity. (O'Connell 1974)
Cut and fill
The process of earth moving by excavating part of an area and using the
excavated material for adjacent embankments or fill areas. (Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Cut-over forest (Logged-over forest)
A forest in which most or all of
the merchantable timber has been cut.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Cumulative use
The stream of resource use over
time in its aggregate.
The concept "cumulative use" must
be sharply differentiated from the concept "rate of use," with the latter referring specifically to units of use per
unit of time. (After Ciriacy-Wantrup
1968)
Cutting (Felling)
The cutting down of standing trees.
"Cutting" is not a synonym for
logging or harvesting. These latter
terms also include removal of felled
trees and some initial processing of the
timber prior to removal. (After FordRobertson 1971)
Cutting cycle (Felling cycle, Cutting
interval, Cutting rotation, Felling rotation, Rotation)
The planned, recurring lapse of
time between successive major cutting
operations in a managed forest. (After
Ford-Robertson 1971)
CZMA. See Coastal Zone Management
Act of 1972.
Cunit
Pulpwood measurement term. An
equivalent of 100 cubic feet of solid
wood. (Webster 1963)
Cut
1. The portion of land surface or
area from which earth has been removed or will be removed by excava-
D
Data
DBH. See Diameter at breast height.
Decision theory
A body of knowledge and related
mathematical techniques which have
been developed from the fields of statistics, mathematics and logic and
which are designed to be of aid in the
making of decisions under conditions
of uncertainty. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
Any recorded measurements, facts,
evidence, or observations reduced to
written, graphical, tabular, or computer form. The term connotes reliability, and, as such, implies explanation of source, type, precision, accuracy, etc., which permits reliability
examination. (U. S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
57
repeated interrogations, usually by
means of questionnaires, of individuals
whose opinions or judgments are of
interest. After the initial interrogation
of each individual, each subsequent
interrogation is accompanied by information regarding the preceding round
of replies. The individual is thus encouraged to reconsider and, if appropriate, change his previous reply in
light of the replies of other members
of the group. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off.
1969)
Decision theory is quite similar to
game theory in several respects but a
major difference between the two is
that in game theory the decision is
being made vis-a-vis an opponent,
whereas in decision theory the only
opponent is nature with its related uncertainty. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off.
1969)
Decomposer organism (Decomposer, Reducer, Detrivore)
1. An organism, usually a bacterium or a fungus, that breaks down
the bodies or parts of dead plants and
animals into simpler compounds.
(Hanson 1962)
2. Organisms (chiefly bacteria and
fungi) which break down the complex
compounds of dead protoplasm into
simpler substances usable by green
plants. Essentially these organisms
bring about the mineralization of organic matter. (Odum 1953)
For the other two divisions in this
particular classification of biotic community organisms, also see Producer
organism and Consumer organism.
Demand. See Demand schedule.
Demand schedule
The relationship between price and
quantity demanded. The demand
schedule expresses how much of the
good or service would be bought or
consumed at various prices at a particular point in time. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969)
Depletion
1. The utilization of a natural renewable resource at a rate greater than
the rate of replenishment. (Webster
1963)
2. "Depletion" is defined in terms
of changes in the time distribution of
physical rates of use. By "depletion" is
meant the redistribution of use is in
the direction of the present, i.e., more
use (or emphasis on availability of use)
of a resource is to be made for times
closer to the present than on use in
times more distant in the future.
(Ciriacy-Wantrup 1968)
Decreaser. See Decreaser plant species.
Decreaser plant species (Decreaser)
Range management usage. Plant
species of the original vegetation that
will decrease in relative amount with
continued overuse. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Also see Invader plant species and
Increaser plant species.
Deferred grazing. See Grazing, deferred
rotation.
Derived demand
1. The demand (schedule) for a
commodity which grows out of the
desire to satisfy the demand for some
other commodity. The demand for
housing, for example, may create a
demand for lumber, bricks, and many
other things needed to build the housing. (Sloan 1961)
Deferred rotation grazing. See Grazing,
deferred rotation.
Degree of use. For range management
usage see Use, degree of.
Delphi method
A recently developed technique,
the purpose of which is to arrive at a
consensus regarding an issue under investigation. It consists of a series of
DES. Abbreviation for Draft environmental statement. See Environmental
58
respect to soil and water conservation.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
impact statement, draft, and discussion in paragraph 2 under Environmental impact statement.
Desires. See Needs.
Detailed landscape. See Landscape, detailed.
Design
The component of the planning
process which controls the actual physical changes that will occur in time
and space.
At higher levels of planning, the
design component sets the general
guidelines for the spatial pattern and
physical character of development. At
the individual project level design is
the activity which sets the precise
character, pattern and form of the
project environment. (After Appleyard
1971)
Detailed reconnaissance soil map. See Soil
map, detailed reconnaissance.
Detailed soil map. See Soil map, detailed.
Detailed soil survey. See Soil map, detailed and Soil survey.
Detention storage
The surface runoff which is temporarily present in ground surface irregularities (or even on level surfaces)
while it flows overland toward stream
channels. (After Wisler and Brater
1959)
Design solution (Site planning)
A class of land use planning analytic approaches. The planner/designer
generates unique solutions to potential
land use conflicts by manipulating the
appearance or other physical characteristics of any changes and/or their
occurrence in space and time.
"Design solution" potentials are
typically evaluated at the individual
"project level" or site specific level of
any land use planning process. However, this technique can also be used at
higher planning levels by examination
of the quality of solutions obtained by
superimposing design prototypes or
current design practices upon the
typical site characteristics in a planning area. (C.F.S.)
For contrast with Engineering solution and Technological solution, see
Engineering solution, definitions 3 and
4.
For an example of a type of design
solution planning see Site planning.
Deterministic model. See Model, deterministic.
Detritivore. See Detrivore.
Detrivore (Detritivore)
An organism (plant or animal) that
feeds on the organic remains or other
organic debris from autotrophic (mostly plant) organisms. (After Odum
1971)
Developed recreation area. See Recreation area, developed.
Developer
Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for
a national Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act. Any person or
persons who directly or indirectly,
through any formal or informal combination or aggregation, own or control a tract or tracts of land for which
such person or persons propose a
project.
"Person includes any individual,
partnership, corporation, association,
unincorporated organization, trust,
estate, or any other legal or commercial entity, except Federal, state or
local government agencies.
This definition is designed to make
Desirable plant species
1. Range management usage. Species of moderate to high palatability
that are preferred by animals. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
2. Species that are beneficial with
59
Also see Extraordinary planning
and Comprehensive plan, definition 3.
certain that individuals cannot establish dummy corporations, trusts, or
otherwise organize in a manner to
avoid the size and time period limitations of the definition of projects
(such as using an organizational arrangement to hide the separating of
tracts into two areas comprising more
than twenty-five, but less than fifty,
units; the selling or developing of two
such tracts which are functionally
interrelated but separated by a short
distance; selling or developing one
such tract, waiting a few years, and
developing a second tract). (U.S.
Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular
Aff. 1973)
Development rights
A broad range of less-than-fee simple ownership interests. It includes
mainly various forms of the easement,
a clearly defined property right. The
landowner keeps the title but agrees to
continue using the land as in the past,
the right to develop the land resting in
the holder of the easement. (U.S. Bur.
Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Development rights, acquisition of
A plan implementation technique
which ensures conformity of land use
to the plan by purchasing for public
ownership the landowner's right to use
his land for certain types of potential
land uses–such as subdivision housing
or industry.
The originating concept was that
total public ownership was undesirable
and typically fiscally unfeasible. The
purchase of only selected property
rights would be substantially less expensive than total purchase and would
still allow the owner to continue
making other economic uses of his
land. However, in practice public acquisition of development rights has
often cost up to 95 percent of the full
market value of land. (C.F.S.)
Also see Taking.
Development
l. A built-up tract of land, especially used in the sense of a subdivision
having the necessary utilities–i.e.,
water, gas, electricity, roads, etc.
(After Webster 1963)
2. In planning, the term "development" is typically used when referring
to intensive build-up types of land
uses–i.e., uses predominantly consisting of buildings, paved areas and other
types of site alterations. "Development" in that sense utilizes the land
only as a location, not for its natural
resource properties.
"Development" is sometimes broken into broad use type categories–
such as residential, commercial, industrial, etc. (C.F.S.)
Development rights, transfer of
A method of separating and marketing the development rights of a
property. Owners of developable property can buy rights to develop more
intensively while the transferring property is preserved open or less developed. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation
1974)
Development planning
Development planning is most commonly used in the context of planning
for economic growth and technological development in undeveloped regions or countries. Planning in these
settings involves not only creation of a
strategy for resource development and
allocation, but also creation of the
infrastructure and social institutions
necessary for implementation of the
physical and economic features of
such a plan. (C.F.S.)
Development type
Those land use types by which the
formerly open spaces of an area are
prominently altered or made to appear
built-up–i.e., buildings, paved areas,
and other types of site alterations.
60
"Development" is sometimes broken down into such broad type categories as residential, commercial, and
industrial. (C.F.S.)
by a close causal relationship. (After
Webster 1963)
Disadvantaged groups
Lacking in the basic resources or
conditions (as standard housing, medical and educational facilities, civil
rights) believed to be necessary for an
equal position in society. (After Webster 1963)
The current term used by the Federal government for what has in the
past been called "poor" and "underprivileged". It covers more than the
economic conditions associated with
"poor" and does not have the implication of social or economic oppression
contained in "underprivileged." (E. C. T.)
Development zoning. See Zoning, development.
Diagrammatic representation (Blob diagram, Schematic diagram)
A land use planning analytical technique in which the physical components (such as parking lots, lavatories,
garbage cans, picnic tables, beaches,
etc.) in a plan are represented symbolically, usually just by their names written inside individual circles. The relationships between compoments are
then represented by lines connecting
those which have necessary or desirable support functions. The individual components are then shifted so
as to minimize the extent to which different interconnecting lines cross each
other. The resulting solution is assumed to represent the most efficient
spatial relationship between project
components, and thus represent the
idealized goal of the actual physical
plan.
While this technique is usually utilized at the project or site planning
level, there is no conceptual reason
why it cannot also be used for studying the optimal relationships between
the more vaguely defined components
of the broader levels of land use planning. (C.F.S.)
Discharge
The volume of water flowing past a
point per unit time, commonly expressed as cubic feet per second, million gallons per day, gallons per minute or cubic meters per second. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Discontinuous easement. See Easement,
discontinuous.
Discounting
The practice of placing a lesser
value (economic or other) on future
events than on present events for the
purpose of comparison. An item received today is seen to be worth more
than an identical item received next
year. Discounting refers only to the
timing of an event and should not be
confused with reduced values based on
the uncertainty of future events nor
implied quality changes over time.
(E. C. T.)
Diameter at breast height (DBH)
The diameter of a tree measured
four feet, six inches from the ground
level. "Ground level" can follow two
conventions; either the highest point
of the ground touching the stem, or
the mean of the highest and lowest
points. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Discount rate
The interest rate used in plan formulation and evaluation for discounting future benefits and computing
costs, or otherwise converting benefits
and costs to a common time basis.
(U.S. Dept. of Agric. 1974)
Also see Discounting.
Direct effect (Primary effect)
A condition caused by an action or
inaction without an intermediary
causal agent; an effect characterized
61
Disjointed incrementalism. See Incrementalism.
DOL. See Dissolved oxygen concentration.
Dispersed recreation. See Recreation,
dispersed.
Dominant
The land against which an easement
or privilege exists is called the servient
tenement and the estate to which it is
annexed is the dominant tenement and
their owners are called respectively servient and dominant owner. (U.S. Bur.
Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Also see Easement.
Dissolved oxygen (D.O.)
1. The oxygen dissolved and freely
available in water. (After Wash. State
Univ. Coop. Ext. Serv. 1972)
2. The oxygen dissolved in water,
waste water, or other liquid and usually expressed "in milligrams per liter,
parts per million, or percent of saturation. (Amer. Public Health Assoc., et
al. 1969)
Dominant use
A concept in which land and water
resources are classified and managed
for one main type of use. Other uses
may or may not be excluded but are
always of secondary importance to the
optimum development for the dominant use. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
Also see Dominant use management.
Dissolved oxygen concentration (Dissolved oxygen level, DOL)
The amount of oxygen dissolved in
a water sample expressed in parts per
million. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
In unpolluted water dissolved oxygen is usually present in amounts of 10
parts per million or less. Adequate dissolved oxygen is necessary for the life
of fish and most other aquatic organisms. About 3 to 5 parts per million
is the lower limit needed for the support of fish life over a long period of
time. (Wash. State Univ. Coop. Ext.
Serv. 1972)
Dominant use management
Management based on the idea that
although land may be capable of many
uses it will provide for one use better
than any other. The land is managed
for the single purpose of maximizing
that use to the exclusion of other uses
where conflicts exist.
Devoting each land unit to the use
it best provides for is assumed to be
the most efficient allocation of resources. This assumption has been
shown to be erroneous by the science
of operations research, among others.
Dominant use management is prohibited on the National Forests under
the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act.
(E. C. T.)
Dissolved oxygen level. See Dissolved
oxygen concentration.
Dissolved solids
1. The total amount of dissolved
material, organic and inorganic, contained in water or wastewater. (Wash.
State Univ. Coop. Ext Serv. 1972)
2. The solid matter that remains
after a filtered volume of water has
been evaporated. The amount of residue is commonly expressed as a proportion of the original sample in parts
per million parts of the original.
(Sesco, et al. 1973)
Draft environmental impact statement.
See Environmental impact statement,
draft.
Diversity index. See Species diversity index.
Draft environmental statement. See Environmental impact statement, draft,
and discussion in paragraph 2 under
Environmental impact statement.
DO. See Dissolved oxygen.
Drainage basin. See Watershed.
62
tally fragile" for off-road vehicle uses
while unvegetated dunes are "environmentally durable". (C.F.S.)
Durability (Environmental durability)
1. The quality or state of being resistant to breakage or destruction.
(After Webster 1963)
2. In a land use planning context,
the relative ability of resources to tolerate sustained use, without degradation of the resource base (i.e., lowering
productivity or desirable resource
quality). This ability is sometimes
rated on a qualitative scale extending
from "fragile" to "durable".
"Durability" ("Environmental durability") in land use planning refers to
those resource types or properties
which are resistant to degradation in
the presence of whatever types of use
are considered by the evaluation process. For example, vegetated sand
dunes may be classed as "environmen-
Duration curve. See Flow duration curve.
Dynamic programming
In a multistage decision process, a
systematic method for searching out
that sequence of decisions which maximizes or minimizes some predefined
objective function.
The method is based on Bellman's
Principle of Optimality which states
that "an optimal policy has the property that whatever the initial state and
initial decision are, the remaining decisions must constitute an optimal policy with regard to the state resulting
from the first decision." (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1972B)
E
EAR. See Environmental analysis report.
ing, flooding, etc. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor
Recreation 1974)
Easement
1. An interest in the land of another which allows the easement holder specified uses or rights without
actual ownership of the land. (U.S.
Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
2. The right of the owner of one
parcel of land, by reason of such ownership, to use the land of another for a
special purpose not inconsistent with
general property ownership. The land
against which the easement or privilege
exists is called the servient tenement
and the estate to which it is annexed is
the dominant tenement and their owners are called respectively "servient"
and "dominant" owner. (U.S. Bur.
Outdoor Recreation 1974)
3. The legal right to use the land of
another for a precise and definite purpose. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
Easement, conservation
A group of negative and affirmative
easements .... [that] pertain to keeping land in open use or a natural state,
or provide some other conservation or
recreation function. These include scenic, flooding, and agricultural easements.
An easement to assure the permanent preservation of land in its natural
state or in whatever degree of naturalness the land possesses at the time the
easement is granted.
An easement that may include one
or more of the following provisions:
(1) prohibitions against erecting buildings or other structures; (2) restrictions against constructing or altering
any private drives or roads; (3) prohibitions against the removal or destruction of trees, shrubs, or other
greenery; (4) restrictions against uses
other than residential or agricultural,
for public utilities, and existing uses;
(5) restrictions against the display of
Easement, affirmative
An interest in land which gives a
person or agency the right to do something on the land, such as hiking, fish-
63
Ecoclass
U.S. Forest Service usage. Classifi­
cation system for the biological and
earth sciences based on linking to­
gether existing disciplinary classifica­
tions of the major ecosystem compo­
nents. It is a unifying framework for
linking three basic biological and earth
science stratifications or classifica­
tions—the vegetation subsystem, the
land subsystem, and the aquatic subsystem. A hierarchical structure is
given in which the lowest level units
are the "ecological land unit" (ELU), a
composite of the land and vegetation
subsystems, and the "ecological water
unit" (EWU), a composite of elements
of the land and aquatic subsystems.
(After Corliss 1974)
Also see Ecological land unit and
Ecological water unit.
outdoor signs, billboards or any other
form of outdoor advertising; (6) pro­
hibitions against dumping or storage of
trash, wastes or unsightly or offensive
materials of any kind; (7) other kinds
of restrictions consistent with open
space preservation and reservation.
(U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Easement, continuing
An easement which is self-perpetu­
ating, independent of human interven­
tions, as the flow of a stream, or one
which may be enjoyed without any act
on the part of the persons entitled
thereto. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Easement, discontinuous (Noncontinuous
easement, Nonapparent easement)
An easement, the enjoyment of
which may be had only by the inter­
ference of man, as a right-of-way or a
right to draw water. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Ecological determinism
A particular point of view in plan­
ning which advocates that retention of
natural elements and processes should
be given priority in planning. Natural
elements (such as aquifers, wildlife
breeding areas, and flood plains) which
are valued by segments of society or
freely perform necessary life support
or quality of life functions, or whose
alteration will significantly damage
other valued resources, should be pro­
tected on plans and in plan policies.
Ecological determinism is essen­
tially a synonym for physiographic
determinism, biological primacy, and
biophysical determinism. Although
"ecological" strictly implies concern
with organisms and their environ­
mental relationships, "ecological deter­
minism" also applies to such nonliving
environmental elements as aquifers,
steep slopes, and severe storm impact
zones. (C.F.S.)
Easement, negative
An interest in land which can give
the easement-owner the right to prevent the owner of the land from doing
something on it. Scenic easements are
of this type. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Easement, recreational
Affirmative easements allowing
public entry on the servient land to
hunt, fish, or enjoy other recreational
activities. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Easement, scenic
Essentially an easement of view.
Scenic easements restrict the use of
land adjacent to public highways,
parks, and rivers. They may provide
something attractive to look at within
the easement area, an open area to
look through to see something attrac­
tive beyond the easement itself, or a
screen to block out an unsightly view
beyond the easement area. (U.S. Bur.
Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Ecological land unit (ELU)
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. One
of the lowest levels of the "Ecoclass"
64
Ecologic community. See Biotic community.
system of classifying ecosystems into
subdivisions for forest description and
management. An ELU is a composite
of elements from the land subsystem
and vegetation subsystem which to­
gether define a homogeneous unit.
(After Corliss 1974)
2. U.S. Forest Service Resource
Capability System (RCS) usage. Units
of land having strong uniformity in
slope steepness; aspect; microclimate;
rock types and conditions, geomorphology, soil characteristics and pro­
ductive capabilities, type, density and
age of vegetation and ground cover, and
drainage characteristics.
The basic physical unit of land that
scientific disciplines agree must be
delineated and examined as a separate
entity (for use evaluation or manage­
ment purposes).
The basic unit that is used in the
analysis of onsite potentials, capabili­
ties and limitations. The most signifi­
cant level of land stratification which
best communicates the basic (inher­
ent) capabilities and limitations. (Reid
1972)
Land (or water) units which because
of their strong uniformity in physical
and biological characteristics respond
similarly to management activities or
other stimuli. Sometimes called "re­
sponse units". (H.G.)
Also see Ecoclass, Ecological water
unit and Homogeneous response unit.
Ecologic competition. See Competition.
Ecologic diversity. See Biologic diversity
and Species diversity.
Ecologic indicator. See Indicator, biologic.
Ecologic niche. See Niche, definition 2.
Ecologic pyramids
Groups of organisms in nature
often consist of many small organisms
associated with a few larger organisms.
This distribution of number and size
has been compared to a pyramid with
a broad base representative of the
numerous small organisms and the
point of the pyramid representing the
few largest organisms.
There are three ecological pyramids
which result from food and energy
relationships: the pyramid of numbers,
the pyramid of biomass and the pyramid of energy or food production
rates. (Odum 1953)
Ecologic stability (Balance of nature)
An ecological system may be said
to be stable during that period of time
when no species becomes extinct
(thereby creating a vacant niche) and
none reaches plague proportions for
long enough to destroy the niches of
other species and cause them to become extinct.
A stable ecosystem is one in which
all niches are fully occupied by appro­
priate species.
Whatever stability there is in the
ecological world is not a static equi­
librium, but a fluctuating or dynamic
one, and normally a highly fluctuating
one. Stability lies in the ability to
bounce back, not in the ability to hold
tenaciously to ground once taken or
numbers once achieved. (Preston
1969)
Ecological water unit (EWU)
U.S. Forest Service usage. One of
the lowest levels of the "Ecoclass" sys­
tem of classifying ecosystems into subdivisions for forest description and
management. An EWU is a composite
of elements from the land and aquatic
subsystems, where aquatic type and
the adjacent land types together define
a homogeneous unit. (After Corliss
1974)
Also see Ecoclass, Ecological land
unit, and Homogeneous response unit.
Also see Balance of nature.
Ecologic succession. See Succession.
65
maximized by providing the resources
to the highest bidders in such quan­
tities that the price individuals are will­
ing to pay exactly equals the cost of
providing the last unit of the resource,
under standard economic assumptions.
(E. C. T.)
2. The view that economic factors
are the only causes of social patterns.
3. The view that economic factors
are fundamental or dominant, despite
the simultaneous importance of bio­
logical, psychological, political, cul­
tural, and social factors. (O'Connell
1974)
Ecology
A branch of science concerned with
the interrelationships of organisms and
their cycles and rhythms, community
development and environments–especially as manifested by natural struc­
ture, interaction between different
kinds of organisms, geographic distri­
butions, and population alterations.
(After Webster 1963)
Econometrics
The testing and quantifying of eco­
nomic theories and the solution of
economic problems by their conver­
sion to mathematical forms, applica­
tion of mathematical processes and the
use of statistical techniques. (After
Webster 1963)
Economic enterprise (Economic unit)
Range management usage. A ranch
business of sufficient resources to provide an acceptable standard of living
for a family. . . .Often termed an eco­
nomic unit, but this is considered er­
roneous because a "unit" is a subdivi­
sion of a management area. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Management area and Management unit.
Economic analysis
An analysis of the economic effects
of a given action. It includes measure­
ment of all pertinent desirable and un­
desirable consequences to all segments
of the economy stated in comparable
quantitative monetary terms. It also
includes an objective or subjective
analysis of factors not quantifiable in
monetary terms. (P.M.R.)
Economic externalities
1. Effects of resource allocation
decisions which are not included in the
market mechanism, and as such have no
economic influence on resource al­
location decisions; failures of the mar­
ket mechanism as a resource allocation
tool. (E. C. T.)
2. A cost or benefit that occurs
whenever the activities of one or more
persons affect the welfare or produc­
tion functions of others who have no
direct control over that activity.
(Sesco, et al. 1973)
Economic base analysis. See Export base
analysis.
Economic depletion. See Depletion.
Economic determinism
1. A point of view which advocates
that planning decisions should be
based primarily upon the results of
analysis of changes in resource supply
and demand in response to changes in
the "price" for the right to use a resource. That potential user or use
which is willing or able to give up the
most wins the use rights. Maximizing
the total economic welfare is consi­
dered to result in the maximization of
the benefits to society from resource
use allocation and this is viewed as
being the goal of all resource use.
(C. F. S.)
The total economic welfare will be
Economic growth
Increased economic activity in real
terms over time. This does not neces­
sarily correspond to increased produc­
tion of physical goods. (E. C. T.)
Economic life
That period of time extending from
the date of installation [of a facility]
66
munity) in a given area interacting
with the physical environment so that
a flow of energy leads to clearly defined food and feeding relationships,
biologic diversity and biogeochemical
cycles (i.e., exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) oper­
ating as an integrated system.
"Ecosystem" is the preferred term
in English while "biocoenosis" or
"biogeocoenosis" is preferred by writ­
ers using or familiar with the Germanic
and Slavic languages. (After Odum
1971)
Some (Ford-Robertson 1971, Hanson 1962) make a distinction between
the two terms by using bio(geo)coenosis to refer to actual biological
units (such as a certain bog) and
"ecosystem" when referring to con­
ceptual units. Others (Odum 1971)
make no such distinction. We prefer
Odum's lumping of the terms, while
recognizing that in some technical,
ecological literature the distinction is
significant. (C.F.S.)
5. Any complex of living organisms
taken together with all the other biotic
and abiotic factors which affect them,
that are mentally isolated for purposes
of study. (After Ford-Robertson 1971,
citing Tansley)
into service to that date when the
facility is no longer economically prof­
itable to use. (Winfrey and Zellner
1971)
Also see Physical life.
Economic scarcity (Resource scarcity)
The condition whereby a limited
number of marketable goods are desired in higher quantities than available. The "scarcity" can be eliminated
either by increasing the supply of
available goods and maintaining a low
price, or by raising the price of the
goods until the number of people will­
ing to pay the higher price is reduced
to the supply level. Which is the so­
cially superior method depends on
supply costs and the existence of economic externalities. (E. C. T.)
Economic subregion
U.S. Bureau of the Census usage.
These areas represent combinations of
state economic areas. The 510 state
economic areas in the 1970 U.S. Cen­
sus are consolidated into a set of 121
economic subregions which cut across
state lines but which, as intended, preserve to a great extent the homoge­
neous character of the state economic
areas. (U.S. Bur. Census 1971)
Economic unit. See Economic enterprise.
Ecotone
Ecosystem (Bioc(o)enosis, Bioc(o)enose,
Biogeoc(o)enosis, Biogeoc(o)enose)
1. The system formed by the interaction of a group of organisms and
their environment. (Durrenberger
1973)
2. A complete, interacting system
of organisms considered together with
their environment, e.g., a marsh, a
watershed, a lake, etc. (After Hanson
1962)
3. An ecological community con­
sidered together with the nonliving
factors of its environment as a unit.
(Webster 1963)
4. Any spatial unit that includes all
of the organisms (i.e., the biotic com-
An ecotone is a transition between
two or more biotic communities.
It is a junction zone or tension belt
which may have considerable linear extent but is narrower than the adjoining
community areas themselves.
The ecotonal community common­
ly contains many of the organisms of
each of the overlapping communities
and, in addition, organisms which are
characteristic of and often restricted
to the ecotone. Often, the number of
species in the ecotone is greater than in
the communities flanking it. Orga­
nisms which occur primarily or most
abundantly or spend the greatest
67
analysis. (E. C. T.)
See Cost-effectiveness analysis.
amount of time in junctional commu­
nities are often called "edge species".
(Odum 1959)
Effectiveness test
U.S. Water Resources Council
(WRC) usage. One of the tests to be
applied in choosing among alternatives
in planning for water and related land
resources while following the WRC
Principles and Standards.
The "effectiveness test" refers to
technical performance of the plan and
the level of contribution to the com­
ponents of the objectives. (U.S. Dep.
of Agric. 1974)
Ecotype (Geographical race, Habitat
type)
1. A locally adapted population of
a species which has a distinctive limit
of tolerance to environmental factors.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
2. A genetically uniform popula­
tion of a species resulting from natural
selection by the special conditions of a
particular habitat. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
Edaphic
Pertaining to the soil. (Marsh 1964)
Efficiency test
U. S. Water Resources Council
(WRC) usage. One of the tests to be
applied in choosing among alternatives
in planning for water and related land
resources while following the WRC
Principles and Standards.
The "efficiency test" requires that
among all acceptable alternatives (Fed­
eral and non-Federal, water and nonwater, structural and nonstructural)
the given alternative plan should be the
least cost means, considering all
adverse effects, of achieving specified
components of the objectives when
comparably evaluated according to
these standards. (U.S. Dep. of Agric.
1974)
Edaphic climax. See Climax community,
definition 3.
Edaphic factor (Soil factor)
A characteristic or factor of the soil
environment which limits the develop­
ment or existence of an organism or
biotic community.
For example, low nutrient or
micro-nutrient concentrations, or the
presence of toxic concentrations of
certain substances, or insufficient or
excess soil moisture conditions are
typical edaphic factors. (Marsh 1964)
Especially used to refer to soil fac­
tors as opposed to physiographic or
climatic factors. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
Effluent
The liquids discharged from domestic, industrial and municipal waste col­
lection systems or treatment facilities.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Edge
Visual terminology usage. The lin­
ear elements in a view which are noted
(or considered by the observer) as be­
ing the dividing lines between major
components of a scene. "Edges" serve
as visual boundaries–such as land–
water boundaries or forest-meadow
boundaries. (After Litton 1966)
Egalitarianism
1. A belief that all people are equal
in intrinsic worth and are entitled to
equal access to the rights and privileges
of their society. (Webster 1963)
2. A social philosophy advocating
the leveling of social, political and eco­
nomic inequalities. (Webster 1963)
As an ideology, it holds that equal­
ity in various specified aspects of so­
cial life and organization is just and
Edge species. See Species, edge.
Effectiveness-cost analysis.
effectiveness analysis.
See
Cost-
Effectiveness index
The index used in cost-effectiveness
68
proper and should be a goal in the redesign of social institutions.
Exactly what aspects of social real­
ity are considered in order to decide
what should be equal and what un­
equal is a rather complex problem that
sometimes involves self contradictions;
for example, equality of opportunity
can result in unequal distributions, because people have different abilities,
degrees of motivation, and luck; equal­
ity of resource inputs in different
schools may result in inequality in
educational achievements of the stu­
dents, if the latter began with unequal
advantages, and attempting to equalize
output of student achievement from
different schools might require un­
equal resource inputs in order to overcome the initial handicaps of some stu­
dents. (O'Connell 1974)
Eminent domain
1. The right or power of govern­
ment subject to constitutional and
statutory limitations to take private
property for public use upon making
just compensation. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor
Recreation 1974)
2. The legal right of public agencies
to claim private property for public
use, if compensation is made to the
owner for property so claimed. The
use of this power is limited by the
"Due Process of the Law" clause in
the 14th Amendment of the United
States Constitution. (Sesco, et al.
1973)
Also see Taking, Police power, Just
compensation.
EIS. See Environmental impact statement.
Endangered species. See Species, endangered.
Elasticity
In economics, a measure of the re­
sponsiveness of the quantity de­
manded or supplied to changes in
price. Elasticity measures the degree to
which price is effective in calling forth
or holding back quantity. (U.S. Gen.
Account. Off. 1969)
Endangered Species Act of 1973 (PL 93205; 87 Stat. 884)
Repeals and replaces the Endan­
gered Species Conservation Act of
1969. An act to provide a means
whereby ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend may be conserved, to provide a program for the conservation of
such endangered species and threat­
ened species, and to take such steps as
may be appropriate to achieve the pur­
poses of the (relevant) treaties and
conventions . . . . (Endangered Species
Act of 1973)
Also see Conservation, definition 3.
Enclosing landscape. See Landscape, enclosing.
Element. See Plan element or Program
element.
Elites
The individuals at the top of any
stratification hierarchy, such as eco­
nomic, social prestige, or political.
The term "power elite" implies a
high degree of coordination and a set
of common interests among those in
top corporate and governmental posi­
tions. (O'Connell 1974)
Also see Social class.
Endangered Species Conservation Act of
1969
Now repealed and replaced by the
Endangered Species Act of 1973.
Elitism. See Pluralism.
ELU. See Ecological land unit.
Eltonian pyramid.
numbers.
See
Pyramid
of
69
Endemic organism
A taxonomic category (e.g., genus,
species, variety) whose natural occur­
rence is confined to a certain region
and whose distribution is relatively
limited. (After Hanson 1962)
ultimately determine its form and sur­
vival. (Holland 1970)
2. Something that surrounds; sur­
roundings.
All the conditions, circumstances,
and influences surrounding and af­
fecting the development of an orga­
nism or group of organisms. (U.S.
Forest Serv. 1971)
3. The aggregate of all the external
conditions and influences affecting the
life and development of an organism,
society, etc. (After Webster 1963)
Also see Habitat.
Also see Native organism. Contrast
with Species, exotic; Species, feral;
Spe-cies, naturalized; and Species,
resident.
Endemic species. See Endemic organism.
Energy resource planning
Functional planning for the devel­
opment and use of energy resources.
(E.C.T.)
Also see Functional planning.
Engineering solution
1. The actual application of tech­
nical solutions to solve (or at least
minimize) problems associated with
particular land uses or land use practices. (C.F.S.)
2. The use of technical knowledge
to implement a project by minimizing
its land use problems. (After Webster
1963)
The distinction between technological solutions, and "engineering
solutions" is that the first refers just to
the development of new technical
means for providing solutions whereas
the second applies to the application
of any technical solution (new or old)
to solve the potential problems.
The distinction between "engineer­
ing solutions" and design solutions is
that the second minimizes potential
conflicts by manipulating size, shape,
appearance, and placement whereas
the first utilizes technical solutions.
For example, an engineering solu­
tion to stabilizing a stream bank
against erosion by increased runoff
might be to line certain portions of the
channel with concrete. A "design solu­
tion" to such a potential problem
would be minimization of use of im­
pervious pavings by projects or redi­
rection of such increased runoff into
high-infiltration-rate, heavily vegetated
portions of the site. (C.F.S.)
Environmental analysis. See Environmental impact analysis.
Environmental analysis report (EAR)
A report on environmental effects
of proposed Federal actions which
may require an Environmental impact
statement (EIS) under section 102 of
the National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA). The EAR is an "in-house"
document of varying degrees of for­
mality which becomes the final docu­
ment on environmental impacts for
those projects which, because their
effects are minor, do not require a for­
mal EIS. Although not formally prescribed under NEPA, the EAR is the
document normally used to determine
whether section 102 of NEPA applied
to the project in question, and as such
is subject to court challenge if no EIS
is filed. (E. C. T.)
Also see Environmental impact
statement, final.
Environmental assessment. See Environmental impact analysis.
Environmental corridor (Buffer, Buffer
strip, Buffer zone)
1. A strip of land designed to pro­
tect the natural environment of an
area and to prevent undesirable en­
croachment such as commercial devel­
opment along a stream. (Sesco, et al.
1973)
Also see Buffer.
Environment
1. The complex of climatic, soil
and biotic factors that act upon an or­
ganism or ecological community and
70
1969) requires that such statements be
prepared. It is prepared first in draft or
review form, and then, in a final form.
An impact statement includes the fol­
lowing points: (1) the environmental
impact of the proposed action, (2) any
adverse impacts which cannot be
avoided by the action, (3) the alterna­
tive courses of action, (4) the relationships between local short-term uses of
man's environment and the mainte­
nance and enhancement of long-term
productivity, (5) a description of the
irreversible and irretrievable commit­
ment of resources which would occur
if the action were accomplished.
(Sesco, et al. 1973)
Although "environmental impact
statement" (EIS) is the popularly used
term, some prefer the term "Environ­
mental statement" (ES), feeling that
EIS is an inaccuracy due to the nega­
tive connotations of the word "im­
pact". Section 102(C) of NEPA men­
tions that impacts, effects, alterna­
tives, etc. will be contained in the re­
quired "detailed statement". Conse­
quently, to name one feature and to
exclude others is inaccurate. Thus the
draft is the DES and the final state­
ment the FES. (After J.Z.)
Philip Lewis' usage. The linear pattern identified in the typical midwest­
ern landscape by combining maps of
the major natural environmental ele­
ments of importance for recreation
(rivers, lakes, wetlands and significant
relief) with man-made features having
recreational value (e.g., historic sites).
(After Belknap and Furtado 1967)
Environmental durability. See Durability.
Environmental fragility. See Fragility.
Environmental
hazard.
hazard.
See
Natural
Environmental impact analysis (Environmental analysis, Environmental assessment, Environmental impact assessment)
1. An activity that involves the
consideration of the interaction of
physical, natural, social and economic
factors and a determination of prob­
able effects of the plan or proposal
upon these operating systems. (U.S.
Forest Serv., FSM 8310.5, Oct. 1973)
2. A process that generates knowledge of environmental and ecological
impacts, and evaluates their conse­
quences before activities are undertaken. (Heyman and Twiss 1971)
3. An evaluation and objective prediction diction of the environmental impacts
of a proposed action using a system­
atic, interdisciplinary approach that
integrates social and natural sciences
and environmental design arts. (After
National Environmental Policy Act)
Environmental impact statement, draft
(DEIS, Draft environmental statement,
DES)
The version of the statement of
environmental effects required for
major Federal actions under section
102 of the National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA), and released to
the public and other agencies for com­
ment and review. It is a formal docu­
ment which must follow the require­
ments of NEPA, the Council on En­
vironmental Quality (CEQ) Guidelines,
and directives of the agency respon­
sible for the project proposal. Since
the adoption of state and local laws
modeled after NEPA, this term has
also been used to refer to similar state­
ments required to comply with those
Environmental impact assessment. See
Environmental impact analysis.
Environmental impact statement (EIS,
102 statement, Environmental statement)
A document prepared by a Federal
agency in which anticipated environ­
mental effects of a planned course of
action or development are evaluated.
A Federal statute (section 102 of the
National Environmental Policy Act of
71
outdoor environment and which rec­
onciles their demands for and impacts
upon the outdoor environment.
Planning which seeks to ensure that
policies, programs, designs and actual
developments incorporate forecasts of
the effects upon environmental ame­
nity and ecology so as to anticipate and
evaluate the consequences of deci­
sion in light of present and future
values at stake. (Appleyard 1971)
laws. (E.C.T.)
Also see Environmental impact
statement and Environmental impact
statement, final.
Environmental impact statement, final
(EIS, Final environmental statement,
FES)
The final version of the statement
of environmental effects required for
major Federal actions under section
102 of the National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA). It is a revision of
the draft environmental impact state­
ment to include public and agency re­
sponses to the draft. It is a formal
document which must meet legal re­
quirements and is the document used
as a basis for judicial decisions con­
cerning compliance with NEPA. This
term is also used for similar statements
prepared to comply with state and
local laws patterned after NEPA.
(E. C. T.)
Also see Environmental impact
statement and Environmental impact
statement, draft.
Environmental modification
Deliberate or unintentional changes
produced by man in the external con­
ditions that act upon an organism or
community to influence its develop­
ment or existence. (After T.E.A.)
Environmental psychology
That area of psychology which
deals with environmentally induced
behavior or mental states of individ­
uals or groups, e.g., whereas psychoanalysis probes for subconscious moti­
vations derived from past experience,
or behavioral psychology attempts to
alter self concepts through operant
conditioning, environmental psychol­
ogy seeks to determine how the everyday physical environment affects
human behavior.
Also, the study of human percep­
tion of elements in the environment or
of different types of environmental
settings. Perception in this context is
understood to mean not only direct
sensory knowledge but also cognitive
discrimination expressed in terms of
preferences rated on a scale of desira­
bility vs undesirability. (L. W.)
Environmental planning
Planning which considers the en­
vironment not only in terms of physi­
cal configurations, location and space
but also in terms of direct experiential
and sensory surroundings as a primary
source of living experience, and as a
primary conditioner of physical and
psychological development for each
individual human being.
Planning which recognizes the en­
vironment as a physical and biological
system, with its own natural and tech­
nological characteristics and processes.
Planning which is concerned with
human activities taking place in the
Environmental quality
1. Natural environmental quality.
Heyman and Twiss in evaluating man­
agement practices on the Federal
public lands speak of "environmental
quality" as referring "primarily to the
continuance, to the extent feasible, of
the natural ecosystems existing on
public lands especially as that eco­
system is important to human health
and safety, the provision of direct
sensory experiences, and the con-tinued
viability of life forms and biotic
communities that exist naturally on,
and surrounding, the public lands."
(Heyman and Twiss 1971)
Environmental index. See Index.
72
formulation for water and related land
resources planning specified in the
Water Resources Council's Principles
and Standards and the U.S. Depart­
ment of Agriculture's "Procedures"
for adhering to them. (After U.S. Dep.
of Agric. 1974)
5. The sum total of the forces and
factors which influence people's satis­
factions with their work, leisure, living
conditions and community. (Barron
1972)
2. In general, definition 1 must be
expanded to include all environments
experienced by man and include as­
pects of environmental psychology.
Even though qualities may exist without man, it is man who makes the
judgments that define qualities. The
qualities are both individual and con­
sensus. The "group" may attach some
value or measure of quality to some
environment, and each individual may
give a somewhat different value to the
same environment. "Quality" is a
"separate reality" for each individual,
but may contain universals for a great
many individuals. Thus, the environ­
ment may be a wilderness or a city
street, with each person having his or
her own value judgment as to the qual­
ity of the environment, but together
they may reach a consensus which
forms an "environmental quality"
basis for planning. (After A. W.M.)
3. U.S. Water Resources Council
(WRC) usage. Enhancing environmen­
tal quality by the management, conser­
vation, preservation, creation, restora­
tion or improvement of the quality of
certain national and cultural resources
and ecological systems is one of the
two main objectives for programs in­
volving water and related land resources administered by Federal agen­
cies whose activities involve planning
and development of water resources, as
contained in the Water Resources
Council Principles and Standards.
An evaluation of environmental
quality effects should include: (1)
areas of natural beauty; (2) water,
land, and air quality; (3) biological resources and selected ecosystems; (4)
geological, archeological, and historical
resources; and (5) irretrievable com­
mitments of resources to future use.
(After U.S. Dep. of Agric. 1974)
4. One of the four "required ac­
counts" for categorizing, displaying, or
"accounting" the beneficial and adverse effects of each alternative plan
Environmental Quality Improvement Act
of 1970 (83 Stat. 852; 42 U.S.C.
4371-4374)
Assures that each Federal depart­
ment and agency conducting or supporting public work activities which
affect the environment shall imple­
ment the policies established under
existing law; and authorizes an Office
of Environmental Quality, which shall
provide the professional and adminis­
trative staff for the Council on En­
vironmental Quality. (After U. S.
Forest Serv. 1974)
Environmental quality index. See Environmental quality and Index.
Environmental setting. For U.S. Forest
Service usage see Management situation.
Environmental statement. See discussion
in paragraph 2 under Environmental
impact statement.
Environmental system
An arbitrarily defined set of interacting components in the environ­
ment, understood to have some degree
of unitary integrity. (L. W.)
Environment, human
The aggregate of all the external
conditions and influences affecting the
life and development of an individual,
society, etc. (After U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 8310.5, Oct., 1973)
73
"Sheet" and "rill erosion" are the two
forms which "surface erosion" may
take. "Beach erosion" is always
"shoreline erosion"–though, because
not all shorelines are beaches, "shoreline erosion" is not always "beach ero­
sion". The term accelerated erosion
is used in comparing erosion caused by
human activities with that occurring at
natural rates (i.e., geologic erosion).
(C.F.S.)
Ephemeral stream
1. A stream or portion of a stream
that flows only in direct response to
precipitation. It receives little or no
water from springs and no long-con­
tinued supply from snow or other
sources. Its channel is at all times
above the water table. (Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
2. The term may be arbitrarily re­
stricted to streams which have no-flow
periods of one month or longer. (Amer.
Geol. Inst. 1962)
3. In areas where precipitation al­
most totally consists of rainfall, the
term is commonly used to refer to the
short-lived streams which flow for
only a very short time (a few days at
most) after each storm event. (C.F.S.)
4. They have no permanent or
well-defined channels but follow slight
depressions in the natural contour of
the ground surface. (Wisler and Brater
1959)
Also see Intermittent stream and
Perennial stream.
Erosion, accelerated
1. Erosion that can be attributed
directly or indirectly to the activities
of man. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1963)
2. Erosion much more rapid than
normal erosion, natural erosion, or
geologic erosion, and occurring primar­
ily as a result of the influence of the
activities of man or, in some cases, of
other animals or natural catastrophes
that expose bare surfaces (for exam­
ple, fires). (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Erosion, bank
Destruction of land area by active
cutting of stream-banks. (Wash. Dep.
Ecol. 1973)
Erosion
The group of processes whereby
earthy or rock material is worn away,
loosened or dissolved and removed
from any part of the earth's surface. It
includes the processes of weathering,
solution, corrasion and transportation.
(Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
"Erosion" is often classified by the
eroding agent (wind, water, wave, or
raindrop erosion) and/or by the ap­
pearance of the erosion (sheet, rill, or
gully erosion) and/or by the location
of the erosional activity (surface, or
shoreline) or by the material being
eroded (soil erosion or beach erosion),
Relations between erosion terms:
"raindrop erosion" always takes the
form of "sheet erosion"–though
"sheet erosion" can also be caused by
wind action or the movement of thin
sheets of water over the ground sur­
face. "Sheet", "gully" and "rill ero­
sion" are all forms of "soil erosion".
Erosion, beach
The retreat of the shoreline of large
lakes and coastal waters caused by
wave action, shore currents or causes
other than subsidence. (Wash. Dep.
Ecol. 1973)
Erosion, geologic (Natural erosion)
1. The gradual wearing away of the
land surface which occurred prior to
the occupancy of a land area by man
or the present day wearing away which
is not due to the activities of man.
(U.S. Forest Serv. 1963)
2. The normal or natural erosion
caused by geological processes acting
over long geologic periods and result­
ing in the wearing away of mountains,
the building up of floodplains, coastal
plains, etc. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
74
2. The more or less uniform remov­
al of soil from an area without the de­
velopment of conspicuous water chan­
nels. (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1951)
Erosion, gully
1. The removal of soil by the for­
mation of relatively large channels or
gullies cut into the soil by concen­
trated surface runoff. In contrast to
rills, gullies are too deep to be obliter­
ated by ordinary tillage practices.
(US. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1951)
2. The widening, deepening and
headward cutting of small channels
and waterways due to erosion. (Wash.
Dep. Ecol. 1973)
3. The erosion process whereby
water accumulates in narrow ephemeral stream channels and, over short peri­
ods, removes the soil from this narrow
area to considerable depths. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Erosion, soil
The detachment and movement of
soil from the land surface by wind or
water. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Erosion, splash (Raindrop erosion)
The spattering of small soil particles
caused by the impact of raindrops on
wet soils. The loosened and spattered
particles may or may not be subse­
quently removed by surface runoff.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Erosion, surface
Erosion which removes materials
from the surface of the land as distin­
guished from gully or channel erosion.
The two main types of surface ero­
sion are sheet erosion and rill erosion.
(U.S. Forest Serv. 1963)
Erosion, natural (Geologic erosion)
Wearing away of the earth's surface
by natural agents under natural envi­
ronmental conditions of climate, vege­
tation, etc., undisturbed by man. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Erosion, normal
The gradual erosion of land used by
man which does not greatly exceed
natural erosion. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
ES. See Environmental impact statement.
Esthetics. A spelling variation of aesthetics. See Aesthetics.
Erosion, raindrop. See Erosion, splash.
Estuarine area
U.S. Forest Service usage. The envi­
ronmental system of an estuary and
those transitional areas which are con­
sistently influenced or affected by
water from an estuary. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1963, FSM 2605, Sept. 1974)
Erosion, rill
1. The removal of soil by the cut­
ting of numerous small, but conspicu­
ous, water channels or tiny rivulets by
concentrated surface runoff.
Rill erosion is intermediate between
sheet erosion and gully erosion. (U.S.
Soil Conserv. Serv. 1951)
2. The process by which numerous
small channels, at the most only several
inches deep, are formed on recently
cultivated or exposed soils. (After Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Estuarine sanctuary
Coastal Zone Management Act usage. A research area which may in­
clude any part or all of an estuary, adjoining transitional areas, and adjacent
uplands, constituting to the extent
feasible a natural unit, set aside to provide scientists and students the oppor­
tunity to examine over a period of
time the ecological relationships within the area. (Coastal Zone Manage. Act
1972)
Erosion, sheet
1. The removal of a fairly uniform
layer of soil from the land surface by
runoff water or wind. (Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
75
Estuary
come. (Durrenberger 1973)
2. The term "eutrophic" means
well-nourished, and "eutrophication"
refers to the natural or artificial addi­
tion of nutrients to bodies of water
and to the effects of any resulting
stimulation of algal growth.
For better understanding a distinc­
tion should be made between
"eutrophication" in the sense of an increase in nutrient supply as opposed to
use in reference to the effects of nutri­
ent enrichment.
When the effects of nutrient enrich­
ment are undesirable, "eutrophica­
tion" may be considered to be a form
of pollution. (After Natl. Acad. Sci.
1969)
Man-caused "eutrophication" is
called cultural eutrophication.
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. All or
part of the mouth of a navigable or
interstate river or stream or other
body of water having unimpaired nat­
ural connection with the open sea and
within which the sea water is measur­
ably diluted with fresh water derived
from land runoff, as defined in Public
Law 89-753, and similar lands and
waters of the Great Lakes, as directed
in Public Law 90-454. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1963, FSM 2605, Sept 1974)
2. A water body having an open,
natural connection with the sea and
within which the sea water is measur­
ably diluted by freshwater runoff.
(C.F.S.)
3. A body of water in which
stream water mixes with and measur­
ably dilutes sea water.
The wide mouth of a river or arm
of the sea where the tide meets the
river currents, or flows and ebbs. (Reid
1961)
4. Coastal Zone Management Act
usage. That part of a river or stream or
other body of water having unim­
paired connection with the open sea,
where the sea water is measurably di­
luted with fresh water derived from
land drainage. The term includes
estuary-type areas of the Great Lakes.
(Coastal Zone Manage. Act 1972)
Evaluation
An examination and judging con­
cerning the worth, quality, signifi­
cance, amount, degree or condition of
something. (Webster 1963)
Even-aged management
The actions that will result in a for­
est, crop, or stand composed of trees
having no or relatively small differ­
ences in age. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Even-aged stand
A forest stand composed of trees
having no, or relatively small, differ­
ences in age.
By convention the maximum differ­
ence admissible is generally 10 to 20
years, though with rotations of less
than 100 years differences up to 25
percent of the rotation period may be
admissible. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
EWU. See Ecological water unit.
Euclidean zoning. See Zoning, Euclidean.
Eury- (Euroky-)
A combining prefix denoting ability
(of an organism) to tolerate large
changes in environmental conditions.
For example, eurythermal describes
organisms which can tolerate large
temperature ranges. (After Hanson
1962)
Also see Steno-.
Excepted mineral. See Mineral, excepted.
Exception. For the zoning terminology
usage see Special exception.
Eutrophication
1. The process of overfertilization
of a body of water by nutrients that
produce more organic matter than the
self-purification processes can over-
Exclusive use zoning. See Zoning, exclusive use.
Exclusive zoning. See Zoning, exclusive
use.
76
Exempt stock
Livestock which are permitted to
graze on Federal land free of charge.
Usually confined to animals actually
used for domestic purposes; saddle
horses, milk cows, etc. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
societies and even to groups within so­
cieties, and which are not consciously
thought of, at least until one is not
observed.
Expectations are both normative, in
that they reflect what people believe
ought to happen, and statistical, in
that they express what people believe
probably will happen. (O'Connell
1974)
Exhaustible resource. See Nonrenewable
resource.
Existence value (Bequest motive)
The external benefit of natural en­
vironments (or any kind of good) that
accrues to individuals having no inten­
tion of ever visiting the site or using
the good in question. These people are
willing to give up resources simply to
know that the area, feature, or good
exists in a particular condition.
The concept of "existence value"
has been recognized for some time.
John Krutilla (1967) has used the term
"bequest motive" to express roughly
the same idea. Existence value is pre­
ferred because it is less specific in its
connotations about motivations; i.e., it
does not imply a handing down to
later generations.
This type of external benefit is fre­
quently claimed to be associated with
wilderness and outstanding natural
features. (Tomhaugh 1971)
Export base analysis (Economic base
analysis)
1. A multiplier analysis method for
estimating regional economic effects
of projects. It is particularly suited to
rural areas. The economy is divided into two sectors, "export" and "ser­
vice". The export sector includes all
goods and services produced for con­
sumption outside the region being
evaluated. The service sector includes
all other economic activity. The export sector is assumed to create the
need for the service sector, and a mul­
tiplier is calculated for each export in­
dustry, relating employment in the ser­
vice sector to the level of activity in
that industry. By determining project
effects on the export industries, the
total economic effects can be esti­
mated. (After Convery 1973)
2. A type of economic base anal­
ysis. (E. C. T.)
Exotic organism
1. More general than exotic species
usage. Any organism (plant or animal)
that is not native in the area where it
occurs. (Hanson 1962)
Also see Naturalized species, Feral
species, and contrast with Resident
species, Native organism, and Endemic
organism.
2. An organism that has been intro­
duced from another continent. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Exposure (Slope orientation, Aspect)
The compass direction that the
slope of a land surface faces toward
(e.g., north, northwest, south). (After
Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Extensive recreation. See Recreation, extensive.
Externalities. See Economic externalities.
Extinct or possibly extinct species. See
Species, extinct or possibly extinct.
Exotic species. See Exotic organism and
Species, exotic.
Extractive economics
The economics of industries which
remove natural resources and supply
them to other industries as raw materi-
Expectations
The rules governing social situa­
tions, which are specific to particular
77
tional values created by man-made
changes, adaptations, and additions to
basic natural (i.e., intrinsic) resources.
For example the occurrence of mill
ponds, historic sites, tourist service
facilities, archeological sites, etc.
(Belknap and Furtado 1967)
als. The economic analysis of these in­
dustries is more often complicated by
depletion of fixed stocks, resource
ownership ambiguities, and "common
pool" externalities than is true with
other types of industries. (E. C. T.)
Extraordinary planning
Any type of planning process
which, by design, changes existing in­
stitutions to obtain alternative desired
futures. (H. J. V.)
2. The term is now used to refer to
any resource of human origin–especially in contrast to resources of natural
origin (i.e., intrinsic resources).
Extrinsic resource
1. Philip H. Lewis usage. Recrea-
See Intrinsic resource for natural
recreation resource features.
F
Farmstead or headquarters
Land used primarily for dwellings,
barns, pens, corrals, gardens, and other
uses in connection with operating
farms or ranches. (U.S. Soil Conserv.
Serv. 1970)
Evaluation based on the present
likelihood or under specific manage­
ment conditions.
The relative advantage of managing
or improving a unit considering its
capability and suitability for a specific
use under the existing or projected so­
cioeconomic climate. Use feasibility,
for example, could be applied on the
basis of accessibility or population po­
tential. If one unit is closer to a metro­
politan center, it would be more acces­
sible and thus would have a higher
feasibility rating. (Belknap and Furtado 1967)
Fault (Earthquake fault)
A ground surface fracture or frac­
ture zone along which there has been
displacement of one side with respect
to the other. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Fault, active
A linear break in the earth's surface
that has undergone movement in recent geologic time (the last 10,000
years) and may be subject to future
movement. (After Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Feasibility evaluation. See Feasibility.
Feature-dominated landscape. See Landscape, feature-dominated.
Federal lands
Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for
a National Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act. All Federal land,
no matter how it was acquired and no
matter what agency has responsibility
for its management, except reservation
and other tribal lands. (U.S. Congr.,
Senate, Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973)
Fauna
The animal life of an area, "animal"
being used in the broad sense to in­
clude birds, fish, reptiles, insects, mol­
lusks, crustaceans, etc., in addition to
mammals. (C.F.S.)
Feasibility (Use feasibility)
A step in G.A. Hills' system for land
evaluation. Evaluation of lands useability under present and forecasted
socioeconomic conditions.
Feed
Any non-injurious edible material
having nutrient value; may be har­
vested forage, range or artificial pas78
ture forage, grain, or other processed
food for livestock or game animals.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Final environmental statement. See Environmental impact statement, final, and
Environmental impact statement.
Feedback
Negative feedback is a return input
which reduces the quantity or quality
of outputs, and positive feedback is returned input which increases subse­
quent outputs. (After Webster 1963)
Fire break
A natural or artificial barrier usual­
ly created by the removal of vegeta­
tion and used to prevent or retard the
spread of fire. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Fuel break.
Feedback loop
The pathway by which a portion of
the output of a system or process returns to become a part of its inputs.
(After Webster 1963)
Fire planning
Functional planning for the preven­
tion or detection of wildfires or the
control of a wildfire. (E. C. T.)
Also see Functional planning.
Fee simple ownership. See Ownership, fee
simple.
Fire, prescribed. See Prescribed burn.
Felling (Cutting)
The cutting down of standing trees.
"Felling" is not a synonym for logging nor harvesting. These latter terms
also include removal of felled trees and
some initial processing of the timber
prior to removal. (After Ford-Robertson 1971)
Fish
U.S. Forest Service usage. Includes
all species of fresh or salt-water fishes,
as well as crustaceans, mollusks, and
other underwater organisms which are
considered part of the fishery resource. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2605,
Sept. 1974)
Felling cycle. See Cutting cycle.
Fishery
Felling rotation. See Rotation.
U.S. Bureau of Land Management
usage. Any premises upon which
breeding, hatching or fish-rearing facil­
ities are situated when such premises
are required to have a license by the
state fish and game code, including
ponds for commercial use. (Eisner
1969)
Feral species. See Species, feral.
Fertility. See Soil fertility.
FES. See Environmental impact statement, final, and Environmental impact statement.
Flood
Filter strip. See Buffer, definition 2.
1. An overflow or inundation that
comes from a river or other body of
water and causes or threatens to cause
property damage. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
2. Any relatively high streamflow
which overtops the natural or artificial
banks in any extended portion of a
stream. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Final cutting
The logging operation which removes the last of the old crop trees in
a stand being managed under the shelterwood system of silviculture. (After
Ford-Robertson 1971)
See Shelterwood system for timing
of the cuttings in that silvicultural sys­
tem.
Flood, annual
The highest peak discharge for a
stream in a water year. (Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Final environmental impact statement.
See Environmental impact statement,
final.
79
Flood basin
1. The tract actually covered by
water during the highest known
floods. (After Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
2. The flat areas between the
sloping low plains of the valley sides
and the river banks (and commonly
containing heavy soils and either no
vegetation or a strictly swampy vegeta­
tion). (After Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Flood plain zoning. See Zoning, flood
plain.
Flood frequency
Over a period of years, the average
number of times a flood of a given
magnitude is likely to occur. (Amer.
Geol. Inst. 1962)
Flora
Flood peak
The maximum volume of flow at­
tained at a given point during a flood
event. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Flow duration curve (Duration curve)
A graphical representation of the
number of times given stream flow vol­
umes are equalled or exceeded during a
certain period of record. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Flood stage
The water surface elevation above
some chosen reference level at which
overflow of the natural banks of a
stream begins to cause damage in the
area in which the depth of the flow is
measured. (After Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
1. The plant life of an area. (Durrenberger 1973)
2. The sum total of the kinds of
plants in an area at one time. (Hanson
1962)
Flood plain
That portion of a stream valley, ad­
jacent to the channel, which is built of
sediments during the present regimen
(i.e., the state of equilibrium between a
stream and its ability to transport
sediments) of the stream and which is
covered with water when the stream
overflows its banks at flood stages.
(Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
The nearly level land situated on
either side of a channel which is sub­
ject to overflow flooding. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
The extent of a flood plain obvious­
ly fluctuates with the size of overbank
stream flows. Thus, no simple, abso­
lute flood plain commonly exists. As a
consequence, flood plains are deline­
ated in terms of some specified flood
size (e.g., the 50-year flood plain–the
area that would be flooded by the
largest stream flow that will, on the
average, occur once within a 50-year
period). Such expected flood-return
frequencies are estimated from historic
records of stream flows. The largest,
absolute flood plain that is ever likely
to occur is sometimes referred to as
the flood basin. (C.F.S.)
Flow resource. See Renewable resource.
Fluvial
1. Of or pertaining to streams and
flowing waters. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
2. Growing or living in streams.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
3. Produced by stream action, as a
fluvial plain. (After Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Focal landscape. See Landscape, focal.
Folkway
A mode of thinking, feeling or act­
ing common to a people or to a social
group–especially a social habit that
has not been rationalized or given ethi­
cal force. (Webster 1963)
Food chain
1. A series of spatially associated
species, each of which lives (at least in
part) as a predator, parasite or ab­
sorber of the next lower down in the
series.
This concept is useful for analyzing
80
able and palatable live plant material
and dead tips of growing grasses.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
the feeding relations between asso­
ciated animals. (Carpenter 1938)
2. The transfer of food energy
from the initial source in plants
through a series of organisms by re­
peated eating and being eaten.
"Food chains" are not isolated se­
quences but are interconnected with
one another. The interlocking pattern
is often spoken of as the food web.
(Odum 1953)
Forage production (Forage yield)
The weight of forage that is pro­
duced within a designated period of
time on a given area.
The weight may be expressed as
either green, air dry or oven dry. The
term may also be modified as to time
of production such as annual, current
year's or seasonal forage production.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Food web (Food cycle, Web of life)
1. The more or less complex feed­
ing relationships between all the spe­
cies occurring in a biotic community,
showing where each species obtains its
food and what other organisms in turn
derive their food from it. (Carpenter
1938)
A "food web" typically shows all
the food chains and interconnections
between food chains in a biotic com­
munity.
2. The total complex pattern of
feeding relations of an independent,
self-maintaining, major, biotic com­
munity. (Allee 1949)
Forage, unavailable
That which cannot be grazed by
livestock. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Forage yield. See Forage production.
Forb
1. Any herbaceous plant other
than those in the Gramineae (true
grasses), Cyperaceae (sedges) and
Juncaceae (rushes) families–i.e., any
nongrass-like plant having little or no
woody material on it. (After Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
2. A palatable, broad-leaved, flow­
ering herb whose stem, above ground,
does not become woody and persis­
tent. (Grim and Hill 1974)
Forage
All browse and nonwoody plants
that are available to livestock or game
animals and used for grazing or har­
vested for feeding. (After Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Forage acre requirement
The amount of forage, expressed in
forage acres or fractions thereof,
needed to sustain a mature grazing
animal for a specified period without
injury to the range resource. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Forecast
A prediction of future conditions
and occurrences based on the per­
ceived functioning of the system in
question. The accuracy of a forecast is
highly dependent on a proper understanding of the system. A "forecast"
differs in a strict sense from a projection, which is also a prediction of
future conditions and occurrences, but
is based on an extrapolation of past
trends. While the distinction may
exist, the dividing line between the
two terms is imprecise. (E. C. T.)
Also see Projection.
Forage, green
Range forage consisting of all avail-
Foreground
1. That part of a scene, landscape,
Forage acre
Grazing measurement term. Theo­
retically, an acre with a complete areal
cover of forage. A concept used to
estimate grazing capacity. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
81
etc., which is nearest to the viewer.
(Webster 1963)
2. The portions of a view between
the observer and up to ¼ or ½ mile
distant.
The surface patterns on objects and
visual elements are important in the
"foreground" portions of views. In the
foreground portions of a view, observ­
ers are able to relate themselves to the
size of individual visual elements (such
as a tree) and are able to begin to sense
their scale relationship to the land­
scape. Aerial perspective is absent or
insignificant in the "foreground", and
the intensity and lightness or darkness
of colors are seen in maximum con­
trast. Wind motion in trees or on grass
can be seen in this close-in area but
seldom beyond. (Litton 1968)
Also see Background and Middleground.
tance of America's renewable resources of the forest, range, and other
associated lands to the Nation's social
and economic well-being, and of the
necessity for a long term perspective in
planning and undertaking related
National renewable resource programs
administered by the Forest Service,
the Secretary of Agriculture shall prepare a "renewable resource assess­
ment"; shall prepare and transmit to the
President a recommended "renewable resource program"; shall develop
and maintain on a continuing basis a
comprehensive and appropriately detailed inventory of all National Forest
System lands and renewable resources;
and shall develop, maintain, and, as
appropriate, revise land and resource
management plans for units of the
National Forest System, coordinated
with the land and resource manage­
ment planning processes of state and
local governments and other Federal
agencies. In addition the Secretary of
Agriculture may utilize the assessment,
resource surveys, and program prepared pursuant to this act to assist
states and other organizations in proposing the planning for the protection,
use, and management of renewable resources on non-Federal land.
The assessment shall include but
not be limited to– (1) an analysis of
present and anticipated uses, demand
for, and supply of the renewable resources, with consideration of the in­
ternational resource situation, and an
emphasis of pertinent supply and de­
mand and price relationship trends; (2)
an inventory, based on information de­
veloped by the Forest Service and
other Federal agencies, of present and
potential renewable resources, and an
evaluation of opportunities for im­
proving their yield of tangible and intangible goods and services, together
with estimates of investment cost and
direct and indirect returns to the Fed­
eral government; (3) a description of
Forest
1. Generally, an ecosystem char­
acterized by a more or less dense and
extensive tree cover.
More particularly, a plant community predominantly of trees and
other woody vegetation, growing more
or less closely together. (FordRobertson 1971)
2. An area managed for the pro­
duction of timber and other forest
produce, or maintained under woody
vegetation for such indirect benefits as
protection of catchment areas (watersheds) or recreation. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
3. A common usage reduction of
the term "National Forest". The area
within the administrative boundaries
of a National Forest, irrespective of
ground conditions or cover. (E.C.T.)
Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 (P.L.
93-378); (88 Stat. 476-480) (Humphrey-Rarick Act, Resources Planning
Act, RPA)
In recognition of the vital impor-
82
mate or water regime. (Anderson, et
al. 1972 and U.S. Dep. Agric. 1967)
3. Land formerly at least 10 percent stocked by forest trees of any size
and not currently developed for other
uses. (U.S. Dep. Agric. 1967)
Forest Service programs and responsi­
bilities in research, cooperative programs and management of the Nation­
al Forest System, their interrelationships, and the relationship of these
programs and responsibilities to public
and private activities; and (4) a discus­
sion of important policy considera­
tions, laws, regulations, and other fac­
tors expected to influence and affect
significantly the use, ownership, and
management of forest, range, and
other associated lands.
The program transmitted to the
President may include alternatives, and
shall provide in appropriate detail for
protection, management, and develop­
ment of the National Forest System,
including forest development roads
and trails; for cooperative forest ser­
vice programs; and for research. The
program shall be developed in accor­
dance with principles set forth in the
Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of
June 12, 1960, and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969.
In the development and mainte­
nance of land management plans for
use on units of the National Forest
System, the Secretary shall use a sys­
tematic interdisciplinary approach to
achieve integrated consideration of
physical, biological, economic, and
other sciences. (Forest and Rangeland
Renewable Resources Planning Act of
1974)
Forest land use plan (National Forest land
use plan)
U.S. Forest Service usage. A plan
which gathers and coordinates the di­
rection to be followed in the overall
management of a National Forest. In­
cluded in the Forest land use plan are
applicable national and regional man­
agement direction. Planning area
guides, and management zone descrip­
tions (optional), Forest coordinating
requirements, basic assumptions, the
Forest situation statement, planning
unit identification and priority for
study determination, unit plans and
maps, and other necessary graphics
Regional Foresters may prescribe addi­
tional items to be included. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8224, Oct., 1973)
Forest plan. See Forest land use plan.
Forest type
A descriptive term used to group
stands of similar character of develop­
ment and species composition (due to
given ecological factors) by which they
may be differentiated from other
groups of stands. (Soc. Amer. For
1950)
Also see Cover type for actual
units of "forest types."
Forest coordinating requirements. See
Coordinating requirements.
Forest use zoning. See Zoning, forest.
Forest cover type. See Cover type.
Forest zoning. See Zoning, forest.
Forest land
1. Land at least 10 percent occu­
pied by forest trees of any size or for­
merly having had such tree cover and
not currently developed for nonforest
use. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972C)
2. Lands that are at least 10 percent stocked by trees capable of pro­
ducing timber or other wood products
or that exert an influence on the cli-
Fragile lands
Those land or water areas contain­
ing ecosystems, possibly but not neces­
sarily rare, that are sensitive to exter­
nal stimuli which may disturb their
balance, especially in an irreversible
direction. (A. W. M.)
Fragile or historic lands
Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for
83
to "durable." "Fragility" in this usage
applies to those resource types or loca­
tions which are more or less suscep­
tible to degradation under the pre­
sence of whatever use categories have
been considered in the evaluation pro­
cess.
For example, areas of vegetationcovered sand dunes may be charac­
terized as being "environmentally fra­
gile" for off-road vehicle uses, whereas
beaches or unvegetated dunes may be
said to be "environmentally durable"
for the same uses. (C.F.S.)
a National Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act.
Areas where uncontrolled or incom­
patible development could result in ir­
reversible damage to important his­
toric, cultural, scientific, or esthetic
values or natural systems which are of
more than local significance. These
lands include shorelands of rivers,
lakes, and streams; rare or valuable
ecosystems and geological formations;
significant wildlife habitats; and
unique scenic or historic areas.
Coastal areas are specifically de­
leted from this definition. In an
amendment to this act relating to the
Coastal Zone Management Act, the
words "coastal wetlands, marshes and
other lands inundated by the tides,
beaches, dunes and significant estu­
aries" were deleted from the definition
of fragile or historic lands. A state is
free to add these areas to its state land
use program. However, the state need
not do so, but rather can keep such
areas separate and accountable only to
the requirements of the Coastal Zone
Management Act. (U.S. Congr., Senate, Com. Inter., Insular Aff. 1973.)
This is one of the three types of
areas of critical environmental concern
specifically set forth in this bill. The
others are renewable resource lands
and natural hazard lands.
Framework studies and assessments
(Type I plan, Level A plan)
U.S. Water Resources Council
usage. One of the "levels of planning"
for water and related land resources
planning by Federal agencies whose
activities involve planning and develop­
ment of water resources as contained
in the Principles and Standards of the
Water Resources Council.
"Framework studies and assess­
ments" will evaluate or appraise on a
broad basis the needs and desires of
interested people for the conservation,
development, and utilization of water
and land resources; will identify re­
gions or basins with complex problems
which require more detailed investiga­
tions and analyses; and may recom­
mend specific implementation plans
and programs in areas not requiring
further study. They will consider
Federal, state, and local means of im­
plementation.
"Framework studies and assess­
ments" are designed to: (1) determine
the extent of water and land resource
problems and needs; (2) indicate ap­
proaches appropriate for their solu­
tions; and (3) when applicable, iden­
tify specific areas where regional, river
basin, or implementation studies are
needed. (U.S. Dep. of Agric. 1974)
Fragility (Environmental fragility)
1. The quality or state of being:
(A) Easily broken or destroyed (B)
Unusually susceptable to ill health or
harm (C) Barely able or unable to
endure without harm the normal dayto-day physical demands of existence.
(After Webster 1963)
2. In a land use planning context
the relative ability of resources to tol­
erate sustained use without degrada­
tion of the resource base (i.e., lowering
productivity or desirable resource
quality) is sometimes rated on a quali­
tative scale extending from "fragile"
Free range
Range open to grazing regardless of
84
ownership and without payment of
fees; not to be confused with open
range. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
rection established in the National
Forest land use plans. Examples in­
clude timber management plans, trans­
portation plans, land ownership adjust­
ment plans. (U.S. Forest Serv. FSM
8213, Oct., 1973)
4. Functional plan–a plan for one
element or closely related elements of
a comprehensive plan, e.g., transporta­
tion, sewer and water, recreation, open
spaces, etc. prepared by units of gov­
ernment.
Such functional plans of necessity
should be closely related to the landuse plan. Plans that do not consider all
elements of a comprehensive plan may
be considered as functional plans.
Functional plans are sometimes re­
ferred to as comprehensive for the par­
ticular element involved, such as a
"comprehensive sewer and water plan"
or a "comprehensive open space plan."
(U.S. Soil Conserv, Serv. 1970)
Frost heave
The pushing up of a surface by the
accumulation of ice in the underlying
soil. (Soil Conserv, Soc. Amer. 1970)
Fuel break
A wide strip with a low amount of
fuel in a brush or wooded area to serve
as a line of fire defense and usually
covered with grass to provide soil
cover. It may contain a fire break in
the center. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Also see Fire break.
Full use
Range management usage. The
maximum use that can be made of a
range during a grazing season without
inducing a downward trend in range
condition. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Futures
1. Unlike a scenario which is con­
structed for examining specific causal
relationships or to aid in making a
specific decision, in planning a "fu­
ture" is an all-inclusive description of
what it is believed the planning region
will be like if a possible plan or course
of action is followed. (E. C. T.)
2. The intent here is not to predict
the future, but to try to understand
where the existing trends will lead if
they continue. Once the trends are
understood, it is possible to use them
to move in a number of desired direc­
tions, as in the analogy to the sail boat
and wind. In order to create a vision of
the future of a region it is necessary to
understand the forces that are working
on that present system. To fail to
understand these trends is to fail to
understand the options that are open
to the region. (After Poirier and Vitt
1974)
Functional plan. See Functional planning.
Functional planning (Activity planning,
System planning)
1. Establishing the specific manage­
ment actions to be taken in the man­
agement of a single resource or activ­
ity. Preferably this is undertaken only
to detail the implementation of a more
general plan involving multiple resources and activities. (E. C. T.)
2. Planning which focuses on a par­
ticular aspect of the total problem such
as production scheduling, or high-ways
or forest conservation in civil
governmental planning. (Branch 1961)
3. Functional plans–documents
prepared for separate resources or
activities that identify those separate
resource or activity management ac­
tions that are necessary to implement
the coordinated land management di­
85
G
Game. See Species, game.
Game species. See Species, game.
Game theory
The study of decision problems in
competitive situations. Game theory is
concerned with the derivation of rules
for making decisions when two or
more persons or organizations are
competing for some objective. (U.S.
Forest Serv., 1972B)
General welfare
1. The state of well-being (i.e.
health, happiness, prosperity, etc.) of
all persons in a society. (After Webster
1963)
2. The sum of the individual utilities in a society. (After Webster 1963)
Geographic specific
This term is typically used in land
use planning to apply to actions, consequences, or evaluations considered
to be valid only for a specified portion
of the earth's surface. In other words,
one cannot, with validity or without
detailed documentation of the similar­
ity between areas, transfer the observa­
tions connected with that particular
location to others.
"Geographic specific" is used to
describe relatively large blocks of land
without reference to ownership while
site specific is used to describe a spe­
cific parcel of land. (C.F.S.)
General assumption. See Assumption.
Generalized soil map. See Soil map,
general.
General plan. For city planning usage see
Comprehensive plan, definition 1.
General purpose local government
Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for
a National Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act. Any general pur­
pose unit of local government as defined by the bureau of census and any
regional, inter-governmental, or other
public entity which is deemed by a
governor to have authority to conduct
land use planning on a general rather
than a strictly functional basis. (U.S.
Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular
Aff. 1973)
Geological area
U.S. Forest Service usage. A unit of
land which has been designated by the
Forest Service as containing outstand­
ing formations or unique geologic fea­
tures of the earth's development, in­
cluding caves and fossils. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2362.43, July, 1973)
Areas of this type and all other
Special interest areas are identified
and formally classified primarily because of their recreational values.
Areas with similar types of values of
scientific importance are formally
classified as "Research Natural Areas"
(see Natural Area, Research). (W. W.)
General soil map. See Soil map, general.
General soil survey. See Soil survey and
Soil map, general.
General systems theory
A set of logical deductions about
the behavior of a class of objects called
systems. General systems theory has
been developed in order to explain and
explore the general behavior that is
common to all of the various empirical
systems found within the different dis­
ciplines. It is interdisciplinary in na­
ture and finds a place between the
level of complete generalization of
mathematics and the level of specific
relations within each academic field.
(Williams 1971)
Geologic erosion. See Erosion, geologic.
Geologic materials
Any of the naturally occurring
mineral or rock substances.
Especially used with reference to
classes of such substances whose prop­
erties are so significantly different that
86
quantifiable terms. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
3. The broad end toward which
effort is directed. In the context of
land use planning, goals are normally
stated in terms of the fulfillment of
broad public needs, the preservation of
fundamental constitutional principles,
the achievement of targeted levels of
excellence, the alleviation of major
problems, or other justifiable missions
or purposes to be served by govern­
ment effort. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
A goal is societal consensus of
that which is good for the constitu­
ency at some level of generalization–
the particular level being determined
by the planning level (such as state,
metropolitan region, city). (After
Hills, Love and Lacate 1970)
a knowledge of their distribution is im­
portant in land use planning decisions.
(C. F. S.)
Geomorphic processes
The physical and chemical means
which cause a modification of the
earth's surficial form–e.g., volcanic
activity, weathering, mass-wasting, erosion, sedimentation, glacial action,
running water, etc. (Thornbury 1969)
Geomorphic province. See Region, physiographic.
Geomorphology
The science that deals with land and
submarine relief features of the earth's
surface and seeks a genetic in­
terpretation of them using the prin­
ciples of physiography (see physiographic) in its descriptive aspects and
of dynamic and structural geology in
its explanatory phases. (Webster 1963)
Goal programming
A mathematical approach to opti­
mization. A series of goals are estab­
lished which can be expressed as math­
ematical equations. However, due to
constraints on the original problem,
not all the goals can be met simulta­
neously. It is necessary to allow posi­
tive and negative slack within these
goals equations. This slack is allocated
to "slack variables," which are com­
bined with the goals to form a linear
equation to be minimized or maxi­
mized and a series of accompanying
constraint equations. This system of
equations is then solved by standard
linear programming techniques. (After
Goodman 1974)
Goal (Plan goals, Management goal)
1. A concise statement of an orga­
nization's central strategy in address­
ing a problem expressed in terms of a
desired state or process that operating
programs are designed to achieve.
A goal is normally expressed as a
broad, general statement, is usually
not quantifiable, and is timeless in that
it usually has no specific date by
which it is to be completed. Often, it
would not be expected that a "goal"
could ever be completely achieved.
The "goal" is the principal statement
from which objectives must be
developed.
For example, U.S. Department of
Agriculture goals relating to their
mission to work on problems asso­
ciated with agricultural production are
(1) to work for disease and pest con­
trol and (2) to conduct research on
production. (U.S.D.A. Off. Manage.
and Finance 1974)
2. Characteristically, "goals" are
enduring statements of purpose, often
not attainable in the short term, and
frequently incapable of expression in
Graphic scale
A bar, or other such graphic device,
on a scale drawing, divided into prop­
erly scaled-down measurement units–
such as 100, 500, 1000, 5000 yards or
0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0 miles. In subsequent
photographic reduction or enlarge­
ment of a drawing, the "graphic scale"
becomes a device from which distances
can be readily and accurately mea­
sured. (C.F.S.)
87
cessively during the growing season to
permit seed production, establishment
of seedlings, or restoration of plant
vigor.
Two, but usually three or more
separate grazing units are required.
Control is usually insured by unit fenc­
ing, but may be obtained by herding
on sheep ranges. (After Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Grazing
Consumption of range or artificial
pasture forage by animals. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
For the different types of grazing
practices see Grazing, continuous;
Grazing, deferred; Grazing, deferred
rotation; Grazing, heavy; Grazing, intermittent; Grazing, light; Grazing,
moderate; Grazing, premature; Use,
proper; Grazing, rest-rotation; Grazing,
rotation; and Grazing, spot.
Grazing district
1. An administrative unit of Feder­
al range established by the Secretary
of Interior under the provisions of the
Taylor Grazing Act of 1934, as
amended. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
2. An administrative unit of state,
private, or other rangelands, estab­
lished under certain state laws. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Grazing, alternate. See Grazing, rotation.
Grazing capacity
The maximum stocking rate pos­
sible without inducing damage to vege­
tation or related resources. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Carrying capacity, range.
Grazing capacity, maximum
The maximum number of animals
that a given range area is capable of
supporting without injury to soil, vege­
tation or watershed. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Grazing, heavy
A comparative term (often used in
research but may apply to practical
management as well) which indicates
that the stocking rate of a pasture is
relatively greater than other pastures.
Often erroneously used to mean overuse. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Grazing, moderate and
Grazing, light.
Grazing, continuous
Allowing domestic livestock to
graze a specific area throughout the
grazing season.
The term is not necessarily synony­
mous with grazing for a 12-month per­
iod or a calendar year. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Grazing, continuous use. See Grazing,
continuous.
Grazing, intermittent
Grazing range or artificial pasture
for indefinite periods at indefinite in­
tervals. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Grazing, deferred
Discontinuance of grazing by livestock on an area for a specified period
of time during the growing season to
promote plant reproduction, establish­
ment of new plants, or restoration of
vigor by old plants. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Grazing land, native
Grazing land used primarily for pro­
duction of native forage plants main­
tained or manipulated primarily
through grazing management. Native
grazing lands include rangeland, grazeable woodland, and native pasture in­
dividually or collectively. (D.E.H. and
B. W.)
Also see Rangeland and Pasture,
native.
Grazing, deferred rotation
Discontinuance of grazing on var­
ious parts of a range in succeeding
years, allowing each part to rest suc88
ment to avoid over-use or before the
soil has become firm enough to withstand or before the plant community
is ready to withstand the presence of
grazing animals.
The stage of range readiness is
reached when these conditions are met
and range utilization may properly begin. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Grazing, light
A comparative term (often used in
research but may apply to practical
management as well) which indicates
that the stocking rate of one pasture is
relatively less than that of other pas­
tures.
Often erroneously used to mean
"underuse" of grazing capacity.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Grazing, heavy and grazing, moderate.
Grazing pressure
The actual animal-to-forage ratio at
a specific time.
For example, three animal units per
ton of standing forage. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Grazing management plan
A program of action designed to
secure the best practicable use of
range. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Grazing privilege
Permissive use of lands for grazing
by livestock. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Grazing right and Grazing
preference, definition 2.
Grazing, moderate
A comparative term (often used in
research but may apply to practical
management as well) which indicates
that the stocking rate of a pasture is in
between the rates of other pastures.
Often erroneously used to mean
proper use. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Grazing, heavy and Grazing, light.
Grazing, proper. For range management
usage see Use, proper.
Grazing rate. See Stocking rate.
Grazing, rest-rotation
An intensive system of management
whereby grazing is deferred on various
parts of the range during succeeding
years, allowing the deferred part com­
plete rest for one year.
Two or more units are required.
Control by fencing is usually necessary
on cattle range, but may be obtained
by herding on sheep ranges. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Grazing permit (Grazing license)
Official, written permission to graze
a specified number, kind and class of
livestock for a specific period on a defined range allotment. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Grazing preference (Preference)
1. Selection of certain plants over
others by grazing animals. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
2. In the administration of public
lands, the basis upon which permits
and licenses are issued for grazing use.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Grazing privilege and Grazing right.
Grazing right
A right to graze public lands, per­
manently vested in the beneficiary as
specified by the terms of the law or
contract. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Also see Grazing preference defini­
tion 2 and Grazing privilege.
Grazing, premature
1. Grazing before range readiness.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
2. Grazing before range plants have
reached sufficient seasonal develop-
Grazing, rotation
Grazing two or more pastures or
parts of a range in regular order, with
definite recovery periods between
89
green belt preservation is that it en­
courages the leap-frogging of develop­
ment over the green belt to the land
beyond it. (Ashworth 1973)
2. "Green belts" are a particular
type of open space.
grazing periods. Where only two fields
are involved, sometimes called alter­
nate grazing.
Contrasts with continuous grazing.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Also see Planned grazing system.
Grazing season
1. A period of grazing to obtain
optimum use of the forage resource.
2. On public lands–An established
period for which grazing permits are
issued. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Green forage. See Forage, green.
Gross residential density. See Residential
density.
Ground-lead logging.
ground-lead.
Grazing, selective
The grazing of certain plant species
on the range to the exclusion of
others. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
See
Logging,
Groundwater
Water within the earth that supplies
wells and springs. Specifically, water in
the zone of saturation where all open­
ings in soils and rocks are filled–the
upper surface of which forms the wa­
ter table. (After Webster 1963)
Grazing, spot
Repeated grazing of small areas
while adjacent areas are lightly grazed
or unused. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Groundwater recharge area. See Groundwater and Recharge.
Groundwater table. See Water table.
Grazing system
The manipulation of livestock graz­
ing to accomplish a desired result.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Group. See Social group.
Group culture. See Subculture.
Grazing trespass
The grazing of livestock on a range
area without proper authority. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Group cutting
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. A
clearcutting system variation in which
the logging operation removes all mer­
chantable timber from an area smaller
than that normally recognized in tim­
ber type and condition class mapping.
Group cuts should not exceed ten
acres, nor usually be less than one-fifth
acre. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471
R-3, date unknown)
Group cuts normally will not ex­
ceed 25 acres in size nor rarely less
than 5 acres in size. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM2471.21 R-5, Sept. 1971)
2. U.S. Forest Service usage of
group, patch, strip, and stand cutting.
These are essentially size designations
of the same logging approach–
commonly known as clearcutting. All
require the removal of all merchantable trees except a few which may
Grazing unit
An area of rangeland, public or pri­
vate, which is grazed as an entity.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Great soil group. See Soil great group.
Green belt
1. Areas around villages, towns or
cities in which development is strictly
controlled and usually not permitted
at all. A useful device for preventing
the endless sprawl of towns or the co­
agulation of one town with another,
providing townspeople with a welcome
release from the strain of city life, and
protecting the special character of
some towns. The main deficiency of
90
Guide. See Planning area guide.
Guideline
U.S. Forest Service usage. A steer­
ing or usual course of action, but not
mandatory nor requiring a superior's
approval for deviation from it. (U.S.
Forest Serv. 1972B)
Gully
A channel or miniature valley cut
by concentrated runoff but through
which water commonly flows only
during and immediately after heavy
rains or during the melting of snow.
The distinction between "gully" and
rill is one of depth. A gully is suffici­
ently deep that it would not be oblit­
erated by normal tillage operations,
whereas a rill is of lesser depth and
would be smoothed by ordinary farm
tillage. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Gully erosion. See Erosion gully.
sometimes be carried over where need­
ed for other forest values such as nest­
ing sites, food caches, etc.
"Group cuts" are on areas which are
smaller than the size normally rec­
ognized in type and condition class
mapping. These should not exceed 10
acres, nor usually be less than one-fifth
acre.
Patch cuts are on areas which are of
a size generally mapped for type and
condition and for control, but which
do not include the entire stand of
which they are a part.
Strip cuts are on areas running
through a stand and usually of a width
equal to one to two times the general
stand height.
Stand cuts are on areas large
enough to be practical for manage­
ment. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
2471.21, June, 1973)
H
4. The type of locality and imme­
diate environment in which an organism grows. (After Lawrence 1955)
Also see Environment.
Habitat
1. The natural environment of a
plant or animal. (Durrenberger 1973)
2. The natural place of abode of a
plant or other organism. The locality
where the organism may generally be
found, and where all essentials for its
development and existence are present. A geographical niche. Habitats
are described by their geographical
boundaries, or with such terms as
"shady
woodlands",
"banks
of
streams", "dry hillsides", etc. (Stamp
1961)
3. From the point of view of plant
ecology a "habitat" may be described
as the place of abode of a plant, a
plant community or in some cases
even a group or a succession or related
plant communities, together with all
factors operative within the abode, but
external to the plants themselves. This
is said to correspond more or less
closely to environment. (March 1964,
citing Yapp 1922)
Hardpan
A hardened soil layer in the lower A
or in the B horizon caused by ce­
mentation of soil particles with organ­
ic matter or with materials such as
silica or calcium carbonate.
The hardness does not change ap­
preciably with changes in moisture
content, and pieces of the hard layer
do not disintegrate in water. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Hard pesticides. See Persistent pesticides.
Harvesting
A loose term for the removal of
produce (i.e., a merchantable material)
from the forest for utilization; com­
prising therefore cutting, sometimes
further initial processing (e.g., with
trees, topping and trimming) and extraction (removal from the forest).
91
Heat island
1. An area with air temperatures
measurably greater than that of its sur­
roundings. Urban areas form "heat islands". (Durrenberger 1973)
2. "Heat island effect". An air cir­
culation phenomenon generally found
in cities. Warm air tends to concen­
trate in the city's center, probably because of the mass of tall buildings and
concentration of paved surface. This
warm air rises, carrying with it its burden of pollution. As the polluted air
moves up over the city, spreads out,
cools, and sinks at the city's periphery,
it forms a distinctive ceiling (com­
posed of suspended pollutants) known
as a haze hood or dome. Cooler air
from the edge of the city flows into
the center to replace the rising air and
is followed again by cool air from the
city's edge. Thus, a self-contained cir­
culatory system is set up that is altered
only by a strong wind capable of
breaking up the pollution-formed ceil­
ing. Such a heat island, if it becomes
stabilized for a sufficient length of
time, can create hazardous concen­
trations of pollutants. (Sesco, et al.
1973)
When "harvesting" timber, "har­
vesting" is a rough or quasi-synonym
with logging. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
In imprecise usage logging, harvesting, and silviculture are used seemingly
interchangeably by different people,
often with vehemence as to which is
the correct term in a given situation.
According to Ford-Robertson (1971)
"silviculture" has as its primary con­
cern the establishing, growing, and
tending of forests. "Harvesting" and
"logging", however, deal specifically
with the extraction of resources from
the forest. "Logging" is restricted to
the cutting and extraction of timber
(wood other than fuel wood after primary conversion) and "harvesting" ex­
pands this to include the cutting, ini­
tial processing if any, and extraction of
any forest product. (After FordRobertson 1971)
Hayland
1. U.S. Soil Conservation Service
usage. Land used primarily for the pro­
duction of hay from longterm stands
of adapted forage plants. (U.S. Soil
Conserv. Serv. 1970)
2. Land permanently used for forage, such as land on which the stand is
improved occasionally by preparing a
seedbed or applying other measures.
(U.S. Dep. Agric. 1967)
3. Land from which grasses and
legumes are harvested for hay or seed
and which is then pastured or left to
grow forage. (U.S. Dep. Agric. 1967)
4. Land in wild hay. (U.S. Dep.
Agric. 1967)
5. Land in mountain meadows.
(U.S. Dep. Agric. 1967)
Heavy grazing. See Grazing, heavy.
Heavy metals
Metals having a specific gravity (i.e.,
weight in comparison to weight of an
equal volume of water) of 5.0 or over,
and generally toxic in relatively low
concentrations to plant and animal
life. Such metals can persist in animal
tissue and are capable of increasing in
concentration as they pass upward
through the food chain. Major sources
of heavy metal contamination are pes­
ticides, limestone and phosphate ferti­
lizers, manures and sewage sludges,
and mine wastes. Examples include
lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic.
(Sesco, et al. 1973)
Hazard
1. A possible source of peril, dan­
ger, duress, or difficulty. (Webster
1963)
2. A condition which tends to
create or increase the possibility of
loss. (Webster 1963)
Hedging
Range management usage. A term
92
Hierarchical
1. Of, relating to or constituting a
sequentially related series of levels in a
classification scheme. (After Webster
1963)
2. A type of classification tech­
nique whose successively lower (i.e.,
more specific) level units must fit en­
tirely within the separate units deline­
ated by the next higher (i.e., less spe­
cific) level in that system. The bounda­
ries of the more specific level units
must occur within or coincide with
(and not cross) those boundaries delin­
eated for the units of the next less spe­
cific level in the classification system.
(C.F.S.)
used to describe the appearance of
browse plants that have been browsed
so as to appear artifically clipped.
The consistent browsing of terminal
buds of browse species causes exces­
sive lateral branching and a reduction
in upward growth. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Herb
Any flowering plant except those
developing persistent woody stems
above ground. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Herbage
Herbs taken collectively, usually
used in the same sense as forage,
except that it may include material
not acceptable to grazing or browsing
animals. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Highwall
The unexcavated face of exposed
overburden and coal or ore in an
open-pit mine or the face or bank on
the uphill side of a contour strip mine
excavation. (Thrush 1968)
Herbicide (Weedicide)
A substance used to inhibit or de­
stroy plant growth. If its effectiveness
is restricted to a specific plant or type
of plant, it is known as a selective
herbicide. If its effectiveness covers a
broad range of plants, it is considered
to be a non-selective herbicide. (Sesco,
et al. 1973)
High-lead logging. See Logging, high-lead.
Historical area
U.S. Forest Service usage. Sites and
areas which have been designated by
the Forest Service as containing impor­
tant evidence and remains of the life
and activities of early settlers and
others who used or visited the area or
the sites where important events took
place. Examples are battlegrounds,
remnants of mining camps, old ceme­
teries, important pioneer roads and
trails, and early trading sites. (U.S.
Forest Serv., FSM 2361.22, July
1973)
Areas of this type and all other special interest areas are identified and
formally classified primarily because
of their recreational values. (W. W.)
Herbivore
An animal that feeds on plant substances. (Durrenberger 1973)
Heterogeneous
Differing in kind; having qualities
which are significantly not uniform
throughout; possessed of different
characteristics; opposed to homogeneous. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Heterotrophic organism
An organism that is dependent on
organic matter for food. (Geckler, et
al. 1963)
In contrast, an autotrophic organism is capable of using inorganic substances as its source of food. (After
Geckler, et al. 1963)
Historic and cultural sites
These sites are associated with the
history, tradition or cultural heritage
of national, state or local interest and
are of enough significance to merit
preservation or restoration.
93
Holistic
The location of the feature estab­
lishes the site. Recreational activities
on these sites center around sightseeing, enjoyment and study of the
historic or cultural feature. Manage­
ment is generally limited to activites
that would effect such preservation
and restoration as may be necessary to
protect the features from deterioration
and to interpret their significance to
the public. Administration is by all lev­
els of public agencies and private landowners who identify, set aside and
manage historic and cultural areas.
(Eisner 1969)
1. Emphasizing the organic or
functional relation between parts and
whole. (After Webster 1963)
2. In accordance with the theory
or doctrine according to which a
whole cannot be expressed as the sim­
ple sum of its parts. (After Webster
1963)
Homeostasis
One of the most important features
of a biotic community is that it pos­
sesses mechanisms for self-regulation.
All communities, except possibly the
very simplest types, contain within
themselves regulatory mechanisms
which enable them constantly to adjust themselves to the changing condi­
tions of their physical environments.
This ability for self-regulation is called
"homeostasis." (Dice 1952)
Historic preservation
National Historic Preservation Act
of 1966 usage. The protection, rehabil­
itation, restoration, and reconstruction
of districts, sites, buildings, structures
and objects significant in American
history, architecture, archeology or
culture. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
2361.01, Feb. 1974)
Homogeneous
Of the same kind or nature; con­
sisting of similar parts or of elements
of a like nature; having qualities which
are significantly uniform throughout;
opposed to heterogeneous. (After Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Historic Sites Act (49 Stat. 666)
The Historic Sites Act of 1935
authorizes the programs that are
known as the Historic American Build­
ings Survey, the Historic American En­
gineering Record, and the National
Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings;
authorizes the establishment of Na­
tional Historic Sites and otherwise
authorizes the preservation of properties "of national historical or archeo­
logical significance"; authorizes the
designation of National Historic Landmarks; establishes criminal sanctions
for violation of regulations pursuant to
the act; authorizes interagency, intergovernmental, and interdisciplinary ef­
forts for the preservation of cultural
resources; and other provisions.
The program is administered by the
U.S. National Park Service. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2361.01, Feb. 1973)
Homogeneous response unit (Response
unit)
A particular land (or water) unit
which is delineated on the assumption
that it is sufficiently uniform within
its boundaries to respond in a homogeneous manner throughout the area
to any set of inputs. That is, any treat­
ment, stimulus, or set of conditions
will cause the same reaction, response,
or set of outputs when applied to each
location within the unit. (E. C. T.)
Also see Ecological land unit,
Choropleth map and Resource capability unit.
Hot spoils. For mining usage see Mining
debris, hot.
Human and Community Development
System
U.S. Forest Service usage. This sys-
Holding capacity. See Carrying capacity.
94
forced or coerced and without a loss
of individuality. (Webster 1963)
tem is concerned with actions that
help people and communities to help
themselves. The system includes activi­
ties that provide (1) youth develop­
ment through working and learning ex­
periences, (2) adult employment and
training opportunities through various
Federal manpower programs, (3) com­
munity planning and development information and services for rural areas,
and (4) technical forestry assistance
for urban areas in the establishment,
management, and protection of need­
ed open space and the use of trees and
woody shrubs.
One of the six "systems" estab­
lished by the U.S. Forest Service to
have a systematic, orderly way to view
and evaluate its many diverse but in­
terrelated activities. The Forest Service
has developed this approach to better
respond to the mandates of the Forest
and Rangeland Renewable Resources
Planning Act of 1974. It has grouped
its various programs into these six
"systems," each of which incorporates
all the activities concerned with de­
veloping and managing a specific resource. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1974A)
The six "systems" are: Land and
Water, Timber Resource, Outdoor
Recreation and Wilderness, Rangeland
Grazing, Wildlife and Fish Habitat, and
"Human and Community Development".
Human environment. See Environment,
human.
Humphrey-Rarick Act. See Forest and
Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974.
Hydraulic mining. See Mining, placer.
Hydric. See Hygric.
Hydrograph
A graph showing variation in the
water depth in a stream or the volume
of water flowing past a point in a
stream over a period of time. (After
Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Hydrologic cycle (Water cycle)
The circuit of water movement
from the atmosphere through various
stages or processes on the ground
(such as precipitation, interception,
runoff, infiltration, percolation, stor­
age) and then back to the atmosphere
again by evaporation, and transpira­
tion. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Hydrology
A science dealing with the properties, distribution, and circulation of
water, specifically the study of water
on the surface of land, in the soil and
underlying rocks, and in the atmos­
phere, particularly with respect to
evaporation and precipitation. (After
Webster 1963)
Human community
1. The spatial, or territorial, unit in
social organization. (O'Connell 1974)
2. "Sense of community". The
psychological cohesiveness or feeling
of belonging that is associated with
spatial or territorial units of social or­
ganization. (O'Connell 1974)
Social activity marked by a feeling
of unity but also by individual partici­
pation completely willing and not
Hydrosere. See Succession.
Hygric (Hydric)
1. Refers to a habitat characterized
by wet or moist conditions rather than
mesic (moderate) or xeric (dry) condi­
tions. (Hanson 1962)
2. The nature of an organism
adapted to wet conditions. (Dansereau
1957)
95
I
Ice cream species
Range management usage. An ex­
ceptionally palatable species sought
and grazed first by livestock and game
animals.
Such species are usually overuti­
lized under proper grazing. See Use,
over. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Igneous rock. See Rock, igneous.
Implementation plan
A document for giving practical
effect to, or ensuring the actual fulfill­
ment of, some regulatory standard or
goal by specific measures. (Sesco, et al.
1973)
to meet the near-term needs and allevi­
ate problems. Plans will be directed
toward a set of specific components of
the two objectives (national economic
development, and environmental quali­
ty, see Principles and Standards) which
will be determined for the planning
area. The plan formulation process will
be responsive to the identified needs
and problems that relate to the water
and land resources in the area and the
planning functions that may be em­
ployed to meet the needs. (U.S. Dep.
of Agric. 1974)
Imponderable value. See Intangible value.
Improvement cutting
1. The elimination or suppression
of less valuable trees to increase
growth rates of more valuable trees,
typically in mixed uneven-aged forest.
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
2. U.S. Forest Service usage. Cut­
ting made in an immature stand to im­
prove the stand composition by removing trees of poor form and/or poor
genetic qualities. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2471 R-3, date unknown)
Implementation studies (Level C plan)
U.S. Water Resources Council
usage. One of the "levels of planning"
for water and related land resources
planning by Federal agencies whose ac­
tivities involve planning and develop­
ment of water resources as contained
in the Principles and Standards of the
Water Resources Council.
Implementation studies are project
feasibility studies undertaken by the
Department. These studies may be
conducted to implement findings, con­
clusions, and recommendations of
framework and assessment studies, re­
gional or river basin studies, other Fed­
eral-state investigations or at the request of local government organiza­
tions. Implementation studies are
directed toward carrying out the proj­
ect installation authorities of Public
Law 83-566, Public Law 78-534, and
the "Resource Conservation and De­
velopment" Program.
Plan formulation for implementa­
tion studies will focus on a recom­
mended plan of action to follow within the next 10-15 years. Long-range
projections of water and land resource
needs will be considered; however, pri­
mary attention will be toward a plan
Income distribution effects
Effects of proposed activities on
the proportion of the total income of
an area received by each segment of
the population.
As an example, "the rich get richer
and the poor get poorer" is talking
about income distribution effects. A
doubling of everyone's income, so the
shares of the total remain the same,
has no income distribution effect.
(E. C. T.)
Incommensurable values
Resource yields for which no meth­
od yet exists for conversion to a com­
mon measurement scale or unit (such
as dollars) for purposes of comparative
evaluation of relative importance. For
example, comparison of the aesthetic
with the timber yields of land is diffi96
to avoid repeated error in predicting
the consequences of policy moves. A
wise policy-maker consequently ex­
pects that his policies will achieve only
part of what he hopes and at the same
time will produce unanticipated consequences he would have preferred to
avoid. If he proceeds through a suc­
cession of incremental changes, he
avoids serious lasting mistakes in sev­
eral ways. In the first place, past se­
quences of policy steps have given him
knowledge about the probable conse­
quences of further similar steps. Sec­
ond, he need not attempt big jumps
toward his goals that would require
predictions beyond his or anyone
else's knowledge, because he never ex­
pects his policy to be a final resolution
of a problem. His decision is only one
step, one that if successful can quickly
be followed by another. Third, he is in
effect able to test his previous predic­
tions as he moves on to each further
step. Lastly, he often can remedy a
past error fairly quickly–more quickly
than if policy proceeded through more
distinct steps widely spaced in time.
(Lindblom 1959)
cult because it is often impossible to
express the former objectively in dol­
lar values. (C.F.S.)
Also see Intangible value.
Incompatible uses
Land uses which cannot exist to­
gether by reason of either competition
for limited resources or use byproducts which prevent the alternative
use. For example, timber harvesting
and wilderness preservation are incom­
patible uses for one piece of land.
(E. C. T.)
Also see Conflicting uses, Compatible uses, and Complementary uses.
Increaser plant species (Increaser)
Range management usage. Plant
species of the original vegetation that
increase in relative amount, at least for
a time, under overuse. (Amer. Soc.
Range 1964)
Also see Invader plant species and
Decreaser plant species.
Incrementalism (Muddling through, Disjointed incrementalism, Incremental
planning)
An alternative planning approach to
comprehensive planning based on the
assumption that due to practical diffi­
culties true comprehensive planning
cannot exist. As an alternative it is sug­
gested planners concentrate on a recursive process of choosing among poli­
cies based on incremental changes to
existing policies without trying to set
overall goals and without basing the
policies on theoretical predictions of
the consequences of the policies or on
an understanding of the system being
regulated. Instead the planners would
rely heavily on the record of past ex­
perience with small policy steps to pre­
dict the consequences of similar steps
extended into the future. (After Lindblom 1959)
Neither social scientists, nor politi­
cians, nor public administrators yet
know enough about the social world
Because practitioners of this ap­
proach expect to achieve their goals
only partially, they would expect to
repeat endlessly the sequence just described, as conditions and aspirations
changed and as accuracy of prediction
improved. (Lindblom 1959)
Any significant problem for plan­
ners or policy makers involves tradeoffs among conflicting values, and
when dealing with incrementally dif­
ferent alternatives this is always a
problem of adjustments at a margin.
But there is no practicable way to
state marginal objectives or values ex­
cept in terms of particular policies.
The only practicable way to disclose
one's relevant marginal values even to
oneself is to describe the policy one
chooses to achieve them. Conse­
quently no overall goal is developed
97
derived from a series of observations
which is used as an indicator or mea­
sure of conditions, properties, phe­
nomena or trends. (Webster 1963)
2. A composite numerical value for
some environmental component (such
as air or water quality) for which we
have more than one indicator.
(Thomas 1972)
3. A number used to indicate
change in magnitude (as of cost, price
or volume of production) of some
complex variable as compared with its
magnitude at some specified time–
usually taken as having an index num­
ber of 100. (Webster 1963)
and means and ends are simultane­
ously chosen. (After Lindblom 1959)
Ideally, rational-comprehensive anal­
ysis leaves out nothing important. But it
is impossible to take everything im­
portant into consideration unless "im­
portant" is so narrowly defined that
analysis is in fact quite limited. Limits
on human intellectual capacities and
on available information set definite
limits to man's capacity to be compre­
hensive. In actual fact, therefore, no
one can practice the rational-compre­
hensive method for really complex
problems, and every administrator
faced with a sufficiently complex
problem must find ways drastically to
simplify. In the method of successive
limited comparison, simplification is
systematically achieved in two princi­
pal ways. First, it is achieved through
limitation of policy comparisons to
those policies that differ in relatively
small degree from policies presently in
effect. Such a limitation immediately
reduces the number of alternatives to
be investigated and also drastically
simplifies the character of the investi­
gation of each. The second method of
simplification of analysis is the prac­
tice of ignoring important possible
consequences of possible policies, as
well as the values attached to the ne­
glected consequences. (Lindblom
1959)
Almost every interest has its watchdog. Without claiming that every inter­
est has a sufficiently powerful watchdog, it can be argued that our system
often can assure a more comprehensive
regard for the values of the whole soci­
ety than any attempt at intellectual
comprehensiveness. (Lindblom 1959)
Also contrast with Comprehensive
plan.
Index, economic
1. A measurable aspect of society
which indicates the extent to which
certain more complex aspects are pres­
ent. [Examples: the "consumer price
index" or "gross national product."]
(Webster 1963)
2. A figure which discloses the rela­
tive change, if any, of prices, costs, or
some similar phenomena between one
period of time and some other period
of time selected as the "base period."
The latter period is usually assigned
the index number of 100. There are
numerous methods of calculating an
index number. (Sloan 1961)
Index number. See Index.
Index species. See Indicator species.
Indicative planning
A method of planning (notably
used in France) which primarily re­
stricts itself to analyzing the economy
and then making this information
available to industry. The modern
economy requires the employment of
large investments whose profitability
may be profoundly affected by
changes in the environment. These
changes not only occur rapidly, they
are difficult to predict. The individual
business concern has no valid basis for
such calculation. The entire economy
Incremental planning. See Incrementalism.
Index (Index number)
1. A ratio or some other number
98
mal whose presence in a certain loca­
tion or situation is a fairly certain sign
or symptom that particular environ­
mental conditions are also present.
For example, the presence of
Escherichia coli bacteria in water is
used to indicate probable pollution by
human fecal matter. (C.F.S.)
2. Index species–A plant or animal
species so highly adapted to a particu­
lar kind of environment that its mere
presence is sufficient indication that
specific conditions are also present.
(After Webster 1963)
A living label of the presence of a
specific set of conditions. (After Webster 1963)
Biologic indicator can be used to
refer to signs or symptoms associated
with any level of organic organization
while indicator species only refers to
those associated with the species level.
(C. F. S. )
4. Any organism which by its pres­
ence or absence, its frequency or its
vigor, indicates a particular property
of its surrounding environment. For
example, a particular plant might indi­
cate a soil type or the presence or ab­
sence of an air or water pollutant.
(Sesco, et al. 1973)
is interdependent beyond the analysis
capabilities of a single firm. The guid­
ing principle of "indicative planning"
is to integrate all the effects of interdependence by, on a nationwide scale,
studying the markets and making detailed analyses and forecasts. The in­
strument used in making these forecasts is the economic input-output
analysis.
This information is then distributed
to the private sector, which is primar­
ily left alone. By providing this com­
plete information it is assumed that in­
dustry will adjust its production, use
of resources, and investments to satis­
fy the projected demands, thus avoid­
ing bottlenecks, smoothing business
cycles, and increasing harmony and
growth. The planning is implemented
by "indicating" to all individuals in­
volved the future consequences of
their actions, helping individuals to
arrive at a common view on the future
of a particular economic activity in re­
lation to the national development
aims, demonstrating the advantages of
conforming to this common view, and
only occasionally coercing confor­
mance.
Thus, "indicative planning" is not a
planning for land managers, but a plan­
ning for managers of societies and eco­
nomics. (After Masse 1961)
Indices. See Index.
Indifference curve
A graphical delineation of all com­
binations of two goods or services with
which an individual would be equally
pleased (indifferent between). (E. C. T.)
Also see Indifference map.
Indicator, biologic (Ecologic indicator)
An organism or a class of organisms
(such as a species) or an ecologic com­
munity that is so strictly associated
with particular environmental condi­
tions that its presence is a fairly cer­
tain sign or symptom of the existence
of these conditions. (After Webster
1963)
Indifference map
A two-dimensional graph of a com­
bination of indifference curves denoting an individual's preference sys­
tem to various combinations of two
goods or services. Each line of the fam­
ily of curves represents equally desir­
able mixtures of the quantities in ques­
tion. With different curves represent­
ing differing levels of satisfaction it is
Indicator organism. See Indicator species.
Indicator plant. See Indicator species.
Indicator species (Index species, Indicator
organism)
1. A particular type of plant or ani-
99
tinction to the word percolation which
connotes flow through a soil. Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
possible to determine what quantities
an individual will consume when faced
with different prices and incomes.
(After Sloan 1961)
Infiltration capacity. See Infiltration rate.
Indigenous, species. See Species, indigenous.
Infiltration rate (Infiltration capacity)
The maximum rate at which the
soil under various specified conditions
(including the presence of an already
excess amount of water) can absorb
falling rain or melting snow. (After
Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Indirect effect (Secondary effect)
A condition caused by an action or
inaction through intermediary causal
agents. An effect for which the causal
linkages to the action or inaction are
not readily apparent. Contrasts with
direct effect. This is not a measure of
importance, but merely a classification
by causal linkages. Direct effects are
usually easier to detect and measure
with certainty, but they may be either
more or less important than indirect
effects. (E.C.T.)
Information system
A combination of personnel, ef­
forts, forms, formats, instructions,
procedures, data, communication facil­
ities and equipment that provides an
organized and interconnected means
(automated, manual, or a combination
of these) for recording, collecting, pro­
cessing, transmitting and displaying information in support of specific func­
tions. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
Also see Computer information
system.
Individual distance (Personal distance)
1. Environmental psychology usage. The normal spacing maintained
by non-contact animals. (Worthington
1974, citing Heidiger 1961)
2. Individual distance exists only
when two or more members of the
same species are present, and is greatly
affected by population density and
territorial behavior. "Individual dis­
tance" and personal space interact to
affect the distribution of persons. The
violation of "individual distance" is
the violation of society's expectations.
(Sommer 1969)
Infrastructure (Social overhead capital)
1. The foundation underlying a
nation's, region's, or community's
economy (transportation and com­
munications systems, power facilities,
schools, hospitals, etc.). (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1972B)
2. The basic equipment, utilities,
productive enterprises, installations
and services essential for the develop­
ment, operation, and growth of an or­
ganization, a city, or a nation.
(Abrams 1971)
Inherent carrying capacity. See Carrying
capacity, ecological and Capability.
Induced output. See Output, induced.
Inexhaustible resource
"Inexhaustible resource" is a term
which should be discouraged, for in
the final analysis probably no resource
is absolutely inexhaustible, and the
term may have an undesirable reaction
(or lead to misunderstanding) among
the lay public. ((E.M.G.)
Also see Renewable resource.
Inherent suitability. See Capability.
Input-output analysis (Interindustry analysis, Leontief analysis)
l. A systematic technique for
quantitatively analyzing the interde­
pendence of producing and consuming
units in an economy. It studies the
interrelations among producers as
Infiltration
The movement of water into the soil
through pores or other openings,
connoting flow into a soil in contradis100
cial regulatory agencies (e.g., the spe­
cial legal status of the social institu­
tions of marriage and the family unit).
(Webster 1963)
Also see Institutions, social and Institutions, legal.
buyers of each other's outputs, as
users of scarce resources and as sellers
to final consumers. The technique has
been useful for the study of the way in
which the component parts of an
economy fit together and influence
each other, for short-run forecasting,
and for policy guidance. (U.S. Gen.
Account. Off. 1969)
2. A quantitative study of the in­
terdependence of a group of activities
based on the relationship between inputs and outputs of the activities. The
basic tool of analysis is a square inputoutput table, interaction model, for a
given period that shows simultaneous­
ly for each activity the value of inputs
and outputs, as well as the value of
transactions within each activity itself.
It has especially been applied to the
economy and the industries into which
the economy can be divided. (U.S.
Forest Serv. 1972B)
Institutions, legal
A society's system of legal rules and
principles. (Webster 1963)
The components of "legal institu­
tions" that are usually of interest in
land use planning include landownership patterns, administrative jurisdic­
tions, land use patterns and the legal
framework affecting planning deci­
sions. (W. W.)
Institutions, social
1. A set of informal and formal
rules, behaviors, and practices that
deal with a specific basic function in
society.
The five basic social institutions
are: the economy, the political system,
the educational system, the religious
system, and the family. Each of these
social institutions is seen as carrying
out a basic function in society–the
educational system is responsible for
passing on knowledge to new members
of the society, and for creating new
knowledge in the society; the political
system distributes power and main­
tains order; the economic system pro­
duces and distributes goods and ser­
vices; the family establishes responsi­
bility for the caring of the young, and,
with the educational system, transmits
knowledge to "new" members of soci­
ety; and the religious system is con­
cerned with basic questions of the
meaning of life and with other social
values.
Sociologists use the institutional
approach as a kind of checklist in
studying a society, as it is assumed
that all societies (nations, regions,
communities) find some way to carry
out these basic functions. (Gale 1975)
2. A relatively prevalent way of
Inputs
1. A term used broadly to refer to
anything that is taken in by or enters
into the workings of a process or a system–e.g., as nutrients or energy into
an ecosystem, effort or information into a planning process, silt into a
stream, etc. (After Webster 1963)
2. The basic resources of land, la­
bor, and capital required in carrying
out an activity. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1974A)
Institutional land uses
All buildings, grounds and parking
lots composing the facilities for educa­
tional, religious, health, correctional
and military installations. (Anderson,
et al. 1972)
Institutions
A significant and persistent element
(as a practice or relationship) in the
life of a culture that centers on a fun­
damental human need, activity or val­
ue, occupies an enduring and cardinal
position within a society and is usually
maintained and stabilized through so­
101
uals representing two or more areas of
knowledge, learning, or skill focusing
on the same subject.
This approach provides for integrating two or more mental processes
into a common, problem-solving effort
that is likely to be more effective than
the independent thought processes of
a single person trained or skilled in one
area of knowledge. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 8211, Oct., 1973)
thought or action that centers around
such basic social functions as marriage,
government, or education.
Social institutions are common to
all societies and are part of the customs of a people. Culture may be
viewed as a synthesis of institutions,
each functioning to establish social
norms and give direction to human behavior. Thus institutions provide the
forms for the activities of human
beings. (O'Connell 1974)
Interdisciplinary team
A group of individuals with different training assembled to solve a problem or perform a task. The team is
assembled out of recognition that no
one scientific discipline is sufficiently
broad to adequately solve the problem. The members of the team proceed to solution with frequent interaction so that each discipline may
provide insights to any stage of the
problem and disciplines may combine
to provide new solutions. This is different from a multidisciplinary team
where each specialist is assigned a portion of the problem and their partial
solutions are linked together at the
end to provide the final solution.
(E. C. T.)
Intangible value (Imponderable value)
Those resource yields which are not
directly quantifiable, or if quantifiable, cannot be valued by market
mechanisms. The net yields from resource use in this sense extends beyond the concept of secondary benefits, and includes psychic and indirect
monetary benefits to the users. Normally intangible values accrue from
the aesthetic, scientific, educational,
historical or recreational aspects of the
natural environment. (After Coomber
and Biswas 1973)
Also see Incommensurable values.
Intensive recreation. See Recreation, intensive.
Interest group. See Special interest group
and Pressure group.
Interaction matrix (Matrix)
A table with actions, conditions, resources, effects, etc., listed along two
perpendicular axes and a matrix structure so created where each position in
the matrix corresponds to one element
from each axis, By either marking or
assigning values to the positions in the
matrix structure interactions between
pairs of elements (one from each axis)
can be indicated. A matrix structure
can be thought of as a rectangular
cross-hatching, where each square in
the cross-hatching belongs to one row
and one column and corresponds to a
position in the matrix structure or an
element in the matrix. (E. C. T.)
Interflow
That portion of rainfall that infiltrates into the soil and moves laterally
through the upper soil horizons until
intercepted by a stream channel or
until it returns to the surface at some
point of infiltration. (Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Intermediate cutting (Stand tending)
Any removal of trees from a stand
between the time of its formation and
the harvest cutting. Generally taken to
include cleaning, thinning, liberation
and improvement cuttings, increment
fellings, and sometimes even salvage
and sanitation cuttings. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Interdisciplinary approach
The utilization of a team of individ102
(Belknap and Furtado 1967)
2. The term is now used to refer to
any resource of natural origin–especially in contrast to resources of
human origin (i.e., extrinsic resources).
See Extrinsic resource for manmade recreation resource features.
Intermittent grazing
Grazing range or artificial pasture
for indefinite periods at indefinite
intervals. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Intermittent stream
1. A stream or portion of a stream
that flows only in direct response to
precipitation. It receives little or no
water from springs and no long-continued supply from melting snow or
other sources. It is dry for a large part
of the year, ordinarily more than 3
months. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
2. Streams which, in general, flow
during wet seasons and are dry during
dry seasons. The groundwater table
lies above the bed of the stream during
the wet season but drops below the
bed during dry seasons. Hence the
flow is derived principally from surface runoff, but during wet seasons
receives a contribution from ground
water. In many arid areas the stream
channels are always above the water
table and therefore carry only surface
runoff. Flow may also be interrupted
by freezing of the ground-water to
some depth below the stream bed in
smaller streams. (Wisler and Brater
1959)
Also see Ephemeral stream and Perennial stream.
Intrinsic suitability. See Suitability, intrinsic and Capability.
Introduced species. See Species, exotic.
Invader. For range management usage see
Invader plant species.
Invader plant species (Invader, weed
species)
Range management usage. Plant
species that were absent in undisturbed portions of the original vegetation and will invade under disturbance
or continued overuse. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Increaser plant species and
Decreaser plant species.
Inventory
1. The gathering of data for future
use. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. The quantity or count of physical entities (such as trees, lakes, etc.)
in an area. There are two basic types
of inventories in land use planning.
A. Existing–measurement of what is
actually "on-the-ground" (in terms of
number), and
B. Potential–total identified undeveloped capability. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
Inverse condemnation. See Condemnation, reverse.
Interspecific competition. See Competition, definition 2.
Intraspecific competition. See Competition, definition 2.
Intrazonal soil. See Soil horizon, definition 2.
Irreplaceable asset. See Unique resource.
Irreversible effect
One of the categories of impacts
specifically mentioned in section 102
of the National Environmental Policy
Act (NEPA) for inclusion in the statement of environmental impacts required for Federal actions. Although
not defined in NEPA it has been the
subject of judicial review.
Intrinsic capability. See Capability.
Intrinsic resource
1. Philip H. Lewis' usage. The features of the natural environment
which are recreation resources.
For example, the occurrence of significant topographic relief, rivers,
lakes, wetlands, waterfalls, caves, etc.
103
Issue
1. A controversial subject or topic.
A point of debate or controversy.
(Webster 1963)
2. A point in question of law or
fact.
A single material point of law or
fact. (Webster 1963)
3. Something entailing alternatives
between which to choose or decide.
(Webster 1963)
4. A matter that is in dispute between two or more parties or that is
disputed by the parties. (Webster
1963)
5. A well defined, discrete subject
of controversy–such as whether the
Supersonic Transport (SST) development program should or should not
proceed because of the possibility that
their exhaust gases might significantly
reduce the ozone concentration in the
stratosphere, or whether phosphates in
detergents should be banned because
of their alleged controlling role in the
eutrophication of many water bodies.
When the point of controversy can
only be vaguely defined or when the
causality relationships between use
actions and undesirable results are
more speculative than documentable
the dispute is referred to as a concern
rather than an issue. (C.F.S.)
An irreversible effect is any effect
of an action or inaction which (due to
physical, biological, or socioeconomic
constraints) cannot be reversed (by
returning the object of the effect to its
previous condition) within a reasonable length of time.
While a swamp which is channelled
and drained after evolving for centuries may be returned to its predrained condition over many decades
of being undisturbed, the time span involved is such that a reasonable man
would consider the effect irreversible.
Similarly, it may be physically possible
to raze a city and plant a forest again,
but a reasonable man would recognize
that socioeconomic constraints would
prevent this from happening. (E.C.T.)
Isochrons
1. Travel-time zones. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1971)
2. A concentric set of lines each of
which joins distances with equal travel
times from some central reference
point of concern. (C.F.S.)
Isohyetal line
A line drawn on a map joining
points that receive the same amount of
precipitation. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Isolated land. See Alienated land.
J
Jackson turbidity unit. See Turbidity.
JTU. Jackson turbidity unit. See Turbidity.
Just compensation
As regards property taken for public use, the term is comprehensive and
includes all elements; but does not exceed market value. It is the value of
104
property taken at the time of taking,
plus compensation for delay in payment, if appropriate, and plus damages
to the owner for value of use of property from date of taking possession to
date of judgment if possession is taken
by condemnation prior to judgment.
(U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Also see Eminent domain, Police
power, Taking.
K
those associated with oil and gas drilling, strip or shaft mining, etc.). (U.S.
Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular Aff.
1973)
Key area. For range management usage
see Key grazing area.
Key facility
Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for
a National Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act.
Public facilities, as determined by
the state, on non-Federal lands which
tend to induce development and urbanization of more than local impact,
including but not limited to: (1) any
major airport designed to serve as a
terminal for regularly scheduled air
passenger service or one of state concern; (2) major interchanges between
the interstate highway system and
frontage access streets or highways;
major interchanges between other
limited access highways and frontage
access streets or highways; (3) major
frontage access streets and highways,
both of state concern; (4) major recreational lands and facilities; (5) major
facilities on non-Federal lands for the
development, generation, and transmission of energy (including such facilities as major powerplants, transmission lines, oil and gas pipelines, refineries, tank farms, etc. However, not included in this definition are any facilities for the extraction of fuels, such as
Key grazing area
That portion of a pasture or grazing
unit which, because of its nature, location, and grazing use, serves to control
the pattern of grazing use for the pasture as a whole. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Key management species
Major forage species on which management should be based. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Key site
Range management usage. Synonymous with key area except the area is
restricted to a specific range site.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Keystone species. See Species, keystone.
Key utilization species
Range management usage. Forage
species whose use serves as an indicator to the degree of use of associated
plant species. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Key winter range. See Range, key winter.
Land
stable, or predictably cyclic, attributes
of the biosphere directly above and
below this area including those of the
atmosphere, the soil and underlying
geology, the topography, the hydrology, the plant and animal populations,
and the results of past and present
human activity, to the extent that
these attributes exert a significant influence on present and future uses of
the land by man.
As defined, the term "land" embraces all but the purely socioeconom-
1. A term denoting the entire complex of surface and near-surface attributes of the solid portions of the surface of the earth which are significant
to man. Water bodies occurring within
land masses are included with land in
some land classification systems.
(After Mabbutt 1968)
2. U.S. Forest Service usage. For
planning purposes land is defined as a
specific area of the earth's surface. Its
characteristics embrace all reasonably
105
tions, such as mineral deposits, climate, and water supply; location in relation to centers of commerce, populations, and other land; the size of the
individual tracts or holdings; and exist
ing plant cover, works of improvement, and the like.
Some use the term loosely in other
senses: as defined above but without
the economic or cultural criteria especially in the expression "natural land";
as a synonym for "soil"; for the solid
surface of the earth; and also for
earthy surface formations, especially
in the geomorphological expression
landform. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
is (human) attributes of the environment. It is assumed that all approaches
to interpretative land classification
would, to a varying extent, take additional socioeconomic factors into account but these are not considered to
be attributes of the "land" itself.
"Land" is a broader concept than
soil. Thus, in developing interpretative
land classification from soil survey
data, additional aspects of the natural
environment, notably macrotopography, vegetation, surface and groundwater hydrology, and climate as well
as certain stable manmade features
need investigation and integral interpretation. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
8210, Oct. 1973)
3. Economic theory usage. One of
the major factors of production consisting of a good which is supplied by
nature without the aid of man. The
term may include not only the earth's
surface, both solid land and water, but
also anything that is attached to the
earth's surface. Thus, all natural resources in their original state, such as
mineral deposits, wildlife, timber, and
fish are land within the technical
meaning of the term; so are sources of
energy, outside of man himself, such as
water, coal deposits, and the natural
fertility of the soil. (Sloan 1961)
4. In the most general sense, any
ground, soil, or earth whatsoever.
"Land" may include not only the soil
or earth, but also things of a permanent nature affixed thereto or found
therein, whether by nature, as water,
trees, grass, herbage, and other natural
or perennial products, growing crops
or trees, minerals under the surface; as
well as works constructed for use of
water such as dikes, canals, etc. (U.S.
Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
5. The total natural and cultural
environment within which production
takes place; a broader term than
"soil". In addition to soil, its attributes include other physical condi-
Land, alienated
Lands of one ownership enclosed
within boundaries of another ownership. Often refers to land in private
ownership within the boundaries of
public land. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Land and Water Conservation Fund Act
(78 Stat. 897, as amended; 16 U.S.C.
4601-4 to 4601-11, 23 U.S.C. 120
(Note))
Provides funds for and authorizes
Federal assistance to the states in planning, acquisition, and development of
needed land and water areas and facilities and provides funds for the Federal
acquisition and development of outdoor recreation resources. (After U.S.
Forest Serv. 1974)
Land and Water System
U.S. Forest Service usage. One of
the six "systems" established by the
U.S. Forest Service to have a systematic, orderly way to view and evaluate
its many diverse but interrelated activities. The Forest Service has developed
this approach to better respond to the
mandates of the Forest and Rangeland
Renewable Resources Planning Act of
1974. It has grouped its various programs into these six "systems", each
of which incorporates all the activities
106
to the risk of land damage or the difficulty of land use. The first four classes
distinguish land inherently able to be
used for cultivation and other uses.
(I). Soils in class I have few limitations
that restrict their use. (II). Soils in
class II have some limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require
moderate conservation practices.
(III). Soils in class III have severe limitations that reduce the choice of
plants or require special conservation
practices, or both. (IV). Soils in class
IV have very severe limitations that restrict the choice of plants, require very
careful management, or both. The
second four classes distinguish land
generally inherently unable to be used
for cultivation (without major treatment). (V). Soils in Class V have little
or no erosion hazard but have other
limitations, impractical to remove,
that limit their use largely to pasture,
range, woodland, or wildlife food and
cover. (VI). Soils in class VI have severe limitations that make them generally not able to be used for cultivation
and limit their use largely to pasture or
range, woodland, or wildlife food and
cover. (VII). Soils in class VII have
very severe limitations that make them
not able to be used for cultivation and
that restrict their use largely to grazing, woodland, or wildlife. (VIII). Soils
and landforms in class VIII have limitations that preclude their use for
commercial plant production and restrict their use to recreation, wildlife,
water supply, or aesthetic purposes.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
concerned with developing and managing a specific resource. (After U.S.
Forest Serv. 1974A)
The role of this system is to protect, conserve, and enhance the basic
resources of air, soil, and water on forest and range land. It provides the base
on which the other resources grow.
Activities on National Forest land include land-use planning, administration of special land uses, easements,
and land adjustments, and management of mineral areas in addition to
the protection, conservation, and enhancement role. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1974A)
The six "systems" are: "Land and
Water", Timber Resource, Outdoor
Recreation and Wilderness, Rangeland
Grazing, Wildlife and Fish Habitat, and
Human Community Development.
Land capability
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. The inherent ability of land to be
used without permanent damage. Land
capability, as ordinarily used in the
United States, is an expression of the
effect of physical land conditions, including climate, on the total ability to be
used without damage for crops that
require regular tillage, for grazing, for
woodland, and for wildlife.
Land capability involves consideration of (1) the risks of land damage
from erosion and other causes and (2)
the difficulties in land use owing to
physical land characteristics, including
climate. (After Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Also see Capability and Suitability
for comments on the preferred usage
of those terms.
Land capability classification
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. A grouping of kinds of soil into
special units, subclasses, and classes
according to their capability for intensive use and the treatments required for
sustained use. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Land capability class
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. One of the eight classes of land in
the land capability classification system of the Soil Conservation Service.
The eight land capability classes in
this system are distinguished according
107
whereby the complex of surface and
near-surface attributes of the solid portions of the earths surface are identified and organized into some system
of mappable units according to some
set of criteria or principles for relatedness.
"Land classification" creates a
framework of generalization about the
complexity of "land" properties which
enables common characters to be defined and described, and units with
similar properties to be regarded as
equals although geographically separate.
Classification is a prerequisite if
there is to be any transfer of knowledge about the relationships between
land properties and land use suitability
and capability from one unit to others
–i.e., if there is to be any element of
expectation in land use planning.
(After Mabbutt 1967)
2. The arrangement of land units into
various categories based on the
properties of the land or its inherent
capability for some particular purpose.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Land capability map
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. A map showing land capability
units, land capability subclasses, and
classes or a soil survey map colored to
show land capability classes. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Also see Soil map.
Land capability subclass
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. Groups of land capability units
within classes of the land capability
classification system that have the
same kinds of dominant limitations for
agricultural use as a result of soil and
climate.
For example, some soils are subject
to erosion if they are not protected,
while others are naturally wet and
must be drained if crops are to be
grown. Some soils are shallow or
droughty or have other soil deficiencies. Still other soils occur in areas
where climate limits their use.
The four kinds off limitations recognized at the subclass level are: risks of
erosion; wetness, drainage, or overflow; other root zone limitations; and
climatic limitations.
The subclass provides the map user
information about both the degree and
kind of limitation. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Land district
Canada Biophysical Land Classification System Usage. A relatively homogeneous unit of land characterized
by a distinctive pattern of relief, geology, geomorphology and regional vegetation. (Bajzak 1973)
This is the second largest of the
four classification levels of that system. The largest unit is the land region
and the two smaller units in order of
decreasing size are land system and
land type.
Land capability unit
1. U.S. Soil Conservation Service
usage. A group of soils that are nearly
alike in inherent ability to be used for
plant growth and in their responses to
the same kinds of soil management.
Capability units provide more specific and detailed information for application to specific fields on a farm or
ranch than the "subclass" of the land
capability classification. (Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Land evaluation (Terrain evaluation)
The assessment of the inherent
capability and managed suitability of
land for man's use in agriculture, forestry, engineering, hydrology, regional
planning, recreation, etc. (After
Stewart 1967)
Land capability zoning. See Zoning, land
capability.
Land classification
1. Land classification is the process
Land feasibility. See Feasibility.
108
which manifests a distinctive climate.
(Bajzak 1973)
This is the largest unit of the four
classes of that system. The other three
classes in order of decreasing size are
land district, land system and land
type.
Land form
The form of the surface of the land.
The three-dimensional shape of the
surface of the ground.
"Land form" may have a different
meaning than landform when used in
geomorphological contexts. "Landform" is always used for surface features whose origin can be attributed to
particular geological processes or particular structures. (After Savigear
1965)
Land resource area
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Broad
geographic areas having similar soil, climatic, geologic, vegetative and topographic features. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
2. An area of land reasonably alike
in its relationship to agriculture with
emphasis on combinations and/or intensities of problems in soil and water
conservation.
It is ordinarily larger than a land
resource unit and smaller than a land
resource region. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Also see Conservation, definition 1.
Landform
1. Term used to describe the many
types of land surfaces which exist as a
result of geological activity, such as a
plateau, plain, basin, mountain, etc.
(U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. A feature of the earth's surface
with distinctive form characters which
can be attributed to the dominance of
particular processes or particular structures in the course of its development
and to which the feature can be clearly
related. (Savigear 1965)
3. Land form may have a different
meaning than "landform" when used
in geomorphological contexts. "Land
form" is sometimes used when referring only to the three dimensional
shape of the ground surface–without
any reference to the processes responsible for that shape. (Savigear 1965)
Land resource region
A generalized grouping of land resource areas reflecting regional relationships to agriculture with emphasis
on soil and water conservation. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Also see Conservation definition 1.
Land resource unit
A subdivision of a land resource
area with emphasis on a specialized
type of agriculture, intensities, or
problems in soil and water conservation.
It has a narrower range in relationship to agriculture (than a land resource area) with emphasis on soil and
water conservation. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Also see Conservation definition 1.
Land management
The intentional process of planning, organizing, programming, coordinating, directing, and controlling
land use actions. (After U.S. Forest
Serv. 1971)
Land, marginal
Land of questionable economic
abilities to be used for a specific purpose. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Land sales or development project. For
usage of this term in the defeated 1973
bill for a National Land Use Policy and
Planning Assistance Act see Project.
Land region
Canada Biophysical Land Classification System Usage. An area of land
with a certain type of vegetation
109
istics, color or touchable nature. There
is little or no sense of space and attention is restricted to the intimate details
of features. (Litton 1966)
This is one of the six general types
in Litton's scenic composition classification system. The others are panoramic landscape, focal landscape, feature-dominated landscape, enclosing
landscape and canopied landscape.
Landscape
1. An areal entity which is a composite of all of the characteristics that
distinguish a certain area on the earth's
surface from other areas. (Holland
1970)
2. An expanse of natural scenery
seen by the eye in one view. (Webster
1963)
3. An area made up of a distinct
association of forms, both physical
and cultural. (Stamp 1961, citing
Sauer 1925)
4. The sum total of the characteristics that distinguish a certain area on
the earth's surface from other areas.
These characteristics are a result not
only of natural forces but of human
occupancy and use of the land. (U.S.
Forest Serv. 1963)
Landscape, enclosing
An outdoor space (rather than
strictly a view type) with definite visual sidewalls or edge lines (formed by
terrain, tree, lake or meadow surfaces)
which enclose or define the field of
vision.
A small scale landscape in which
the viewer has a sense of presence by
being within the foreground which is
most apt to form the floor of the
space.
"Enclosing landscapes" are always
seen from a viewing position below the
tops of the surrounding sidewalls.
(Litton 1966)
This is one of the six general types
in Litton's scenic composition classification system. The others are panoramic landscape, focal landscape, feature-dominated landscape, detailed
landscape and canopied landscape.
Landscape, canopied
The type of visual landscape to be
found under an extensive, continuous
crown cover of trees–as within a forest. The overhead foliage and branches
define the ceiling plane and the perspective closure of tree stems or
screens of understory shrubs and
young trees or land forms define the
side enclosures. (After Litton 1968)
This is one of the six general types
in Litton's scenic composition classification system. The others are panoramic landscape, feature dominated
landscape, enclosing landscape, focal
landscape, and detailed landscape.
Landscape, feature-dominated
A view in which a single feature (or
landmark), either natural or manmade, dominates the landscape because of sharp contrast with the general surroundings.
Often, but not necessarily, a landscape dominated by the middle-ground
plane in the field of vision.
Feature-dominated landscapes may
be recognized from any viewing position–i.e., above, level with or below
the feature or its surrounding landscape. (Litton 1966)
This is one of the six general types
in Litton's scenic composition classification system. The others are pan-
Landscape, cultural
1. The aspect of the face of the
earth which results from the presence
of man–the natural landscape modified by man. (Stamp 1961)
2. The material features, in compact areal association, which are the
result of the transformation of a natural landscape through human occupance. (Stamp 1961)
Landscape, detailed
The close view of objects or features, particularly surface character110
in Litton's scenic composition classification system. The others are featuredominated landscape, enclosing landscape, focal landscape, canopied landscape and detailed landscape.
oramic landscape, focal landscape, enclosing landscape, detailed landscape,
and canopied landscape.
Landscape, focal
A view characterized by convergent
lines which lead the eye to the principal point of their apparent origin.
Parallel lines in perspective will
appear to have a focal point origin at
the horizon. The eye's attention will
be concentrated upon and follow these
dominant lines toward the horizon or
their focal point.
"Focal landscapes" are always seen
from a viewing position level with or
above the horizon line. (Litton 1966)
This is one of the six general types
in Litton's scenic composition classification system. The others are panoramic landscape, feature-dominated
landscape, enclosing landscape, detailed landscape and canopied landscape.
Landscape planning
A portion of the land use planning
process which deals with physical (i.e.,
biological, geological and hydrologic)
values, aesthetic and cultural (i.e., historical and anthropological) values and
with the relationships between these
values and land uses. (Fabos, et al.
1973)
Landscape unit
G.A. Hills' land evaluation usage. A
regrouping of patterns of physiographic site types and physiographic
site phases into larger (16 sq. mi. minimum) units to facilitate the making of
broad scale planning decisions. (After
Belknap and Furtado 1967)
Land sensitivity. See Sensitivity, land.
Landslide (landslip)
1. Downslope movement of a relatively dry or coherent mass of earth
and/or rock at a rate fast enough to be
readily perceived. (After Amer. Geol.
Inst. 1962)
Readily perceptible downslope
movement of a wet, incoherent mass
of earth is termed a mudslide. (C.F.S.)
2. The failure of a slope in which
the movement of the soil mass takes
place along an interior surface of sliding. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Landscape, panoramic
A landscape viewing situation characterized by an unobstructed or complete view of the area in all directions
or a continuous series of scenes extending to the distant horizon.
The visual feeling is one of expanding ing or unbounded space, receding directly ahead toward the limits of distance on visibility and also extending
laterally to the limits of peripheral
vision. Although indicating the availability of a view in every direction, inherent physiological limitations on the
extent of what an observer can see
without turning the head suggests that
a possible view of 180 degrees is a
more likely condition for defining a
"panoramic landscape".
The term should be reserved for use
where distant or background scenes
are under observation, not horizontal
scene compositions in the middleground or foreground. (After Litton
1966)
This is one of the six general types
Landslide hazard
Some evaluation (almost always
qualitative and relative to adjacent
locations) of the chance that a landslide will occur on a given site. (C.F.S.)
Landslip. See Landslide.
Land stratification. See Stratification.
Land subdivision. See Subdivision.
Land, submarginal
1. Land that does not return
111
enough to pay costs of operation in a
specific use. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
2. Land which is economically incapable of sustaining indefinitely a certain use or ownership status. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
cation scheme are: (1) the "physiographic province" (a division of the
land in which the pattern of topographic elements of altitude, relief and
type of land forms are uniform
throughout an area of several thousand
square miles or larger); (2) the "section" (land units in which the combined factors of geologic structure,
geomorphic processes, climate and
time have been essentially the same
and thus produced a uniform pattern
of topography over areas of hundreds
to several thousand square miles); (3)
the "subsection" (the smallest land
unit which can be identified using the
basic criteria of uniform geologic factors and climate operating over time to
delineate essentially uniform areas of
tens to hundreds of square miles); (4)
the "land type association" (units tens
of square miles in size over which the
uniformity of geomorphic processes
has produced different types of landscapes which can be visually identified
on maps, air photos or on the ground);
(5) the "landtype" (visually identifiable unit areas of a tenth to one square
mile resulting from homogeneous geomorphic and climatic processes which
have produced defined patterns of
soils and vegetation potentials); (6) the
"landtype phase" (.01 to .1 square
mile areas delineated on the basis of
being characterized by uniform, specific kinds of soils or soil phases or
sometimes on the basis of physiographic, vegetative or bedrock characteristics) and; (7) the "site" (areas of
less than an acre defined and characterized by the occurrence of individual
kinds of soils or discrete plant communities. (After Wertz and Arnold
1972)
Land suitability. See Suitability.
Land system
l. Canada Biophysical Land Classification System usage. An area of land
with a recurring pattern of land form
having homogeneous soil characteristics and supporting a particular type of
vegetation. (Bajzak 1973)
The second smallest of the four
classification levels of that system. The
other three classes in order of decreasing size are land region, land district
and land type.
2. U.S. Forest Service usage. Typically used to categorize all the land in
an area into each of various hierarchical levels by the application of increasingly more specific delineation criteria
at successively lower (i.e., smaller
units) levels in the system. Each set of
delineation criteria is unique to its
classification level but is also logically
and systematically related to the other
higher and/or lower levels in that classification system.
A hierarchical framework of land
type units. (After Nelson 1975)
Land systems inventory
U.S. Forest Service usage. A land
stratification system based on geomorphic principles. An understanding
of geologic structure, land form genesis and geomorphic processes (as reflected in land surface form and features), individual kinds of soil and the
factors which determine the behavior
of ecosystems (i.e., climate, vegetation
and animal life, relief, parent materials
and time), is used as the basis of this
classification system.
The various hierarchical levels in
the "land systems inventory" classifi-
Land tenure
1. The holding of land or the right
to hold it. (Abrams 1971)
2. The holding of land and the
rights that go with such holding, including all forms of holding from fee
112
depth, mineral composition, water
content, etc.) and nature of parent
material in large-scale land features.
(After Belknap and Furtado 1967)
The second largest unit in Hills'
land classification system. The various
levels, in order of decreasing size are
site region, "landtype", physiographic
site class, physiographic site type and
physiographic site phase.
2. U.S. Forest Service usage. Visually identifiable unit areas resulting
from homogeneous geomorphic and
climatic processes and having defined
patterns of soils and vegetative potentials.
Landtype units range in size from
about one-tenth to one square mile.
Their size and composition depend
upon the significance of physical characteristics which can be readily interpreted to identify hazard, capability
and productivity potentials that are reliable for land use planning purposes.
Landtype units generally have uniform management response characteristics and so can be used to identify
areas for which zoning and resource allocation decisions can be made. (After
Wertz and Arnold 1972)
Also see land system, definition 2.
3. Veatch's usage of "natural landtype". A natural division based upon
the intrinsic nature of the soil, the nature of the soil association or soil complex, the topography, the natural
drainage and the native vegetation.
(After Veatch 1937)
simple title (embracing all possible
rights within the general limitations
imposed by the government) to the
various forms of tenancy or holding of
land owned by another. (Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
3. The rules by which members of
a social group customarily exercise
control, inheritance, and usage rights
over land. The rules cover such practices as individual ownership, group
ownership with allocation procedures,
and various kinds of lending possibilities. (O'Connell 1974)
Also see Property rights.
Land type
Canada Biophysical Land Classification System usage. An area of land
having a fairly homogeneous combination of soil features at a level corresponding to the soil series–i.e., a group
of soils having horizons similar in distinguishing characteristics and arrangement in the profile and developed
from the same parent material and
chronological sequence of vegetation.
The land type is the basic biophysical land unit that can be interpreted to
provide land evaluation data useful for
planning and development. The mapping scale at the land type level ranges
from 1/20,000 to 1/10,000. The dominant ecological variables are soil moisture regime, physical and chemical soil
properties
and
microtopography.
(Wells and Roberts 1973)
The units in that classification system, in order of decreasing size are
land region, land district, land system
and land type.
Land units
G. A. Hills' land evaluation usage. A
portion of a landscape unit – i.e.,
groupings of physiographic site types
and physiographic site phases into 16
sq. mi. minimum units–with special
significance for some specific use.
(After Belknap and Furtado 1967)
Landtype (Watertype)
1. G. A. Hills' land classification
usage. Units created by isolating areas
of differing landform, geologic composition and water content within the
site region.
A "landtype" is a subdivision of a
"site region" and determined by certain soil properties (such as texture,
Land use
The occupation or reservation of
land or water area for any human activity or any defined purpose. It also
113
includes use of the air space above the
land or water. (Calif. Counc. Intergov.
Relat. 1973)
Also see Land use type.
complete coordination of existing and
future Bureau programs and activities
with those either under way or contemplated on land adjoining public
lands. (Eisner 1969)I
3. "Land use plans" will serve as
(1) a basis for the implementation of
action plans and (2) the foundation
for future planning efforts, as well as
(3) a guide for direct actions and decisions. (Rupp 1974)
4. A community plan outlining
proposed future land uses and their
distribution. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Land use allocation
The committing of a given area of
land or a resource to one or more specific uses–e.g., to campgrounds, wilderness areas. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
8200R-8)
Land use capability. See Capability.
Land use constraints
Any factor that may act to reduce
management options or discourage various uses–e.g., erosive soils, unstable
slopes, steep topography, presence of
archeological or historic remains. (U.S.
Forest Serv., Colville Natl. Forest
1974)
Land use planning
1. Land use planning is the process
of organizing the development and use
of lands and their resources in a manner that will best meet the needs of
people over time while maintaining
maximum flexibility for a dynamic
combination of resource output for
the future. (After Camp 1974)
2. Land use planning is a process
which allocates geographically fixed
resources to a variety of uses. (After
Camp 1974)
3. Land use planning is the neverending process of inventorying and assessing the status, potentials, and limitations of a particular geographic area
and its resources; interacting with the
populations associated and/or concerned with the area to determine
their needs, wants, and aspirations for
the future; hypothesizing patterns of
use compatible with both the area's
capabilities and human needs and
wants; proposing and assessing the
consequences of, and implementing
the best of alternatives for achieving
the desired patterns of use, documenting the history of use to enable
comparison of expected and experienced consequences; and repeating the
entire process over and over to account for changing environmental status,
changing
technology,
and
Land use feasibility. See Feasibility.
Land use plan
1. The concrete expression in map
and text form of objectives which are
considered desirable by a governing
body with the power to approve and
implement the plan. (Hills, Love and
Lacate 1970)
2. U.S. Bureau of Land Management usage. A "land use plan" is a coordinated composite of information,
ideas, policies, programs, and activities
related to existing and potential uses
of land within a given area, starting
with the planning unit, extending
through an integrated system of planning units that comprise a district and
ultimately becoming part of a land use
plan for all Bureau land holdings within the state and nation.
It, in part, identifies where these activities take place or where additional
activities could take place under future
conditions or circumstances, either under Bureau jurisdiction or the control
by other public agencies or private
parties.
The total comprehensive land use
plan provides the basis for the more
114
changing human wants. (After Camp
1974)
4. The ordering of future activities
in space. (Ackerman 1963)
5. The process by which decisions
are made on future land uses, over extended time periods, that are deemed to
best serve the general welfare. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer, 1970)
Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance
Act
1. U.S. Senate bill 268, 93rd Congress usage. This proposed act was defeated in committee in February 1974.
The Congress, recognizing that the
Nation's land is its most valuable national resource and that the maximum
benefit to all from this resource can be
achieved only with the development
and implementation of sound and coordinated land use policies, declares
that it is the continuing policy of the
Federal government to cooperate with
and render assistance to state and local
governments in the development and
implementation of the policies which
will govern the wise and balanced use
of the Nation's land resource. The purpose of this Act is to establish a National land use policy, to authorize the
Secretary of the Interior to make
grants to assist the states to develop
and implement state land use programs, to coordinate Federal programs
and policies which have a land use impact, to coordinate planning and management of Federal lands and planning
and management of adjacent nonFederal lands, and to establish an office of land use policy administration
in the Department of the Interior.
The purpose of the Act is to encourage comprehensive, balanced–not
functional planning, Thus, whenever
levels of government below the state
government are to be included in the
important decisionmaking and financial assistance activities in the Act, the
language of the Act limits the governments involved to general purpose lo-
115
cal government. (U.S. Congr., Senate,
Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973)
2. U.S. Senate bill 924, 93rd Congress usage. This Nixon-Administration-proposed act was defeated in Congress.
This Act was first proposed in 1971
and followed the concepts contained
in the draft "model land development
code" developed by the American Law
Institute (ALI). That code called for
the states to take a highly selective approach, focusing on land use questions
of more than local significance. Under
the ALI code some 90 percent of all
land use questions would continue to
be disposed of by local agencies without interference from state government. Through compromise, since
their introduction, the two land use
planning bills have become quite similar, and this proposed Act was abandoned in favor of the Senate bill 268
version. (After Carter 1973)
Land use practice (Discrete land use operation)
1. A term used to refer to the various kinds of altering actions and/or activities associated with or utilized in
facilitating or making possible different types of land uses–e.g., clearing of
vegetation, land grading, paving, landscaping, fencing, fertilizing, irrigating,
etc.
"Land use practices" are distinct
from land use types. "Land use types"
is a classification system based on the
purpose for which the land is being
used–e.g., timber production, range,
second home subdivisions, farming,
heavy industry, etc. "Land use types"
are bundles of more or less shared
"land use practices"–though the precise types and amounts of practices
that are utilized in conjunction with a
specific use type may vary from one
specific instance to another.
"Land use practices" is an alternative to "land use types" as a way of
classifying for study and/or regulation
pollution; the size of the site to be occupied; and the likelihood that additional or subsidiary development will
be generated.
The purpose of this definition is to
focus on the size and nature of the
project rather than on ascertaining the
precise individual or organization
which is the developer. First, the definition of the project insures that it is
of a size which would have significant
impacts upon the environment and urban services. Second, it provides that
the state develop a program for those
projects only in remote, rural or other
areas where local government is illequipped to regulate the project itself.
(U.S. Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973)
the problems created by use. By restricting practice alternatives the problems associated with specific uses can
sometimes be eliminated or reduced
while not necessarily preventing use–
because there may be an alternative acceptable practice. (C.F.S.J
Land use suitability. See Suitability.
Land use survey
A survey of the uses to which land
is put in a particular area, usually summarized both in map form and statistically. (Abrams 1971)
Land use type (Land use)
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. The
primary use of a tract of land–e.g.,
crops, pasture, forest, urban and other.
(U.S. Forest Serv. 19728)
2. A classification system based on
the purposes for which land is being
used–e.g., timber production, range,
second home subdivisions, farming,
etc. "Land use types" are bundles of
more or less shared land use practices–though the precise types and
amounts of practices that are utilized
in conjunction with a specific use type
may vary from one specific instance to
another. (C.F.S.)
Law, common (Precedent law)
1. A body of rules based on judi-cial
decisions rather than legislation.
It is the basis of the AngloAmerican legal tradition. The "common-law" judge relies on judicial decisions of the past in rendering his rulings. Under the "common-law" approach the law can change gradually at
the hands of the judges to meet the
changes in society. In the United
States the "common-law" system is
evident in the supremacy of the judiciary in determining the constitutionality of legislation. In contrast, the system of civil law prominent on the continent of Europe is based on Roman
law and later codes of legislation.
(O'Connell 1974)
2. The system of unwritten law (as
distinguished from written statute
laws) that has been declared in written
opinions by judges and is based either
on the general customs or on reason
and fixed principles of justice. (Webster 1963)
Large-lot zoning. See Zoning, large-lot.
Large scale development
1. Usage in the defeated 1973 bill
for a National Land Use Policy and
Planning Assistance Act. Private development on non-Federal lands which,
because of its magnitude or the magnitude of its effect on the surrounding
environment, is likely to present issues
of more than local significance in the
judgment of the state.
In determining what constitutes
"large scale development" the state is
asked to consider, among other things,
the amount of pedestrian or vehicular
traffic likely to be generated; the number of persons likely to be present; the
potential for creating environmental
problems such as air, water, or noise
Law, natural
1. An abstract concept of law
based on the relation between God,
man, and nature. An ideal higher than
116
tion to the spore or fertilized egg of
the next generation.
A continuous, descriptive account
of a life cycle is called the life history
of an organism. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
2. The series of stages in the form
and mode of life of an organism between successive recurrences of a certain primary stage, such as the spore,
fertilized egg, seed or resting cell.
(Wash. State Univ., Coop. Ext. Serv.
1972)
man-made law, it forms the basis of
justice in the ethical sense. It embodies
such ideas as the existence of a universal order governing all men and the unalienable rights of the individual.
(O'Connell 1974)
2. A body of law derived from nature and binding upon human society
in the absence of or in addition to institutional law. (Webster 1963)
3. The body of rules or customs
derived from the general maintenance
of human society. (Webster 1963)
LD50. See Median lethal dose.
Life history
A continuous, descriptive account
of the life cycle of an organism.
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
Leasable mineral. See Mineral, leasable.
Legal institution
A society's system of legal rules and
principles. (Webster 1963)
Life quality index. See Quality of life and
Index.
Leontief analysis. See Input-output analysis.
Life style
1. A characteristically different
way of living which may be an individual variant within the cultural main
stream or may be an individual expression of a subculture. "Life styles" are
generally expressed through the means
of economic sustenance, dwelling site
and type, types of group associations,
and social practices such as family
form, religious practices, sexual mores,
and style of dress, type of diet, etc.
The "life style" which is most common for a given culture is sometimes
referred to as the "mainstream life
style" and those which are uncommon
(culturally unusual, atypical) as "alternative (or subculture) life styles".
(L. W.)
Lexicography
1. The editing or making of a dictionary. (Webster 1963)
2. Decision theory usage. A
method of choosing among alternatives based on an analogy to the way
words are arranged in a dictionary. A
single objective or attribute is rated as
most important, and alternatives are
ranked according to how well they satisfy this objective. If an alternative is
clearly superior in this attribute to
other alternatives it is selected. Otherwise the second most important attribute is used to rank the top alternatives from the first ranking. This process continues, constantly reducing the
number of alternatives ranked and
ranking by less important attributes,
until a single project is clearly superior
for the attribute being used to rank
the alternatives. (After Mac Crimmon
1968)
Life zone
1. An altitudinal or latitudinal biotic region or belt with distinctive
faunal and floral characteristics. (Hanson 1962)
2. Areas of land classified into
gross habitat types by a combination
of elevational and climatic zones and
other factors which determine the
Life cycle
1. The successive stages through
which an organism passes from the
spore or fertilized egg of one genera117
sources can be expressed by simultaneous linear equations. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969)
3. A class of programming techniques used to analyze or solve problems in which the linear function of a
number of variables is to be maximized or minimized when those variables are subject to a number of constraints in the form of linear inequalities. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
type of animal and plant life found in
them–e.g., the Upper Sonoran, Transition, Canadian, Hudsonian and Alpine
life zones. (After U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2800 R-8, date unknown)
Light grazing. See Grazing, light.
Limiting factor
1. Any environmental factor whose
presence, absence or abundance is the
main factor restricting the distribution, numbers or condition of an organism. (After Durrenberger 1973,
Sesco, et al. 1973)
2. The environmental influence by
which the limit of tolerance of an organism is first reached and which,
therefore, acts as the immediate restriction to one or more of its func-tions
or activities or in its geographic
distribution. (Hanson 1962)
Litter (Forest litter, Leaf litter)
The uppermost layer of organic debris on the ground under a vegetation
cover–i.e., essentially the freshly fallen or only slightly decomposed vegetable material, mainly from foliage but
also bark fragments, twigs, flowers,
fruits, etc. (After Ford-Robertson
1971)
Littoral
1. Belonging to the shore, as of
seas and the great lakes; riparian proprietors on a stream or small pond are
analogous to littoral proprietors on a
sea or lake. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
2. Of or pertaining to the shore;
existing, taking place upon or adjacent
to the shore. Applied loosely and generally to the seashore as well as to the
shores of lakes and rivers. (Stamp
1971)
3. Also see Riparian.
Limits
Range management usage. The
number of livestock which may be
grazed under provisions of a grazing
preference. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Linear perspective. See Perspective, linear.
Linear programming
1. A mathematical method used to
determine the most effective allocation of limited resources between competing demands when both the objective (e.g., profit or cost) and the restrictions on its attainment are expressible as a system of linear equalities or
inequalities (e.g., y=a+bx). (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. A deterministic model which assumes linear behavioral relationships
and in which an optimal solution is
sought (by maximizing or minimizing)
subject to one or more limiting constraints.
Linear programming is used to determine the best or optimum use of
resources to achieve a desired result
when the limitations on available re-
Lobbying
1. Activity engaged in by individuals or organizations (directly or
through hired representatives) that is
directed at the various elements of
government in an attempt to influence
legislation or policies in a way that is
favorable to the interests of the lobbying group.
A potential source of conflict lies in
the fact that the public, viewed as a
collection of individuals, is seldom represented in such activities. (O'Connell
1974)
118
plain and predict the location of individual, commercial, and industrial development. It is important to the planner for predicting population and industrial distributions which would result from alternative plans. (E. C. T.)
Local economic effects
Effects of an action or inaction on
dollar market transactions in the immediate area of the action or inaction.
The "local" area would include an area
encompassing the primary sources of
employment and retail outlets for basic commodities such as food utilized
by the people of that area. (E. C. T.)
Lode mining. See Mining, lode.
Logged-over forest
A forest in which most or all of the
merchantable timber has been cut.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Local government
Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for
a national Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act. Any general purpose local government or any regional
combination thereof, or, where appropriate, any other public agency which
has land use planning authority. (U.S.
Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular
Aff. 1973)
Logging
The cutting and extraction of timber, particularly logs. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
In imprecise usage logging, harvesting, and silviculture are used seemingly
interchangeably by different people,
often with vehemence as to which is
the correct term in a given situation.
According to Ford-Robertson (1971)
"silviculture" has as its primary concern the establishing, growing, and
tending of forests. "Harvesting" and
"logging", however, deal specifically
with the extraction of resources from
the forest; with "logging" restricted to
the cutting and extraction of timber
(wood other than fuel wood after primary conversion) and "harvesting" expanding this to include the cutting, initial processing if any, and extraction
of any forest product. (After FordRobertson 1971)
Local overgrazing
Overgrazing in localized areas on a
range, as, for example, near watering
places. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Local species. See Species, local.
Locatable mineral. See Mineral, locatable.
Locatable mineral deposits. See Minerals,
locatable.
Location (Mineral location)
The acts or series of acts pursuant
to the general mining laws by which
the right of exclusive possession of locatable mineral deposits is vested in
the locator. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
2811.1.F, Sept., 1958)
A mining claim is sometimes called
a "location" but those terms may often mean different things–e.g., "mining claim" may refer to a parcel of
land containing soil or rock which has
value because of its chemical composition, while "location" is the act of appropriating such land according to certain established rules. (Thrush 1968)
Also see Minerals, locatable.
Logging, aerial
A system for hauling timber from
the stump to a collecting point which
employs aerial means of transportation–e.g., balloons or helicopters.
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
Logging, cable
A method for transporting logs
from stumps to collecting points
which utilizes a cable system as the
main device for moving them. (FordRobertson 1971)
For some of the different types of
"cable logging" see Logging, skyline;
Location theory
The theory which attempts to ex119
Logging, high-lead; and Logging,
ground-lead.
Contrast with Logging, tractor.
carrying the logs. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
Contrasts with Logging, cable.
Logging, ground-lead (Low-lead cable logging)
A method for transporting logs
from the stumps to a collecting point
by dragging them along the ground
with a powered cable passing through
a block fastened close to ground level.
(After Ford-Robertson 1971)
Long-range planning
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Planning for the period covered by basic
resource management plans, usually
ten or more years. (U.S. Forest Serv.
19 72B)
2. Planning in the long-range sense
is the selection or identification of the
overall, long-range objectives. The
analysis of various possible courses of
action in terms of their relative costs
and accomplishments or benefits is
then used to decide on which courses
of action to follow in order to achieve
those objectives. (U.S. Gen. Account.
Off 1969)
3. Planning for a future more than
5 years distant. (After U.S. Forest Serv.
19728)
4. The continuous process of making present (risk-taking) decisions systematically and with the best possible
knowledge of their futurity for some
10 to 30 years, organizing systematically the efforts needed to carry out
these decisions, and measuring the results of these decisions through organized, systematic feedback. The scheduling of needed improvements is on a
less detailed basis with more flexible
timing and a recognition of the adjustments and re-analysis that the passage
of time will inevitably compel. (After
Winfrey and Zellner 1971)
"Long range planning" does not
deal with future decisions. It deals
with the future attainment of present
decisions. (Drucker 1959)
Logging, high-lead
A method for transporting logs
from the stumps to a collecting point
by using a powered cable, passing
through a block fastened high off the
ground, to lift the front end of the
logs clear of the ground while dragging
them. (After Ford-Robertson 1971)
Logging, low-lead. See Logging, ground
lead.
Logging, skyline (Skyline yarding)
A method for transporting logs
from stumps to collecting points that
uses a heavy cable stretched between
high points (such as in tall trees braced
with guy lines) to functions as an overhead track for a load carrying trolley.
Logs are lifted up by cables or other
devices attached to the trolley and
powered cables are used to move the
load back and forth along the main
cable. (After Ford-Robertson 1971)
"Skyline logging" is a particular
type of cable logging.
Logging, tractor
Any logging method which uses a
tractor as the motive power for transporting logs from the stumps to a collecting point–whether by dragging or
Low-lead logging. See Logging, ground
lead.
120
M
Macroclimate (Regional climate)
The general large-scale climate of a
large area or country, as distinguished
from the mesoclimate and microclimate. (Huschle 1959)
Management direction
U.S. Forest service usage. A statement of goals and a detailed specification of the ways and means for attaining them. (W. W.)
Macroeconomics
Economic studies or statistics that
consider aggregates of individuals or
groups of commodities; for example,
total consumption, employment, or income. (Sloan 1961)
Also see Microeconomics.
Management goal. See Goal.
Management objective. See Objective.
Management policy. See Policy.
Management program
Coastal zone management act
usage. "Management program" includes, but is not limited to, a comprehensive statement in words, maps, illustrations, or other media of communication, prepared and adopted by the
state setting forth objectives, policies,
and standards to guide public and private uses of lands and waters in the
coastal zone. (After Coastal Zone Manage. Act 1972)
Majority determinism
A point of view in resource planning which advocates making resource
use and allocation decisions on the basis of some sort of a simple expression
of the most popular choice of use or
mixes of uses. (C.F.S.)
This conceptually simple one-man
one-vote approach has severe problems
in the land use planning context on
several grounds. How are the alternative resource use mix choices formulated and presented to the "voters"?
How is the planned-for populace defined, located and canvassed? How are
the desires of transient resource users
(such as campers and hikers who do
not belong to organized groups) to be
counted, and how are they to be
weighed against the needs and desires
of permanent residents and users?
(C. F. S. )
Major land use
U.S. Forest Service usage. A grouping of primary uses together into classes with similar characteristics–e.g.,
cropland, pasture, and forest. (After
U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
Also see Land use type.
Management situation
U.S. Forest Service usage. A section
of the planning area guide which contains a comprehensive statement of the
planning area resources, its history as
it may influence planning, past and
present uses, and a review of the publics directly concerned with the area.
The significance of the information
about the area as it relates to national
objectives and program targets is also
important as it will describe how that
area is unique in its ability to contribute to the satisfaction of human needs.
A projection of program attainment
targets is also included. (After U.S.
Forest Serv., FSM 8222.2, Oct. 1973)
This term is similar, but not identical to the term "environmental setting" as used in FSM 8412.2 item 3A.
Management area
Range management usage. The total
holdings under a single management.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Management unit
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Under
the "Multiple Use Planning" system
used until 1972 they were subdivisions
121
of the "multiple use management
zone" in the ranger district multiple
use plan. It was the finest delineation
of land areas.
Under the newly adopted U.S. Forest Service "Land Use Planning" sys-tem
they are subdivisions of planning
units which identify the area of land
or water to which specific management decisions apply. All lands within
a planning unit are included in one of
the identified management units. (U.S.
Forest Serv., FSM 8226, Oct., 1973)
2. Range management usage. A
subdivision of a management area.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
cific uses-such as administrative site
development, road location, bridge
sites, dam sites, campground development, ski areas, and geological area
maps. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1973)
Map overlay (Overlay map)
1. A transparent sheet accompanying a map, on which information,
coloring, or symbols are entered so
that when the overlay is placed on the
map the effect is identical to having
entered the overlay information on the
map itself. By combining several overlays it becomes a simple matter to display a variety of data combinations
and stratifications which would not be
possible otherwise. (E. C. T.)
2. A map of an area to be superimposed on one or more maps of the
same area. The purpose is to find the
spatial distribution of data combinations, or more exactly the areas of
joint occurrence and unsimilar occurrence. (After Amidon 1972)
3. A digital image (as in a computer) of areas as in definitions 1 and
2. (After Amidon 1972)
Management zone
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. For
planning purposes, areas of land with
similar characteristics, whether they be
social, economic, or environmental
characteristics, may be delineated into
management zones. Such a stratification is used for planning areas to help
in delineating more precisely the particular area of land on which certain
coordinating criteria apply. Three
management zones are defined for forest service-wide use–water influence,
travel influence, and special management zones. Other zones may also be
designated by Regional Foresters.
(U.S. Forest Serv. FSM 8223, Oct.,
1973)
Where planning areas encompass
lands in portions of two or more Forest Service Administrative Regions, the
same zone name and description will
be used throughout the planning area.
The use of management zones is optional. However, if management zones
are used, they will be applied uniformly throughout the planning area.
Map plan. See Paper plan.
Map, planimetric
A map representing only the horizontal position of features. (U.S. Dep
Def. 1968)
Contrast with a topographic map
which shows both the horizontal and
vertical position of features.
Marginal land
Land of questionable economic
capabilities for a specific purpose.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Market place
A hypothetical construct of economic theory representing the place all
potential buyers and sellers of all goods
and services come together, express
their desires and offer their wares,
through bargaining establish a price
structure and production schedule, and
complete their transactions. In standard
Map, operational
A precise, detailed, large-scale map,
usually with small contour intervals
but sometimes only planimetric (i.e.,
representing only the horizontal, position of features), constructed for spe122
usage it refers to all locations where
economic transactions occur treated as
a single whole. (E. C. T.)
Master plan
1. City planning usage. A comprehensive, long-range plan intended to
guide the growth and development of a
city, town, or region, expressing official
contemplations on the course its transportation, housing, and other community facilities should take, and making proposals for industrial settlement,
commerce, population distribution,
and other aspects of growth and development. (Abrams 1971)
2. Also see Comprehensive plan.
3. This term has been commonly
used to describe or title any plan which
is comprehensive or depicts or describes
an ultimate state of development.
There is no unified agreement on its
precise meaning or use in either theory
or practice. The term is found in many
books on planning, and appears in many
planning ordinances and state laws–all
of which seldom make more than a perfunctory or superficial attempt to
define its use precisely. With respect to
a suggested proper usage of "master
plan", the California Planning Act
(Calif. Gov. Code Title 7, Chap. 1, Art.
7, Sec. 65460) states that "Each commission or planning department shall
prepare and the commission shall adopt
a comprehensive, long-term general
plan for the physical development of
the city, county, area or region, and of
any land outside its boundaries which in
the commission's judgement bears relation to its planning. The plan may be
referred to as the master or general plan,
and shall be officially certified as the
master or general plan upon its adoption by the planning commission and
the legislative body." In this statement
"master" never appears without the
word "general". Thus "master" is made
synonymous with "general". The statement also implies that adoption by an
official body is a mandatory prerequisite for titling a plan "master plan".
Thus plans not yet officially adopted
should only use the term if it is qualified
Market price. See Market value.
Market value (Market price)
1. A price at which both buyers and
sellers are willing to do business; the
market or current price. (Webster 1963)
2. "Market price": The price actually given in the current market dealings.
The price at which the supply and
demand are equal. Webster 1963)
Mass diagram
A graphical representation of cumulative quantities over time. Each point
on the curve is the sum of all preceding
quantities. (After Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Mass instability (Slope stability)
An evaluation of the tendency for
the materials on a slope (e.g., rocks, soil,
snow) to move downhill as a large mass.
(C. F. S. )
Also see Landslide hazard, Snow
avalanche hazard.
Mass movement
Downslope, unit movement of a portion of the land's surface–i.e., a single
landslide or the gradual simultaneous,
downhill movement of the whole mass
of loose earth material on a slope face.
(After Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Also see Landslide.
Mass-wasting
A general term for any of the variety
of processes by which large masses of
earth material are moved downslope by
gravitational forces–either slowly or
quickly. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Also see Landslide.
Mast
Nuts, acorns, and similar products of
hardwood species, which are consumed
by animals. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
123
by some phrase, such as "study for
a . . . " or "proposed . . . ".
The term "master" has connotations
of grandiose schemes, an ultimate state
and inflexible authority. This term has
been so loosely, and often incorrectly
or dishonestly, used that it has gained
disfavor in the urban planning profession. They now prefer to instead use the
term "general plan" (see Comprehensive plan definition 1) in the titles of
their more comprehensive, long-range
plans and proposals, because it has
connotations of flexibility and thus
more accurately reflects the nature of
such plans. (Marsh 1964)
4. In the past, often defined and
considered synonymous with comprehensive plan. More recently considered a component part or functional
class of a comprehensive plan, for example, master plan for highways and
thoroughfares, master plan for parks
and recreation, etc. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
determine the attribute with the highest
value for each alternative and follow
this decision rule a very high degree of
comparability between attributes within each alternative and among alternatives is needed. (After Mac Crimmon
1968)
Maximin
A method of choosing among alternatives by noting the attribute with
the lowest value or quality standard
least met for each alternative, and selecting the alternative with the most
acceptable lowest valued attribute or
standard. In order to determine the
lowest valued attribute or worst met
standard, and follow this decision rule a
very high degree of comparability between attributes within each alternative
and among alternatives is needed.
(After Mac Crimmon 1968)
Maximum grazing capacity. See Grazing
capacity, maximum
Material cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle.
MBF (MBM).
Lumber or timber measurement
term. One thousand board feet.
Matrix
1. Mathematical usage. A rectangular array of rows and columns of real
numbers. Matrices may be subjected to
mathematical operations such as multiplication of one by another, addition of
two or more, and others. Matrices may
be manipulated in total in a manner
similar to the algebraic manipulation of
single numbers, but knowledge of special rules, called matrix algebra, is necessary for such manipulation. (U.S. Gen.
Account. Off. 1969)
2. For land use planning's more
traditional usage, see Interaction matrix.
Meadow
1. Range management usage. A
herb-land used primarily for hay production. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
2. Openings in forests and grasslands of exceptional productivity in
arid regions, usually resulting from high
water content of the soil, as in streamside situations and areas having a
perched water table. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Median lethal dose (LD50)
The amount of concentration of a
toxic substance which will result in the
death of 50 percent of a group of test
organisms upon exposure (by ingestion, application, injection or in their
surrounding environment) for a specified period of time. (After Geckler,
et al. 1963)
Maximax
A method of choosing among alternatives by noting the attribute with the
highest value for each alternative, and
comparing these attributes across alternatives to choose the alternative with
the maximum highest value. In order to
124
Microclimate
1. The local climate of a given site or
habitat varying in size from a tiny crevice to a large land area, but being usually
characterized by considerable uniformity of climate over the site involved
and relatively local as compared to its
enveloping macroclimate from which it
differs because of local climatic factors
(such as elevation and exposure).
(Webster 1963)
2. The fine climatic structure of the
air space which extends from the very
surface of the earth to a height where
the effects of the immediate character
of the underlying surface no longer can
be distinguished from the general local
climate (i.e., mesoclimate or macroclimate).
The microclimate varies with and in
turn is superimposed upon the largerscale conditions. While some rigid limits
have been placed on the thickness of the
layer concerned, it is more realistic to
consider variable thicknesses–e.g., the
microclimate of a putting green versus
that of a redwood forest. Generally,
four times the height of surface growth
or structures defines the level where
microclimatic overtones disappear.
Microclimate can be subdivided into
as many different classes as there are
types of underlying surface. With sufficient detail, this could be almost limitless. Currently, the most studied broad
types are the "urban microclimate",
affected by pavement, buildings, air
pollution, dense inhabitation, etc. and
the "vegetation microclimate", concerned with the complex nature of the
air space occupied by vegetation, and its
effects upon the vegetation. (Huschle
1959, citing Geiger 1951)
Median tolerance limit (TLm )
The concentration of some toxic
substance at which just 50 percent of
the test animals are able to survive for
a specified period of exposure. (Geckler, et al. 1963)
Merit-weights
A system for evaluating differing
uses by different sectors of the population. Espoused by Mack and Myers
(1965) primarily as a method of comparing different outdoor recreation
uses. The number of user-days in each
activity by each section of the population is weighted prior to comparison by
a value representing a societal social
welfare function, and alternatives are
compared based on these "meritweighted" user days. (E.C.T.)
Mesic
1. Refers to environmental conditions that have medium moisture supplies rather than Hygric (wet) or xeric
(dry) conditions. (Hanson 1962)
2. The nature of an organism requiring constant water availability. (Dansereau 1957)
Mesoclimate
The climate of small areas of the
earth's surface which may not be representative of the general climate of the
district area involved. It is rather indefinite and may include topographic or
landscape features from a few acres to a
few square miles, such as small valleys,
"frost hollows", forest clearings, and
open spaces in towns, all of which may
have extremes of temperature differing
by many degrees from those of adjacent
areas. The mesoclimate is intermediate
in scale between the macroclimate and
the microclimate. (Huschke 1959)
Microeconomics
Economic studies or statistics that
consider particular individuals or single
commodities; for example, the demand
for wheat or for employment in the
auto industry. (Sloan 1961)
Also see Macroeconomics.
Metamorphic rock. See Rock, metamorphic.
Metropolitan state economic area. See
State economic area, definition 2.
125
are practical–typically between three
and ten years in the future. Often,
however, the planning process is
merely divided into the short-range
and long-range planning with a single
dividing point, say five years in the future, and the mid-range classification is
not used. (E. C. T.)
2. As used by the U.S. Water Resources Council in its Principles and
Standards. Middle term refers to planning for periods up to 15 to 25 years in
the future. (U.S. Dep. Agric. 1974)
Microrelief (Microtopography)
1. Ground surface irregularities
which when compared from a fixed
point of elevation between them display differences in elevation of not
more than 10 feet nor less than 3 inches
within a distance of 4 to 64 feet. (Stone
and Dugundji 1965)
2. Minor differences in surface configuration of the land surface. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Microtopography. See Microrelief.
Middle distance. See Middleground.
Mineral
Middleground (middle distance)
1. Those portions of a scene, landscape, etc., which occur between the
foreground and the background. (Webster 1963)
2. The portions of a view between
1/4 or 1/2 mile and three to five miles
distant from the observer. The "middleground" portions of a view are especially critical because they tend to
dominate the view. It is in this distance
range that the emergence of shapes
and patterns on the landscape can be
clearly seen. Consequently the "Middleground" portions of a view often
best show whether man-made changes
rest easily or uneasily on the landscape.
(Litton 1968)
Also see Background and Foreground.
1. Mining laws usage. A substance
is "mineral' under the general U.S. mining laws: (1) if it is scientifically recognized as such, (2) if it is classified
commercially as such or (3) if it derives
from the earth and possesses economic
value and utility aside from the agricultural purposes of the surface itself.
(U.S. Forest Serv. 1958)
The word "mineral" is not technical,
either as having a special sense by commercial usage, or as having a scientific
meaning different from the popular
meaning. Mineral is a word of common
speech and, as such, its interpretation is
within the judicial knowledge and
therefore a matter of law. (Marvel vs.
Merritt, 116 U.S. 11)
2. Mineral rights usage. Every inorganic substance that can be extracted
from the earth for profit, whether it be
solid, liquid or gas.
This usage of the term "mineral"
includes coal, petroleum and natural
gas–even though these materials are not
truely inorganic. (Thrush 1968)
3. Nontechnical usage. In a broad
nontechnical sense the term "mineral"
embraces all inorganic and organic substances that are extracted from the
earth for use by man. (Thrush 1968)
Middle term planning. See Mid-range
planning.
Mid-range planning (Middle term planning,
Mid-term planning)
1. Planning that combines elements
of both long-range planning and shortrange planning. Generally, mid-range
planning is designed for that period beyond the immediate actions of shortrange planning, thus allowing a more
general identification of long term objectives and goals, and yet within the
time period where reasonably accurate
predictions of the future with corresponding specific actions to be taken
Mineral, common variety
Earth materials which, although
maybe having value for use in trade,
manufacture, the sciences, or in the
126
Mineral, leasable
Types of minerals whose prospecting
and development on public lands under
permit or lease was authorized by the
Mineral Leasing Act of February 25,
1920, as amended and supplemented
(41 Stat. 437; 30 U.S.C. 181-287).
For example, coal, phosphate, sodium, potassium, oil, oil shale, gas and in
some states sulfur. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2803.1.5, Jan. 1959)
Also see Mineral, excepted.
mechanical or ornamental arts, do not
possess a distinct, special economic
value for such use over and above the
normal uses of the general sum of such
deposits. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
2803.12, Jan 1959, citing 43 C.F.R.
185.121)
For example, sand and gravel are frequently present in abundance in most
areas and that makes them a "common
variety mineral".
Neither mining claims nor mining
claim patents can be filed for "common
variety mineral" deposits.
Mineral, locatable
Precious or semi-precious minerals
that are not considered to be common
variety minerals–i.e., not such materials as sand or gravel.
Locatable mineral deposits can be
claimed and the mining claim patented,
thus converting it to private ownership.
(U. S. Forest Serv., FSM 2800R-8)
Mineral cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle.
Mineral entry
The filing of a mining claim for public land to obtain the right to any minerals it may contain. (Thrush 1968)
Mineral entry, withdrawals
U. S. Forest Service usage. The exclusion of mining locations and mineral
development work on areas required for
administrative sites by the Forest Service and other areas highly valued by the
public. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
2860.2, Mar. 1969)
Mineral location. See Location.
Mineral rights
The ownership of the minerals under
a given surface, with the legal right to
enter that area and mine and remove
them–including the right to use as
much of the land surface as may be
reasonably necessary for the conduct of
mining operations.
"Mineral rights" may be separated
from the "surface rights" ownership,
but, if not separated by a distinct conveyance, are included in the latter.
(Thrush 1968)
Also see Mineral, definition 2.
Mineral, excepted
Types of minerals which are exempted from the regulations in the
general mining laws which authorize
prospecting for and development of
mineral resources on public lands.
The excepted minerals are: oil, gas,
oil shale, coal, potassium, sodium and
phosphates and in Louisiana and New
Mexico, sulfur. Similarly excepted as to
mineral locations made after 1955 are
the common variety minerals sand,
stone, gravel, pumice, pumicite or
cinders. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
2803.11, Jan. 1959)
Also see Mineral, leasable.
Mineral soil
A soil consisting predominantly of,
and having its properties determined
predominantly by inorganic matter.
Usually containing less than 20 percent organic matter but sometimes
containing an organic surface layer up
to 30 centimeters thick. (Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Also see Organic soil.
Mineralization
The breakdown of organic compounds to their inorganic (i.e., mineral) forms–e.g., proteins to nitrates,
phosphates, etc. (Hanson 1962)
Mine tailings
1. The waste material remaining
127
after raw minerals or ore have been processed. (After Grim and Hill 1974)
2. Material separated as refuse or
separately treated as inferior in quality
or value.
The sand, gravel and cobbles which
pass through sluices in placer mining.
Refuse material resulting from the
washing, concentration or treatment of
ground ore.
The residual after most of a valuable
ore has been extracted. (Thrush 1968)
3. The mining waste from open-pit
mining is termed "spoils" while "tailings" is usually used for the waste from
hard rock mining. (After Grim and Hill
1974)
Mining, auger
A mining method often used by surface mine operators when the amount
of material overlying the seam from
which a mineral (or ore) is being extracted gets too thick to be removed
economically. Large diameter (2 to 7
feet), closely spaced holes are drilled up
to 200 feet into the seam using an auger
type bit whose head breaks up the deposit and whose screwlike extensions
carry the material back out of the bore
hole and into the open.
Auger mining is usually associated
with contour strip mining. It is a common practice used to recover additional
tonnage after the coal to overburden
ratio has become too small to render
further contour strip mining economical. When the slope is too steep for
contour mining, augering is often performed directly into the hillside from a
narrow bench. Augers are also used to
recover coal near the outcrop that could
not be extracted safely by underground
mining. (After Thrush 1968 and Grim
and Hill 1974)
Mining, area strip. See Mining, area surface.
Mining, area surface (Area strip mining)
A type of open-pit mining or strip
mining that is generally practiced on
gently rolling to relatively flat terrain
on relatively large tracts of land and is
commonly found in the mid and far
western United States. A trench is first
cut through the overburden to expose
the deposit of mineral or ore to be
removed. The first cut is extended to
the limits of the property or deposits.
The overburden from the first cut is
placed on unmined land adjacent to the
cut. The mineral or ore is then removed.
Once the first cut is completed, a second cut is made parallel to the first, and
the overburden from the succeeding
cuts is deposited in the cut just previously excavated. The final cut leaves an
open trench equal in depth to the thickness of the overburden and the mineral
bed removed, bounded on one side by
the last spoil pile and on the other by
the undisturbed highwall. The final cut
may be up to a mile or more from the
starting point, and the overburden from
the cuts, unless graded or leveled, resembles a plowed field or the ridges of a
gigantic washboard. (Grim and Hill
1974)
Also contrast with Mining, contour
surface.
Mining claim (Claim)
1. That portion of the public mineral lands which a miner, for mining
purposes, takes and holds in accordance with mining laws. (Thrush 1968)
2. The portion of mining ground
held under the Federal and local laws
by one claimant or association, by virtue of one location and record.
A lode claim's maximum size is 600
by 1500 feet and a placer claim's 600
by 1320 feet.
A "claim" is sometimes called a
"location" but these terms may often
mean different things–e.g., "mining
claim" may refer to a parcel of land
containing soil or rock which has value
because of its chemical composition,
while "location" is the act of appropriating such land according to certain
established rules. (Thrush 1968)
3. That portion of the public mineral lands located (see location) and
128
vere erosion and landslides. (Grim and
Hill 1974)
Also contrast with Area surface
mining.
held for mining purposes. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2811.1.F, Sept., 1958)
Mining claim, patented
A mining claim to which a patent
has been secured from the government
by compliance with the laws relating
to such claims.
The patent is a legal document
which conveys the title to the ground
(i.e., ownership) to the claim's owner.
No further annual assessment work
need be done, but property taxes must
henceforth be paid. (Thrush 1968)
Mining debris, hot (Hot waste, Hot spoils,
Hot tailings)
Refers to materials in the overburden, mining refuse, mine tailings or
mining spoils piles that are highly acid
producing or difficult to revegetate because of its acid nature. (Grim and Hill
1974)
Contrasts with sweet waste which is
neutral or slightly alkaline.
Mining claim, valid
A claim where there is an actual discovery of valuable minerals in quantities such that it would be profitable to
mine. (U.S. Forest Serv. Lolo Natl.
Forest 1974B)
Mining debris, sweet (Sweet waste, Sweet
spoils, Sweet tailings)
Refers to materials in the overburden, mining refuse, mine tailings or
mining spoils that are neutral or slightly alkaline and capable of supporting
certain calcium-demanding plants.
(After Grim and Hill 1974)
Contrasts with hot waste which is
highly acid or difficult to revegetate
because of its acid nature.
Mining, contour surface (Contour strip
mining)
A type of strip mining that is practiced in areas of hilly topography
when the coal seam outcrops on or
approaches the surface at approximately the same elevation along a hillside. The conventional method of mining consists of removing the overburden from the mineral seam, starting
at the outcrop and proceeding around
the hillside. The cut appears as a contour line, thus, the name. Overburden
is cast down the hillside and stacked
along the outer edge of the operating
bench. After the uncovered seam is
removed, successive cuts are made
until the depth of the overburden becomes too great for economical recovery of the coal. Physical limitations of
equipment reach, capacity, etc., may
also determine the strippable limit or
cut-off point for mining. Contour mining creates a shelf or bench on the side
of the hill. On the inside it is bordered
by the highwall, ranging in height from
a few feet to more than 100 feet; and
on the outer side the pit is bordered
by a high ridge of spoil with a precipitous downslope that is subject to se-
Mining hydraulic. See Mining, placer.
Mining, lode
The mining of a valuable mineral
which occurs as a tabular deposit between definite, contrasting mineral or
rock boundaries.
"Lode", as used by miners is nearly
synonymous with the term "vein" or
"ore body" as employed by geologists.
A lode consists of several veins spaced
closely enough together so that all of
them, together with the intervening
rock, can be mined as a unit.
The maximum size of an individual
"lode claim" is 1500 by 600 feet.
(Thrush 1968)
Mining, open cast. See Mining, open-pit.
Mining, open cut. See Mining, open-pit.
Mining, open-pit (opencut mining, open
cast mining)
A form of mining operation which
extracts minerals that occur near the
129
mining operations-surface or subsurface. (After Thrush 1968)
3. All overburden material removed, disturbed or displaced from
over a mineral deposit by excavating
equipment, blasting, augering or any
other means. (Grim and Hill 1974)
4. Contrast with mining refuse
which is the solid waste left by mineral
processing operations. Mine tailings is
also sometimes used in this latter
sense. (After Grim and Hill 1974)
surface from an open excavation.
Waste materials overlying the minerals
are first removed and then the mineral
materials are broken up and removed.
The mining of metal bearing ores
by surface mining methods is commonly termed "open-pit mining" as
distinguished from the strip mining of
coal and the "quarrying" of other nonmetallic materials such as limestone,
building stone, etc. (Thrush 1968)
Mining, pit
1. Surface mining in which the
material mined is removed from below
the surrounding land surface. (Thrush
1968)
2. Any mine, quarry or excavation
area worked by open-pit mining methods to obtain material of value. (Thrush
1968)
Mining, strip
1. Any operation in connection
with prospecting for, excavating, or
mining minerals which results in a
large-scale surface or stream bottom
disturbance from stripping, trenching,
dredging, rim cutting or open-pit digging. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2840,
Sept., 1958)
2. The mining of coal by surface
mining methods as distinguished from
the mining of metalliferous ores by
surface mining methods which is commonly designated as "open-pit mining". (Thrush 1968)
3. Refers to a type of surface
mining that removes all the waste
material from over a coal deposit in a
series of rows (or strips), one cut at a
time.
Strip mining methods employed to
recover coal can be divided into two
general types: area mining and contour
mining. (Grim and Hill 1974)
Mining, placer
The extraction of valuable heavy
minerals from a placer deposit (a mass
of sand, gravel or other similar alluvial
material) by concentration in running
water.
When water under pressure is employed to break down placer deposits
placer mining is generally termed "hydraulic mining". (Thrush 1968)
Mining, pre-law strip
A term used to refer to strip mining
operations conducted previous to the
passage of a states' first mining reclamation act. (Grim and Hill 1974)
Mining reclamation. See Reclamation.
Mining, surface (Strip mining, Open cast
mining, Open-cut mining, Open-pit
mining)
1. Surface mining is a very broad
term and refers to any process of removing the earth, rock, and other
strata in order to uncover the underlying mineral or fuel deposit. (Grim and
Hill 1974)
2. The removal of solid, earth
materials having value from surface
excavations.
This type of mining is generally
Mining refuse
The solid waste from a mineral
preparation or refining plant. (After
Grim and Hill 1974)
Mining spoils (Mining waste)
1. The overburden or nonore material removed in gaining access to the
ore of mineral material in surface mining. (Thrush 1968)
2. Any dirt or rock which has been
removed from its original location by
130
For example, some of the 11 missions of the U.S. Department of Agriculture are to work on problems associated with (1) environmental improvement, and resource development
and use, (2) rural development,
(3) agricultural production efficiency,
etc. (After U.S. Dep. Agric. Off. Manage. Finance 1974)
done where the material overlying the
materials being sought can be removed
without too much expense.
Surface mining of metal bearing ore
is commonly termed open-pit mining
while the surface mining methods used
for coal removal are commonly termed
strip mining. (Thrush 1968)
3. Mining activity involving extensive land surface, and/or water body
disturbance, including "strip mining",
placer mining, mineral exploratory
activities, etc. (Sandpoint Zone Planning Team)
Mobility, social. See Social mobility.
Model
1. An idealized representation of
reality for purposes of describing, analyzing or understanding the behavior
of some aspect of it. The term model
is applicable to a broad class of representations, ranging from a relatively
simple qualitative description of a system or organization to a highly abstract set of mathematical equations.
(U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. A representation of the relationships that define a situation under
study. A model may be a set of mathematical equations, a computer program, or any other type of representation, ranging from verbal statements to
physical objects. (U.S. Gen. Account.
Off. 1969)
3. A simplified representation of
an operation, containing only those
aspects of primary importance to the
problem under study. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1972B)
Mining waste. See Mining spoils.
Minority groups
A term commonly limited to racial
and ethnic minorities, principally
blacks and Spanish-speaking, but the
meaning is currently in flux, and, by
extension, may be applied to other
minorities–American Indians, Oriental
Americans, Appalachians, women, the
young, the old, homosexuals, the imprisoned, the mentally ill, drug addicts, alcoholics and rural migrants.
(O'Connell 1974)
Miscellaneous land type
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. A mapping unit for areas of land
that have little or no natural soil, or
that are too nearly inaccessible for
orderly examination, or that occur
where, for other reasons, it is not feasible to classify the soil.
Examples are alluvial land, badlands, made land, marsh, mine dump,
mine wash, river wash, rock land,
rough broken land, rubble land, scoria
land, swamp, urban land. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Model, deterministic
A model in which the variables take
on only definite values; that is, a
model that does not permit any risk as
to the magnitude of the variables. For
example, a set of simultaneous equations for which there is a unique solution is a deterministic model. (U.S.
Gen. Account. Off. 1969)
Also see Model, probabilistic.
Mission
A major, continuing problem or
concern that programs are designed to
address. Missions represent the basic
reasons for the existence of an organization in a governmental agency and
characterize an organization's role in
solving problems.
Modeling. See Model.
Model, probabilistic
1. A model in which each variable
131
Morphological region. See Region, morphological.
may take on more than one value.
Such models are sometimes called
stochastic which means, literally,
making a best guess. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969)
2. A model that makes allowances
for randomness in one or more of the
factors that determine the outputs of
the model. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
3. Also see Model, deterministic.
Morphology
Within the subject matter of geomorphology, the meaning of "morphology" is restricted to studies of the
surface form of the earth–without any
reference to the processes responsible
for those forms.
"Morphology" is not synonymous
with "geomorphology." (After Savigear 1965)
Model, stochastic. See Model, probabilistic.
Modulation
In land use planning "modulation"
is the modification of any aspect of a
land use plan in order that it more
nearly expresses the constituency's
interpretation of the relevant goals and
objectives.
By "modulation" each part of the
plan is kept in proper measure or proportion relative to the whole.
"Modulation" is the regulation of
the various controlling factors–i.e.,
natural environment, institutional control and public demands in such a way
that the optimum proportion of public
welfare may be obtained. (Hills, Love
and Lacate 1970)
Most probable number (MPN)
A statistical evaluation of degree of
water pollution based on presence of
coliform bacteria. It is not feasible to
identify the exact concentration of
coliform bacteria in a water sample.
The MPN interprets test results in
terms of results observed. (Feth 1973)
MPN. See Most probable number.
Muddling through. See Incrementalism.
Multidisciplinary team
1. A joint effort by two or more
people having different scientific training and/or backgrounds all assigned responsibilities in the same activity or
effort. Each specialist is assigned a portion of the problem and their individual solutions are combined to provide
the complete solution. (After U.S.
Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. A group of individuals with different training assembled to solve a
problem or perform a task. The team
is assembled out of recognition that no
one scientific discipline is sufficiently
broad to adequately solve the problem. The problem is broken into pieces
and each specialist works on a portion
of the problem. Their partial solutions
are then linked together to provide the
final solution. This is different from an
interdisciplinary team which does not
break the problem apart by disciplines,
but instead works with frequent interaction so that each discipline may provide insights into any part of the prob-
Mores, social. See Social mores.
Morphogenetic region. See Region, morphogenetic.
Morphologic. See Physiographic.
Morphological map
A morphological map represents
the form of the surface of the land.
For example, a map of occurrence
of various slope steepness categories is
a morphological map.
If some other aspect or classification, or interpretation of the earth's
surface is shown a map is, for example
a surficial geology, a soils, a morphographic or a morphogenetic map–not
a morphological map. A countour map
is not a morphological map because it
only portrays elevation relationships.
(After Savigear 1965)
132
single purpose resource user, may seem
inefficient or economically ruinous.
Under this concept the aim of resource
use allocation is to maximize the national well-being, promoting general
social and economic prosperity.
Social needs are not necessarily best
served by maximizing the production
of a single resource (or even by maximizing the production of several resources) but by that over-all mix of
total national resource uses that brings
the greatest social and economic benefits. (After Rowe and Mc Cormack
1968)
lem and disciplines may combine to
provide new solutions beyond the
scope of any single discipline. (E.C.T.)
Also see Interdisciplinary team.
Multifunctional
A joint effort by two or more people, each person having a different
functional or resource responsibility
such as timber management, engineering, etc., but not necessarily different
training or backgrounds. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1972B)
Multiple use
1. Three somewhat different ideas
are involved: (1) different uses of adjacent subareas which together form a
composite multiple-use area, (2) the alternation in time of different uses on
the same area, and (3) more than one
use of an area at one time.
In the first two ideas it is implicit
that direct competition between uses
is avoided by alternating them in space
or in time. The third idea involves multiple use in the sense of simultaneous
use of one space and must concern
itself with complementary versus conflicting activities, compatible and
incompatible uses.
Where spatially coincident uses are
involved at a given time, conflicts between resource users will almost always occur and the concept of such
forms of multiple use should be realistically interpreted as a dominant use
with secondary uses integrated only insofar as they are compatible with the
first. However where the idea of incompatibility relates to the economics
of productivity maximization of single
resource yields, management and multiple use can perhaps be validated in
terms other than single-resource production efficiency. (After Rowe and
Me Cormack 1968)
2. Multiple use is also a modern
social concept whereby the consumer
public demands a variety of values
from a resource in ways that, to the
Multiple use management
Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act
usage. The management of all the various renewable surface resources of the
national forests so that they are utilized in the combination that will best
meet the needs of the American people; making the most judicious use of
the land for some or all of these resources or related services over areas
large enough to provide sufficient latitude for periodic adjustments in use to
conform to changing needs and conditions; that some land will be used for
less than all of the resources; and harmonious and coordinated management
of the various resources, each with the
other, without impairment of the productivity of the land, with consideration being given to the relative values
of the various resources, and not necessarily the combination of uses that
will give the greatest dollar return or
the greatest unit output. (Multiple
Use-Sustained Yield Act)
Multiple use planning
U.S. Forest Service usage. The official planning system for the National
Forests until replaced in 1972 by the
"land use planning" system. Based primarily on subdivisions within National
Forests, the principal document was
the ranger district multiple use plan.
Each National Forest was divided into
133
Ranger Districts, Management zones,
and Management Units. (After U.S.
Forest Serv., FSM 8226, Oct., 1973)
In general, planning based on the
concepts of multiple use and multiple
use management. "Multiple use planning" is a less complex precursor of
land use planning.
plier" and the amount of a small
change in the component, a simple
multiplication gives a prediction of the
change in the total. This prediction
will be accurate if the basic equilibrium equations used to derive the multiplier accurately describe the economic processes involved. (After Samuelson 1948)
For example, export base analysis is
a type of multiplier analysis. Here, it is
assumed that there is a simple, multiplicative relationship between the "export" sector of the economy and the
total economic activity of the region
(the derivative of the total with respect to the export sector is a constant). Levels of, and changes in, the
total regional economic activity are
assumed to be simple multiples of the
levels of, and changes in, the economic
activity in the export sector. (E.C.T.)
Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act (74
Stat. 215; 16 U.S.C. 528-531)
Authorizes and directs that the
National Forests be managed under
principles of multiple use for outdoor
recreation, range, timber, watershed,
and wildlife and fish purposes, and to
produce a sustained yield of products
and services, and for other purposes.
This Act does not affect the use or
administration of the mineral resources of National Forest lands or the
use or administration of Federal lands
not within National Forests. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1974)
MU-SY. See Multiple Use-Sustained Yield
Act.
Multiplier (Weights)
1. General "land use planning" usage. The numerical value reflecting relative importance which is assigned to
a resource yield or use-affecting factor
when all values cannot be directly
compared by existing techniques for
quantitative conversion to one measurement scale. (C.F.S.)
Also see Weighting.
2. Econometric usage. Although in
simplified analysis "multipliers" are
often treated as constants, in more detailed analysis multipliers are given by
functions based on levels of, and degrees of change in, some economic
activity. "Multipliers", in economic
theory, are functions relating a change
in some total measure to a change in
some component of the total (the derivative of the total with respect to the
component). Knowing the "multi-
Myth
Sociological usage. A story, rationale or explanation for the belief(s) of
a culture, subculture, life style or other social group–e.g., the belief of some
that the physically rugged experience
of wilderness living is good for one's
health and many of the other beliefs
about man's relationship to nature.
Popular usage regards "myths" as
fanciful fiction; but in sociological
usages the term is not used in the sense
of beliefs which have been shown to
be incorrect. Sociological usage of that
term with respect to a belief places
emphasis on the critical point that the
myth (rightly or wrongly) is or has
been believed and therefore can be
used to explain people's attitudes,
behavior, preferences, etc. (After
O'Connell 1974)
134
N
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
Standards which define the levels of
air quality which the U.S. Environ­
mental Protection Agency judges are
necessary to provide an adequate margin of safety to protect the public
health. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
ing to them. (After U.S. Dep. of Agric.
1974)
3. Also see Principles and Standards.
National economic effects
Effects of an action or inaction on
dollar market transactions in the Na­
tion as a whole. This includes both ag­
gregation of microeconomic effects
(individual product, industry or sector
effects) and macroeconomic effects
(money supply, inflation, total eco­
nomic growth effects). (E. C. T.)
National economic development
1. U.S. Water Resources Council
(WRC) usage.
One of the two main objectives of
planning for water and related land resources by Federal agencies whose
activities involve planning and develop­
ment of water resources, as contained
in the Water Resources Council Principles and Standards.
"National economic development"
reflects increases in the Nation's pro­
ductive output, an output which is
partly reflected in a national product
and income accounting framework to
measure the continuing flow of goods
and services into direct consumption
or investment.
In addition, national economic
development is affected by beneficial
and adverse externalities stemming
from normal economic production and
consumption, imperfect market condi­
tions, and changes in productivity of
resource inputs due to investment.
National economic development as
defined in these procedures is only
partially reflected in the gross national
product (GNP) and national income
accounting framework. (U.S. Dep. of
Agric. 1974)
2. One of the four "required ac­
counts" for categorizing, displaying, or
"accounting" the beneficial and adverse effects of each alternative plan
formulation for water and related land
resources planning specified in the
Water Resources Council's "Principles
and Standards" and the U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture's "Procedures" for adher­
National Environmental Policy Act (P.L.
91-190; 83 Stat. 852; 42 U.S.C. 4321,
4331-4335, 4341-4347)
An act to declare a National policy
which will encourage productive and
enjoyable harmony between man and
his environment, to promote efforts
which will prevent or eliminate damage to the environment and biosphere
and stimulate the health and welfare
of man, to enrich the understanding of
the ecological systems and natural resources important to the Nation and
to establish a Council on Environmen­
tal Quality (CEQ). (U.S. Forest Serv.
1974)
Also see Environmental impact
statement.
National Forest land use plan. See Forest
land use plan.
National Forest System
The National Forest System con­
sists of units of Federally owned for­
est, range, and related lands throughout the United States and its terri­
tories, united into a nationally signifi­
cant system dedicated to the long-term
benefit for present and future genera­
tions. The National Forest System in­
cludes all National Forest lands reserved or withdrawn from the public
domain of the United States, all Na­
tional Forest lands acquired through
135
state and local as well as National sig­
nificance; authorizes matching Federal
grants to states and the National Trust
for Historic Preservation for acquisi­
tion and rehabilitation of National
Register properties; establishes an Ad­
visory Council on Historic Preserva­
tion; provides procedures in Section
106 for Federal agencies to follow in
the event a proposal may affect a Na­
tional Register property. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2361.01, Feb. 1974)
purchase, exchange, donation, or other
means, the National Grasslands and
land utilization projects administered
under Title III of the Bankhead-Jones
Farm Tenant Act (50 Stat. 525, 7
U.S.C. 1010-1012), and other lands,
waters, or interests therein which are
administered by the Forest Service or
are designated for administration
through the Forest Service as a part of
the system. (Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of
1974)
National Land Use Policy Act. See Land
Use Policy and Planning Assistance
Act.
National Historic Landmark
The Historic Sites Act of 1935
authorized designation of areas of
major National historic and cultural
significance as "National Historic
Landmarks".
The "National Historic Landmark"
program is administered by the U.S.
National Park Service.
Designation as a "National Historic
Landmark" makes management of the
resource for its historic values the
dominant objective.
The landowner or manager must request that a property be considered
for "Landmark" designation. It will
not be placed on the Register of His­
toric Landmarks without his involve­
ment and concurrence in the decision.
(U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2363, July
1973)
National Natural Landmark. See National
Registry of Natural Landmarks.
National Register of Historic Places
A listing (maintained by the U.S.
National Park Service) of areas which
have been designated as being of his­
torical significance. The Register in­
cludes places of local and state signifi­
cance as well as those of value to the
Nation as a whole.
The Register is a National inventory
of our historical resources, providing
an idea of the total size of this resource base.
The "National Register of Historic
Places" is separate and distinct from
the National Historic Landmarks program–though the latter are routinely
entered in the Register to afford them
the additional protection of the
National Historic Preservation Act of
1966 which is not given by the Historic Sites Act of 1935.
Federal funds may not be expended
on any project which will affect any
site or object listed on the Register
without first affording the Advisory
Council an opportunity to comment.
(U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2363, July
1973)
National Historic Preservation Act of
1966 (80 Stat. 915)
The National Historic Preservation
Act of 1966 declares a National policy
of historic preservation (defined in the
Act as "the protection, rehabilitation,
restoration, and reconstruction of dis­
tricts, sites, buildings, structures, and
objects significant in American history, architecture, archeology, or cul­
ture"), including the encouragement
of preservation on the state and pri­
vate levels; directs the expansion of
the National Register of Historic
Places to include cultural resources of
National Registry of Natural Landmarks
A register of areas possessing such
exceptional values or qualities for illus-
136
in the area in which they are found–
i.e., were not introduced and naturally
occur in that area. (Henderson, Henderson and Kenneth 1963)
Also see Endemic organism and
contrast with Species, resident; Species, naturalized; Species, exotic; and
Species, feral.
trating or interpreting the natural heri­
tage of our Nation that they are con­
sidered to be of National significance.
To possess National significance such
an area must be a true, accurate, essen­
tially unspoiled example of nature.
The legislative authority for the
Natural Landmarks Program stems
from the Historic Sites Act of August
21, 1935 (49 Stat. 666, 16 U.S.C.
641). The "Register of National Natu­
ral Landmarks" was established in
1963 and later renamed in 1965 to the
"National Registry of Natural Landmarks".
The Natural Landmark program
does not have the protection features
of Section 106 of the National His­
toric Preservation Act of 1966. Thus,
designation of a National Natural
Landmark presently constitutes only
an agreement with the owner to preserve, insofar as possible, the signifi­
cant natural values of the site or area.
Administration and preservation of
Natural Landmarks is solely the own­
ers responsibility. The agreement
may be terminated by either party upon
notification of the other. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2363, July 1973 and June
1974)
Native pasture. See Pasture, native.
Native pasture land. See Pasture, native.
Native species. See Native organism.
Natural
Existing in, or formed by, nature;
not artificial. (Stamp 1961)
Natural Area. See Natural Area Preserve
and Natural Area, Research.
Natural Area Preserve (Natural Reserve,
Natural Area, Research Natural Area)
1. An area which retains a natural
or relatively natural condition. Within
it, wild parks, sanctuaries, refuges or
wilderness can be designated. To qual­
ify as a Natural Area Preserve, a site
should be under protection, usually by
a nonprofit agency or a Government
agency. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation
1974)
2. A physical and biological unit in
as near a natural condition as possible
which exemplifies typical or unique
vegetation and associated biotic, soil,
geologic and aquatic features. The unit
is maintained in a natural condition by
allowing physical and biological pro­
cesses to operate, usually without di­
rect human intervention. (Buckman
and Quintus 1972)
3. Also frequently used as a syn­
onym for Natural Area, Research.
National Trails System Act (82 Stat. 919;
16 U.S.C. 1241-1249)
Institutes a national system of rec­
reation and scenic trails. Designates
the Appalachian Trail and the Pacific
Crest Trail as the initial components of
that system and prescribes the meth­
ods by which, and standards according
to which, additional components may
be added to the system. Additional
trails should be established primarily
near urban areas and secondarily within established, more remotely located
scenic areas. (After U.S. Forest Serv.
1974)
Natural Area, Research (Nature Reserve,
Natural Area Preserve)
1. An area set aside by a public or
private agency specifically to preserve
a representative sample of an ecologi­
cal community, primarily for scientific
and educational purposes.
Native grazing land. See Grazing land,
native.
Native organism
Animals or plants which originated
137
plant community that should be preserved, the most suitable area that
approached these conditions should be
selected.
Research Natural Areas should be
large enough to provide essentially un­
modified conditions in their interior
portions–usually over 300 acres. Ex­
ceptions to the usual minimum of 300
acres should be limited to truly outstanding cases.
The criterion for management of
these areas is for protection against un­
natural encroachments. Logging activi­
ties and uncontrolled grazing by do­
mestic livestock are not permitted.
Forest Service Experiment Station
directors may authorize such manage­
ment practices as are necessary to preserve some representation of the vege­
tation for which the Natural Area was
originally created. Only tried and relia­
ble techniques will be used and then
only where the vegetative type would
otherwise be lost without manage­
ment.
Research on Natural Areas will be
essentially nondestructive in nature.
(After U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 4063,
Jan. and Mar. 1975)
Also see Natural Area Preserve.
Commercial exploitation is ordinar­
ily not allowed and general public use
is discouraged.
Where the vegetation in the Natural
Area is not of a stable, climax type,
management measures may be taken
to keep it at its present state–i.e., prescribed burning or controlled grazing
to conserve certain floral and/or faunal
characteristics. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
2. U.S. Bureau of Land Manage­
ment usage. Areas containing typical
or unusual faunistic or floristic types,
associations, or other biotic phenome­
na, or characteristic or outstanding
geologic, pedologic (i.e., soil), or aquatic features or processes, and which
have been established and maintained
for the primary purpose of research
and education on the ecology, succes­
sional trends and other aspects of the
natural environment.
Research and study that is nondes­
tructive and consistent with the pur­
pose for which such an area has been
established is encouraged. The general
public may be excluded or restricted
where necessary to protect studies or
preserve these areas. (After 43 C.F.R.
6225.0-5(A))
3. U.S. Forest Service usage. Desig­
nated areas representing as many as
possible of the major, natural timber
types or other plant communities in
unmodified condition. Other forest or
range conditions that have special or
unique characteristics of scientific or
educational interest, such as examples
of grass or timber types near the limits
of their environmental range, unique
bog associations, or unusual combina­
tions of flora may also be set aside. To
whatever extent is feasible, animal life
should also be present in unmodified
condition.
As a general guide, these areas
should show evidence of no major dis­
turbance by man, such as timber cut­
ting, for at least the past 50 years. On
rare occasions, however, in a valuable
Natural capability. See Capability.
Natural carrying capacity. See Carrying
capacity, ecological.
Natural erosion. See Erosion, natural.
Natural hazard (Environmental hazard)
1. Those elements in the physical
environment, harmful to man and
caused by forces extraneous to him.
(Burton and Kates 1964)
2. Those elements in the physical
environment, which men perceive as
harmful and caused by extraneous
forces. (Sims and Baumann 1974;
modification of Burton and Kates
1964)
Natural hazard lands
Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for
138
be an object of choice. (Irland 1974)
3. Capacities or materials supplied
by nature. (Webster 1963)
4. In the narrow sense, natural resources are original aspects of nature
untransformed by man, such as air,
water, sunshine, wild animals or wild
vegetation, which are able to spontane­
ously satisfy human wants.
In a wider sense the term "natural
resources" also encompasses the substances, forces, conditions, relationships and other aspects of nature
which are transformed by man and
underlie, shape, affect or inhere in that
complex mixture of natural and cul­
tural landscapes which constitute the
environment of modern man. (Stamp
1961, citing Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences 1933)
5. The term "natural resources" is
identical with the formal economic
concept of land. (Stamp 1961, citing
Sloan and Zurcher 1949)
6. To be considered a natural resource, a material or an area must be
useful, or of value, to a particular cul­
ture. It must also, by definition, be
basic or primary, not a manufactured
or processed product. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
a National Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act.
Areas where uncontrolled or incom­
patible development could unreasonably endanger life and property. These
lands include flood plains and areas
frequently subject to weather disas­
ters, areas of unstable geological, ice,
or snow formations, and areas with
high seismic or volcanic activity.
This is one of the three types of
areas of critical environmental concern
specifically set forth in this bill. The
others are renewable resource lands
and fragile or historic lands. (U.S.
Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular
Aff. 1973)
Natural history resource
U.S. Forest Service usage. Natural
phenomena which reference the devel­
opment of the earth's surface and the
evolution of life. Two interrelated cat­
egories of natural features are recog­
nized. One, the geological category,
results from forces and processes act­
ing on the earth's surface to produce
land forms and other nonliving enti­
ties. The other, the ecological cate­
gory, involves living entities and pro­
cesses between biological forms and
their environments. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2362.05, June 1974)
Natural resource district. See Soil conservation district.
Naturalized species. See Species, naturalized.
Natural resource zoning. See Zoning,
natural resource.
Natural law. See Law, natural.
Natural Preserve. See Natural Area Preserve and Natural Area, Research.
Natural vegetation
1. The vegetation native to an area
prior to modification by man. (Durrenberger 1973)
2. Vegetation which is primarily
due to nature rather than to man.
(Stamp 1961, citing Tansley 1939)
3. Vegetation (condition and/or
species composition) that has been but
little changed by man. (Stamp 1961,
citing Unstead 1953)
Ecological research has demon­
strated that little of the existing vege-
Natural Region. See Region, Natural.
Natural Reserve. See Natural Area Preserve and Natural Area, Research.
Natural Resource
1. A feature of the natural environ­
ment that is of value in serving human
needs. (Irland 1974)
2. Any feature of the natural en­
vironment about which choices must be
made. It need not be possessable to
139
Negative feedback. See Feedback loop.
tation is unmodified by man's activi­
ties either directly (i.e., burning or cut­
ting) or indirectly (i.e., introduction of
grazing animals or exotic plants). The
current tendency is to call all vegeta­
tion not deliberately managed or controlled by farming activities "natural
vegetation" or to use the term "seminatural". (Stamp 1961)
Nekton
The whole group of aquatic animals
that swim actively and may move long
distances for feeding or breeding.
Those aquatic organisms that are
carried passively by water currents or
the wind are termed plankton and
those that dwell on the bottom benthos. (Southward 1965)
Nature Preserve. See Natural Area Preserve and Natural Area, Research.
Neoteric area
U.S. Forest Service usage. Sites and
areas which have been designated by
the Forest Service as containing outstanding examples of man's modern
culture which will obviously become
historic properties in the future. An
example would be a present-day build­
ing designed by a very popular archi­
tect. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2361.23,
June 1974)
Areas of this type and all other special interest areas are identified and
formally classified primarily because
of their recreational values. (W. W.)
Nature Reserve. See Natural Area Preserve and Natural Area, Research.
Needs
The fundamental motivations and
requirements of man, not to be confused with "wants" or "desires".
(After U.S. Forest Serv. 1971)
The distinction between "needs"
and "wants" becomes cloudy and sub­
ject to debate beyond the minimal
levels of basics such as food, clothing,
shelter, drinkable water, and breathable air. Items which most Americans
would consider necessities of life may
be useless extravagances to other cul­
tures. Psychological studies have indi­
cated that conditions which should have
no effect on the body may be
necessities for maintaining mental
health, and therefore physical health
and productivity. (E.C.T.)
NEPA. See National Environmental Policy Act.
Net residential density. See Residential
density.
New study area. See Wilderness study
area.
Negative declaration. See Negative declaration statement.
New wilderness study area. See Wilderness study area.
Negative declaration statement (Negative
declaration)
A statement finding that a proposed action does not constitute a
major Federal, state or local agency
action significantly affecting the qual­
ity of the human environment and
therefore does not require an environ­
mental impact statement. (E. C. T.)
Also see Environmental analysis
report.
Niche
l. "Habitat niche" or "spatial
niche" usage. A place or position of
life suitable for the capabilities or mer­
its of an organism or qualities of a
thing.
A site or habitat supplying the fac­
tors characteristically necessary for the
successful existence of an organism or
species. (After Webster 1963)
2. "Ecological niche" usage. The
role of an organism in an ecological
community, involving especially its
way of life and its effect on the envi-
Negative easement. See Easement, negative.
140
Nonconforming use. See Use, nonconforming.
ronment–as through its relations to
other biotic and abiotic factors. (Webster 1963)
The "ecological niche" of an orga­
nism consists of where it lives, what it
does (how it transforms energy, behaves, responds to and modifies its
physical and biotic environment), and
how it is constrained by other species.
The "ecological niche" can be subdi­
vided into a "trophic niche" and a
"multidimensional or hypervolume
niche". (1) "Trophic niche". The feed­
ing role or position of an organism in a
biotic community–e.g., producer, consumer, herbivore, carnivore, detrivore,
etc. (2) "Multidimensional or hypervolume niche". An organism's position
in the environmental gradients, such as
temperature, moisture, PH, soil and
other conditions controlling existence.
(After Odum 1971)
Nonconsumptive quality
The quality of an area or resource
for satisfying uses which do not alter
the area or resource. (E.C.T.)
Also see Nonconsumptive use.
Nonconsumptive use
1. Those uses of resources that do
not reduce the supply, such as many
types of recreation. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
2. A use of an area or resource
which does not alter the area or resource, and which the fact of one person partaking of this use does not re­
duce the quality for another user.
(E. C. T.)
3. For example, for water some
consumptive uses are irrigation and do­
mestic and industrial use, while "nonconsumptive uses" would include di­
rect power generation as well as boat­
ing, swimming, etc. (E.M.G.)
Nitrogen cycle
The sequence of biochemical
changes undergone by nitrogen, wherein it is used by a living organism, liber­
ated upon the death and decomposi­
tion of the organism and converted to
its original state of oxidation. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Noncontinuous easement. See Easement,
discontinuous.
Non-Federal lands
Usage in the now dead, 1973 bill
for a National Land Use Policy and
Planning Assistance Act. All lands
which are not Federal lands or reservation and other tribal lands and which
are not held by the Federal govern­
ment in trust for the benefits of Indi­
ans, Aleuts, and Eskimos. (U.S.
Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular
Aff. 1973)
Noise
Sound that lacks agreeable quality,
is noticeably loud, harsh or discordant.
(Sesco, et al. 1973)
Noise pollution
1. The addition of energy in the
form of sound to the environment
beyond what would naturally occur or
of a type which would not naturally
occur. The degree of pollution is mea­
sured in terms of intensity, duration,
frequency of occurrence, and sound
frequency (wavelength or pitch).
(E. C. T.)
2. Sound that unreasonably inter­
feres with the enjoyment of life or
property. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
Non-market good valuation
Assessing the value of a good or ser­
vice which is not traded in the market
place and has no market value. Because it is not bought and sold some
other measure than price must be used
in establishing the value. (E. C. T.)
Also see Market value.
Nonapparent easement. See Easement,
discontinuous.
Nonmetric scaling
A method of choosing among alter141
quantity does not increase significant­
ly with time. Thus with the total ini­
tial supply being limited in quantity
each use must diminish the total stock
(Wantrup's stock resources category).
(After Ciriacy-Wantrup 1968)
3. The concept of an "exhaustible"
resource is only meaningful if em­
ployed in an economic sense. Long before a given resource is physically used
up it may be "exhausted" in the sense
that further utilization is indefinitely
discontinued because the costs of pro­
ducing any possible quantity of this resource are larger than the revenues
that could be obtained from this quan­
tity. (After Ciriacy-Wantrup 1968)
The economic concept of resource
exhaustibility typically only applies to
commodity type resources because bi­
ological, locational and amenity type
resources can be physically (by extinc­
tion or site occupancy) or conceptu­
ally (alteration of primeval wilderness
conditions) exhausted. (C.F.S.)
natives similar to multiple factor anal­
ysis and not based on measuring values
of the attributes of alternatives. The
decision makers are given pairs of
hypothetical alternatives varying in
only one attribute. By statistical analy­
sis the decision makers' preferences
between the pairs are combined to give
an "ideal alternative" as an origin and
a coordinate system for measuring
variations from the "ideal". The actual
alternatives are then measured against
this internally derived scale, and the
alternative with the smallest distance
in the coordinate system from the
"ideal" origin is selected. (After
Mac Crimmon 1968)
Nonpersistent pesticide (Soft pesticides)
A pesticide whose harmful effects
are of relatively short duration and,
therefore, do not normally contami­
nate the environment for long periods
after application. Phosphate-based
pesticides such as Malathion and Para­
thion are examples of nonpersistent
pesticides. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
Nonselected inventoried roadless area.
See Nonselected roadless area.
Nonselected roadless area
A roadless or undeveloped portion
of a National Forest greater than 5000
acres (or smaller than 5000 acres but
contiguous to designated wilderness or
primitive areas) which after admini­
strative review by the Forest Service
has been deleted from consideration
for inclusion in the wilderness area sys­
tem. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8261.05,
Apr. 1974)
Also see Roadless and undeveloped
areas and Wilderness study areas.
Non-point pollution source. See Nonpoint source pollution.
Non-point source pollution (Non-point
pollution source)
Pollution whose source is general
rather than specific in location. It is
widely used in reference to agricultural
and related pollutants. (Sesco, et al,
1973)
For example, logging operations
production of sediments, agricultural
pesticide applications, automobile ex­
haust pollution, etc.
Also see Point source pollution.
Non-use. For range management usage see
Use, Non-.
Nonrenewable resources (Stock resource,
Exhaustible resource)
1. "Stock" resources and "exhaust­
ible" resources are grouped here because they are conceptually very similar–if not often identical to –"nonre­
newable" resources. (C.F.S.)
2. Resources whose total physical
Non-utilization. For range management
usage see Use, Non-.
Norm
An ideal standard of conduct or
ethical value binding upon the mem­
bers of a group which serves to guide,
142
sirable plant species that is unwhole­
some to the range or animal. Not to be
confused with species declared noxi­
ous by certain laws. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
control or regulate proper and acceptable behavior. (Webster 1963)
Also see Social norms.
Normal erosion. See Erosion, normal.
NPS. National Park Service, U.S. Department of Interior.
Normative
Of, relating to, or dealing with
norms–i.e., the ideal standards of conduct or ethical value that are binding
upon the members of a group and
serve to guide, control or regulate
proper and acceptable behavior. (After
Webster 1963)
Nutrient cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle.
Nutritive value
Range management usage. Relative
capacity of a given forage to furnish
nutrition for animals. In range manage­
ment, the term is usually prefixed by
high, low, or moderate. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Noxious species
Range management usage. An unde-
0
OBERS projections
National, regional, and subregional
demand schedule projections produced
by the Office of Business Economics
and Economic Research Service
(OBERS) under the direction of the
Water Resources Council (WRC).
These economic projections are available in the WRC "1972 OBERS pro­
jections", and represent the Council's
current views as to probable rates of
growth in population, the gross na­
tional product (GNP), employment,
productivity, and other factors.
These national baseline projections
are the best estimate of what can be
expected to materialize if there are no
policy or program changes of an unu­
sual or unforeseen nature or magni­
tude in the factors which have been
changing over time and which are ex­
pected to continue on course in the
future. Of course, identifiable, longterm secular trends are implicitly in­
corporated into the projections. (After
U.S. Dep. of Agric. 1974)
stated time period. The results indi­
cated in the statement of objectives
are those which are designed to
achieve the desired state or process
represented by the goal. An objective
is measurable and implies precise time
phased steps to be taken and resources
to be used which, together, represent
the basis for defining and controlling
the work to be done.
An objective must include four
essential elements. (1) It must state
the desired outcome–i.e., what is to
be accomplished. (2) It must indicate
the time period within which the ex­
pected outcome is to be achieved.
(3) It must include measurement fac­
tors, such as quantity, quality or cost,
so that the fact that the objective has
been accomplished can be verified.
(4) It must indicate who is responsible
for achieving the indicated results. De­
sirable, but not absolutely essential,
elements of objectives are a descrip­
tion of how it will be achieved and an
indication of who will determine
whether the result has been achieved.
(U.S.D.A. Off. Manage. Finance 1974)
2. The specific, attainable ends
toward which concentrated effort is
directed.
Objective (Plan objectives, Management
objective, End result, Target)
1. A clear and specific statement of
planned results to be achieved within a
143
landscape. (After Litton 1966)
2. That viewing position (with re­
spect to a feature or scene) in which a
level line-of sight will generally coin­
cide with the visually dominant ele­
ments of the landscape.
The "observer normal" viewing
position generally concentrates visual
attention on the solid or water ele­
ments of the landscape rather than on
the sky. (Litton 1968)
When achieved, objectives represent
significant and measurable progress
toward the attainment of a broader,
longer range "goal".
Characteristically, objectives are
subordinate to "goals", are narrower
and shorter range in nature, have a
reasonable probability of attainment
within specified time periods and resources, and are attained through mea­
surable and quantifiable achievements.
Expected results are defined in terms
of milestones accomplished, services
produced, or some other objective
measure, even though the specific con­
tribution toward achieving the build-ing
block objective may not be mea­
surable. (U. S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
3. "Objectives" are more specific
and quantifiable than "goals" because
(1) they mainly apply to a smaller con­
stituency, (2) They usually apply to a
narrower field of welfare, and (3) they
can be framed with greater detailed
understanding of immediate needs.
(After Hills, Love and Lacate 1970)
Also see Target.
Observer superior
That visual relationship between
viewer and viewed which exists when
the location from which something is
seen is above the level of that object or
the dominant visual elements in the
surrounding landscape.
From the "observer superior" posi­
tion, the maximum extent and ex­
panse of view is expected to be visible
with atmospheric conditions and earth
curvature being ultimate distance limi­
tations. (Litton 1966)
OMB requirements
Regulations and directives estab­
lished by the U.S. Office of Manage­
ment and Budget (OMB) which all
Federal agencies are required to obey
and include in their planning and
management activities. (E. C. T.)
For an example see Questionnaire.
Observer inferior
That visual relationship between
viewer and viewed which exists when
the location from which something is
seen is below the level of that object
or the dominant visual elements in the
surrounding landscape.
From the "observer inferior" posi­
tion, features in the foreground (i.e.,
up to about ½ mile distant) are most
likely to be of maximum visual impor­
tance and the middleground (i.e., ½ to
3-5 miles) landscape is likely to con­
tain the most distant visible elements.
(After Litton 1966)
Omnivore
An organism that feeds on both ani­
mal and plant substances. (Durrenberger 1973)
Open cast mining. See Mining, open-pit.
Open-cut mining. See Mining, open-pit.
Open-pit mining. See Mining, open-pit.
Open range
All suitable range of an area upon
which grazing is permitted. Also,
ranges which have not been fenced
into management units. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Observer normal
1. That visual relationship between
viewer and viewed which exists when
the location from which something is
seen is at (or approximately at) the
level of that object or the dominant
visual elements in the surrounding
Open space
1. Unbuilt or predominantly un-
144
Opinion
A time-bound judgment or specula­
tion that fluctuates unpredictably. In
contrast to beliefs (i.e., tenaciously
held convictions) "opinions" express
what we believe at a given moment.
"Opinions" generally are short-run im­
pressions or "guesses" about specific
objects, ideas, issues, or events that are
usually involved with aspects of public
affairs. (O'Connell 1974)
Also contrast with Belief and Attitude.
built land serving the following pur­
poses; (1) conservation of land and its
resource features, (2) ecological pro­
tection, (3) park and recreation pur­
poses, (4) historic and/or scenic pur­
poses, (5) shaping and guiding urban
form, (6) enhancement of community
values and safety, (7) maintenance of
options for the future. (After Assoc.
Bay Area Govs. 1970)
2. Land and water areas which are
retained in essentially undeveloped
state on a permanent or semiperma­
nent basis. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Opportunity cost
The value of the benefits foregone
or given up due to the effect of
choosing another management alterna­
tive that either impacts existing outputs or shifts resources away from
other activities so that they are no
longer produced and their benefits are
lost. (Dyrland 1973)
Open space zoning. See Zoning, open
space.
Operational map. See Map, operational.
Operational planning. See Ordinary planning and Project planning.
Optimum land use
That feasible use which in the opin­
ion of the decision maker provides the
greatest increment of public welfare.
(Hills, Love and Lacate 1970)
Operations research
1. The use of analytic methods
adopted from mathematics for solving
operational problems. Among the
common scientific techniques used in
operations research are mathematical
programming, statistical theory, infor­
mation theory, game theory, Monte
Carlo methods, and queueing theory.
(U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. The application of mathematical
and logical techniques to certain busi­
ness problems with the object of dis­
covering a best possible course of ac­
tion. The procedure followed is usu­
ally to express the problem in the
form of a mathematical equation, the
solution of which indicates the effec­
tiveness of a given set of conditions.
The method may involve a sampling
process, the calculation of probabili­
ties, linear programming, or some
other such technique. The computa­
tions are frequently so involved or so
lengthy as to require electronic data
processing. Sometimes called "manage­
ment science." (Sloan 1961)
Option value
The amount an individual would be
willing to pay to preserve (or would
have to be paid to get him to sell) his
option to participate in some activity
or to use some resource at some future
time, whether or not he ever actually
participates or uses the resource. (After Cicchetti and Fisher 1973)
Ordinal value
Numerical values assigned to a vari­
able which represent a ranking only.
The numerical values have meaning on­
ly when compared to one another. Because of this, mathematical operations
performed on the values (means,
modes, differences, etc.) will not
necessarily be valid, and the results of
such operations must be carefully in­
terpreted. (E. C. T.)
Also see Cardinal value.
145
viding and managing outdoor recrea­
tion opportunities and wilderness, and
(3) provide technical assistance and advice to other public and private forest
landowners in developing forest-based
recreational opportunities.
This is one of the six "systems"
established by the U.S. Forest Service
to have a systematic, orderly way to
view and evaluate its many diverse but
interrelated activities. The Forest Ser­
vice has developed this approach to
better respond to the mandates of the
Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974. It has
grouped its various programs into
these six "systems", each of which in­
corporates all the activities concerned
with developing and managing a spe­
cific resource. (After U.S. Forest Serv.
1974A)
The six "systems" are: Land and
water, Timber resource, Outdoor recreation and wilderness, Rangeland
grazing, Wildlife and fish habitat, and
Human and community development.
Ordinance
1. A local law or regulation enacted by a city council or other similar
body under powers delegated to it by
the state. (Webster 1963)
2. A authoritative decree or direc­
tion. (Webster 1963)
Ordinary planning (Operational planning)
Any type of planning which, ac­
cepting existing social institutions as
givens, seeks to design optimal alterna­
tive strategies for attaining optimal al­
ternative futures. (H.J. V.)
Organic soil
A soil that contains a high percentage (greater than 20 or 30 percent) of
organic matter in the upper layers
(where living roots are primarily
found). (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Also see Mineral soil.
Orphan banks. See Orphan lands.
Orphan lands (Orphan banks)
Disturbed land surfaces resulting
from surface mining that were inade­
quately reclaimed by the operator and
for which that person no longer has
any legally fixed responsibility.
Usually refers to lands surface
mined previous to the passage of com­
prehensive mining reclamation laws.
(Grim and Hill 1974)
Output
A broad term for describing any re­
sult, product, or service that a process
or activity actually produces. (U.S.
Forest Serv. 1972B)
Output, induced
The indirect result of system activi­
ties. They are generally the primary
outputs of another resource system.
An example is a specific form of tim­
ber harvest (primary) that produces
improved wildlife habitat (induced).
(U.S. Forest Serv. 1974A)
Outdoor recreation. See Recreation, defi­
nition 3.
Outdoor recreation and wilderness system
U.S. Forest Service usage. This sys­
tem provides outdoor recreation op­
portunities and wilderness experiences
for the Nation. The system includes all
activities necessary to (1) develop, pro­
tect, and administer the forest recrea­
tional, scenic, and wilderness resources
of the National Forests so that they
will meet their full share of the Na­
tion's existing and anticipated needs
for these resources consistent with
other uses, (2) develop new knowledge
to improve the effectiveness of pro-
Output, primary
The main goods, services, or envi­
ronmental conditions of a resource
system–the key indicator used to
identify with meeting a goal.
For example, the production of animal-unit-months of forage for livestock or board feet of timber har­
vested. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1974A)
146
is overutilized. However, continued
overstocking will lead to overgrazing.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Overburden
1. Mining usage. Material of any
nature, consolidated or unconsoli­
dated, that overlies a deposit of useful
materials, ores or coal, especially overlying those deposits that are mined
from the surface by open cuts.
(Thrush 1968)
Overstory
That portion of the trees in a for­
est, with more than one roughly hori­
zontal layer of foliage, which forms
the upper or uppermost layer. (After
Ford-Robertson 1971)
Overgrazing, local
Overgrazing in localized areas on a
range, as, for example, near watering
places. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Overuse. See Use, over-.
Over-utilization. See Use, over-.
Ownership
The exclusive right to occupy, sell,
bequeath or mortgage property.
(Abrams 1971)
Also see Ownership, fee simple.
Overland flow (Sheet flow)
The rain storm or snow melt runoff
water which flows over the ground sur­
face as a thin layer–as opposed to the
channelized
(concentrated)
runoff
which occurs in rills and gulleys. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
"Overland flow" typically causes
sheet erosion.
Ownership, fee simple (Fee simple absolute, Fee simple title)
Ownership that may last forever
and may be inherited by all heirs of an
individual owner. This term is usually
used in the sense of "fee simple abso­
lute" which refers to ownership that
has no limitation, qualification, or
condition affecting it and is the maximum possible ownership in real estate
under the system of property rights
founded on English common law. (After Webster 1963)
Overlay map. See Map overlay.
Overstocking
Range management usage. Placing a
number of animals on a given area that
will result in overuse at the end of the
planned grazing period.
Not to be confused with overgrazing because an area may be overstocked for a short period, but the ani­
mals may be removed before the area
Ownership rights. See Bundle of rights.
P
Palatability
Range management usage. The
relish that an animal shows for a par­
ticular species, plant or plant part.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
The characteristics of plants that
stimulate a selective grazing or
browsing response by animals. "Palati­
bility" is controlled by the plant fac­
tors of chemical composition, propor­
tion of plant parts, growth stage, ex­
ternal form of plant parts; environ­
mental factors such as slope steepness,
wind, sun or shade; and the animal fac-
torn of instinct, learning, physiological
state, individual behavioral pattern var­
iations and animal sensory responses.
(H. F. H.)
Also see Selectivity.
Paleontological area
U.S. Forest Service usage. Areas
which have been designated by the
Forest Service as containing significant
remains (usually fossilized) of flora
and fauna (nonhuman) of geologic
time periods before the appearance of
man.
147
cation of the central concepts and
their interrelations. This codification
encourages research and theorizing and
may allow qualitative analysis to ap­
proach the precision of quantitative
analysis. (O'Connell 1974)
Areas containing scientifically or
educationally significant fossilized
specimens of flora and fauna from pre­
vious geologic periods–e.g., coal
swamp forests, dinosaurs, etc.
Vertebrate fossils of historic or sci­
entific significance are considered to
be "antiquities" by the Antiquities
Act.
Extant plants and animals which
are relics of the flora and fauna or
other geologic time periods and are of
historic or scientific significance are
considered under botanical areas or
zoological areas, respectively. (After
U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2362.45, July
1973)
Areas of this type and all other special interest areas are identified and
formally classified primarily because
of their recreational values. (W. W.)
Parent material
The unconsolidated, chemically
weathered mineral or organic matter
from which the upper layers (i.e.,
where living roots are primarily found)
of soil develop. (After Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Parent plan
U.S. Forest Service usage. A plan
establishing the decision framework in
which other plans are made.
For example, the planning area
guide is the parent plan for individual
National Forest land use plans, and the
National Forest land use plans are par­
ent plans for unit plans. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1971)
Panoramic landscape. See Landscape,
panoramic.
Paper plan (Map plan)
A term sometimes used to describe
formal plan documents which consist
mainly of a map on which land use
regulation districts are indicated. While
a "paper plan" is accompanied by such
explanatory written information as is
necessary to convey its meaning, the
basic regulatory document is the map.
In contrast, plans whose basic regu­
latory document consists of a set of
policies are sometimes called policy
plans, whether accompanied or not by
maps differentiating the planning area
into districts where some specific poli­
cies apply while others do not.
(C.F.S.)
Parent rock
1. The original rocks from which
sediments were derived to form later
rocks. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
2. The rock from which the parent
materials of soils are formed. (Amer.
Geol. Inst. 1962)
Paradigm
A collection of the major assump­
tions, concepts, and propositions in a
substantive area. Paradigms serve to
orient research and theorizing in the
area, and in this respect they resemble
models.
The usefulness of paradigms derives
from their providing a compact codifi-
Part per million (PPM)
One part by weight of dissolved
chemical, or suspended sediment, in 1
million parts by weights of water.
(Feth 1973)
Pareto optimum
In welfare economics, a concept
that sets a condition necessary to max­
imize the economic wealth of a given
society. The pareto optimum is said to
have been achieved when it is impossi­
ble to make one person better off
without making another (or others)
worse off. (After U.S. Gen. Account.
Off. 1969)
Pasture
1. An area devoted to the produc-
148
land, or cropland originally cleared
from forest and managed for native or
naturalized forage plants. (U.S. Soil
Conserv. Serv. 1970)
tion of forage (introduced or native)
and harvested by grazing. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
2. Grass or other growing plants
used as food by grazing animals.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
3. A grazing area enclosed and sep­
arated from other areas by a fence.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Pasture, permanent
A pasture consisting mainly of in­
troduced perennial plants which are
permitted to remain for a number of
years. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Contrast with Pasture, annual.
Pasture, annual
A pasture consisting of introduced
forage species planted for only one
year or season's duration. (After
Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Contrast with Pasture, permanent.
Pasture, rotation
1. A pasture of introduced perenni­
al and/or self-seeding annual species,
comprising a unit in a crop rotation of
5 years duration or less. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
2. May also refer to a pasture
within a rotation-grazing, deferredrotation grazing, or rest-rotation grazing system. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Pastureland
1. Land used primarily for the pro­
duction of adapted domesticated forage plants to be grazed by livestock.
(U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1970)
2. Land producing forage plants,
principally introduced species, for ani­
mal consumption. Management prac­
tices usually include one or more treat­
ments such as reseeding, renovating,
mowing, liming, or fertilizing. Native
pasture that because of location or soil
limitation is treated like rangeland is
included in this category. (U.S. Dep.
Agric. 1967)
Patch cutting
1. A clearcutting system variation
in which the logging operation removes all merchantable timber in
patches of about 40 to 200 acres, sep­
arated for as long as practicable (pref­
erably until the regeneration is ade­
quately shading the forest floor) by
living forest, so as to both secure the
optimum dispersal of seed and to
avoid the high hazard of large continu­
ous areas of logging debris. (FordRobertson 1971)
2. U.S. Forest Service usage.
"Patch cuts" are logging operations of
the size generally mapped for timber
type and condition and for control,
but which do not include the entire
stand of which they are a part.
The minimum size will be 10 acres
and the maximum size, 100 acres. (After U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471R-3,
date unknown)
Patches are usually between 15 and
40 acres in size. (After U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2471,2]R-5, Sept. 1971)
Also see Group cutting, definition 2
Pastureland, native. See Pasture, native.
Pasture management
The application of practices to keep
pasture plants growing actively over as
long a period as possible so that they
will provide palatable feed of high nu­
tritive value; to encourage the growth of
desirable grasses and legumes while
crowding out weeds, brush, and inferi­
or grasses. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Pasture, native (Native pasture land)
Land used for grazing on which the
climax (natural potential) plant com­
munity is forest but which is used and
managed primarily to produce native
or naturalized plants for forage. In­
cludes cutover forest land, pasture149
of perennial plants which are permit­
ted to remain for a number of years.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
for a comparison with similar logging
approaches.
Patented mining claim. See Mining claim,
patented.
Permanent water
Range management usage. A water­
ing place which supplies water at all
times throughout the year or throughout a grazing season. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Peak discharge
The maximum volume of flow at­
tained at a given point in a stream dur­
ing a runoff event. (After Amer. Geol.
Inst. 1962)
Permeability
1. Capacity for transmitting water.
It is measured by the rate at which
water can move through soil in a given
interval of time. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
2. The readiness with which water
moves through the soil pores.
"Permeability" also implies move­
ment into the soil and a "surface
permeability" (i.e., an infiltration rate)
could he measured.
Quantitatively, "permeability" is
the rate of readiness with which a soil
transmits water under standard condi­
tions. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1961)
3. The readiness with which soil or
rock allows water, air, or plant roots
to penetrate or pass through. (After
Webster 1963)
Perched groundwater table. See Water table, perched.
Perched water table. See Water table,
perched.
Percolation
The downward movement of water
within a soil, especially the downward
flow of water in saturated or nearly
saturated soil.
Flow through a soil in contradis­
tinction to the word infiltration which
connotes flow through a soil. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Perennial stream
Streams that flow throughout the
year and from source to mouth.
(Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Also see Ephemeral stream and Intermittent stream.
Permissable cut. See Allowable cut, defi­
nition 2.
Performance standard zoning. See Zoning,
performance.
Permissable soil
tolerance.
Performance zoning. See Zoning, performance.
loss.
See
Soil
loss
Permissable yield. See Allowable cut, def­
inition 2.
Periodic allowable cut. See Allowable cut,
definition 2.
Persistent pesticides (Hard pesticides)
Pesticides composed of compounds
that retain their toxicity for long per­
iods of time after application such as
DDT and many other chlorinated hy­
drocarbons. Such pesticides do not
deteriorate quickly, work their way up
the food chain through various animals
and may accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals, including man, and remain there indefinitely. (Sesco, et al.
1973)
Periodic allowable yield. See Allowable
cut, definition 2.
Periodic cut. See Allowable cut, defini­
tion 2.
Periodic yield. See Allowable cut, defini­
tion 2.
Peripheral species. See Species, peripheral.
Permanent pasture
Artificial pasture consisting mainly
150
Personal distance. See Individual distance.
cluding insecticides for insects, herbi­
cides for plants, fungicides for fungi,
and rodenticides for rodents. (Sesco,
et al. 1973)
Personal space
Environmental psychology usage.
An area with invisible boundaries sur­
rounding a person's body into which
intruders may not come. It is not nec­
essarily spherical in shape, nor does it
extend equally in all directions. An in­
vasion of "personal space" is an intru­
sion into a person's self boundaries.
Individual distance and personal
space interact to affect the distribu­
tion of persons. (Sommer 1969)
Also see Individual distance.
pH
A measure of the hydrogen-ion ac­
tivity in solution, expressed on a scale
0 (highly acid) to 14 (highly basic);
7.0 pH is a neutral solution, neither
acid nor basic. (Feth 1973)
Photomontage
1. A combination of several dis­
tinct photographic pictures so they
often blend with or into each other to
produce a composite picture which
may or may not appear to be made up
of separate pictures. (Webster 1963)
2. A composite picture or edited
film in which contrasting shots or se­
quences are juxtaposed or blended for
the purpose of suggesting a total idea
or impression, or developing a theme.
(After Webster 1963)
Persons at one time (PAOT)
Public recreational usage measure­
ment term. The number of people in
an area or using a facility at the same
time. Generally used as "maximum
PAOT" to indicate capacity of an area
or facility to support peak usage loads.
(E.C.T.)
Perspective
That which suggest the effects of
distance upon the appearance of ob­
jects. (Runes and Sehrickel 1946)
Phreatophyte
1. A type of plant that habitually
obtains its water supply from the zone
of groundwater saturation, either di­
rectly from within the ground water
level or from the capillary fringe just
above it. (Durrenberger 1973)
2. Plants which grow from ground
water supplies. (Marsh 1964)
Perspective, aerial
Concerning the effects of distance
from the viewer upon the color and
distinctness of objects–especially as
due to the transparency of the inter­
vening air. Typically objects become
bluer, greyer, edges less distinct, and
there is less contrast of light and shade
with increasing distance from the view­
er. (After Runes and Sehrickel 1946)
Physical carrying capacity. See Carrying
capacity, ecological definition 5.
Program Evaluation and Review
Technique. See Critical path method.
Physical life
That period of time that a facility
exists, not necessarily in a useable con­
dition or used. Often facilities are removed from active service and kept intact some years before they are junked
or destroyed, or they may be just left
in their service position but never
used. (Winfrey and Zellner 1971)
Also see Economic life.
Pesticide
A general term applied to a variety
of chemical pest control measures, in-
Physical planning
1. A form of urban land use plan­
ning which attempts to achieve a phys-
Perspective, linear
Pertaining to the effects of distance
from a viewer upon the appearance of
the size and form of objects. (Runes
and Sehrickel 1946)
PERT
151
tions. For example, "nature" should
have priority in the planning the
"aquifers" and wetlands, and the rest
of nature's assets should be preserved
in any development plan. (After
Abrams 1971)
Physiographic determinism is essen­
tially equivalent to ecologic determinism and biophysical determinism.
However in its true meaning physio­
graphic only refers to the nonliving
elements of an environment while
"physiographic determinism" is intended to encompass the living ele­
ments as well. (C.F.S.)
ically attractive urban open space envi­
ronment by regulating the physical re­
lationships of structures to their sites
and surroundings–with such devices as
set back requirements, building height
controls, maximum lot coverage by
structures and unnatural surfaces, etc.
(C. F. S.)
The intent of such physical stan­
dards is to avoid the claustrophobic
and ugly urban open space environ­
ments which came to characterize
cities in the 1800's. Some feel that rigid application of these regulatory tools
is responsible for much of the physical
monotony in our present cities.
(C. F. S.)
Physiographic production
Referring to those controls over the
amount of occurring or potential biotic productivity which are due to abiotic environmental factors (such as
regional climate, geologic materials,
slope orientation, elevation, etc.).
(C. F. S. )
Physiographic (Morphologic)
1. Physiography is the description
of the surface features of the earth, as
bodies of air, water and land. (Stamp
1961, citing Powell 1895)
2. Physiographic refers to the sur­
face features of the earth's solid crust
and with the relations of air and water
to it. (Stamp 1961, citing Salisbury
1907)
3. In the United States the term
"physiographic" is sometimes used as
equivalent to geomorphologic. However, geomorphology is definitely lim­
ited to the study of landform genesis.
Whereas "physiography" may be only
descriptive, "geomorphology" must be
interpretive of the origins of land sur­
face forms. (Stamp 1961, citing Fenneman 1938 after Stamp 1961)
In the United States "physio­
graphic" is used in the same sense as
the British usage of "morphologic"–
i.e., relating to the form of land sur­
faces. (After Stamp 1961)
Physiographic province.
physiographic.
See
Region,
Physiographic region. See Region, physiographic.
Physiographic site class
G.A. Hills land classification usage.
Units created by isolating areas within
the landtypes on the basis of local cli­
mate considerations–such as slope
orientation. (After Belknap and Furtado 1967)
Subdivisions of a "landtype" based
on local climate variations in air tem­
perature and humidity. Variation in
plant communities is used as the prin­
cipal indicator of climate variation.
(After Belknap and Furtado 1967)
The third largest unit in Hills' land
classification system. The various lev­
els, in order of decreasing size, are Site
region, Landtype, Physiographic site
class, Physiographic site type and
Physiographic site phase.
Physiographic climax. See Climax community, definition 3.
Physiographic determinism
A theory that the natural elements
of an environment should be respected
in planning and given priority consid­
eration in arriving at policy determina-
Physiographic site phase
G.A. Hills land classification usage.
152
land classification system. The various
levels, in order of decreasing size, are
site region, landtype, Physiographic
site class, Physiographic site type and
Physiographic site phase.
If specific land use activity require­
ments cannot be determined on the
basis of the information contained in
physiographic site types, a "physio­
graphic site phase" is added to the
hierarchy to isolate the other needed
significant qualities. (After Belknap
and Furtado 1967)
A "site phase" is created by adding
information on the use requirements
(e.g., beach slope and width, water
depth) to the map of "physiographic
site types". (After Belknap and Furtado 1967)
Further subdivision of "site types"
to indicate site requirements for spe­
cific activities. (After Belknap and
Furtado 1967)
The various levels in Hills' land clas­
sification system, in order of decreas­
ing size, are Site region, Landtype,
Physiographic site class, Physiographic
site type and Physiographic site phase.
Phytoplankton. See Plankton.
Pit mining. See Mining, open-pit.
Pitting
Range management usage. Making
shallow pits or basins of adequate ca­
pacity and distribution on range to
speed range improvement by retaining
water from rainfall and snowmelt and
by reducing competition to desirable
species from a dense stand of less de­
sirable vegetation. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Placer claim
A mining claim located upon a mass
of gravel, sand, or similar material (re­
sulting from weathering, erosion and/
or stream deposition) containing par­
ticles of gold, platinum, tin or other
valuable minerals and whose valuable
mineral contents are extracted by con­
centration in running water.
The maximum size of an individual
"placer claim" is 600 by 1320 feet (10
acres). (Thrush 1968)
Physiographic site type (Landscape type,
Facies)
G.A. Hills land classification usage.
The smallest unit with any homogene­
ity in landscape features. (After
Belknap and Furtado 1967)
The units delineated by differentia­
tion of micro-landform variations (ex.
ridge tops, valley bottoms, toeslopes,
etc.) within a physiographic site class.
(After Belknap and Furtado 1967)
A subdivision of the physiographic
site class based on local variations in
soil moisture and depth.
A physiographic site type can vary
from 5 to 100 acres.
The site type is the basic unit of
plant ecology according to Hills. Ac­
cording to the natural controls of
plant succession and the human con­
trols of crop production, a variety of
ecosystems may develop on each phys­
iographic site type. Crop production is
defined broadly to include such uses as
corn, houses, or a recreational activity.
(After Belknap and Furtado 1967)
Generally the smallest unit in Hills'
Placer mining. See Mining, placer.
Plan
153
1. A formalized statement of goals,
objectives, and policies. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1971)
2. An assemblage of management
directions. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1971)
3. A predetermined course of ac­
tion. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1971)
4. A plan is an ordered decision
or set of decisions on the ways in
which to achieve certain objectives.
A plan is not an end in itself. It is a
means to an end, and the end is more
important than the means. (Allen and
Sharpe 1960)
5. Statements in words and graph­
ics of the findings, conclusions, pro-
(zooplankton) that are carried passive­
ly in the water currents. Those that
can swim do so to change or adjust
their depth in the water, not to move
from place to place.
Plankton is one of the 3 main divi­
sions of aquatic life with the others
being "nekton" (the animals that swim
actively and may move long distances
for feeding or breeding) and the "ben­
thos" (organisms which crawl about
on the bottom, or burrow into the
bottom or grow attached to the bot­
tom). (Southward 1965)
posals and recommendations of the
planning process. When adopted,
"plans" become public policies and
programs.
"Plans" are working instruments–
guides for administration, but not end
products. As such, plans are never
completed. Plans are subject to change
as policies change due to unfolding
events, such as changing standards of
life style, environmental factors, and
advancing technology. (U.S. Civil Serv.
Comm. 1973)
Plan controls
Any of the various legal and admin­
istrative methods which are available
for implementing a land use plan's
goals, objectives, or policies. (C.F.S.)
"Plan controls" include such devices as ordinances, zoning, use permit
and hearing procedures, design criteria,
performance standards or any other
formal means or procedure for attain­
ing a land use plan's goals, objectives
or policies. (C.F.S.)
Planned grazing system
A system of grazing in which two
or more grazing units are alternately
rested from grazing in a planned se­
quence over a period of years. The rest
may be throughout the year or during
the growing season of the key species.
(D.E.H. and B. W.)
Planned unit development. See Cluster
development.
Planned unit development zoning. See
Zoning, cluster.
Plan element
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. The
major land use planning elements of
the U.S. Forest Service are: legal re­
quirements and authorities, national
and regional objectives and targets,
management situation, basic assumptions, data collection, land capability,
alternative considerations, plan selec­
tion, functional planning and docu­
mentation. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
8213, Oct., 1973)
2. A discrete topic area or issue of
concern in an overall plan–e.g., hous­
ing, open space, recreation, transporta­
tion. (C.F.S.)
Planner
1. Anyone who plans–for exam­
ple, a city planner, economic planner,
public health planner, social planner or
landscape planner. (Abrams 1973)
2. One whose profession consists
of identifying community needs, resources and problems and assisting citi­
zens in making decisions on goals, policies, priorities, plans, programs and
methods of implementation designed
to create a physical, economic and so­
cial environment in which the human
activities desired by the members of
the community may flourish. (U.S.
Civil Serv. Comm. 1973)
Plan goals. See Goal.
Planimetric map. See Map, planimetric.
Planning
1. The act of deciding, in advance,
what to do. A dynamic effort to use
decisions to guide future actions and
decisions.
A means of solving future problems
Plankton
The small (usually less than 2mm
long) floating or drifting life forms in
water bodies, plankton includes both
plants (phytoplankton) and animals
154
10. The planning process can be
conceptually divided into five phases:
(1) identification of opportunities,
problems and issues; (2) formulation
of policies and objectives; (3) data collection, analysis and interpretation;
(4) plan formulation; and, (5) plan implementation. In practice, these are
not discrete steps and the sequence
may vary. Objectives are refined as the
process proceeds. Feedback among the
phases is continuous. Work on plan
formulation often indicates the need
for additional information which may
alter the conception of objectives and
problems. In addition, experiences
with implementation may result in
plan modification or the need for additional information. Each phase of the
process is strongly interconnected with
all the others in a monitoring feedback
loop. Citizen participation, public input, and reaction are a key part of
every phase in the planning process.
(Calif. Council Intergov. Relat. 1973)
11. The process of preparing a set
of alternative courses for decisions in
establishing the best action to insure
the future availability and development of adequate resources, facilities,
and services required to support human activities. (U.S. Civil Serv. Comm.
1973)
by intent. One step in the process of
guiding the future. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1971)
2. The determination of the objectives or goals of an enterprise and the
selection, through a systematic consideration of alternatives, of the policies,
programs and procedures for achieving
them. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
3. Colloquial context–designing
the future organization and relationship of parts. (Friedman 1963)
4. Professional context–the process of finding alternative solutions to
a problem. A way of thinking about
and coming up with solutions for
future problems. (Friedman 1963)
5. A process oriented predominantly toward the future and deeply concerned with the relation of goals to
collective decisions in policy and program. (Friedman 1963)
6. A process of conflict resolution
(usually future) by designing optimum
relationships
between
components
without attempting to favor or eliminate any party in the (future) conflict.
(H.J.V.)
7. The attainment or the effort to
attain, some future objective or objectives by a rational determination in the
present of the requisite resources, personnel, and procedures needed to
achieve that objective or those goals.
(Mc Closkey 1971)
8. A continuous process through
which some planning agent identifies
goals, designs alternative resource-use
programs, selects and activates a program, and analyzes its consequences
for the purpose of determining whether the goals are being achieved.
(H.J.V.)
9. A method of public decisionmaking which emphasizes explicit
goal-choice and rational goals-means
determination, so that decisions can be
based on the goals people are seeking
and on the most effective programs to
achieve them. (Gans 1968)
Planning agent
The person(s) or organization actually doing the planning. A "planning
agent" may be a natural person (an individual householder or entrepreneur),
a family, a legal person (a corporation,
a trade association), or various levels
of government (Federal, state, county,
public district). (H.J.V.)
Planning, anticipatory
Any planning approach which operates by attempting to foresee potential
issues and develop solutions to them
before they become real, overt problems. (C.F.S.)
155
Forest Service land management responsibilities (National Forest Service,
State and Private Forests; and Research, as appropriate). They also
maintain coordination between Forest
Service and other government agencies
(State and Federal), and attempt to
make coordinated demand projections
for the resources located within the
land area with specific allocation to
the National Forest lands. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 8221, Oct., 1973)
2. U.S. Forest Service usage. The
geographical area to which a planning
area guide applies.
3. U.S. Forest Service usage. The
largest Forest Service land use planning subdivision.
"Planning areas" are delineated by
use of county boundaries in the California Region.
Planning area
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. A
specifically identified geographic area
containing social and physical resources and land characteristics of a
generally similar nature.
The reason for identifying planning
areas is that general similarities in
physical characteristics, resources, economics, and social needs should give
rise to similar management opportunities, and constraints. Therefore, all
planning efforts, irrespective of administration or government boundaries,
should be coordinated.
A variety of considerations may interact to determine the size and
boundaries of a planning area; topography, vegetation or broad habitat
type, climate, history of land use, populations–human and animal, economy
and the relationship of these and other
elements to each other will affect the
definition of a planning area. These
areas may, and will likely, cross such
administrative boundaries as Forest
Service Regions, National Forests, and
Ranger Districts. A planning area
should be of sufficient size to provide
for flexibility in patterns of land development and use of resources. State
and multicounty planning districts,
and the integrity of counties, should
be strong considerations in the establishment of planning area boundaries.
Commonality of boundaries will aid in
cooperative planning and data exchange. The area should permit a maximum of agencies or governments to
contribute and receive resource data and
relate demand allocations with the
highest degree of compatibility practical.
Planning area level considerations
are basic for all Forest Service land and
resource management programs in
that area. The Regional Foresters in
such planning areas provide the management direction for each area by
coordinating the managers having
Planning area guide (Guide, Area guide)
1. U.S. Forest Service usage.
A Forest Service document which
specifies the peculiarities of the planning area as compared to other areas
and provides an interpretation of the
significance to management of these
peculiarities.
The objective of the guide is to provide broad land use direction to be followed by all Forest Service administrative units with land management
responsibilities within the planning area.
The planning area guide should provide goals and targets reflecting the
National Forest's share of all forest
objectives and outputs for the planning area, including, and in relation to,
State and private lands. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 8222.1, Oct., 1973)
A document that provides broad
management direction for all National
Forest System land planning, management, development, use, and protection activities within the planning area.
A separate planning area guide is developed for each planning area. A "plan-
156
ning area guide" is frequently referred
to merely as the "guide" or "area
guide".
to analyze the cost of the various efforts to achieve similar ends and rank
them in terms of their effectiveness
per dollar. (Abrams 1971)
Planning horizon
1. The time period (fixed by the
planner) which will be considered in
the planning process. It is assumed to
span all activities covered in the plan
and all future conditions and effects of
alternative actions which would influence the planning decisions. (E.C.T.)
2. U.S. Forest Service usage. The
furthest point in time for which management systems are specified in a
management program for a planning
unit.
For example, in the 1970 timber
review, the "planning horizon" was
2020. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
Planning unit
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. National Forests (including lands within
and contiguous to National Forests)
are subdivided into planning units.
These units are geographic areas of
land, varying in size, that are characterized by particular patterns of topography, climate, and land use. A unit
may occur as one major drainage, several separate drainages, or portions of
drainages.
Planning units are described as specific, identified and delineated land
areas. They are large enough to encompass most of the meaningful or significant relationships within a drainage or
series of drainages. Topographic features are logical places for planning
unit boundaries because of the need to
be able to identify boundaries on maps
and photographs, and on the ground.
A number of factors influence the
boundaries, size, and layout of planning units, among which are: (1) intensity of planning expected; (2) the resources available for doing planning,
such as people and time; (3) presence
or absence of particularly unique features; (4) perceived complexity or
homogeneity of the land features;
(5) public involvement inputs; and
(6) planning team judgment.
In defining these units, the objective is to preserve as much uniformity
as possible in relationships significant
to land management. Such factors as
existing transportation systems, population influences, current land use,
topography, soils, industrial dependency, ownership, and public feelings are
considered in establishing the boundaries for planning units. No two planning units are exactly equivalent in the
factors which influence the boundaries
of the planning unit.
Planning level
Referring to the scale of a planning
effort–usually denoted by the size of
the project or the governmental level
at which the planning is being done,
e.g., site or project planning, municipal
planning, county planning, metropolitan regional planning, state planning,
interstate regional planning, national
planning, etc. (C.F.S.)
Planning process. See Planning definition
10.
Planning-Programming-Budgeting System
(PPBS)
A planning and decision-making
tool that attempts to organize information and analysis so that the consequences of alternative policies are
clearly revealed and fully comparable.
Under PPBS, ordered instituted in
each Cabinet agency by President
Johnson in 1966, programs having the
same purpose are grouped together
under the same category and compared to see which represents the best
use of the government's money. PPBS
endeavors to display the allocation of
resources in terms of the function; to
gather hard, quantitative information
on the actual results of programs; and
157
Plant community
1. Any aggregation of plants. (Hanson and Churchill 1961)
2. A group of stands (i.e., a particular aggregation of plants having a high
degree of uniformity in composition
and structure and occupying an area of
essentially uniform environment) that
are similar in species composition and
structure and occupy similar habitats.
(Hanson and Churchill 1961)
3. Plant species tend to be grouped
in different combinations forming
more or less definite "communities".
Each of these communities is characterized by certain species which are inconspicuous or unrepresented in other
communities, and wherever areas of
equivalent environment are encountered, whether continuous or detached, essentially the same plant assemblage reappears. In other words,
the individuals of each species are not
scattered at random, but are distributed in a pattern over the landscape.
(Daubenmire 1968)
Also see Biotic community.
The purpose of planning units is to
provide a focus for planning activities
in a small enough area to be workable
and large enough to enable a planning
team to envision or predict the causeand-effect relationships of management alternatives. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 8226, Oct. 1973)
2. U.S. Forest Service usage. That
geographical area of land and water,
smaller than a Forest Service planning
area to which a forest service unit plan
applies.
No size limits are arbitrarily established for planning units. Planning unit
boundaries may cross both planning
area and administrative unit boundaries.
The "planning unit" will be the
only area for which a site specific plan
will be developed. Planning for the
other two types of areas in the U.S.
Forest Service land use planning system, the planning area and the national forest, concentrate more on general assumptions, goals, policies, targets, national and regional conditions,
etc, to build the framework within
which the "unit planning" will occur.
(After Rupp 1974)
Plant cover type. See Cover type.
Plant retrogression
The process of vegetational deterioration whereby the same area becomes
successively occupied by different
plant communities of lower ecological
order in succession. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Plan objective. See Objective.
Plan selection
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Subjected to the planning process, it is
essentially a choice governed by a reasonable and rational perception of
how the available resources can be
most efficiently managed to achieve
optimum multibenefits for the American people. The process includes full
consideration of the priorities and
preferences expressed by the public
at all levels to be affected by the plan.
(U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8213, Oct.
1973)
2. The selection of one plan from a
set of alternative plans. (E.C.T.)
Plant succession. See Succession.
Plat
A diagram drawn to scale and showing essential data pertaining to boundaries and subdivisions of a tract of
land, as determined by survey or drawing to scale.
The primary purpose of a plat is to
show boundary survey and ownership
information rather than map information. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 7140.5,
June 1973)
Plant association. See Plant community.
158
er over persons and property which enables the society to prohibit or regulate all things inimical to its comfort,
safety, health, and welfare. (U.S. Bur.
Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Also see Eminent domain, Just
compensation, and Taking.
Pluralism
A description of society that contends that political power is distributed among a variety of groups and
institutions. Pluralist theory argues
that political resources–wealth, education, prestige, skill, votes–are divided
and that no group has a monopoly
over all resources.
In contrast, elitist theories of power
argue that small groups of individuals
rule a country in their own economic
interest. Pluralists agree that only
small numbers of citizens participate
directly in decision-making, but they
argue that these elites compete for
economic rewards, differ on policy,
are open for others to join, and are
indirectly influenced by voters. "Elitists" contend that members of the ruling power elite share a procapitalist
ideology, are unified by a similar upper-class background, and are linked
by institutional and personal ties.
(O'Connell 1974)
Policy
1. A definite course or method of
action selected by a governmental
agency, institution, group or individual
from among alternatives and, in the
light of given conditions, to guide and
usually determine present and future
decisions.
A specified decision or set of decisions designed to carry out such a
chosen course of action. (Webster 1963)
2. A specific decision or set of
decisions together with the related actions designed to implement them.
(Webster 1963)
3. The specification in concrete details of ways and means for the attainment of goals and objectives. (Hill
1968)
Pluralistic society (Cultural pluralism)
A society in which there are widely
differing and often conflicting points
of view as to how the access to or use
of a particular resource (or resources
in general) should be allocated. The
United States is most often cited as
the prime example of a pluralistic society. (C. F. S.)
Policy plan
This term is sometimes used to describe a formal plan document consisting entirely of a set of policies unaccompanied by maps differentiating
the planning area into districts where
some policies apply while others do not.
In contrast, a plan whose formal
plan documents consist mainly of a
map on which land use regulation districts are indicated is sometimes called
a paper plan or "map plan". While
"paper plans" are accompanied by
such explanatory written information
as is necessary to convey their meaning, the basic regulatory document is
still the map. (C.F.S.)
Plutonic rock. See Rock, igneous.
Point pollution source. See Point source
pollution.
Point source pollution (Point pollution
source)
Pollution whose source is specific
rather than general in location. For
example, particulate matter emanating
from a specific smoke stack is point
source pollution. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
Also see Non-point source pollution.
Political boundary
A boundary which marks the limits
of a political jurisdiction. The bound-
Police power
A state's inherent and plenary pow-
159
aries of cities, counties, states and nations are political boundaries. Lesser
political boundaries limit tax districts,
legislative districts, etc. (Banks 1964)
serve, or which reduces the quality of
water, air or soil for any subsequent
use. In this context such terms as natural pollution and visual pollution (not
referring to decreased visibility due to
air pollution) are meaningless and
should not be used. (Russell 1974)
3. Pollution is the presence of matter or energy in an unusual or unintended place. (Yapp 1972)
4. The presence in the environment
of one or more contaminants, nuisances, and the like in sufficient quantities and of such characteristics and
duration as to be injurious or irritating
to human, plant, or animal life, to
health, or to property, or to unreasonably interfere with the enjoyment of
life or property. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
Political determinism
A particular point of view in planning which advocates that all resource
use and allocation decisions should be
made via the political process–i.e., by
elected representatives and legislation.
In theory, politics is our society's
means for attaining some needed resolution of issues via compromise from
the often conflicting demands on a resource by different groups. This point
of view believes that elected representatives' decisions are responsive to and
representative of the collective judgments of their constitutents [sic]. Politics
thus is viewed as the process by which
society makes group choices about resource use allocation, passes final judgment upon interim administrative decisions and conveys the right (via legislation) to regulate resource use–be the
resource some commodity such as
timber or the exercise of private property rights. It is believed that because
political decisions are societal choices
they are the best choices that can be
made and thus should be the basis for
making planning decisions. (C.F.S.)
Pollution criteria. See Criteria.
Pollution standard. See Standard.
Positive feedback. See Feedback loop.
Possibly extinct species. See Species, recently extinct or possibly extinct.
Potential. See Biotic potential.
Poverty, absolute
A standard of living below the minimum needed for maintenance of life
and health. (O'Connell 1974)
Also see Poverty, relative.
Poverty, relative
A condition characterized by a scarcity rather than a lack of economic necessities. A relatively poverty-stricken
person is poor in comparison with a
majority of others in his society, but
his level of living usually does not constitute an immediate threat to life or
health. (O'Connell 1974)
Political institutions
A society's system of legal rules and
principles. (Webster 1963)
Pollution
1. Any substance or energy form
(heat, light, noise, etc.) which alters
the state of the environment from
what would naturally occur. Especially
associated with those altered states
which human value judgments have decreed as bad. (E. C. T.)
2. Pollution is best considered an
activity of man, which directly or indirectly results in the addition to water,
air or soil, of matter or energy which
has a deleterious effect on living organisms or structures it is desirable to pre-
Power. See Social power.
PPBS. See Planning-Programming-Budgeting System.
PPM. See Parts per million.
Prairie
An extensive tract of level or rolling
160
source use allocation. Pressure groups
seek to influence decisions on resource
use allocation in excess of their proportional representation in the planned-for populace by seeking preferential consideration for their resource
use choices. (C.F.S.)
3. Any group having a distinct ideology or set of goals and attempting to
achieve those goals through the use of
organized means of interaction, such
as lobbying.
Pressure groups may be distinguished from the broader category of
special interest groups by their somewhat more formal organization and
their more noticeable activity over
time. (O'Connell 1974)
4. A voluntary association of citizens who attempt to influence public
policy. An interest group may be
formed solely to influence policy or
political activity may be only one of
its many activities.
Interest groups affect policy
through lobbying, raising money for
political campaigns, promising to "deliver" votes on election day or workers
in political campaigns, developing
some special expertise, or having some
special relationship with an agency in
the government bureaucracy.
Interest groups are the most important unit of analysis in pluralist theory, for they mediate between an individual citizen's desires and the political
parties.
Two major differences between
American parties and interest groups
are that parties compete for office,
whereas interest groups do not, and
that interest groups present a homogeneous interest, whereas parties have
a heterogeneous clientele. (O'Connell
1974)
5. Also see Special interest group,
and Pluralism.
land that was originally treeless and
grass covered.
A prairie is usually characterized by
a deep fertile soil. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Pre-existing use. See Use, pre-existing.
Preferable species
Range management usage. Species
that are preferred by animals and are
grazed by first choice. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Ice cream species.
Preference. For range management usage
see Grazing preference.
Pre-law strip mining. See Mining, pre-law
strip.
Premature grazing. See Grazing, premature.
Prescribed burn
Intentional application of fire to
wildland fuels in either their natural or
modified state, under such conditions
of weather, fuel moisture, soil moisture, etc. as allow the fire to be confined to a predetermined area and at
the same time to produce the intensity
of heat and rate of spread required to
further certain planned objectives of
silviculture, wildlife management, grazing, fire-hazard reduction, etc. It seeks
to employ fire scientifically so as to
realize maximum net benefits with
minimum damage and at acceptable
cost. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Also see Controlled burn.
Prescribed cut. See Allowable cut, definition 2.
Prescribed yield. See Allowable cut, definition 2.
Pressure group (Interest group, Special interest group)
1. Any special interest group which
actively advocates for special consideration of its resource use goals. (C.F.S.)
2. Any politically active group
with a common set of values about re-
Prestige. See Social prestige.
Primary conversion
The initial steps in the process of
161
Ext. Serv. 1972 and Mc Gauhey 1968)
converting a felled or fallen tree to
lumber–e.g., topping, trimming limbs,
removal of bark, sawing into logs, etc.
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
Prime agricultural land
1. All land which qualifies for rating as Class I or as Class II in the U.S
Soil Conservation Service land use capability classifications. (Eisner 1969)
Also see Land capability class.
2. Land which has returned from
the production of unprocessed agricultural plant products an annual gross
value of not less than two hundred
dollars ($200) per acre for three of the
previous five years. (Eisner 1969)
3. Land identified (after considering the long term productive potential
and topographic position of the soil(s),
climatic factors, and availability and
quality of water) as being required for
the economic production of specific
agricultural commodities that are designated by local units (of government).
(J. H. H.)
4. Land meeting any of the following four criteria: (1) Class I or II of the
U.S. Soil Conservation Service land capability classification scheme, (2) a
Storie index rating of 80 to 100, (3) a
carrying capacity (see Carrying capacity, range) of one animal unit per acre,
(4) a gross annual revenue of $200 per
acre in unprocessed, plant production,
or (5) land in fruit or nut-bearing
trees, vines or bushes that have less
than a 5-year nonbearing period and
return not less than $200 per acre.
(Anderson, Gustafson and Boxley
1975)
Primary effect. See Direct effect.
Primary facility
Transportation planning usage. Primary facilities provide access and service to large land areas encompassed
and served by the public transportation system. They include public transportation facilities and form the basic
framework around which the transportation network is designed. A substantial percentage of the traffic served by
these facilities is public service traffic,
and emphasis is given to travel speed
and efficiency. (After U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 7705.41, Aug., 1975)
Also see Secondary facility and Tertiary facility.
Primary output. See Output, primary.
Primary range. See Range, primary.
Primary sewage treatment. See Primary
wastewater treatment.
Primary succession. See Succession, primary.
Primary treatment. See Primary wastewater treatment.
Primary wastewater treatment (Primary
treatment, Primary sewage treatment)
The first treatment given to raw
sewage collected from household and
commercial sources. Typically the process first separates floating solids by
screening. The undigested material is
then piped into settling tanks where,
depending on the temperature and
length of stay, varying amounts of suspended solids are removed by gravity
precipitation. Primary treatment removes most of the floating solids, 50
percent of the suspended solids and at
best only about 35 percent of the organic waste and biochemical oxygen
demand from wastewater. (After Sesco
et al. 1973, Wash. State Univ., Coop.
Primitive Area
1. A large tract within a U.S. National Forest set aside for preservation
in natural condition with no alteration
or development beyond measures for
fire protection being permitted. (Webster 1963)
According to the Wilderness Act of
1964 the administrative classification
"Primitive Area" will cease to exist as
of September 1974. By that date those
Primitive Areas considered to be of
162
habitations or recreation facilities except trails. No mechanized equipment
is allowed except that needed for management and protection purposes. Administration is usually by the Federal
Government, some state agencies, or
private landowners such as large timber and mining companies. (Eisner
1969)
4. In common usage, Primitive Areas
are those backcountry types of
wildlands which show no obvious evidence of permanent human uses and in
which people are only transitory visitors. Some use the terms "primitive"
and "wilderness" interchangeably to
refer to all areas displaying no obvious
evidence of present or previous human
uses–other than foot or pack animal
trails. Others make a distinction between the two, using "primitive" to refer to all areas possessing wilderness
qualities and restricting the use of
"wilderness" to only those portions of
the larger primitive area which have
been designated as "Wilderness Areas"
according to the Wilderness Act of
1964. (After A.W.M.)
wilderness quality as defined by the
Wilderness Act will be reclassified as
Wilderness Areas. (After Wilderness
Act 1964)
2. As defined in the 1929 U.S. Forest Service regulation creating the
"Primitive Area" classification. Areas
within which, to the extent of the Department of Agriculture's authority,
there "will be maintained primitive
conditions of environment, transportation, habitation, and subsistence, with
a view to conserving the value of such
areas for purposes of public education,
inspiration, and recreation. Within any
area so designated no occupancy under
the special-use permit shall be allowed,
or the construction of permanent improvements by any public agency be
permitted, except as authorized by the
Chief of the Forest Service or the Secretary of Agriculture."
Supplemental instructions sent to
Forest Service Regions indicated that
"the establishment of a Primitive Area
ordinarily will not operate to withdraw timber, forage or water resources
from industrial use, since the utilization of such resources, if properly regulated, will not be incompatible with the
purposes for which the area is designated." (Calif., Univ., Wildland Res.
Cent. 1962)
3. These areas are extensive natural, wild and undeveloped areas, usually in a setting far removed from the
sights, sounds, and smells of civilization. Essential characteristics are that the
natural environment has not been
disturbed by commercial utilization
and that the areas are without mechanized transportation. The area must be
large enough and so located as to give
the user the feeling that he is enjoying
a wilderness experience. Activities in
Primitive Areas involve camping out
on one's own without mechanized
transportation, permanent shelter or
other conveniences. There is no development of public roads, permanent
Primitive recreation.
primitive.
See
Recreation,
Principles and Standards
Guidelines for water and related
land resources planning established by
the U.S. Water Resources Council for
Federal agencies whose activities involve planning and development of
water resources. (Published in Federal
Register; 38(174): 24777-24869, "Water and Related Land Resources, Establishment of Principles and Standards for Planning.") The "Principles"
provide the broad framework for planting activities and include the conceptual basis for planning. The "Standards" provide for uniformity and consistency in comparing, measuring, and
judging beneficial and adverse effects
of alternative plans. (U.S. Dep. Agric.
1974)
163
2. Organisms, largely green plants,
which are able to manufacture food
from simple inorganic substances by
fixation of light energy. (Odum 1971)
For the other two divisions in this
particular classification of biotic community organisms also see Consumer
organism and Decomposer organism.
The "Principles and Standards"
specify two main objectives to be reflected in the planning: national economic development and enhancement
of environmental quality.
Also specified is the accounting system which gives four required accounts in which all effects of programs
are to be discussed; national economic
development, regional economic development, environmental quality, and
social well being. (After U.S. Dep.
Agric. 1974)
Producer surplus
In economics, the difference between the price that a producer sells a
good or service at and the amount that
he would be willing to accept in exchange for the good or service.
(E.C.T.)
Also see Consumer surplus.
Private property
The exclusive right to the possession, use or disposal of property or
goods. Private property can be real
property, land and the buildings fixed
on it, or personal property–that is
movable property.
The concept of "private property"
is the creation of man in society and
thus subject to such intrusions upon it
as society requires for the general welfare. (Abrams 1971)
Production function
A mathematical relationship (frequently presented as a graph) which
shows how inputs of various physical
factors are related to changes of output–e.g., the effect of different
amounts of fertilizer or thinning on
the rate of timber production. (After
H.J.V.)
Probabilistic Model. See Model, probabilistic.
Productivity, abiotic
The amount of material yielded by
an inorganic, renewable resource process (e.g., abiotic products include
water, sand, gravel). (C F S.)
Process
The action of moving forward progressively from one point to another
on the way to completion.
The action of passing through continuous development from a beginning
to a contemplated end.
The action of continuously going
along through each of a succession of
developmental stages. (Webster 1963)
Land use planning is often described as being a "process" rather
than a single, finite, irreversible event
in time or space. (C.F.S.)
For geologic usage see geomorphic
process.
Productivity, biotic
1. The amount of living matter actually produced by the unit being discussed. (E. C. T. )
2. The growth products and byproducts of living organisms (e.g.,
wood, meat, other plant fibers)
(C.F.S.)
Also see Productivity, primary,
Productivity, secondary and Productivity, tertiary.
Productivity, primary (Basic productivity)
1. The rate at which energy is
stored by the photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic activity of producer
organisms (chiefly green plants) in the
form of organic substances that can be
used as food materials. (Odum 1953)
Producer organism (Producer, Autotrophic organism)
1. An organism that can utilize radiant energy (i.e., sunlight) to synthesize organic substances from inorganic
materials. (Hanson 1962)
164
various activities required to produce
specified final outputs and end results.
(U. S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
A major agency endeavor, mission
oriented, which fulfills statutory or executive requirements, and which is defined in terms of the principal actions
required to achieve a significant end
objective. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off.
1969)
2. The rate of new biomass addition (weight growth) on photosynthetic (i.e., plant) organisms. (After
Parsons and Takahashi 1973)
Also see Productivity, secondary
and Productivity, tertiary.
Productivity, secondary
1. The rate of new biomass addition (weight growth) on plant eating
(herbivorous) animals. (After Parson
and Takahashi 1973)
2. The rate of energy storage by
consumer organisms. (Odum 1971)
Also see Productivity, primary and
Productivity, tertiary.
Program element
A subdivision of a program category which comprises the specific
products that contribute to an agency's objective. If an agency's operating
program is distributed over several program categories each part of the operating program identified by a discrete
program category is a program element. (U.S. Gen. Account Off. 1969)
Productivity, tertiary
The rate of new biomass addition
(weight growth) on meat eating (i.e.,
carnivorous) animals. (After Parsons
and Takahashi 1973)
Also see Productivity, primary and
Productivity, secondary.
Program evaluation and review technique.
See Critical path method.
Programming
The process of deciding on specific
courses of action to be followed in carrying out planning decisions and objectives. It also involves decisions in terms
of total inputs required or total costs
to be incurred over a period of years as
to personnel, material, and financial
resources to be applied in carrying out
programs. (After U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B and U.S. Gen. Account. Off.
1969)
Profile. For graphic representation methods usage see Profile view and for soil
terminology usage see Soil profile.
Profile view
An illustration in which the features coinciding in space with the
plane of sectioning are strongly emphasized (usually by thick linework).
Features in the background are usually
shown with much thinner linework and
without any reduction in size in
proportion to their increasing distance
from the plane of sectioning (as would
occur if they were drawn according to
the rules of linear perspective). Underground features are seldom shown in
"profile" type drawings nor is there
ever any exaggeration of the scale of
vertical or horizontal features. (C.F.S.)
Also see Cross section.
Prohibition zoning. See Zoning, prohibition.
Project (Land sales or development project)
Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for
a National Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act. Any of the activities set forth below which occur
ten miles or more beyond the boundaries of any Standard Metropolitan
Statistical Area or of any other general
purpose local government certified by
a governor as possessing the capability
and authority to regulate such activi-
Program
1. An activity or combination of
activities carried out to meet an objective. (US. Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. A coordinated organizational endeavor which is defined in terms of the
165
is attained, and if the influence of external forces remains constant, projections could reasonably be expected to
chart the future. (U.S. Dep. Agric.
1974)
Also see Forecast.
ties: (1) the partitioning or dividing into fifty or more lots for sale or resale
primarily for housing purposes within
a period of ten years of any tract of
land, or tracts of land in the same vicinity, owned or controlled by any developer; (2) the construction or improvement primarily for housing purposes of fifty or more units within a
period of ten years on any tract of
land, or tracts of land in the same vicinity, owned or controlled by any developer, including the construction of
detached dwellings, town houses,
apartments, and trailer parks, and
adjacent uses and facilities, whatever
their form or ownership or occupancy;
(3) such other projects as may be designated by a State. (U.S. Congr., Senate. Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973)
Project planning (Operational planning)
Types of planning concerned with
physical undertakings (such as a dam).
Project planning incorporates a greater
range of specific elements than functional planning and, thus, deals with
more numerous and diverse parts.
(Branch 1967)
See site planning for the distinctions between project planning and site
planning.
Proper grazing. For range management
usage see Use, proper.
Projection
1. An extrapolation of a series of
past data to predict future conditions
and occurrences. The accuracy of a
projection is very dependent on past
trends continuing, or else changing in
some known manner.
A "projection" differs in a strict
sense from a forecast, which is also a
prediction of future conditions and occurrences, but is based on an understanding of the system being discussed,
from current and past data rather than
merely continuing and adjusting past
trends. Although the distinction may
exist, the dividing line between the
two terms is imprecise. (E. C. T.)
2. Projections are conditional forecasts of the future. They are based
upon stated assumptions about factors
that are expected to impact on future
conditions. Projections reflect historical development and economic activity
as modified by discernible trends determined by analysis of present and
past relationships. If there are no
changes in the objectives of the people, if limits of resource availability are
not reached, if anticipated technology
Proper stocking. See Stocking, proper.
Property
1. The dominion or indefinite right
of use or disposition which one may
lawfully exercise over particular things
or subjects, land, improvements or objects of value to which rights of ownership and control may be acquired.
(U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
2. The social, and sometimes legal,
set of relationships of rights and obligations between people concerning the
use of an object. An object in these
relationships may be material or nonmaterial, such as a trademark.
(O'Connell 1974)
Property rights
The sum total of the rights pertaining to property ownership. In the case
of real property it embraces the right
to quiet enjoyment, the right to sell, to
mortgage, to lease, to bequeath, to
regain possession at the end of a lease,
to build and remove improvements,
and to control the property's use within the law. In short, it describes the
scope of legal protections granted to
property ownership. (Abrams 1971)
166
pation and considering the views of
interested parties in planning and decision-making processes.
The "public" referred to includes
individuals, local, state, regional and
national public service organizations
and interest groups. It also includes
state, local and other Federal agencies
which have jurisdiction, special expertise or information to offer relevant to
the total planning and implementation
picture. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8212,
Oct. 1973)
Proper use. For range management usage
see Use, proper.
Proper utilization. For range management
usage see Use, proper.
Prospecting
The removal of overburden, core
drilling to obtain subsurface samples,
construction of roads or any other disturbance of the surface for the purpose of determining the location,
quantity or quality of a mineral deposit. (Grim and Hill 1974)
Public land
Land for which the title and control rests with a government–Federal,
state, regional, county, or municipal.
(E. C. T.)
Proxemics
The study of man's use of social
and personal space. (Worthington
1974, citing Hall 1966)
Proxy value
A value assigned to a good or service for evaluation purposes when the
good or service is not bought nor sold
and an established monetary price
does not exist. (E. C. T.)
Also see Market value.
Public participation. See Public involvement.
PUD. See Cluster development.
Pyramid of biomass
When the total weight of individuals at successive trophic levels in a
food chain is plotted, a gradually sloping pyramid usually results–regardless
of the individual size of the producer
organisms or consumer organisms, and
regardless of whether predators or
parasites are considered. This "pyramid of biomass", in effect, gives a picture of the over-all effect of food
chain relations for the ecological group
as a whole.
The number of organisms that can
be supported at higher trophic levels
actually depends not on the amount of
food organisms present at any one
time, but on the number being replaced as fast as some are eaten.
(Odum 1953)
In such pyramids if the biomass of
the various trophic levels is taken at
one instant in time, a lowest trophic
level consisting of organisms with
short life times commonly has a
smaller standing crop biomass than the
next higher level. However if the total
Psychological carrying capacity. See Carrying capacity, psychological.
Public domain
The territory ceded to the Federal
government by the original thirteen
states, together with certain subsequent additions by cession, treaty, and
purchase. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
7140.5, July 1967)
Public involvement
1. The opportunity for maximum
feasible participation by citizens in
rulemaking, decision making and land
use planning, including public hearings, advisory mechanisms and such
other procedures as may be necessary
to provide public input in a particular
instance. (After U.S. Congr., House
Represent., Com. Inter. Insular Aff.
1975)
2. The use of appropriate procedures for informing the public, obtaining early and continuing public partici-
167
mass, are pictures of the standing
states, i.e., organisms present at any
one moment, while the energy pyramid is a picture of the rates of passage
of food mass through the food chain.
Its shape is not affected by variations
in the size and metabolic rate of individuals, and, if all sources of energy
are considered, it must always be right
side up (i.e., with the largest numbers
at the base) because of the second law
of thermodynamics. (Odum 1971)
productivity of biomass at different
levels in such pyramids is summed on
an annual basis, the expected pyramidal biomass relationships will be
observed, because of the larger total
weight of biomass produced over such
periods of time by the commonly
small and short-lived but much more
numerous and rapidly reproducing
organisms in the lowest trophic level.
(C.F.S.)
Pyramid of food production rates. See
Pyramid of energy.
Pyramid of energy
A graphical representation of the
rate of energy flow and/or energy productivity at successive trophic levels in
a food chain or for a complete biotic
community.
Of the three types of ecological
pyramids, the energy pyramid gives by
far the best overall picture of the functional nature of biotic communities
since the number and weight of organisms that can be supported at any
level in any situation depends not on
the amount of fixed energy present at
any one time in the level just below,
but rather on the rate at which food is
being produced. In contrast the pyramid of numbers and pyramid of bio-
Pyramid of numbers (Eltonian pyramid,
Food pyramid)
1. A graphic representation of the
food chain which indicates the large
numbers of producer organisms (i.e.,
plants) at the base of the food chain,
and the progressively decreasing numbers of herbivores (plant eaters) and
carnivores (meat eaters) higher up in
the food chain. (After Odum 1971)
2. Elton's concept that in most
food chains the number of individuals
decreases in each succeeding stage,
with large numbers of animals occurring at the base and a few large ones at
the top. (Hanson 1962)
Q
Quality of life
1. This quality is seen as a measure
of the degree to which a society offers
effective opportunity to enjoy the
"good life". The components of the
"good life" are a combination of
goods and services available in a total
environment; physical, social, and cultural. Their precise composition would
be a matter of personal judgement
about which widely differing opinions
would be held. The "quality of life",
therefore, is an essentially subjective
concept. It may, however, be that for
a particular community a reasonable
consensus could be found about a
range of choice of goods and services
and about the qualities of the environment which should be offered.
(Coombs 1972)
2. The measure of harmony between individual and cultural value
systems and the capacity and opportunity for their realization. (L. W.)
3. A broad, all-encompassing term
used to refer to the quality characteristics of all the aspects of one's environment. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
Questionnaire
1. A set of questions for obtaining
168
tains more than brief descriptions distinguishing alternative actions, chapter
headings to aid in review, and space
for whatever comments the respondent may wish to make. (After U.S.
Forest Serv. Wash. Off. 1974)
3. A printed research form presented to the person from whom data
are sought. Ordinarily, it is fixed with
respect to the wording and order of
the questions. These may include
agreement/disagreement items, items
which are to be ordered by rank, items
in which the respondent is asked to
choose one of two or three different
statements as coming closest to his or
her opinion or beliefs, and open-ended
questions in which he or she provides
one-word or short-answer responses.
(O'Connell 1974)
Also see Response form.
statistically useful or personal information from an individual. (Webster
1963)
2. U.S. Office of Management and
Budget usage. A form provided by a
government agency to solicit information and comments from the public
which requires prior approval by the
Office of Management and Budget
(OMB) if submitted to ten or more
people, in contrast to a response form
which does not require OMB approval.
A form becomes a questionnaire if (a)
it is distributed to members of the
public who have not requested information material or are not directly affected by possible management actions, or (b) it asks any questions relative to the nature or attitudes of the
respondent beyond name, address, and
organizational affiliation, or (c) it con-
prescribed number of cattle or sheep,
or by common use of both under one
plan of management. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Raindrop erosion. See Erosion, splash.
Rainfall intensity
The rate at which rain is falling at
any given instant, usually expressed in
inches per hour. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Range, annual
Range on which the principal forage plants are herbaceous species
which only live for one year. (After
Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Range
1. All land producing naturalized
or native forage for animal consumption, and lands that are revegetated
naturally or artificially to provide a
forage cover that is managed like naturalized or native vegetation. Generally
considered as land that is not cultivated. (After Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
2. Embraces rangelands as well as
many forestlands which support an
understory or periodic cover of herbaceous or shrubby plants suitable for
grazing without impairing other forest
values. (D.E.H. and B. W.)
Range, closed
A suitable range that is closed to
grazing by domestic livestock. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Range condition
The state and health of the range
based on what it is naturally capable
of producing. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Range condition class
One of a series of arbitrary categories used to classify range condition,
usually expressed as either excellent,
good, fair, or poor. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Range allotment (Allotment)
An area designated for the use of a
169
that is managed like native vegetation.
Rangelands include natural grasslands,
savannas, shrublands, many deserts,
tundra, alpine communities, coastal
marshes, and wet meadows.
Range improvement
"Physical improvement." Any
structure or excavation to facilitate
management of range or livestock.
"Biological improvement". An increase in the grazing capacity of range.
Improvement in range condition.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Rangeland Grazing System
U.S. Forest Service usage. This system includes all those activities that
bear directly upon management, protection, and development of the National Forests and Grasslands for livestock grazing. It also includes the
cooperative aspects of state and private forestry associated with producing livestock on non-Federal forest
range. Research provides the system
with management alternatives that relate range productivity with other forest and range land resources.
One of the six "systems" established by the U.S. Forest Service to
have a systematic, orderly way to view
and evaluate its many diverse but interrelated activities. The Forest Service
has developed this approach to better
respond to the mandates of the Forest
and Rangeland Renewable Resources
Planning Act of 1974. It has grouped
its various programs into these six
"systems", each of which incorporates
all the activities concerned with developing and managing a specific resource. (After U. S. Forest Serv.
1974A)
The six "systems" are: Land and
Water, Timber Resource, Outdoor
Recreation and Wilderness, Rangeland
Grazing, Wildlife and Fish Habitat, and
Human and Community Development.
Range, key winter
The smaller portion of the total
year's range where big game animals
find food and/or cover during severe
winter weather.
"Key winter" areas limit the number of animals the range can support.
(U.S. Forest Serv. Lolo Natl. Forest
1974B)
Rangeland
1. Land on which the natural plant
cover is composed principally of native
grasses, forbs or shrubs valuable for
forage. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972A)
2. Land used for grazing by livestock and big game animals on which
the natural potential climax community of plants is dominated by grasses,
grass-like plants, forbs, and shrubs.
(U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1970)
3. Land where the potential natural vegetation is predominantly
grasses, grasslike plants, forbs. or
shrubs, where natural grazing and
browsing was an important influence
in its precivilization state, and that is
more suitable for management by ecological rather than agronomic principles.
Some "rangelands" have been or
may be seeded to introduced or domesticated plant species. (Anderson, et
al. 1962)
4. Land on which the (climax or
natural potential) plant community is
dominated by grasses, grass-like plants,
forbs, or shrubs suitable for grazing or
browsing and present in sufficient
quantity to justify grazing or browsing
use. Includes rangelands revegetated
naturally or artifically to provide cover
Range management (Range planning)
The art and science of planning and
directing range use to obtain sustained
maximum animal production, consistent with perpetuation of the natural
resources. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Range, open
1. All suitable range of an area
upon which grazing is permitted.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
170
and natural biotic factors that is significantly different from adjacent areas.
These environmental areas are considered as units for purposes of discussion, investigation and management. Changes from one site to another represent significant differences in
potential forage production and/or differences in management requirements
for proper land use. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
2. Ranges which have not been
fenced into management units. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Range planning. See Range management.
Range, primary
Areas which animals prefer to use
and over which they will graze when
management is limited.
The areas on which overuse will occur before secondary range is used
when animals are allowed to shift for
themselves. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Range suitability
The adaptability of a range to grazing by livestock and/or game. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Ranger District multiple use plan
U.S. Forest Service usage. A document, prepared for each Ranger District
and
consisting
of
sub(administrative) Region multiple use
guides supplemented at the Ranger
District level, that serves to direct and
coordinate National Forest land management, development, protection,
and use until this role is assumed by
part I of the National Forest land use
plan. (W. W.)
Range, suitable
Range which is accessible to livestock or game and which can be grazed
on a sustained yield basis without
damage to other resources. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Range, transitory
Land that is suitable for grazing use
of a nonenduring or temporary nature
over a period of time. For example, on
particular disturbed lands, grass may
cover the area for a period of time before being replaced by trees or shrubs
not suitable for forage. (U.S. Forest
Serv., Lolo Natl. Forest 1974A)
Range readiness
The stage of growth of the important palatable plants on the range and
the condition of soil which permit
grazing without undue compacting of
the soil or endangering the ability of
the plants to maintain themselves.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Range, unsuitable
An area which has no value for, or
which should not be used by livestock
because of steep topography, barrenness, dense timber, lack of forage, or
unstable soils. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Range, secondary
Range which is lightly used or unused by livestock under minimal management and will ordinarily not be
fully used until the primary range has
been overused. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Range use. See Use, degree of.
Rare and Endangered Species Act
A misnomer for the Endangered
Species Conservation Act of 1969.
This act has now been repealed and
replaced by the Endangered Species
Act of 1973.
See Endangered Species Act of
1973.
Range site
1. A distinctive kind of rangeland
that differs from other kinds of rangeland in its potential to produce native
plants. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
2. An area of land having a combination of soil, climatic, topographic
Rare species. See Species, rare.
171
and at a relatively low cost. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 7140.5, July, 1967)
RAU. See Resource analysis unit.
Raw land (Undeveloped land)
A term of comparison sometimes
used to contrast land which has been
built upon (i.e., "developed") or subdivided in preparation for development with undeveloped and unsubdivided (i.e., "raw") land. (C.F.S.)
Recreation
1. Leisure time activity such as
swimming, picnicking, boating, hunting and fishing. (Federal Register
38(174:24803)
2. Use of leisure time for personal
satisfaction and enjoyment. Recreation is a basic human need. It may be
undertaken individually or with
others. It may be planned or spontaneous. It may be passive or active, may
or may not require skills and training,
and may or may not require a designated area. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
3. Recreation is an exceedingly variable term meaning almost anything
people do with their leisure. It is not a
resource but an activity compounded
of two parts, recreationists and recreation environments. Resources such as
timber, forage, water, or minerals exist
in land. Recreation exists in the mind
and takes place in an environment
based on the land.
Outdoor recreation involves the
protection, preservation, development,
public use, and enjoyment of scenery,
water, primitive or natural landscape
(including roadless areas), wildlife, natural phenomena (e.g., petrified wood),
and archeological and historical sites.
(Eisner 1969)
RCD. Resource conservation district. See
Soil Conservation District.
RCU. See Resource capability unit.
Recently extinct species. See Species, recently extinct or possibly extinct.
Recharge
The addition of water to an aquifer
that occurs naturally from infiltration
of rainfall and from water flowing over
earth materials that allow water to infiltrate below the land surface. (Feth
1973)
Reclamation
Mining usage. The filling in of open
pits, grading of the mined area, reduction of high walls, replacement of top
soil, planting, revegetation and such
other work as is necessary to restore
an area of land affected by surface
mining operations.
The process of reconverting mined
land to other forms of productive uses.
(After Grim and Hill 1974)
Reclamation, effective
Mining usage. Rehabilitation of
mining-affected land to make it acceptable for designated purposes, with
protection of the natural resources and
aesthetic value of adjoining areas.
(Count. Agric. Sci. Technol. 1973)
Recreation easement. See Easement, recreational.
Recreational experience levels
U.S. Forest Service usage. The extent to which various classes of outdoor recreation experiences provide
opportunities for satisfying some of
the basic needs of individuals–such as
to find isolation and solitude, to socialize, to achieve self-fulfillment, for
aggression outlets, etc.
The levels in the Forest Service system are qualitatively broken into six
classes based upon the extent to
Reconnaissance soil map. See Soil map,
reconnaissance.
Reconnaissance soil survey. See Soil map,
reconnaissance and Soil survey.
Reconnaissance survey
U.S. Forest Service usage. A preliminary survey usually executed rapidly
172
which; (1) outdoor skills are required,
(2) the natural environment has been
mo d i f i e d t o f a c i li t at e use a n d ,
( 3 ) comfort and/or convenience facilities ties are provided. (After U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2330.5-3, Jan., 1969)
are readily accessible by road or railroad, that may have some development along their shorelines, and that
may have undergone some impoundment or diversion in the past. (After
U.S. Forest Serv. 1974)
Recreational experience quality
The quality of recreational experience is the degree of excellence, value,
or worth of any form of recreational
experience determined through personal judgments and preferences. Consensus and individual variation form
expectations that, depending upon the
extent to which they are achieved,
specify the degrees of quality judgments. Consensus may provide relative
value scales or standards that may offer some universal basis for quality
judgments. Individual variation, as
shown through personal judgments
and preferences, is the deviation from
consensus as a consequence of individual intelligence and qualities of personality as influenced by education, experience, perception, and socialization
and modified by external influences
such as area, design facilities, activities,
human relations, impacts, finances,
health and safety, weather, travel, and
time. (A,W.M.)
Also see Recreational quality.
Recreation and park planning
An organized procedure to determine goals, objectives, and actions in
recreation and park functions. Such
planning is one unit of comprehensive
planning. It involves the consideration
of the total environment, physical and
social, and the role that recreation
plays in the master plan for a given
area. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation
1974)
Recreation area, developed
A relatively small, distinctly defined area where concentrated public
use for the more traditional recreation
purposes predominates–e.g., campgrounds, picnic areas, swimming areas.
(U.S. Forest Serv. Region 9 1975)
Recreation, concentrated
Those types of activities associated
with developed recreation sites–such
as campgrounds, picnic grounds, ski
areas, fishing ramps, scenic overlooks,
interpretive sites, etc. (U.S. Forest
Serv., Lolo Natl. Forest 1974B)
Recreational quality
The degree to which a recreational
experience or area normally contributes to the physical and psychic wellbeing of recreationists. Thus a thoroughly worn area usually offers lower
recreational quality than areas presenting a fresh and natural scene. Individual tastes differ, and an experience is
of high quality only to people for
whom it provides a large measure of
enjoyment or well-being. (Wagar 1964)
Also see Recreational experience
quality.
Recreation day
A standard unit of use for an area
or activity consisting of a visit by one
individual to a recreation development
or area for recreation purposes during
any reasonable portion or all of a 24
hour period. This corresponds roughly
with what is termed a "recreation
visit".
For example, if the average stay at a
picnic site were four hours then a
four-hour visit to the picnic site by
one person would be a recreation day.
(Dyrland 1973)
Recreational river area
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act usage.
Those rivers or sections of rivers that
Recreation, dispersed
1. Recreation of various kinds that
occurs generally throughout a large
173
Forest Serv. 1971)
Also see Recreation, definition 3.
area, and is not confined to a specific
place. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2300
R-8)
2. Scattered, individual outdoor
recreation activities normally not identified with developed facilities or areas
of group concentration. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2300 R-8)
3. Recreational use of trails, natural lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
generally undeveloped areas. Includes
such activities as hiking, back packing,
hunting, fishing, snowmobiling, horse
back riding and cross-country skiing.
(U.S. Forest Serv. Region 9 1975)
Recursive
The process of repeating an operation or group of operations, usually
with the result of each repetition being
in some way dependent upon the result of the preceding repetition. (U.S.
Gen. Account. Off. 1969)
Reducer organism. See Decomposer organism.
Reforestation
1. The natural or artificial restocking of an area with forest trees; most
commonly used in reference to the latter. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. Re-establishment of a crop on
forest land. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
3. "Reforestation" includes measures to obtain natural regeneration as
well as tree planting and seeding.
Reforestation is done to produce
timber and other forest products, protect watersheds, prevent erosion and
improve other social and economic values of the forests, such as wildlife, recreation and natural benefits. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2472, June, 1973)
Recreation, extensive
Low-density, dispersed recreation
types–e.g., general hiking and riding,
snowmobile use, dispersed camping,
hunting, etc. (Sandpoint Zone Plann.
Team 1974)
Recreation, intensive
High-density recreational activities–e.g., developed camp and picnic
grounds, swimming beaches, hiking
trails that are major access routes into
wilderness areas, all-terrain vehicle
areas (except snowmobile courses),
etc. (Sandpoint Zone Plann. Team
1974)
Refuse. See Mining refuse.
Recreation land
Land and water used primarily for
recreation. (Recreation may be a secondary use of land where woodland,
cropland, rangeland, etc., is the primary use.) (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv.
1970)
Regeneration
1. The renewal of a tree crop,
whether by natural or artificial means.
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
2. Regeneration is also used when
referring to the young crop itself.
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
Recreation, primitive
Those types of recreational activities associated with unroaded land–
e.g., hiking, backpacking, cross country travel. (U.S. Forest Serv., Lolo
Natl. Forest 1974B)
Regeneration cutting
1. Any removal of trees intended
to assist regeneration already present
or to make regeneration possible.
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
2. "Regeneration cutting" applies
generally to the logging stands of rotation age or greater, and stands below
rotation age which cannot economically be held any longer because of poor
stocking, health, thrift, quality, or
Recreation resource
The combination of the natural
qualities of land and water areas and
the ability and desire of man to use
this combination for recreation. (U.S.
174
formulation for water and related land
resources planning specified in the
U.S. Water Resources Council's Principles and Standards and the U.S. Department of Agriculture's "Procedures" for adhering to them.
Also see Principles and Standards.
(After U.S. Dep. Agric. 1974)
composition. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
2471.2)
3. "Regeneration cutting" applies
to all cutting in virgin stands and to all
cutting in cutover stands where the
overwood components of the stand are
over rotation age. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2471 R-3)
Regional plan
The plan for a region (i.e., an area
larger than a single city and whose
boundaries have typically been designated according to some physiographic, biological, political, administrative, economic, demographic or
other criteria). (C.F.S.)
Also see River basin plan.
Region
1. A large tract of land; a country.
(Stamp 1961)
2. A more or less defined portion
of the earth's surface, now especially
as distinguished by certain natural features, climatic conditions, a special
fauna or flora, or the like.
An area space, or place, of more or
less definite extent or character.
An area of the earth's surface differentiated (from adjoining areas) by
one or more features or characteristics
which give it a measure of unity. According to the criteria employed in differentiation, "regions" are termed
physiographic, political, economic,
etc. (Stamp 1961)
3. A U.S. Forest Service Administrative unit consisting of several National Forests in one or more states.
Within the Forest Service, Regions of
this type are known by their number
(e.g., Region 5), and the adjective "Regional" often refers specifically to
these administrative units. In planning,
the Forest Service equivalent of a region as defined in 2, above, is a planning area. (E.C.T.)
Also see Region, natural.
Regional planning
1. The planning discipline concerned with the clarification of social
objectives in the ordering of activities
in supra-urban space–that is in any
area which is larger than a single city.
"Regional planning" is a discipline,
primarily oriented to the future, that
looks to the relation between social
purposes and spatial arrangements in
any area which is larger than a single
city. (After Friedman 1963)
In the U.S. Forest Service land use
planning this is approximately equivalent to its largest land use planning
subdivision (i.e., the geographic area to
which a planning area guide applies)
and should not be confused with Forest Service administrative Regions (i.e.,
administrative units consisting of several National Forests in one or more
states). (E. C. T.)
Also see Planning area.
Regional climate (Macroclimate)
The general large-scale climate of a
large area or country, as distinguished
from the mesoclimate and microclimate. (Huschle 1959)
Region, morphogenetic (Formkreis)
1. A region whose distinguishing
landscape characteristics are the result
of the operation of particular dominant geomorphic processes which have
been caused by the occurrence of a
certain set of climatic conditions.
(Thornbury 1969)
Regional economic development
One of the four "required accounts" for categorizing, displaying, or
"accounting" the beneficial and adverse effects of each alternative plan
175
2. A region in which, under a certain set of climatic conditions, the predominant geomorphic processes will
give to the landscape land form characteristics that will distinguish it from
those of other areas developed under
different climatic conditions. (Amer.
Geol. Inst. 1962)
3. Related land forms which owe
their existence to the action of the
same geomorphic process–such as running water or ice action. (Stamp 1961)
For analogous uniform land form
pattern concepts also see Region, morphological and Region, physiographic.
The basis of the regional division is
to be found in nature as a whole, including man, in contrast to a division
based on a single element, as in the
case of "climatic regions," "agricultural regions" etc. The basis of the regional division is to be found in regions
considered in terms of their nonhuman elements. (Stamp 1961, citing
Hartshorne 1951; interpretation of
Herbertson 1905)
2. The term "natural region" has
been used to cover two distinct types
of unit-areas of the earth's surface:
(1) those, which are marked out as possessing certain common physical characteristics–e.g., a certain kind of structure and surface relief, or a particular
kind of climate; and (2) those regions
which possess a unity based upon any
significant geographical characteristics
whether physical, biological or human,
or any combination of these, as contrasted with areas marked out by
boundaries imposed, frequently for
political or administrative purposes,
without reference to any geographical
unity of the areas. (Stamp 1961, citing
Geographical Association 1937)
3. The concept of the "natural region" is a much debated problem.
Hartshorne (1951) points out that,
while some use the term "natural regions" to indicate something inherent
and not arbitrarily imposed, we are
fundamentally measuring the different
natural criteria in terms of their importance to man. Since the relative importance of the different natural elements
to man is certainly not determined by
nature as distinct from man, it follows
that our systems inevitably have a human basis. In the delimitation of regions, the crux of the matter seems to
be "is the region inherent in the landscape or is it the product of criteria
applied by the individual geographer?"
In other words, is the region an objective or subjective concept? (Stamp
1961)
Region, morphological
Land units with a high degree of
homogeneity in all their morphological
(i.e., land surface form) features. (After Stamp 1961, citing Linton 1951)
"Morphological" regions only refer
to areas possessing a uniformity of
land surface forms without any implied, underlying speculation as to the
processes responsible for those forms.
For analogous uniform land form
pattern concepts also see Region, morphogenetic and Region, physiographic.
Region, natural
1. A part of the earth's surface
characterized by the comparatively
high degree of uniformity of structural
and climatic features within it. (Stamp
1961, citing Mill circa. 1910)
"Natural regions" deal not merely
with the mutual adjustment of drainage and land forms, but also with the
well-marked zones of climate, vegetation, and even human distributions
which characterize such forms when
situated in similar climatic areas. A
natural region should have a certain
unity of configuration, climate, and
vegetation. The mapping of human
conditions has less significance in indicating the major natural geographical
regions. Political divisions must be
eliminated from any consideration of
natural regions. (Stamp 1961, citing
Herbertson 1905)
176
cipally, scrub trees, brush, and vines
that inhibit their growth or desirable
development. (B) Treatments to prevent development of brush and trees
that threaten to overtop desired growing stock trees. (C) Removal of grass,
weeds, or brush from around individual seedlings or small trees to release
them from competition for soil moisture, shade, or smothering as under
matted grass or weeds. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2476.41)
3. Cutting an immature stand to
free the crop trees from excessive competition by removing the excess of an
undesired age class (such as a young
age class which because of excessive
numbers is competing severely with an
older but desired regulated age class).
(U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471 R-3)
Region, physiographic (Geomorphic province, Geomorphic region, Physiographic province)
1. A region having a particular pattern of relief features or land forms
that differs significantly from that of
adjacent regions. (Webster 1963)
2. A region of similar geologic
structure and climate that has had a
unified geomorphic history. (Amer.
Geol. Inst. 1962)
3. An area or division of land in
which the pattern of topographic elements (altitude, relief and land forms)
are characteristic throughout and as
such distinguish it from other areas
with different sets of topographic elements. (Thornbury 1965)
For analogous uniform land form
pattern concepts see Region, morphogenetic and Region, morphological.
Relic
Register of National Natural Landmarks.
See National Registry of Natural Landmarks.
Historical or archeological remains
usage. Something that is left behind
after decay, disintegration or disappearance (as of a structure, a culture,
etc.). (Webster 1963)
For biologic or ecologic usage, see
Relict.
Regolith
The layer or mantle of loose, noncohesive or cohesive rock material, of
whatever origin, that nearly everywhere forms the surface of the land
and rests on bedrock. It comprises
rock waste of all sorts; volcanic ash;
glacial drift; alluvium; wind-blown deposits; and accumulations of vegetation, such as peat; and soil. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Relict (Relic)
1. As related to a climax community, fragments of presently existing
flora on areas with a historical record
of no disturbance and the plant community is assumed to be in near virgin
condition. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
2. A biotic community or species
which, through the operation of some
compensating or protective environmental features has survived some
major change (e.g., climatic, land use)
that has altered the general vegetation
of the surrounding territory. (FordRobertson 1971)
3. A remnant of the population of
a species that was formerly more widespread. (Hanson 1962)
Regulatory standard. See Standard.
Relative poverty. See Poverty, relative.
Release cutting
1. Freeing a tree, or group of trees,
from more immediate competition by
cutting, or otherwise eliminating,
growth that is overtopping or closely
surrounding them. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
2. Three principal operations come
under this classification: (A) Treatments to free desired growing stock
trees from over-story vegetation; prin-
Relief
1. The difference in elevation be177
haustible" in the sense that utilization
can continue indefinitely because it is
only economically feasible to use very
small amounts, per unit of time, of resources which are available in only
comparatively small physical quantities. (After Ciriacy-Wantrup 1968)
3. Resources whose supply becomes available for use at different intervals in time. The use of present supply flows does not diminish future
flows and it is possible to maintain use
indefinitely provided the use rate does
not exceed flow rate.
Many renewable resources can be
stored–such as water in a reservoir or
mature timber in a stand and such
stores can be treated as a stock (i.e.,
exhaustible) resource. The availability
of a flow for replenishing the stock,
however, differentiates such stores
"flow resources" from truely "nonrenewable resources."
There are two broad classes of "renewable resources" one in which human resource use activities do not significantly alter future flows (ex. wind,
tidal and solar energy) and a second
class where human activities may increase or decrease future flows (ex.
timber growth, soil productivity). (After Ciriacy-Wantrup 1968)
4. Natural resources are of two
types: "renewable" and non-renewable. "Renewable resources" are living
organisms and others such as soil and
water which are closely associated
with and affected by living organisms.
Non-renewable resources are non-living
materials such as minerals and fuels.
(U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
tween the high and low points of a
land surface. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
2. The elevations or the inequalities of a land surface, taken collectively. (After U.S. Geol. Surv. 1954)
Remote sensing
Any data or information acquisition technique which utilizes airborne
techniques and/or equipment to determine the characteristics of an area.
Aerial photos are the most common
form of remote sensing product, but
side scanning radar (SLAR) and other
pictoral and nonpictoral forms of data
collections are also produced by some
remote sensing techniques. (C.F.S.)
Removal cutting
The removal of the seed source,
typically the seed trees, after adequate
regeneration has taken place. (U.S.
Forest Serv., FSM 2471.22.)
See Shelterwood system for the
timing relationships between this cutting type and others in that silvicultural system.
Removal regeneration cutting
Cutting a stand which has an advanced manageable understory of 1-20
year old age class reproduction. The
seed-tree cutting is bypassed and all
the overstory competition is removed
in one cutting. The stand is reduced to
the single age class for future management. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471
R-3)
Renewable resource (Flow resource, Inexhaustible resource)
1. "Flow resource" and "inexhaustible resource" are grouped here
because these categories are conceptually very similar, if not often identical
to "renewable resource." (C.F.S.)
2. Resource inexhaustibility is only
a meaningful concept if employed in
the economic sense. "Inexhaustibility"
need not imply superabundance compared to demand nor rapid, abundant
renewal. A resource may be "inex-
Renewable resource assessment. See Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974.
Renewable resource lands
Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for
a National Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act.
Areas where uncontrolled or incom-
178
the tribes could not control key tracts
within their reservations which they
did not own or lands outside a reservation which they owned or for which
they possessed administrative responsibility. (U.S. Congr., Senate, Com.
Inter. Insular Aff. 1973)
patible development which results in
the loss or reduction of continued long
range productivity could endanger future water, food, and fiber requirements of more than local concern.
These lands include watershed lands,
aquifers and aquifer recharge areas, significant agricultural and grazing lands,
and forest lands.
This is one of the three types of
areas of critical environmental concern
specifically set forth in this bill. The
others are natural hazard lands and
fragile or historic lands. (U.S. Congr.,
Senate, Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973)
Reservoir Salvage Act (74 Stat. 220)
The Reservoir Salvage Act of 1960
provides for the recovery and preservation of "historical and archeological
data (including relics and specimens)"
that might be lost or destroyed as a
result of the construction of dams, reservoirs, and attendant facilities and activities. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
2361.01, Feb. 1974)
Renewable resource program. See Forest
and Rangeland Renewable Resources
Planning Act of 1974.
Residential density
The average number of families living on one acre of land in a given area.
"Gross residential density" is obtained by dividing all land in a defined
area used for residences, streets, local
schools, local parks and local shopping
facilities into the total number of families is said area.
"Net residential density" is determined by dividing the total number of
families in a defined area by the total
acreage of all parcels of land within
the area that is used for residential
purposes. (Eisner 1969)
Reproductive capacity. See Biotic potential.
Reproductive potential. See Biotic potential.
Research Natural area. See Natural Area,
Research.
Reservation and other tribal lands
Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for
a national Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act. "All lands within
the exterior boundaries of any Indian
reservation, notwithstanding the issuance of any patent, and including
rights-of-way, and all lands held in
trust for or supervised by any Indian
tribe."
The first part of this definition is
intended to eliminate pockets of freepatented land inside Indian reservations which might otherwise be subject
to laws different from their surroundings. Similarly, the second part of the
definition, which includes "all lands
held in trust or supervised by any Indian tribe," is intended to cover lands
which are Indian country for all practical purposes but which do not enjoy
reservation status. The Indian tribal
land use planning processes and programs would be largely meaningless if
Residential land
Land used primarily for permanent
dwellings, such as houses, apartments,
and housing developments, including
adjacent facilities such as underground
and surface utilities, access streets and
alleys, and other servicing structures,
appurtenances, and measures. (U.S. Soil
Conserv. Serv. 1970)
Resident species. See Species, resident.
Resource
1. Anything which is useful for
something–be it animal, vegetable,
mineral, a location, a labor force, etc.
Resources, in the context of land use
planning, thus vary from such com179
bility System usage. Broad homogeneous soil-vegetation groupings of the
ecological land units (ELU).
The RAU may be comprised of a
single ELU or a group of ELU's which
have been determined by analysis to
have similar inventory characteristics
and which will react in a similar manner to land management activities at
the intensity of analysis being undertaken. (Reid 1972)
modities as timber and minerals to
such amenities as scenery or scenic
viewing points. (C.F.S.)
2. Those aspects of man's environment which render possible or facilitate the satisfaction of human wants
and the attainment of social objectives. (Stamp 1961, citing Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences 1933)
3. The concept of "resource" presupposes an appraisal of the usefulness
of an environment for some purpose.
What constitutes a "resource" therefore, is a highly relative concept whose
precise definition changes depending
upon the planning agent, the planning's purpose, with the state of technological means for using an environment for a purpose, and with the ability to make use within the constraints
imposed by existing social institutions
(laws, customs, etc.). (After CiriacyWantrup 1968)
Thus, for example, garbage is not a
"resource" to those attempting to get
rid of their wastes but it is a "resource" to those who are attempting
to recover recyclable materials from
it–provided existing regulations and
separation technology permit them to
do this economically. (C.F.S.)
Resource area. See Land resource area.
Resource bearing capacity. See Carrying
capacity, ecological.
Resource capability unit
U.S. Forest Service Resource Capability System (RCS) usage. This term
has generally been replaced by ecological land unit.
See Ecological land unit, definition
2.
Resource conservation district. See Soil
conservation district.
Resource conservation planning
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. SCS technical planning assistance
to individuals, groups and representatives of units of government concerning the opportunities and problems involved with the use, development, and
conservation of soil and water resources.
Such technical assistance may range
from providing aid during the entire
planning process (as with individuals
developing conservation plans for units
of land) to helping develop resource
inventories and interpretations and assisting in their evaluations, analysis and
use. It also includes assisting representatives of units of government
develop and carry out resource plans
for communities, areas or regions. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Resource allocation
1. The action of apportioning the
supply of a resource to specific uses or
to particular persons or organizations.
(After Webster 1963)
2. The division of limited resource
capacity or supplies among the competitors for use. (C.F.S.)
3. Allocation is necessary when
there are limitations on either the
amount of resources available or on
the way in which they can be used
such that each separate activity cannot
be performed in the most effective
way conceivable. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
Resource depletion. See Depletion.
Resource, extrinsic. See Extrinsic resource.
Resource analysis unit (RAU)
U.S. Forest Service Resource Capa180
in review. It may not contain any
other questions relative to the nature
or attitudes of the respondent. Any
form eliciting public comment which
does not meet all of these criteria is a
questionnaire and when issued by an
office of the federal executive branch
to ten or more people must have prior
approval of OMB. (After U.S. Forest
Serv. Wash. Off. 1974)
Also see questionnaire.
Resource, intrinsic. See Intrinsic resource.
Resource Management System (RMS)
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. A combination of interrelated
conservation, practices and management techniques used to maintain or
improve soil, water, plant and related
resources. The system is designated according to primary use. (J.H.H.)
Resource plan
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. A plan prepared by a unit(s) of
government and used as a guide for
public policy and action on the use,
treatment, and management of soil
and water resources. Resource plans
are generally parts of comprehensive
plans or functional plans. (U.S. Soil
Conserv. Serv. 1970)
Response unit. See Homogeneous response unit and Ecological land unit.
Rest-rotation grazing. See Grazing, restrotation.
Retention
The amount of precipitation on a
drainage area that does not escape as
runoff. It is the difference between
total precipitation and total runoff.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Resource region. See Land resource region.
Revegetation
The reestablishment and development of a plant cover. This may take
place naturally through the reproductive processes of the existing flora or
artificially through the direct action of
man–e.g., afforestation, range reseeding. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Resource scarcity. See Economic scarcity.
Resources Planning Act. See Forest and
Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act.
Resource Unit. See Land resource unit.
Response form
Federal Executive Branch usage. A
form not needing prior approval of the
Office of Management and Budget
(OMB), which is provided by a government agency to allow interested members of the public to comment on an
agency action or publication. To qualify as a "response form" the form must
be distributed only to those members
of the public who have requested informational material or are directly affected by possible management actions. The form may include
( A ) n a m e , address, and organizational
affiliation of respondent, (B) a brief
description distinguishing alternative
actions and space where the respondent may express comments on the alternatives, and (C) chapter headings
listed for respondent comments to aid
Revenue-cost analysis
A method of comparing alternatives
by analyzing the monetary income
each alternative would generate in relation to its cost. (E.C.T.)
Also see Benefit-cost analysis and
Cost-effectiveness analysis.
Reverse condemnation. See Condemnation, reverse.
Right-of-way
In its strict meaning, it is the right
of passage over another man's ground;
and in its legal and generally accepted
meaning, in reference to a roadway, it
is a mere easement in the lands of
others, obtained by lawful condemnation for public use or by purchase. It is
unusual to use the term to apply to an
181
loss of $5 if it comes up tails. (After
U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
Under the Bayesian school of
thought the distinction between "risk"
and uncertainty is not useful and in
fact may not exist. In any practical
analysis all uncertain situations are assigned probability distributions, either
explicitly or implicitly by the selection
of the analysis method. Whether or
not the true probability distribution is
known, a probability distribution is
selected for analysis purposes based on
experience, intuitive feelings, knowledge, and the lack of knowledge.
(E.C.T.)
2. The possibility of loss, injury,
disadvantages, or destruction. (Webster
1963)
Also see Uncertainty.
absolute purchase of the fee simple
ownership of land to be used for a
roadway or other kind of way.
"Right-of-way" has two-fold significance being sometimes used to mean
the mere intangible right to cross, and
often used to otherwise indicate that
strip of land upon which a road is
built. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation
1974)
Rights, mineral. See Mineral rights.
Rights, subsurface. See Mineral rights.
Rights, surface. See Surface rights.
Rill erosion. See Erosion, rill.
Riparian
1. In loose usage, referring to the
land bordering a stream, lake or tidewater. (Hanson 1962)
2. Of, pertaining to, or situated on
the banks of a river (though by common usage extended to include any
stream, irrespective of size). (Stamp
1961)
Also see Littoral.
Risk, acceptable
The level of risk (see definition 2)
below which no specific action by local government is deemed necessary,
other than making the risk known.
(Calif. Counc. on Intergov. Relat.
1973)
Risk, avoidable
Risk (see definition 2) not necessary to take because the individual or
public goals can be achieved at the
same or less total "cost" by other
means without taking the risk. (Calif.
Counc. on Intergov. Relat. 1973)
Riparian rights
1. The rights of owners of lands on
the banks of watercourses or bodies,
relating to the water, its use, ownership of soil under the stream, shoreline
accretions, etc. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor
Recreation 1974)
2. The rights accruing to a landowner on the bank of a natural watercourse, lake, or ocean. These rights
vary with state law. Riparian rights
cease at the water's edge and do not
interfere with use of the water area by
others offshore. (After Abrams 1971)
Risk cutting
Cutting to remove trees that are
likely to die before the next periodic
cut. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471R-3)
Risk, unacceptable
The level of risk (see definition 2)
above which specific action by government is deemed necessary to protect
life and property. (Calif. Counc. on Intergov. Relat. 1973)
Risk
1. Uncertainty in a situation is
characterized as risk if it is possible to
describe all possible outcomes and to
assign meaningful, objective, numerical, probability weights to each one.
For example, an action might lead
to this risky outcome: a reward of $10
if a "fair" coin comes up heads, and a
River basin. See Watershed.
River basin plan (Regional plan, Level B
plan, Type II plan)
182
Roadless and undeveloped areas
A portion of a National Forest
larger than 5000 acres, or smaller than
this but contiguous to designated wilderness or primitive areas, which contains no roads and has been inventoried
by the Forest Service for possible inclusion in the wilderness areas system.
By management directive these areas
were not to be developed until a determination was made on an individual
basis whether the area should be considered as a possible wilderness area.
(After U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8261.05,
Apr. 1974)
Also see Wilderness study area,
Nonselected roadless area, and Wilderness, definition 2.
1. One of the "levels of planning" for
water and related land resources
planning by Federal agencies whose activities involve planning and development of water resources as contained
in the Principles and Standards of the
U.S. Water Resources Council.
"Regional" or "river basin plans"
are reconnaissance-level evaluations of
water and land resources for selected
areas and are performed under planning authorities of Public Law 83-566
and Public Law 87-639. They are directed toward resolving the complex
problems identified by framework
studies and assessments or other
Federal-state investigations and terminate in a recommended plan or disclosure of possible alternative plans. They
may vary widely in scope and detail;
will consider present and long-range
problems with a focus on middle term
(15 to 25 years) needs and desires; and
will involve interested Federal, state,
and local entities.
Regional or river basin plans are
concerned with a broad array of component needs of objectives. Alternate
plans will consider effects on many
components of objectives. Scheduling
for implementation of the recommended plan or alternative plans will
be presented to indicate the relationship to needs and the urgency or priority associated with meeting the needs.
(U.S. Dep. of Agric. 1974)
2. A plan for development of water
and related land resources to make the
best use of such resources to meet the
basin needs and make the greatest
long-term contribution to the economic growth and social well-being of the
people of the basin and the nation.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Rock, igneous
Rocks formed by solidification
from a molten or partially molten
state–e.g., various types of lava.
This class of rock types is often
subdivided, for convenience, into
"plutonic rocks" (those which were
formed by the solidification of molten
materials below the ground surface–
e.g., granite) and "volcanic rocks"
(those formed by solidification of molten materials which have been extruded onto the ground surface. (After
Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Also contrast with the other two
main classes of rock–Rock, metamorphic and Rock, sedimentary.
Rock, metamorphic
Rocks which have been formed in
the solid state under the conditions of
high pressure, high temperature and
the introduction of new chemical substances that, in general occur at great
depths within the earth–e.g., slate,
marble, jade. (After Amer. Geol. Inst.
1962)
Also contrast with the other two
main classes of rock–Rock, sedimentary and Rock, igneous.
River basin planning
Comprehensive planning where the
planning unit is defined by the natural
boundaries of a river basin. (E. C. T.)
Also see Comprehensive planning
and River basin plan.
Rock, plutonic. See Rock, igneous.
183
Rotational deferment
Range management usage. A grazing system in which one or more parts
of the range are rested during the
growing season each year; and rotational use of other segments of the
range are not necessarily planned for.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Rock, sedimentary
Rocks which have been formed
from deposits of sediment–whether
from fragments of other rock transported from their sources and deposited by water–e.g., sandstone or
shale–or by precipitation from solution or fixation by organisms–e.g.,
rock salt, gypsum, limestone. (After
Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Also contrast with the other two
main classes of rock–Rock, metamorphic and Rock, igneous.
Rotation grazing. See Grazing, rotation.
Rotation pasture. See Pasture, rotation.
RPA. See Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act.
Role. See Social role.
Runoff
Rotation (Cutting rotation, Felling rotation, Cutting cycle, Cutting interval)
1. The period of years between the
initial establishment of a stand of timber and the time when it is considered
ready for cutting and regeneration.
(U.S. Forest Serv. 1972A)
2. The planned, recurring lapse of
time between successive major cutting
operations in a managed forest. (After
Ford-Robertson 1971)
1. The total stream discharge of
water, including both surface and subsurface flow, usually expressed in acre
feet. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
2. The rate at which water is discharged from a drainage area, usually
expressed in cubic feet per second per
square mile of drainage area. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
S
Sacrifice area
1. A relatively small area of land
in a grazing unit that may still be overused after practical measures for securing uniform grazing distribution have
been installed. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
2. A portion of the range, irrespective of site, that is intentionally overgrazed to obtain efficient overall use
of the management area. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
poor-risk trees that will not be merchantable if left in the stand until the
next scheduled cut. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2471.33, June 1973)
2. The exploitation of trees that
are dead, dying, or deteriorating (e.g.,
because overmature or substantial
damage by fire, wind, insects, fungi or
other injurious agencies) before their
timber becomes worthless. (FordRobertson 1971)
Sacrifice site
Range management usage. A range
site which is intentionally overgrazed
to obtain efficient overall use of the
management area. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Sand
1. Particle size usage. Inorganic
particles between 0.05 (or 1/16) and
2.0 millimeters in diameter. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970 and Amer.
Geol. Inst. 1962)
2. "Soil texture" usage. Soil material that contains 85 percent or more
sand and a percentage of silt plus 1.5
times the percentage of clay that does
Salvage cutting
1. Cutting primarily to utilize dead
and downed material and scattered
184
2. Aesthetics of proportions usage.
A feeling for the size and/or appropri­
ateness of the size of some construc­
tion element (i.e., a building, paved
area, etc.) or project. (C.F.S.)
Also see Sense of scale for a more
extensive discussion of this usage of
"scale".
not exceed 15. (After Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Sanitary landfill
A site where solid waste materials
are disposed of on land–supposedly in
a manner which prevents their escape
into–or pollution of–the surrounding
environment. The waste is spread in
layers, then compacted to the smallest
practical volume and covered with
compacted soil at the end of each
working day. (After Sesco, et al. 1973)
Scarcity. See Economic scarcity.
SCD. See Soil conservation district.
Scenario
1. A hypothetical sequence of fu­
ture events constructed for the pur­
pose of focusing attention on causal
processes and decision points. (After
Kahn and Wiener 1967)
2. "Scenarios" express a series of
integrated objectives for preserving the
environment, the fulfillment of which
is dependent upon timing as an "ur­
gency" rather than as a "sequence".
For example, some strategic natural
areas that may be shown on scenarios
actually exist on the ground today,
but will not be found anywhere in the
year 2000 unless they are reserved
now. (Hills, Love and Lacate 1970)
3. A word picture of a fixed se­
quence of future events in a defined
environment. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
Sanitation cutting
The removal of dead, diseased, in­
fested, damaged, or susceptible trees
essentially to prevent the spread of
pests or pathogens and so promote
forest hygiene. (After Ford-Robertson
1970)
Sapling
A loose term for a young tree great­
er than a few feet tall and an inch or so
in diameter at breast height and
typically growing vigorously and without dead bark or more than an oc­
casional dead branch. Many countries
set arbitrary size limits–2 to 4 inches
diameter at breast height in the United
States. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Satisficing
A method of choosing among alternatives. Minimum values or quality
standards are established for all attri­
butes affected by the alternatives. All
those alternatives which do not meet
the minimum requirements are elimi­
nated from consideration. By succes­
sively raising the minimum require­
ments you can successively reduce the
number of alternatives under consider­
ation. (After Mac Crimmon 1968)
Scenic area
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. A
place which has been designated by
the Forest Service as containing outstanding or matchless beauty which requires special management to preserve
these qualities. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2362.41, June, 1974)
Areas of this type and all other special interest areas are identified and
formally classified primarily because
of their recreational values. (W. W.)
2. An area preserved primarily because of its present beauty, such as
cliffs, streams, vistas, vegetation, and
wildlife. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Scale
1. Graphics usage. The proportion­
al relationship (ratio) between the re­
duced size at which something is being
represented on a map or other type of
drawing and its true distance or size
relationships. (C.F.S.)
185
Scenic corridor
The visible land area outside the
highway right-of-way and generally
described as "the view from the road"
(Calif. Counc. on Intergov. Relat
1973)
Secondary treatment. See
wastewater treatment.
Secondary use (Accessory use)
A use incidental, related, appropri­
ate, and clearly subordinate to the
main use of an area, lot or building.
An accessory use does not alter the
principal use of the subject lot or af­
fect other properties in the zone.
(Eisner 1969)
Also see Dominant use as a con­
trasting position in the use allocation
hierarchy to secondary use.
Scenic easement. See Easement, scenic.
Scenic river
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act usage
Those rivers or sections of rivers that
are free of impoundments, with shorelines or watersheds still largely primitive and shorelines largely undevel
oped, but accessible in places by roads
(After U.S. Forest Serv. 1974)
Secondary wastewater treatment (Secondary treatment, Secondary sewage
treatment)
1. Any process that takes the efflu­
ent from primary wastewater treatment and reduces the suspended solids
and biological oxygen demand by ap­
proximately 90 percent. During sec­
ondary treatment, the wastewater is
subject to biochemical action, increased sedimentation, and clarifica­
tion. (Sesco et al. 1973)
2. This wastewater treatment uses
biological methods (primarily bacterial
action) in addition to the primary
treatment's removal of most floating
and suspended solids by screening, sed­
imentation and floatation. In second­
ary treatment biodegradation by bac­
teria is used to destroy organic wastes,
commonly by trickling the waste
water over coarse stones. The process
removes up to 90 percent of the dis­
solved biodegradable pollutants and 93
percent of the suspended solids from
wastewater, but leaves many other pol­
lutants untouched. (Wash. State Univ.
Coop. Ext. Serv. 1972 and Mc Gauhey
1968)
Schematic diagram. See Diagrammatic
representation.
SCS
Secondary
Soil Conservation Service, U.S. De­
partment of Agriculture.
Secondary effect. See Indirect effect.
Secondary facility
Transportation planning usage.
Sec-ondary facilities provide access to
smaller land areas than primary facilities. They are multi-resource oriented,
providing access and mobility for the
utilization of a variety of resource sys­
tems, and are usually developed and
operated for long-term service. Em­
phasis is given to achieving a balance
between travel efficiency and resource
service. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
7705.42, Aug. 1975)
Also see Primary facility and Tertiary facility.
Secondary range
Range which is lightly used or un­
used by livestock under minimal man­
agement and will ordinarily not be ful­
ly used until the primary range has
been overused. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Second growth
Forest growth that has come up
naturally after some drastic interfer­
ence (e.g., wholesale cutting, serious
fire, or insect attack) with the previous
forest crop. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Secondary sewage treatment. See Secondary wastewater treatment.
Secondary succession. See Succession,
secondary.
186
stock, but not overstock, the area.
(U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471.22, June,
1973)
See Shelterwood system for the
timing relationships between this cut­
ting type and others in that silvicul­
tural system.
Sediment
Solid material, both mineral and or­
ganic, that is in suspension, is being
transported, or has been moved from
its site of origin by air, water, gravity,
or ice and has come to rest on the
earth's surface either above or below
sea level. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Seed tree removal cutting
Cutting made to remove the seed
trees when adequate reproduction
above browse height has been estab­
lished. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
2471R-3)
Sedimentary rock. See Rock, sedimentary.
Sediment discharge
The quantity of sediment, mea­
sured in dry weight or by volume,
transported through a stream crosssection in a given time. Sediment dis­
charge consists of both suspended load
and bedload. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Seismic
Pertaining to or caused by an earthquake. (Calif. Counc. on Intergov.
Relat. 1973)
Seismic hazards
Hazards related to seismic or earthquake activity. (Calif. Counc. on Intergov. Relat. 1973)
Sediment load. See Sediment discharge.
Seed tree
1. A tree purposely left standing at
the time of cutting in a forest, for the
purpose of producing seed for regener­
ation of trees in the cut-over area.
(Hanson 1962)
2. A tree selected, and often reserved, to be a source of seed for col­
lection. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Selection cutting. See Selection logging.
Selection logging (Selection cutting)
Removal of mature timber, usually
the oldest or largest trees, either as sin­
gle scattered trees or small groups at
relatively short intervals, commonly 5
to 20 years, repeated indefinitely, by
means of which the continuous estab­
lishment of natural reproduction is en­
couraged and an uneven-aged stand is
maintained. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Seed tree cutting (seed cutting)
1. Removal in one cut of the ma­
ture timber from an area, save for a
small number of seed bearers left
singly or in small groups. (FordRobertson 1971)
2. A regeneration cutting where
the planned source of the new stand is
from seed existing on, or to be pro­
duced by, trees standing on the cutover area.
The cutting removes all the mature
timber except for the number of seed
trees which are needed to provide seed
for reproducing the stand. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2471 R-3)
Cutting which leaves the number of
seed trees needed to provide the opti­
mum amount of seed required to re-
Selection system
An uneven-aged silvicultural system
in which trees are removed individu­
ally, here and there, from a large area
each year.
Regeneration is mainly natural and
the timber crop ideally all different
ages. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Selective grazing. See Grazing, selective.
Selective logging. See Selection logging.
Selectivity
Range management usage. The de­
gree to which a plant or plant part is
removed differently from that which is
187
are said to be "sensitive" to that as­
sumption or parameter. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1972B)
expected by random removal. Selec­
tivity is expressed as the ratio of the
proportion of a plant or plant part in a
diet to all the other herbage. (H.F.H.)
Also see Palatability.
Sensitivity, land
The degree to which the land cannot sustain or heal itself from external­
ly imposed disturbance or land uses.
(Sandpoint Zone Plann. Team 1973)
Also see Fragility and Fragile land
for very similar concepts.
Sense of community. See Human community, definition 2.
Sense of scale
A feeling for the size and/or appro­
priateness of the size of some project
or construction element (i.e., building,
paved area, etc.).
An evaluation of the sense of ap­
propriate size (or mass) relationship of
some design material, element, or ob­
ject to its surroundings, its intended
use or user group, etc. For example,
the use of brick as a building material
is sometimes said to result in construc­
tions of a "human scale"–because
people have a strongly developed
awareness of the size of individual
bricks, and therefore, can sense the
size of buildings or paved areas by
using the individual brick as the basis
of judgement. In contrast, because
concrete can be poured into almost
any size units, people can have diffi­
culty correctly judging the size of ob­
jects made out of concrete. In a similar
sense, entire large highrise (i.e., multistoried) buildings may be described as
being out-of-scale when placed in sur­
roundings dominated by 2- or 3-story
buildings. (C.F.S.)
Sensitivity level. For U.S. Forest Service
usage see Visual sensitivity level.
Seral
A biotic community which is a de­
velopmental, transitory stage in an
ecologic succession. (Carpenter 1938,
citing Phillips 1930)
Sere
1. The series of stages that follow
one another in an ecologic succession.
(Hanson 1962)
2. The series of biotic communities
that follow one another in time on any
given area of the earth's surface. (Carpenter 1938)
Also see Succession, definition 1.
Servient
The land against which an easement
or privilege exists is called the "servi­
ent" tenement and the estate to which
it is annexed is the dominant tene­
ment. Their owners are respectively
the servient and dominant owners.
(U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Also see Easement.
Sensitivity analysis
1. Varying the value of the param­
eter or parameters in question and
examining the extent to which these
changes affect the results of the anal­
ysis. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969)
2. Repetition of an analysis with
different quantitative values for the
variables in order to determine their
effects on the results of the basic anal­
ysis.
If a small change in an assumption
results in a proportionately greater
change in the results, then the results
Sheet erosion. See Erosion, sheet.
Sheet flow. See Overland flow.
Shelterwood cutting
Cutting which leaves enough trees
to provide about half shade or more
on the ground. In some places, more
trees than are needed to provide shade
for reproduction must be left in order
to prevent windthrow. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2471.22, Jan. 1974)
See Shelterwood system for the
188
timing relationships between this cut­
ting type and others in that silvicul­
tural system.
Silviculture
1. Generally, the science and art of
cultivating (i.e., growing and tending)
forest crops, based on a knowledge of
silvics. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
2. More particularly the theory and
practice of controlling the establish­
ment, composition, constitution, and
growth of forests. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
3. In imprecise usage, cutting, logging, harvesting, and "silviculture" are
used seemingly interchangeably by dif­
ferent people, often with vehemence
as to which is the correct term in a
given situation. According to FordRobertson (1971) "silviculture" has as
its primary concern the establishing,
growing, and tending of forests. "Har­
vesting" and "logging", however, deal
specifically with the extraction of resources from the forest; with "log­
ging" restricted to the felling and extraction of timber (wood other than
fuel wood after primary conversion),
whereas "harvesting" expands this to
include the cutting, initial processing if
any, and extraction of any forest prod­
uct. "Cutting" refers only to the actu­
al felling of standing trees. (After
Ford-Robertson 1971)
Shelterwood system
Even-aged silvicultural systems in
which (in order to provide a source of
seed and/or protection for regenera­
tion) the old crop is removed in two or
more successive "shelterwood cut­
tings", the first of which is ordinarily
the seed tree cutting and the last is the
final cutting, any intervening cuttings
being termed removal cuttings. (FordRobertson 1971)
Short-range planning
1. Planning for a future less than 5
years distant. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
2. U.S. Forest Service usage. Infor­
mation use for planning and control
for the period covered by specific action plans–i.e., functional plans. (U.S.
Forest Serv. 1972B)
Shrink-swell potential
The susceptibility for a soil's vol­
ume to change due to loss or gain in
moisture content. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Silt
1. Particle size usage. Fragments of
rock or organic matter sediment most
of the individual particles of which are
between 1/16 and 1/256 millimeters in
diameter. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Soil particles which are between
0.05 and 0.002 millimeters in equiva­
lent diameter. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
2. "Soil texture" usage. A soil texture type consisting of 80 percent or
more of silt particles and less than 12
percent clay particles. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Simulation
1. An abstraction or simplification
of a real world situation. In its broad­
est sense any model is a simulation,
since it is designed to represent the
most important features of some exis­
tential conditions. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969)
2. Use of a model to determine re­
sults under specific sets of circum­
stances. (After U.S. Gen. Account.
Off. 1969)
3. A technique for solving complex
problems that are not amenable to
solution using formal analytical tech­
niques. Essentially simulation consists
of a representation of a system or or­
ganization by means of a model. The
behavior of the system under various
Silvics
The natural science which deals
with the laws underlying the growth
and development of single trees and of
the forest as a biological unit. (Smith
1962)
189
essentially uniform with respect to
those factors controlling productivity
for the crop or stand under study. The
quantitative measure is based on the
volume, height or maximum mean
annual increment that is attained or at­
tainable on that area at a given crop
age. (After Ford-Robertson 1971)
possible operational conditions is then
analyzed through repeated manipula­
tion of the model. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
Sink
In pollution terminology, any loca­
tion where wastes are or ultimately become deposited–as in underground
burial places, in underwater deposits, in
ocean water, etc. (After Sesco, et al.
1973)
Site design. See Site planning.
Site index
1. A numerical evaluation of the
quality of land for plant productivity,
especially used in forest land where it
is determined by the rate of growth in
height on one or more of the tree spe­
cies. (Hanson 1962)
2. A particular measure of site
class, based on the height of the domi­
nant trees in a stand at an arbitrarily
chosen age. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Site
1. City planning and environmental
design professions usage. A plot of
land intended or suitable for develop­
ment.
The ground or area upon which a
building or town has been erected.
(Abrams 1971)
2. Forestry usage. An area con­
sidered in terms of its environment,
particularly as this determines the type
and quality of the vegetation the area
can inherently produce.
"Sites" are classified either qualita­
tively, by their climate, soil and vege­
tation, into site types, or quantitative­
ly, by their potential wood produc­
tion, into site classes. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
Site plan
A plan, prepared to scale, showing
accurately and with complete dimen­
sioning, all of the buildings, structures
and uses and the exact manner of de­
velopment proposed for a specific par­
cel of land. (Eisner 1969)
Site planning (Site design)
The organization of the external
physical environment up to the largest
scale at which it can still be subject to
unified and complete control. It deals
with structures, land and the entire
complex of physical forms above,
below and on the surface. It has at its
heart the disposition of objects and ac­
tivities in 3-dimensional space. It begins with the careful analysis of the
project site and purpose; and, it con­
cludes with design of a pattern which
interacts as a totality with its users,
and which is subject to continuous fu­
ture development and change.
"Site planning" produces plans
which can be carried out in one con­
tinuous forseeable process, according
to one original design, under the con­
trol of one agency, inclusive of all de-
Site capacity
U.S. Forest Service usage. The num­
ber of persons who may, at one time,
use the developed capacity (i.e., facility carrying capacity) of a location
while not exceeding the safe, seasonlong carrying capacity (i.e., ecological
carrying capacity) per acre.
The inherent capacity of a resource
area to support use without unaccept­
able damage (i.e., "ecological carrying
capacity"). (After U.S. Forest Service,
FSM 2331.110, Oct. 1967)
Site class (Locality class, Productivity
class, Quality class, Growth class,
Yield class)
A quantitative measure of the pro­
ductive capacity of an area which is
190
and often form administrative and
management units. (After Belknap and
Furtado 1967)
The largest unit in Hills' land classi­
fication system. The various levels, in
order of decreasing size, are Site region, Landtype, Physiographic site
class, Physiographic site type and
Physiographic site phase.
tails of site engineering, landscaping,
and architecture.
"Site planning" may take place on
areas as small as a single building and
its grounds, or as large as the layout of
a complete small town. (Lynch 1962)
"Site planning" is the smallest level
at which "land use planning" is done.
In some instances "site planning"
can almost be a synonym for project
planning. The main difference usually
is that "site planning" is more con­
cerned with the specifics of the design
aspects of site use–e.g., site circu­
lation, optimum relationships between
project components on the site, place­
ment of structures and other changes
in relation to any inherent site limita­
tions or potentials, the aesthetics of
site use, maintenance of some sense of
continuity with surroundings, etc.
Those portions of "project planning"
which are concerned with the design
aspects of site use are sometimes called
the "site planning" phase of "project
planning". However, "project plan­
ning" typically involves many addi­
tional considerations which are not
within the scope of site planning–such
as economic studies of markets and location, optimum organization of facili­
ties within buildings, etc. (C.F.S.)
Site specific
In "land use planning" usage this
term commonly refers to something
only valid for, or confined to, a certain
given parcel of land and/or water. The
term may apply to data, studies to ob­
tain information, environmental im­
pacts, use restrictions, etc.
The assumption is that mapped
land characteristics are, in varying de­
grees, generalizations about a true dis­
tribution of characteristics. Such ap­
propriate-use-affecting generalizations
cannot be assumed valid for every par­
cel of land contained within the larger
mapped units. "Site specific" studies
may be needed to confirm or change
the appropriate land use classification
of a particular parcel.
"Site specific" implies limitations
on transference or extrapolation of ob­
servations beyond a specific parcel of
land, while geographic specific implies
the same limitations with respect to rel­
atively large blocks of land of unspeci­
fied ownership. (C.F.S.)
Site quality
A loosely used term denoting the
relative productivity of a site for a par­
ticular tree species. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
Also see Site class and Site index.
Site type
A biotic productivity unit (usually
for trees) which is qualitatively defined on the basis of being relatively
uniform with respect to climate, soil
and natural vegetation cover. (After
Ford-Robertson 1971)
For quantitative productivity classi­
fications see Site class.
Also see Site, definition 2.
Site region
G.A. Hills land classification usage.
The subdivision of a region on the ba­
sis of broad macroclimatic similarities–such as cool humid vs. warm hu­
mid.
Broad areas where air temperature
and relative humidity generally cor­
respond to similar landform and vege­
tation succession. Site regions vary in
size from 1000 to 4000 square miles
Skidding
A loosely used term for the trans­
portation of logs from stumps to a col­
lecting point by sliding or dragging
191
Slope steepness (Slope, Slope gradient,
Slope inclination)
The degree of deviation of a land
surface from the horizontal–usually
expressed in percent (i.e., amount of
elevation change per 100 feet, expres­
sed as a percentage) or degrees. (After
Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
along the ground–as opposed to the
use of wheels, helicopters, balloons,
cables, etc., to keep them totally off
the ground.
The logs may slide more or less
wholly along the ground or with their
forward end supported. (After FordRobertson 1971)
Sometimes the term "skidding" is
even used to refer to log transporta­
tion methods which keep them wholly
off the ground during their main
journey (especially when sliding logs
along a cable as in "aerial skidding")
but this usage is clearly in conflict
with the central concept, and therefore, should be discouraged. (C.F.S.)
SMSA. See Standard metropolitan statistical area.
Snag
1. A standing dead tree from which
the leaves and most of the branches
have fallen. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
2. A standing section of the stem
of a tree broken off at a height of 20
or more feet above the ground. (FordRobertson 1971)
Skyline logging. See Logging, skyline.
Skyline yarding. See Yarding, skyline.
Snow avalanche
The rapid downslope movement of
large quantities of snow. (Amer. Geol.
Inst. 1962)
Slash
The residue left on the ground after
timber cutting and/or accumulating
there as a result of storm, fire or other
damage. It includes unutilized logs, uprooted stumps, broken or uprooted
stems, branches, twigs, leaves, bark
and chips. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Snow avalanche hazard (Snowslide hazard)
Some evaluation (almost always
qualitative and relative to adjacent locations) of the chance that a snow avalanche will occur on a given site.
(C.F.S.)
Slope
An inclined portion of the surface
of the earth. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Also see Slope orientation and
Slope steepness.
Snowslide. See Snow avalanche.
Social analysis
1. An analysis of the social (as dis­
tinct from the economic and environ­
mental) effects of a given plan or pro­
posal for action. Social analysis in­
cludes identification and evaluation of
all pertinent desirable and undesirable
consequences to all segments of soci­
ety, stated in some comparable quanti­
tative terms–such as persons or percent of population in each affected
social segment. It also includes a sub­
jective analysis of social factors not ex­
pressable in quantitative terms.
(C.F.S.)
For example, "social analysis"
would include effects on life styles,
Slope gradient. See Slope steepness.
Slope orientation (Aspect, Exposure)
The compass direction that the
slope of a land surface faces toward
(e.g., north, northwest, south). (After
Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Slope stability (Mass instability)
An evaluation (almost always quali­
tative and expressed as a probability)
of the tendency for the materials on or
constituting a slope (e.g., rocks, soil,
snow) to either remain in place or to
move downhill. (C.F.S.)
Also see Landslide hazard, Snow
avalanche hazard.
192
the evaluation of the extent to which
different social groups will be bene­
fited or harmed by any decision that
may be made. This usually involves
making some hard decisions about bal­
ancing the net gains in the quality of
life for some groups against the gains
and losses of others.
In the end, the findings and guid­
ance developed by the "social anal­
ysis" process are combined (compro­
mising where necessary) with the anal­
ogous findings and guidances originat­
ing from analysis of economic, eco­
logic, amenity, and other decision
making considerations to arrive at an
overall set of plan guiding and/or eval­
uative criteria. (C. F. S. and E.CT.)
the political process, education, health
care, housing, distributions of power
and income, and the quality of public
services. (E. C. T.)
2. A phase in the planning process
which (1) identifies groups (whether
formally organized as groups or not)
who may be affected by or have an
interest in planning decisions; (2) gath­
ers and quantifies (objectively when
possible) both the preferences of these
groups and the possible consequences
of proposed alternatives on these
groups; (3) evaluates the role of social
group preferences and consequences in
resource allocation decisions; and
(4) determines how a given plan
should be formulated (or adjusted) so
as to respond to these evaluations and
to generally defined social equity cri­
teria.
"Social analysis" is a part of both
the plan formulation and impact evalu­
ation processes.
The determination of the best
method(s) for obtaining the desired information from representative samples
of each social group and the collection
of that information usually involves
use of such survey research procedures
as: questionnaire design, distribution
and retrieval; conducting polls; holding
public hearings; forming ad hoc task
forces and advisory groups; and con­
ducting behavioral studies.
The determination of how to evalu­
ate the various social groups' diverse
(and often conflicting) preferences for
allocation choices usually consists of
some systematic method for establish­
ing the relative importance of the vari­
ous social groups and expressing this as
multipliers or weightings.
Establishing how social groups' at­
titudes, use behavior characteristics,
etc. could be reflected in future plan­
ning decisions, or how plan decisions
which have already been made could
be altered so as to better respond to
these kind of considerations includes
Social benefits
1. The net benefit considerations
of long-range societal values at the re­
gional or national level which might
not be taken into account in the profit
and loss statement of an individual
farmer, forest operator, industrialist or
other private citizen. (Wash. State
Univ., Coop. Ext. Serv. 1972)
Note that this term in economic
usage does not include the profit and
loss statements of such legally defined
individuals as corporations. Their profits and losses are assumed to appear in
the statement of single individuals.
In common usage "social benefits"
is often used when referring to the ex­
ternality benefits (see economic externalities) accruing to groups of individ­
uals or to society as a whole. (C.F.S.)
2. The non-monetary and rarely
quantifiable returns to society arising
from any form of economic activity–
e.g., those recreational benefits result­
ing from the creation of a scenic overlook. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Social carrying capacity. See Carrying capacity, psychological.
Social class
1. In its simplest usage, merely a
category of people who have been
193
grouped together on the basis of one or
more common characteristics. The
characteristics can usually be viewed as
hierarchical. Basically, then, a class
stratum in a hierarchically stratified
social structure.
Disputes about a more precise defi­
nition of "social class" revolve around
two issues–the choice of the factors
by which a population is classified,
and whether or not a class must have
grouplike features in addition to the
objective similarities that its members
share. Classes are viewed by some soci­
ologists as quasigroups (that is, cate­
gories with some grouplike characteris­
tics) or statistical aggregates. (O'Connell 1974)
2. The most common usage of
"class" implies a definition in terms of
categories that share relatively equal
amounts of economic, prestige, and
political-power resources.
The factors according to which a
society may be stratified into classes
fall into three broad categories–
economic, social, and political.
Economic factors used to define
classes include: (1) relationship to the
means of production (i.e., basically,
ownership or nonownership of capital),
(2) similarity of market positions
(whether they may or may not have
developed a sense of commonality), or
most commonly, (3) aggregates of in­
dividuals sharing similar amounts of
income or wealth.
Social factors used to define classes
include differential life styles (subcultures), prestige or the clustering of in­
teraction patterns.
Political factors used to define soci­
al class structure include (1) the rela­
tionship to the means of force and
government (viewing political control
as not solely dependent on economic
control), (2) defining classes as con­
flict groups (comprised of those with
and those without authority) which
develop inevitably in any association
194
or society with a hierarchical com­
mand structure, and (3) aggregates of
persons in similar power positions
(with the basic sources of power being
force, position, occupation and pro­
perty).
In many empirical studies "social
classes" are defined as socioeconomic
categories on the basis of two or more
objective hierarchical indicators (for
example, income, occupation, educa­
tion). (O'Connell 1974)
Social costs
1. The net loss considerations of
long-range societal values at the re­
gional or national level which might
not be taken into account in the profit
and loss statement of an individual
farmer, forest operator, industrialist or
other private citizen. (Wash. State
Univ., Coop. Ext. Serv. 1972)
Note that this term in economic
usage does not include the profit and
loss statements of such legally defined
individuals as corporations. Their profits and losses are assumed to appear in
the statements of single individuals.
In common usage social cost is often used when referring to the exter­
nality costs (see economic externalities) accruing to groups of individuals
or to society as a whole. (C.F.S.)
2. The non-monetary and rarely
quantifiable losses to society arising
from any form of economic activity–
e.g., from air pollution whose only del­
eterious side effect is reduced visibili­
ty, over and above the expenditures
for the goods and services causing the
smoke. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Social determinism (Social primacy)
1. A point of view in planning
which advocates that the primary basis
for making use and allocation deci­
sions should be satisfaction of current
societal demands on resources. The
ability of the resource base to sustain
such demanded use levels on a long
term basis is not recognized as an im-
important, and others, such as intelli­
gence, will enter into the determina­
tion of social distance. (O'Connell
1974)
Also see Social role.
portant criterion for decision making
by the social primist. (C.F.S.)
2. Sociological usage. The belief
that human behavior is produced by
conditions in the social world. In this
view, when a person is born, he is es­
sentially unmarked, a clean surface.
His potential for good or evil, success
or failure, or the various states in between, will be decided by the social
environment, which is formed by his
family, his friends, his work associates,
and overlaying all of these groups, the
culture. Sociologists are basically "so­
cial determinists". (O'Connell 1974)
Social dynamics
The forces and processes involved
in social change. The processes of in­
teraction leading to change may in­
volve economic, political, ideological,
individual, or other variables.
Some theorists see this dynamic as
a dialectical one, involving a succession
of conflicts and their resolutions. Oth­
ers see the dynamic as a development­
al, cumulative process in which con­
flict is merely incidental. (O'Connell
1974)
Social distance
1. Environmental psychology usage. The distance maintained by ani­
mals and persons based on the social
situation involved. "Social distance" is
a psychological distance which is not
rigidly fixed, but shifts with the situa­
tion and varies from species to species.
(After Worthington 1974)
2. Presuming that people are con­
scious of having a certain "place" in a
social hierarchy and, further, that they
are conscious of the places of others,
the differences between the respective
places is "social distance". For exam­
ple, the social distance between a phy­
sician and a garbage collector will
probably be greater than that between
the physician and a car salesman.
Occupational status is only one
component of "social distance";
others will be relevant to the situation
in which the individuals find themselves. For example, on a ski slope, oc­
cupation may mean little and skiing
ability may be the essential determi­
nant of social distance. Social distance
will also vary with the extent to which
the two people know each other. On
first encounter the determinants of so­
cial distance will include appearance,
mode of self-introduction, and attri­
butes of social status such as occupa­
tional prestige. As the relationship de­
velops, these factors may become less
Social engineering
Application of sociological princi­
ples to problems of society.
(O'Connell 1974)
Social equity
The distribution of the gains and
losses that will accrue to individuals or
groups (defined according to social cri­
teria), as a consequence of land use
planning decisions, in a manner which
is in reasonable conformity to ac­
cepted standards of natural rights, law
and justice, without prejudice, favorit­
ism or fraud and without causing un­
due hardship. (C.F.S.)
Social group
Generally, an aggregate of people
present in some sort of situation in­
volving their interaction with one
another. A group may consist of al­
most any number of people, and the
interaction may involve the perfor­
mance of a complex task or simply
being together in the same place at the
same time.
In any setting the behavior of the
individual is determined by being part
of the group, though the ways in
which such determining occurs will
vary with the settings. (O'Connell
1974)
195
viduals. Moreover, in societies such as
the United States, whose structure
manifests subcultural variations, ambi­
guities and variations concerning the
meaning of norms are to be expected.
Norms are external to the individu­
al to the extent that normative defini­
tions exist in the reality defined by a
particular culture, which may preexist
his being. There is a hierarchy of such
definitions of "right and wrong".
These are traditionally identified as
"folkways",
mores,
and
laws.
(O'Connell 1974)
Also see Norm.
Social inequality
A condition in which various mem­
bers of a society have unequal
amounts of income, prestige, and social power. (O'Connell 1974)
Social institutions. See Institutions, social.
Social mobility
The upward or downward move­
ment of individuals or groups into dif­
ferent positions in a social hierarchy
based on wealth, income, occupation,
education, social power, or any other
scarce social resources.
A society with a high rate of social
mobility and good opportunities for
upward social mobility is not egalitarian but does maximize opportunities
for one individual or group to get
more of the society's scarce resources
than other individuals or groups can
get. (O'Connell 1974)
Social planning. See Advocacy planning.
Social power
The extent to which a person can
impose their will on a group. That is a
person has power when he gets the
members of a group to do what he or
she wants, regardless of what they
want. (O'Connell 19 74)
Social mores
The fixed customs or folkways of a
particular social group that are morally
binding upon all members of the group
and necessary to its welfare and preser­
vation. (Webster 1963)
Social prestige
The respect or favorable regard enjoyed by individuals or groups and
linked to the social status accorded to
these individuals or groups. Prestige is
frequently, but not necessarily, the re­
sult of the possession of power or
wealth. (O'Connell 1974)
Social norms
The shared expectations of a social
group or society.
The concept assumes a relationship
between the perceptions of shared ex­
pectations by members of the social
group and the extent to which the
norm influences behavior. To the de­
gree to which human behavior is influ­
enced by the normative content of the
culture of one's society, such behavior
might be explained in terms of the col­
lective expectations as perceived,
shared, and enforced by the group.
Normative variations exist even in a
relatively stable culture. These varia­
tions are due to the generalized nature
of norms relative to specific social situ­
ations and to the variations in their
perception and interpretation by indi-
Social primacy. See Social determinism.
Social role
Generally, a role consists of those
behaviors typically performed by an
individual in a particular situation. The
individual's assumption of a role im­
plies his acceptance of the need to act
in ways that are socially agreed upon
as being appropriate in that situation.
To differentiate role from status, a
status generally refers to an institutionalized role. Thus, statuses often in­
volve occupational or kinship systems–physician, lawyer, factory work­
er, or father, mother, uncle. Whereas
the physician, by virtue of his profes-
196
sion, enjoys a certain "status", his
"role" in any situation will be more
fluid. (O'Connell 1974)
2. Agricultural usages. The collec­
tion of natural bodies occupying por­
tions of the earth's surface that support plants and that have properties
due to the integrated effect of climate
and living matter, acting upon parent
material, as conditioned by relief, over
periods of time. (U.S. Soil Conserv.
Serv. 1951)
The unconsolidated mineral and or­
ganic material on the immediate sur­
face of the earth that serves as a natu­
ral medium for the growth of land
plants. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
The unconsolidated mineral matter
on the surface of the earth that has
been subjected to and influenced by
genetic and environmental factors of
parent material, climate (including
moisture and temperature effects),
macro- and micro-organisms, and to­
pography, all acting over a period of
time and producing a product–soil–
that differs from the material from
which it is derived in many physical,
chemical, biological, and morphologi­
cal properties and characteristics. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
According to these definitions
"soil" only extends to the depth im­
portant for plant growth–operationally defined for the U.S. Soil Conserva­
tion Service surveys as the depth to
root growth limiting material or a 60
inch depth, which ever is encountered
first. (C.F.S.)
In agricultural usage the "soil" is
the solum.
3. Engineering usages. The layer of
loose, incoherent rock material of
whatever origin that rests on the hard
or bedrocks–i.e., the entire soil profile
down to and sometimes even into the
underlying
consolidated
rocks.
(Jumikis 1962)
Note that in this definition the low­
er boundary between a soil and a nonsoil is not defined by root growthlimiting material or the operational 5
Social status
A position based on prestige and
life style. Status group members share
these characteristics to a similar de­
gree.
It is often useful to consider a soci­
ety's status hierarchy independently
from its social class hierarchy which is
based largely on economic position.
Status frequently derives from class
position, but it may be achieved inde­
pendently of economic standing.
(O'Connell 1974)
Also see Social class and Social
power.
Social well-being
1. U.S. Water Resources Council
(WRC) usage. One of the four "re­
quired accounts" for categorizing, dis­
playing, or "accounting" the beneficial
and adverse effects of each alternative
plan formulation for water and related
land resources planning specified in
the Water Resources Council's Principles and Standards and the U.S. De­
partment of Agriculture's "Proce­
dures" for adhering to them. (After
U.S. Dep. of Agric. 1974)
2. The "social well-being" account
includes (at least): (1) real income dis­
tribution among individuals, classes,
and groups; (2) life, health, and safety;
(3) educational, cultural, and recrea­
tional opportunities; and (4) emergen­
cy preparedness. (After U.S. Dep. of
Agric. 1974)
Soft Pesticides. See Nonpersistent pesticide.
Soil
1. The loose surface material of the
earth, usually consisting of disinte­
grated rock with an admixture of or­
ganic matter and soluble salts. (Webster 1963)
197
serv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Also see Soil complex.
foot depth–whichever is encountered
first. Spatially the engineer recognizes
that there is an ungeneralizable, infi­
nite variety of soils, each with slightly
differing physical characteristics while
the agricultural soil scientist believes
that "soils" can be mapped as signifi­
cantly homogeneous, discrete units–
i.e., soil types. (C.F.S.)
4. Geological usage. Any loose sur­
face material overlying solid rock.
The regolith, or blanket of uncon­
solidated rock material that lies on the
bedrock. (Thrush 1968)
5. Soils are not simple structures,
nor are they static. Each soil is the re­
sult of the interactions of the parent
materials, the climate, and the vegeta­
tion and animal organisms which they
support. They respond to environ­
mental changes and to alterations in
topography. They can be improved or
destroyed. (Marsh 1964)
6. A kind of soil is the collection
of soils that are alike in specified com­
binations of characteristics. Kinds of
soil are given names in the system of
soil classification. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Soil climate
The moisture and temperature con­
ditions existing within the soil. The
soil has a microclimate which is the
environment of the organisms which
live within the soil. (Marsh 1964)
Soil complex
A mapping unit used in detailed soil
surveys where two or more defined
taxonomic units are so intimately in­
termixed geographically that it is un­
desirable or impractical (because of
the scale being used) to separate them.
A more intimate mixing of smaller
areas of individual taxonomic units
than the soil association. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Soil condition class
A reference to soil stability based
principally on the amount of ground
cover weighted by the degree of accelerated erosion. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Soil conservation district (SCD, Soil and
water conservation district, Natural resource district, Conservation district,
Resource conservation district, RCD)
A subdivision of a state or territory
organized pursuant to the state soil
conservation district law, as amended,
for the purpose, with the powers, and
subject to the restrictions, determined
by that law.
Under amendments to the districts'
laws, the names of districts in some
states have been changed to conserva­
tion districts, soil conservation dis­
tricts, natural resource districts or, in
California, resource conservation dis­
tricts.
SCD's are locally created and oper­
ated. They are controlled by an
elected and/or appointed governing
body, generally made up of resident
landowners. In most states, SCD's are
under the general supervision of a state
Soil and water conservation. See Conservation, definition 1.
Soil and water conservation district. See
Soil conservation district.
Soil association
1. A group of defined and named
soil taxonomic units occuring together
in an individual and characteristic pattern over a geographic region. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
2. A mapping unit used on reconnaissance soil maps or general soil
maps in which two or more defined
taxonomic units occurring together in
a characteristic pattern are combined
because the scale of the map does not
enable (nor does the purpose for
which it is being made require) deline­
ation of the individual soils. (Soil Con-
198
paratively uniform characteristics pro­
duced by soil-forming processes.
One soil horizon is commonly dif­
ferentiated from an adjacent one on
the basis of characteristics that can be
seen in the field. (U.S. Soil Conserv.
Serv. 1951)
2. A term applied to a layer of soil
which differs in composition or struc­
ture, or in both, from adjacent layers.
The various horizons in a soil are gen­
erally described by a diagram repre­
senting a vertical section of the soil
called a profile. The horizons in a soil
profile are designated as follows: Ahorizon, topsoil; B-horizon, mineral
soil; and C-horizon, parent soil materi­
al, weathered or unweathered rock
fragments and minerals.
Between any of the above horizons
may be found a waterlogged or "gley"
horizon, formed by the influence of
ground water and marked by the pres­
ence of iron and other reduced com­
pounds, alkaline salts, or aluminum
oxides.
A layer under the C-horizon which
is unlike the parent material may be
indicated as a D-horizon on a soil profile. The A, B, and C-horizons are
quite distinct in mature soils, devel­
oped under forest vegetation in tem­
perate and humid climates. These are
called "zonal soils". Soils in which the
horizons are undistinguished are called
"azonal". Where the horizons do not
fall into the above pattern or some
horizons are absent, the soils are called
"intrazonal". (Marsh 1964)
conservation commission, committee,
board, or agency.
Functions, operations, purposes,
and powers of SCD's vary widely from
state to state. (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv.
1970)
Soil creep (Creep)
The slow, mass movement of soil
material down relatively steep slopes,
primarily under the influence of grav­
ity but facilitated by saturation with
water and by alternate freezing and
thawing. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Soil erosion. See Erosion, soil.
Soil family
1. Soil classes defined largely on
the basis of physical and mineralogic
properties of importance to plant
growth. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
2. In soil classification one of the
categories intermediate between the
Great soil group and the soil series.
(Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 1965)
Soil fertility
The quality of a soil that enables it
to provide nutrients in adequate
amounts and in proper balance for the
growth of specified plants when other
growth factors, such as light, moisture,
temperature, and the physical condi­
tion of the soil, are favorable. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Soil great group (Great soil group)
Soil classes that are grouped upon
the basis of having the same kind of
horizons in the same sequence and
similar moisture and temperature re­
gimes. Exceptions to the soil horizon
sequences are made for horizons near
the surface that may get mixed or lost
by erosion if plowed. (Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Soil liquefaction (Thixotrophy)
The change of the strength of a
water saturated, cohesionless soil to
that of a liquid, usually from intense
ground shaking. On liquefaction a soil
loses all its bearing strength. (Calif.
Counc. on Intergov. Relat. 1973)
Soil loss equation (Universal soil loss
equation)
An equation used for the design of
Soil horizon (Soil zone)
1. A layer of soil, approximately
parallel to the soil surface, with com-
199
Soil map, detailed
1. U.S. Soil Conservation Service
usage. Referring to a soil map at a pub­
lication scale commonly of 2 inches =
1 mile on which soil types and soil
phases are the main types of units de­
lineated. The smallest unit size shown
on such maps is about 1 1/3 acres. Sur­
vey traverses are usually made at ¼
mile or more frequent intervals. The
unit boundaries on detailed soil maps
should have been seen throughout
their course and their placement on
the map should be accurate to at least
50 to 100 feet. The maximum amount
of unlike soil inclusions in mapped
units is 15 percent. (After U.S. Soil
Conserv. Serv. 1951 and Soil Sci. Soc.
Amer. 1965)
water erosion control systems. A =
RKLSPC wherein A = average annual
soil loss in tons per acre per year, R =
rainfall factor, K = soil erodibility fac­
tor, L = length of slope, S = percent of
slope, P = conservation practice factor,
and C = cropping and management fac­
tor. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
The equation as originally devel­
oped predicted soil losses from agricul­
tural lands induced by rainfall. A recent revision takes into account the
effect of snowmelt in areas where the
contribution from this cause is signifi­
cant. (J.H.H.)
Soil-loss tolerance (Permissible soil loss, T
factor)
The maximum average annual rate
of soil erosion (whether from rainfall
or wind) that will permit a high level
of crop productivity to be sustained
economically and indefinitely.
T factors of 1 through 5 are used,
and these numbers represent the
amount of soil loss in tons per acre per
year that should be permitted on a
given soil. The T factor is used in the
soil-loss equations for rainfall and
wind erosion. (After Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970 and W.A.B.)
Soil map, detailed reconnaissance
A reconnaissance soil map on which
some areas or features are shown in
greater detail than usual, or than
others. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1965)
Soil map, general (Generalized soil map)
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. Referring to a soil map with a
publication scale commonly of 1 inch 1 mile on which soil associations and
miscellaneous land types are the delin­
eated units. The smallest unit size
shown is about 3½ acres. The maximum amount of unlike soil inclusions
in such mapping units is 15 percent.
(After U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1951
and 1971)
Soil map
1. A map which shows the location,
and extent of the different soils in an
area. Soil maps are prepared and pub­
lished by various agencies of state and
local governments, in cooperation with
the U.S. Soil Conservation Service
and/or Forest Service or by the Forest
Service. (After Marsh 1964)
2. A map showing the distribution
of soil types or other soil mapping
units in relation to the prominent
physical and cultural features of the
earth's surface.
The following kinds of soil maps
are recognized in the United States:
"detailed", "detailed reconnaissance",
"reconnaissance", "generalized", and
"schematic". (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Soil mapping unit
A kind of soil, a combination of
kinds of soil, or miscellaneous land
type or types, that can be shown at the
scale of mapping for the defined
purposes and objectives of the survey.
Soil mapping units are the basis for
the delineations of a soil survey map.
Mapping units normally contain inclu­
sions of soils outside the limits of the
taxonomic name, or names, used as
200
slope, degree of erosion, content of
stones, texture of the surface, etc.
Phases of soil series are the major
components of the soil mapping units
shown on detailed soil maps in the
United States. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
the name for the mapping unit. Mapping units are generally designed only
to reflect significant differences in use
and management. (After Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Soil map, reconnaissance
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. Referring to a soil map of highly
variable publication scale (1 inch = 1
mile to 1 inch = 8 miles) and quality.
The most detailed units commonly
shown are miscellaneous land types
and soil associations or one or more
phases of soil families. The smallest
unit that can be shown on such a soil
map at a scale of 1 inch = 1 mile is
about 3½ acres and at 1 inch = 4 miles
about 280 acres. Map unit boundaries
are plotted where they cross field sur­
vey traverses. Traverses are at intervals
varying from about ½ mile to several
miles. Between these points of field
observation most boundaries are
sketched from the appearance of
ground patterns on aerial photographs
and the general appearance of the
landscape. (After U.S. Soil Conserv.
Serv. 1951 and 1970 and Soil Sci. Soc.
Amer. 1965)
Soil profile
1. A diagram of the vertical section
of a soil showing the thickness and
character of the various soil horizons.
(Marsh 1964)
2. The succession of zones or
"horizons" beginning at the surface
that have been altered by normal soilforming processes of which leaching
and oxidation have been particularly
important. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Also see Soil horizon.
Soil region
An area with approximately uni­
form soils. Fifty soil regions are recog­
nized in the United States, excluding
Alaska and Hawaii. They are corre­
lated with the climatic provinces and
plant growth regions. A map of these
regions is included in "Native Plants of
the United States" by William R. Van
Dersal, U.S. Department of Agricul­
ture, miscellaneous publication no.
303. (Marsh 1964)
Soil order
The category at the highest level of
generalization in the soil classification
system. The properties selected to dis­
tinguish the orders are reflections of
the degree of soil horizon development
and the kinds of horizons present.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Soil resource inventory. In U.S. Forest
Service usage this term is approximate­
ly equivalent to soil survey. See Soil
survey.
Soil series
1. Soils which have similar soil profile characteristics and which are derived from similar parent materials are
grouped together in a "soil series". A
soil series is usually named for the lo­
cality where the typical soil was first
recorded. (Marsh 1964)
2. A group of soils having soil horizons similar in differentiating charac­
teristics and arrangement in the soil
profile (except for texture of the sur­
face portion); or, if genetic horizons
Soil Permeability. See Permeability.
Soil phase
A subdivision of a soil taxonomic
unit, usually a soil series or other unit
of classification based on character­
istics that affect the use and manage­
ment of the soil but which do not vary
sufficiently to differentiate it as a sep­
arate soil series.
For example, a variation in a prop­
erty or characteristic, such as degree of
201
Soil type
1. A subdivision of a soil series
based on surface soil texture. At the
present time in the United States a soil
type is considered as a kind of soil
phase and is not part of the soil classi­
fication system presently being used.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
2. In Europe, a class roughly equiv­
alent to a Great soil group. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
are thin or absent, a group of soils
that, within defined depth limits, is
uniform in all soil characteristics diag­
nostic for that series. (Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
Soil subgroup
Soil great groups are subdivided
into subgroups that (1) show the cen­
tral properties of the great group or
(2) intergrade subgroups that show
properties of more than one great
group or (3) other subgroups for soils
with atypical properties that are not
characteristic of any great group. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Soil variant
A kind of soil whose properties are
believed to be sufficiently different
from recognized soil series to justify
a new series name but comprising such
a limited geographic area that creation
of a new series is not justified. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Soil survey
A general term for the systematic
examination of soils in the field and in
laboratories; their description and clas­
sification; the mapping of kinds of
soil; the interpretation of soils accord­
ing to their adaptability for various
crops, grasses, and trees; their behavior
under use or treatment for plant pro­
duction or for other purposes; and
their productivity under different
management systems. (Soil Conserv.
Soc. Amer. 1970)
The U.S. Forest Service now uses
the term "soil resource inventory"
rather than "soil survey". (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2250.3, Aug. 1974)
Soil zone. See Soil horizon.
Solitude
1. An experience where man may
commune with his surroundings in a
natural setting generally undisturbed
by the sound or sight of technology.
(U.S. Forest Serv. Region 9, 1975)
2. The quality or state of being
alone or remote from society. (Webster 1963)
Solum
1. The upper part of a soil profile,
above the parent material, in which
the processes of soil formation are ac­
tive. The solum in mature soils in­
cludes the A and B soil horizon. Usual­
ly the characteristics of the material in
these horizons are quite unlike those
of the underlying parent material. The
living roots and other plants and ani­
mal life characteristic of the soil are
largely confined to the solum. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
2. In the agriculturally oriented
usage of the term soil, the "solum" is
the soil.
Soil taxon. See Soil taxonomic unit.
Soil taxonomic unit (Soil taxon)
A unit comprising all soils that fall
within the defined limits of a class at
any categoric level in a system of soil
classification.
Commonly used as a member of the
lowest class in the present classifica­
tion scheme and in that use is equiva­
lent to soil series. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Soil texture
The relative proportions of the three
individual particle size classes
(i.e., sand, silt and clay) in a soil. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Special cutting
U.S. Forest Service usage. The term
usually applies to logging activities in
202
special areas, such as recreation areas
and administrative sites, where other
uses or other values override timber
production values. (U.S. Forest Serv,,
FSM 2471.43, June 1973)
Such areas are classified or formally
designated by the Congress, Secretary
of Agriculture, Chief of the Forest Ser­
vice, or Regional Foresters. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8223.3, Dec., 1974)
Special exception (Exception)
An exception (or special exception)
is the granting of a permit for a use
which is a deviation from standard
zoning practice, but it is anticipated
within the zoning ordinance and provisions for "exceptions" are made
within the text. A private school, for
instance, would not ordinarily be per­
mitted in an area zoned exclusively
residential; yet, since this might be a
perfectly desirable and acceptable
place for a school, allowance for the
exception, subject to close scrutiny by
the zoners, will be pre-established on
the books. (Abrams 1971)
Species biomass. See Biomass, definition
2.
Species diversity (Biologic diversity)
The number of different species oc­
curring in some location or under
some condition–such as water pollu­
tion.
Of the total number of species in a
biotic community only a few are usu­
ally abundant while most are relatively
uncommon. Because the large number
of uncommon, relatively unimportant
species largely determine the amount
of "species diversity", this property is
often expressed as a species diversity
index which is calculated so as to bet­
ter reflect the importance of those few
species whose numbers, biomass, pro­
ductivity, etc., so greatly dominate
these attributes of the entire biological
community. (Odum 1971)
Species diversity tends to be low in
physically controlled ecosystems (i.e.,
subjected to strong physiochemical
limiting factors) and high in biologically controlled ecosystems. Diversity
tends to be high in older communities
and low in newly established ones.
(Odum 1971)
Diversity is directly correlated with
ecologic stability, but it is not certain
to what extent this relationship is a
cause-and-effect one. (Odum 1971)
Special interest area
U.S. Forest Service usage. Areas
managed to make recreation opportu­
nities available for the understanding
of the earth and its geological, histori­
cal, archaeological, botanical, and
memorial features. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
1971)
For specific types of such areas see
Archaeological area, Botanical area,
Geological area, Historical area, Paleontological area, Scenic area, and Zoological area.
Special interest group
Any group (whether formally or­
ganized or not) with a specialized set
of shared preferences about how resource use should be allocated.
(C.F.S.)
Also see Pressure group.
Species diversity index (Diversity index)
The ratio between the total number
of species in a biotic community and
some rating of the relative importance
(numbers, biomass, productivity, etc.)
of individual species.
"Diversity indices" provide one of
the best ways to detect and evaluate
pollution. (Odum 1971)
Special management zone
U.S. Forest Service usage. Areas of
unusual public interest or other signifi­
cance. Examples are: wilderness, prim­
itive areas, experimental forests, natu­
ral areas, scenic areas, and historical,
geological, or archeological areas.
Species, edge
Species
203
which
occur
primarily,
serious disturbance; (D) its survival is
threatened by the unwanted introduc­
tion of other species through preda­
tion, competition, or disease; or
(E) environmental pollution threatens
its survival.
Rare and endangered species are
listed in the "Red Data Book" pub­
lished by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources and in "Rare and Endan­
gered Fish and Wildlife of the United
States" compiled by the Bureau of
Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S. De­
partment of the Interior. (Calif State
Dep. of Fish and Game 1974)
4. Those species in danger of ex­
tinction throughout all or a significant
portion of their ranges.
Species or subspecies from very
limited areas, e.g., the type localities
only, or from restricted fragile habitats
usually are considered "endangered".
(Smithsonian Inst. 1975)
Also see Species, rare and Species,
threatened.
most abundantly or most of the time
in the transition zones between two or
more biotic communities–i.e., in the
ecotone. (Odum 1959)
Species, endangered
1. An endangered species, or subspecies, of animal or plant is one
whose prospects of survival and repro­
duction are in immediate jeopardy.
Its peril may result from one or
many causes–loss of habitat or change
in habitat, overexploitation, predation,
competition, disease or even unknown
reasons. An endangered species must
have help, or extinction may follow. It
must be designated in the Federal Reg­
ister by the appropriate Secretary as
an "endangered species." (After U.S.
Forest Serv., FSM 2605, Sept., 1974)
Species which are likely to become
"endangered species" within the foreseeable future throughout all or a sig­
nificant portion of their range are des­
ignated as threatened species in the
Federal Register by appropriate De­
partment
Secretaries.
(Endangered
Species Act of 1973)
2. Any species which is in danger
of extinction throughout all or a sig­
nificant portion of its range–other
than members of the class Insecta
which have been determined by the
Secretary to constitute a pest whose
protection under the provisions of this
Act would present an overwhelming
and overriding risk to man. (Endangered Species Act of 1973)
3. Animals are declared "endan­
gered" by the California Fish and
Game Commission because their con­
tinued existence is threatened by one
or more conditions. If any of the fol­
lowing conditions are true, the species
(or subspecies) under consideration is
declared "endangered": (A) the mor­
tality rate consistently exceeds the
birth rate; (B) it is incapable of adapt­
ing to environmental change; (C) its
habitat is threatened by destruction or
Species, endemic
A species whose natural occurrence
is confined to a certain region and
whose distribution is relatively limited.
(Hanson 1962)
Species, exotic
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Any
species of wildlife not native to the
continental United States. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2605, Sept., 1974)
2. Any species that is not native in
the area where it occurs. (Hanson
1962)
Species, feral
1. Non-native species, or their
progeny, which were once domesti­
cated but have since escaped from cap­
tivity and are now living as wild animals–such as wild horses, burros,
hogs, cats and dogs. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2605, Sept., 1974)
2. An organism (and its offspring)
that has escaped from cultivation or
204
presence is essential to the integrity
and stability of a particular ecosystem.
(Estes and Palmisano 1974)
Keystone species may be unimpor­
tant as energy transformers in a biotic
community (i.e., they may be neither
very abundant nor consume large por­
tions of the biotic productivity of a
community). However slight variations
in keystone species' abundance results
in large changes in the abundance of
other species and/or in biotic com­
munity relationships and structure.
(After Paine 1969)
domestication and has reverted to a
wild state. (Hanson 1962)
Feral is seldom used when referring
to escaped plants. Escaped non-native
plants are usually referred to as exotics, while escaped non-native animals
are commonly referred to as either
feral or exotic species. (C.F.S.)
Also see Species, exotic, Species,
naturalized; contrast with Species, resident, Native organism, and Endemic
organism.
Species, game
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Any
species of wildlife for which seasons
and bag limits have been prescribed,
and which are normally restricted to
possession by sportspersons under
state laws and regulations. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2605, Sept., 1974)
2. Animals considered worthy of
pursuit by sportspersons, especially
wild animals hunted for sport or food.
(Webster 1963)
Species, local
A species with a relatively small
range but which is sufficiently com­
mon not to be called rare. (Little
1975)
Species, native
Animals or plants which originated
in the area in which they are found,
(i.e., were not introduced and natu­
rally occur in that area). (Henderson,
Henderson and Kenneth 1963)
Also see Endemic organism and
contrast with Species, resident;
Species, naturalized; Species, exotic;
and Species, feral.
Species, indigenous
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Any
species of wildlife native to a given
land or water area by natural occur­
rence.
For planning purposes, indigenous
species will include introduced or
exotic species which have established a
niche in the area's ecology and are
compatible with national forest man­
agement objectives. Hungarian and
chukar partridges are examples. (U.S.
Forest Serv., FSM 2605, Sept. 1974)
2. An organism (plant or animal)
that is native, not introduced, in an
area. (Hanson 1962)
Species, naturalized
A (non-native) species established
as if it were a native species–for exam­
ple the annual grasses of California's
central valley and foothills. (E.M.G.)
Also see Species, exotic; Species,
feral; contrast with Endemic organism
and Native organism.
Species, peripheral (Boundary species)
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. A
peripheral species, or subspecies, is one
whose occurrence in the United States
is at the edge of its natural range, and
which is rare or endangered within the
United States, although not in its
range as a whole. Special attention is
necessary to ensure retention in the
nation's fauna. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2605, Sept. 1974)
Species, introduced. See Species, exotic.
Species, keystone
A species which plays an important
ecological role in determining the overall structure and dynamic relationships
within a biotic community.
An
evolutionary,
component
species of a biotic community whose
205
incapable of adapting to different envi­
ronmental conditions; (B) although
found in other parts of the world, it is
nowhere abundant; (C) it is so limited
that any appreciable reduction in
range, numbers, or habitat would
cause it to become endangered; or
(D) if current management and protec­
tion programs were diminished in any
degree, it would become endangered.
Rare and endangered species are
listed in the "Red Data Book" pub­
lished by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources and in "Rare and Endan­
gered Fish and Wildlife of the United
States" compiled by the Bureau of the
Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S. De­
partment of the Interior. (Calif. State
Dep. of Fish and Game 1974)
Also see Species, threatened and
Species, endangered.
2. A species which reaches the
limit of its natural range a short dis­
tance into a country (especially the
U.S.) or some other boundary of sig­
nificance to making planning area eval­
uations. (After Little 1975)
Species, rare
1. A rare species, or subspecies, is
one that, although not presently
threatened with extinction, is in such
small numbers, throughout its range,
that it may be endangered if its envi­
ronment worsens. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2606.11, Aug. 1973)
2. Species which occur in widely
separated, small sub-populations, so
that inbreeding between sub-popula­
tions is seriously reduced or is re­
stricted to single populations. (Drury
1974)
3. A species which lacks the ability
to displace other species in competi­
tion, to increase its population or to
expand its range. (Drury 1974)
4. Classes of rare species according
to geographical distribution:
Species occurring as a very few in­
dividuals or small groups at widely
scattered localities over a large geo­
graphic area of what appears to be
suitable habitat.
Species found in very small num­
bers widely dispersed in each commu­
nity where they grow, but which occur
in many suitable areas over their geo­
graphic range.
Species with a range restricted to so
few localities that they are considered
rare even though they occur in large
numbers at each locality. (Drury 1974)
5. Animals are declared "rare" by
the California Fish and Game Commis­
sion because their continued existence
is threatened by one or more condi­
tions. If any of the following condi­
tions are true, the species (or subspe­
cies) under consideration is declared
rare: (A) it is confined to a relatively
small and specialized habitat, and it is
Species, recently extinct or possibly extinct
Those species no longer known to
exist after repeated search of the type
localities and other known or likely
places.
Some species may be extinct in the
wild but are being preserved by culti­
vation in gardens or as domesticated
animals. (After Smithsonian 1975)
Species, resident
Species common to an area without
distinction as to being native (i.e., native organism or endemic organism) or
introduced (i.e., exotic species, naturalized species or feral species). (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Species, status undetermined
U.S. Forest Service usage. A spe­
cies, or subspecies, that has been sug­
gested as possibly being endangered
but about which there is not enough
information to determine its true sta­
tus. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2605,
Sept. 1974)
206
Species, threatened
1. Any species which is likely to
become an endangered species within
the foreseeable future throughout all
or a significant portion of its range and
which has been designated in the Fed­
eral Register by the Secretary of Inter­
ior as a threatened species. (Endangered Species Act of 1973)
This includes species categorized as
rare, very rare, or depleted. (Smithsonian Inst. 1975)
composition (species), age arrange­
ment, and condition as to be distin­
guishable from the forest or other
growth on adjoining areas. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471.4, May, 1972)
3. A stand need not be limited to
trees. Any group of plants satisfying
the definition of a plant community
may be so termed–a mat of lichens on
a rock, covering only a few square
inches, an algal mat on a pond, or a
forest of fairly homogeneous composi­
tion extending over a thousand acres
or more. (Oosting 1956)
Also see Species, endangered and
Species, rare.
Species, unique
U.S. Forest Service usage. Species
which are not endangered, but have
considerable scientific, local, or na­
tional interest. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
2605, Sept. 1974)
Standard
1. A statement which describes a
condition when a job is done properly.
Standards show how well something
should be done, rather than what
should be done. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1971)
2. Regulatory and pollution stan­
dard usage. A plan that is established
by governmental authority as a program for prevention and abatement of
resource degradation.
The terms "standards" and objectives can be used interchangeably.
(After U.S. Fed. Water Pollut. Control
Adm. 1968)
Any definite rule, principle or mea­
sure established by authority. (After
Mc Kee and Wolf 1963)
An authoritative origin does not
necessarily mean that a "standard" is
fair, equitable, or based on sound sci­
entific knowledge, (e.g., of the func­
tional cause-effect relationship between specific pollutant concentra­
tions and the resulting levels of damage) for it may have been established
somewhat arbitrarily on the basis of
inadequate technical data tempered by
a cautious factor of safety. (After
Mc Kee and Wolf 1963)
Also see regulatory and pollution
criteria under Criteria.
Splash erosion. See Erosion, splash.
Spoil bank (Spoil heap, Spoil pile)
The place on the surface where any
dirt or rock which has been removed
from its original location by mining
operations accumulates or is piled
up–especially the waste deposits from
surface mining. (After Thrush 1968)
Spoils. See Mining spoils.
Spot grazing
Repeated grazing of small areas
while adjacent areas are lightly grazed
or unused. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Spot zoning. See Zoning, spot.
Stability. For biologic and ecologic usage
of this term, see Ecologic stability.
Stand (Concrete community, Individual
association)
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. A
growth of trees on a minimum of 1
acre of forest land that is at least 10
percent stocked by forest trees of any
size. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. A stand is an aggregation of
trees or other growth occupying a spe­
cific area and sufficiently uniform in
Standard metropolitan statistical area
(SMSA)
207
2, for a comparison with similar log­
ging approaches.
U.S. Bureau of the Census usage. As
defined by the Bureau of the Census in
1960, a county or group of contiguous
counties that contains at least one city
of 50,000 inhabitants or more (or
"twin cities" with a combined popula­
tion of at least 50,000); also, contigu­
ous counties essentially metropolitan
in character and socially and econom­
ically integrated with the central city.
In New England, the SMSA is defined
on a town rather than county basis.
(Abrams 1971)
The SMSA is of importance to plan­
ners since much of the information
collected in the census and useful for
research or analysis is organized on a
SMSA basis. (E.C.T.)
For the SMSA's relationship to an
"urbanized area" see Urbanized area.
For SMSA's relationship to "state
economic area", see State economic
area, definition 2.
Standing crop (Standing biomass, Standing crop biomass, Standing stock)
1. The total amount of the biomass
of organisms of one or more species
within an area. (Hanson 1962)
2. The total number or the total
weight of one or more species of ani­
mals in an area at a given time. (FordRobertson 1971)
3. Note that the emphasis in the
term biomass is on weight per unit
area; in "standing crop" it is on the
summation of all those weights per
unit area over some spatial extent of
concern.
Stand tending. See Intermediate cutting.
State economic area
1. U.S. Bureau of the Census usage.
Single counties or groups of counties
which have similar economic and so­
cial characteristics. The boundaries of
these areas have been drawn in such a
way that each state is subdivided into
relatively few parts, with each part
having certain significant character­
istics which distinguish it from adjoin­
ing areas.
In the 1970 U.S. Census there were
510 "state economic areas." (U.S. Bur.
Census 1971)
2. Relation to standard metropolitan statistical areas. The combination
of counties into state economic areas
has been made for the entire country,
and in this process the larger standard
metropolitan statistical areas (those in
1960 with a central city of 50,000 or
more and a total population of
100,000 or more) were recognized as
"metropolitan state economic areas".
When a standard metropolitan statisti­
cal area was located in two or more
states or economic subregions, each
state part and each part in an econom­
ic subregion became a separate metro­
politan state economic area. In New
Standard of living
Standards of living constitute an or­
ganic whole, touching every phase of
the life of the individual, the family,
or the group. They concern the kind
and quantity of food consumed, the
sort of house lived in, clothing worn,
etc., as well as the various cultural ele­
ments of existence, such as education,
recreation, participation in church and
civic organizations, and numerous
other activities. (Soil Conserv. Soc.
Amer. 1970)
Also see Quality of life.
Stand cutting
U.S. Forest Service usage. A clearcutting system variation in which the
logging operation removes all mer­
chantable timber from areas that are
large enough to be practical for future
management as uniform even-aged
stands.
The minimum size will be 100 acres
and the maximum size, 500 acres. (After U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471 R-3)
Also see Group cutting, definition
208
trees as compared to the desirable
number for best results–e.g., maximum productivity of wood. (After
Ford-Robertson 1971)
England this correspondence of "me­
tropolitan state economic areas" and
"standard
metropolitan
statistical
areas" did not exist because state eco­
nomic areas are composed of whole
counties, whereas standard metropoli­
tan statistical areas are built up from
towns. Here a county with more than
half its population in one or more
"standard
metropolitan
statistical
areas" was classified as a metropolitan
"state economic area" if the county or
a combination of counties containing
the standard metropolitan statistical
area or areas had 100,000 inhabitants
or more. (U.S. Bur. Census 1971)
Stocking plan
The number and kind of livestock
assigned to one or more given management areas or management units for a
specified period. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Stocking, proper
Range management usage. Placing a
number of animals on a given area that
will result in proper use at the end of
the planned grazing period.
Continued proper stocking will lead
to proper grazing. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Station point
1. The location from which something is viewed. (After Litton 1968)
2. The location of the viewer as
that person looks upon a visual objec­
tive, particularly with regard to being
below, at the same level as, or above
the visual objective. (Litton 1968)
Stocking rate (Grazing rate)
Range management usage. The ac­
tual number of animals, expressed in
either animal units or animal unit
months, on a specific area at a specific
time. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Status, social. See Social status.
Status undetermined species. See Species,
status undetermined.
Stock resource. See Nonrenewable resource.
Steno- organism
A prefix denoting an organism
which can only tolerate a narrow range
of changes of one or more of its envi­
ronmental conditions. For example,
stenothermal refers to organisms
which can not tolerate much change in
temperature. (Hanson 1962)
Also see Eury- organism for organisms that can tolerate large changes.
Storie index
A numerical expression of the de­
gree to which a particular soil presents
conditions favorable for plant growth
and crop production under favorable
climate and adequate moisture condi­
tions.
Four general factors are considered:
(1) the character of the soil profile;
(2) soil texture; (3) slope of the land
and; (4) other modifying factors such
as drainage, salinity, alkalinity, soil
acidity, erosion conditions, fertility
level and microrelief. Each of these
four factors is evaluated on the basis
of 100 percent for the most favorable
or ideal conditions, with limiting maximum and minimum ratings ascribed to
conditions that are less favorable for
plant growth. (Storie 1964)
Stochastic model. See Model, probabilistic.
Stochastic process
Any process whose development in
time is governed by chance or proba­
bilistic considerations. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1972B)
Stocking level
In a forest, a more or less subjective
indication of the number of existing
209
through a stand and are usually of a
width equal to one or two times the
general stand height. (After U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471 R -3)
Also see group cutting, definition 2,
for a comparison with similar logging
practices.
Strategic planning
The study of objectives and analysis
of alternative ways to achieve objec­
tives in terms of their relative costs
and accomplishments. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1972B)
Strategy
1. A consideration of alternative
means to reach an objective. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1971)
2. A carefully thought out plan or
method for achieving a goal or objec­
tive. (After Webster 1963)
Strip mining. See Mining, strip.
Strip pit
1. A coal or other mine worked by
stripping away the surface soil and
rock above a mineral deposit. (Thrush
1968)
2. An open-pit mine. (Thrush
1968)
3. That part of a strip mining oper­
ation from which minerals are being or
have been removed from their natural
state. (Grim and Hill 1974)
Stratification (Land stratification)
1. This term commonly infers both
mapping and classification.
For example, the "soils are strati­
fied"; meaning they have been map­
ped, examined, grouped, and deline­
ated to a given classification key or
base. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. A land use planning concept
which was probably borrowed from
the statistical technique of "stratified
sampling" which subdivides a study
area into units which are, more or less,
internally homogeneous with respect
to the (those) character(s) of interest.
Subsequently, sampling data is taken
to characterize each unit. This strategy
provides maximum information for an
economy of sampling effort.
Land use planning has adopted the
concept in the sense that a planning
unit can theoretically be classified into
homogeneous response units about
which useful generalizations can be
made without having to make site specific studies. (C.F.S.)
Stumpage value
The value of timber as it stands un­
cut in terms of an amount per cubic
unit. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Subclimax
A stage in succession short of the
climax community in which further
development is inhibited by the influ­
ence of some factors other than cli­
matic factors. (After Hanson 1962)
Subculture (Group culture)
Refers to the more or less different
folkways and mores developed by each
group within a society. Groups with
common play, age, vocational, sexual,
habitational, or other interests evolve
behavior patterns that differ from
those of other groups and from soci­
ety's conventions. (O'Connell 1974)
Stream load
The quantity of solid and dissolved
material carried by a stream. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Subdivision (Land subdivision)
1. The process of dividing a given
area of undeveloped land into individ­
ual home sites and/or blocks of lots
with streets or roads and open spaces.
(After Abrams 1971)
2. Also an area which has been so
divided. (Abrams 1971)
3. A tract of land surveyed and di-
Strip cutting
U.S. Forest Service usage. A clear
cutting system variation in which the
logging operation removes all mer­
chantable timber from areas that run
210
vided into lots for purposes of sale.
(Webster 1963)
Succession (Ecologic succession, Ecosystem development)
1. It is an orderly process of biotic
community development that involves
changes in species, structure and com­
munity processes with time; it is rea­
sonably directional and, therefore, pre­
dictable.
It results from modification of the
physical environment by the com­
munity: that is, "succession" is com­
munity-controlled even though the
physical environment determines the
pattern, the rate of change, and often
sets limits as to how far development
can go.
It culminates in a stabilized ecosys­
tem in which maximum biomass and
symbiotic function between organisms
are maintained per unit of available
energy flow.
The whole sequence of communi­
ties that replaces one another in a
given area is called the sere; the rela­
tively transitory communities are vari­
ously called "seral stages" or "developmental stages" or "pioneer stages",
while the terminal stabilized system is
known as the climax.
Species replacement in the sere oc­
curs because populations tend to mod­
ify the physical environment, making
conditions favorable for other popula­
tions until an equilibrium between
biotic and abiotic is achieved. (Odum
1971)
A "sere" whose first stage is open
water is termed a "hydrosere", one
whose first stage is dry ground, a
"xerosere". Succession is "primary"
on sites that have not previously borne
vegetation, "secondary" after the
whole or part of the original vegeta­
tion has been supplanted, "allogenic"
when the causes of succession are ex­
ternal to and independent of the com­
munity (e.g., accretion of soil by wind
or water, or a change of climate) and
"autogenic" when the developing vege­
tation is itself the cause. (Ford-
Submarginal land
Land which is economically incapa­
ble of sustaining indefinitely a certain
use or ownership status. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Suboptimization
1. The selection of the best alterna­
tive course of action which pertains to
a subproblem, that is, to only part of
the overall problem or objective.
Suboptimization is usually neces­
sary because alternatives at all the vari­
ous levels of decision making cannot,
as a practical matter, be analyzed si­
multaneously before decisions are
made at any level. (U.S. Gen. Account.
Off. 1969)
2. Any intermediate stage in a
long-run goal attainment program.
(U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969)
Subsidence
A downward movement of the
ground surface caused by solution and
collapse of underlying soluble deposits, rearrangement of particles upon
removal of underground mineral deposits, or reduction of fluid pressures
within an aquifer or petroleum reser­
voir. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Subsoil
The B soil horizon of soils with dis­
tinct soil profiles. In soils with weak
profile development, the subsoil can
be defined as the soil below the soil in
which roots normally grow (i.e., below
the plowed soil or its equivalent of sur­
face soil).
Although a common term, it cannot be defined accurately. It has been
carried over from early days when
"soil" was conceived only as the
plowed soil and that under it as the
"subsoil". (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Subsurface rights. See Mineral rights.
211
Robertson 1971)
2. The process of replacement of
one plant community by another until
the climax community is reached.
(Durrenberger 1973)
and level of future, alternative site or
resource management inputs.
G. Angus Hills was probably the first
prominent
wildland
planner
to
recognize the importance of retaining
the distinction between these and
other types of evaluations in a process
for land use planning. Hills used the
terms use capability to refer to evalua­
tions based on a resource's inherent or
present condition abilities, use suitability for evaluations based on poten­
tial management inputs, and use feasibility to refer to usability potential
ratings based on an evaluation of offsite factors–such as accessibility, pres­
ent and forecasted socioeconomic
conditions, technological develop­
ments, etc. (Belknap and Furtado
1967; Hills, Love and Lacate 1970)
Perhaps even earlier than Hills, the
U.S. Soil Conservation Service began
widespread use of its Land Capability
Classification System (Wohletz and
Dolder 1952) which also uses "capabil­
ity" evaluation in the sense of an in­
herent ability rating.
To avoid confusion in the future we
recommend that the Hills and Soil
Conservation Service usages be recog­
nized as having established the prece­
dent for the proper usage of these
terms, Thus "capability" should be,
used when referring to evaluations for
usability based on the present state of
the resource and "suitability" should
only be used for evaluations based on
assumptions about potential usability
or productivity if specified manage­
ment alterations were to be made–
such as drainage improvements, added
irrigation and/or fertilization, etc.
Better yet, both terms should be ac­
companied by modifiers which make it
absolutely clear just what type of an
evaluation procedure is implied by the
rating given. Thus the word capability
should always be presented as "inher­
ent capability", "intrinsic capability",
or "natural capability". Similarly
Succession, primary (Prisere)
1. Successions beginning from new­
ly formed soils or upon surfaces exposed for the first time (as by landslides) which have as a consequence
never borne vegetation before. (Carpenter 1938, citing Clements 1905)
2. Any succession beginning on a
bare area, such as a lava flow, not pre­
viously occupied by plants or animals.
(Hanson 1962)
Also see Succession, secondary.
Succession, secondary
1. Any succession caused by man
or human agency. (Carpenter 1938)
Successions on denuded soils. (Carpenter 1938, citing Clements 1905)
2. The kind of succession which
takes place following the destruction
of part or all of the vegetation in an
area, usually caused directly or indi­
rectly by man. (Hanson 1962)
Suitability
1. In land use planning literature
the widely used terms "suitability"
and "capability" (whether alone or ac­
companied by various modifiers) are
often used interchangeably to refer to
ratings based on two basically differ­
ent evaluation procedures. One basic
type of evaluation procedure is the rat­
ing of use or productivity potentials
based on the present state of the resource. This type of rating therefore is
an evaluation based on the resource's
inherent, natural or intrinsic ability to
provide for use and includes that exist­
ing ability which is the result of past
alterations or current management
practices. A second basic type of eval­
uation procedure rates the potential
ability of a resource to produce goods
or services on the basis of the maximum possible outputs for a given type
212
Surface erosion. See Erosion, surface.
"suitability" could be referred to as
"managed suitability". (C.F.S.)
2. Range management usage. The
adaptability of an area to grazing by
livestock or game or the adaptability
of a particular plant or animal species
to a given area. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Surface mining. See Mining, surface.
Surface restoration. See Reclamation.
Surface rights
1. The ownership of the surface of
the land only, where the mineral rights
have been separately reserved. (Thrush
1968)
2. Those ownership rights reserved
to the owner of the land beneath or
from which ore is being mined.
(Thrush 1968)
3. The right of a mineral owner to
use so much of the surface of the land
as may be reasonably necessary for the
conduct of mining operations. (Thrush
1968)
Suitability, inherent. See Capability.
Suitability, intrinsic
Ian Mc Harg's usage. Locations
within a planning area displaying the
maximum coincidence of favorable
natural environmental factors relevant
to the location of a prospective land
use and the fewest constraints on that
use. (Wallace, Mc Harg, Roberts and
Todd 1972)
Also see Capability.
Surface soil (Topsoil)
The uppermost part of the soil ordinarily moved in tillage (or its equivalent in uncultivated soils) ranging in
depth from 5 to 8 inches.
Frequently designated as the "plow
layer," the AP layer, or the AP soil
horizon. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Suitability, managed. See Suitability.
Suitable range. See Range, suitable.
Supplement
1. Something that makes an addition; something that completes, adds a
finishing touch, or brings closer to
completion or a desired state. (Webster
1963)
2. The relationship between complements and supplements to plans is
that complements can be viewed as
being mutual supplements while supplements do not gain anything unto
themselves by their addition to a plan.
(C. F. S. )
Also see Complement.
Surface storage
The sum of detention storage and
channel storage, representing, at any
given moment, the total water enroute
to an outlet from an area or watershed. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Surface water
Water which remains on top of the
land, such as a river or lake. (E.C.T.)
Supply. See Supply schedule.
Supply schedule (Supply)
The amount of a good or service
that will be offered for sale over a
given range of prices at a particular
point in time. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
The U.S. General Accounting Office titles of output that will be offered for sale or use during a planning
period at specified output prices or
price assumptions. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
Suspended load
1. The smaller sediment particles
that are lifted far from the bottom for
long periods by running water and are
distributed through the whole body of
the current. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
2. The quantity of suspended sediment actually transported by a current. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Suspended sediment
Sediment which remains suspended
213
debris, sweet.
in the water for a considerable period
of time without coming in contact
with the bottom. (Amer. Geol. Inst.
1962)
Synergism
The combined action of two or
more agents that is greater than the
sum of the actions of each of the
agents used alone. (Webster 1963)
See Antagonism for combined actions which are less than a simple summation of individual actions.
Suspended solids
The small, solid particles in water
or sewage that cause a cloudy condition in water. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
Sustained
yield.
production.
See
Sustained
System
1. An organized collection of parts
united by regulated interaction. (U.S.
Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. A group of components which
are interrelated to each other in such a
way that changes in one component
can affect some, or all of the other
components. (Williams 1971)
Sustained yield (Sustained production)
1. The achievement and maintenance in perpetuity of a high-level
annual or regular periodic output of
the
various
renewable
resources . . . . without impairment of
the productivity of the land. (After
Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act)
2. The yield that a forest can produce continuously at a given intensity
of management.
Sustained-yield management, therefore, implies continuous production so
planned as to achieve at the earliest
practical time a balance between increment and cutting. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
3. The yield that a renewable resource can produce continuously at a
given intensity of management. (After
Ford-Robertson 1971)
System planning. See Functional planning.
Systems analysis
An integrated, step by step approach for helping a decision maker
choose a course of action by investigating his full problem, searching out
objectives and alternatives, and comparing them in the light of their consequences, using an appropriate framework (in so far as possible analytic and
quantitative) to bring expert judgement and intuition to bear on the
problem. (Quade and Boucher 1968)
Sweet spoils. For mining usage see Mining
T
Tailings. See Mine tailings.
O. Rr. vs. Chicago, 166 U.S. 226
(1897) ), it has long been established
that state regulation based on the police power may substantially diminish
the economic value of private property
without giving rise to an obligation to
compensate the owner. See e.g., Mugler vs. Kansas, 123 U.S. 623 (1887);
Euclid vs. Ambler Realty Co., 272 U.S.
365 (1926). There is a very hazy
boundary between "taking" (compensation required) and "police power"
regulation (compensation not re-
Taking
1. A violation of the U.S. Constitutional provision "... nor shall private
property be taken for public use without just compensation . . . " by a system of land use regulation. (After Bosselman, et al. 1973)
Although the Fifth Amendment's
prohibition of "takings" of property
without "just compensation" applied
to the states by virtue of the Fourteenth Amendment (Chicago, B. and
214
reached within a stated time period.
Results must be measured in terms of
some specific indicators, may include
standards, and must be relatable to
some criteria for how well they were
achieved. Often one or more separate
targets are used to make an objective
explicit and to achieve its desired state
or purpose. (U.S.D.A. Off. Manage.
and Finance 1974)
quired). The Supreme Court itself has
acknowledged that "there is no set formula to determine where regulation
ends and taking begins" (Goldblatt vs.
Hempstead, 369 U.S. 590, 594
(1962) ). In the language of the decided cases, the phrase "police power"
normally connotes that the action in
question is being taken without compensation to the property owner. By
contrast, where compensation for a
"taking" is contemplated, the cases
speak of "eminent domain" or "expropriation" powers.
Most of the Supreme Court cases in
this area have involved zoning laws or
other governmental action largely unrelated to environmental concerns.
See, e.g., United States vs. Causby,
328 U.S. 256 (1946). However, in recent years, several state court decisions
have invalidated, under the Federal or
state constitutions, state or local police power (no compensation) initiatives designed primarily to preserve the
natural environment. See, e.g., Bartlett
vs. Zoning Commission, 232 A. 2D
907 (Conn. 1971); Maine vs. Johnson,
265 A. 2D 711 (ME 1970); Dooley vs.
Town Plan and Zoning Commission,
197 A. 2D 770 (Conn. 1964). (From
U.S. Dep. Justice comments in U.S.
Congr., Senate Com. Inter. Insular Aff.
1973)
2. An issue in planning centering
around the right of the government to
control private use of private land, in
effect taking away property rights for
the common good. It involves purchasing lands through eminent domain
for special purposes, compensation for
decreased property values due to regulation, and the rights of private ownership versus public needs. (E. C. T.)
Also see Eminent domain, Just
compensation, Police power, and Development rights, acquisition of.
Taxonomy
1. The science of classification of
organisms; the arrangement of organisms into systematic groups such as
species, genus, family, and order.
(D.E.H. and B. W.)
2. "Taxonomy" is a term closely
related to classification but it embodies a broader concept.
Taxonomy is the science of how to
classify and identify.
It is the theoretical study of classification including its bases, principles,
procedures, and rules.
Taxonomy includes classification as
well as identification. (Sokal 1974)
Technological assessment (Technological
forecasting)
The attempt to estimate or predict
the completely new technological developments which will occur in the
future; and, to evaluate the extent to
which such likely, future new abilities
will be able to solve (or at least acceptably minimize) current land use problems, or problems which are expected
to be associated with particular land
uses in future times. (C.F.S.)
Technological change
1. The increase of our ability to
solve problems or increase efficiency
by technical means with time. (C.F.S.)
2. The increase with the passage of
time of the availability of alternative
or completely new technical methods
for solving problems associated with
land uses because of the inevitable evolution and development of new ideas.
Thus, for those land use problems
Target
A clear and concise statement used
to express planned results to be
215
juncts of the transportation network
and serve as a transfer interface between the transportation network and
resources served or between different
transportation modes. Typical terminal facilities are vehicle parking areas,
boat ramps and docks, trail heads, log
landings and dumps, and air fields and
heliports. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
7705.24)
which are potentially resolvable by
technical means, what may be essentially impossible to do now because of
the lack of available technology most
likely will become possible in some future time period. (C.F.S.)
Technological forecasting. See Technological assessment.
Technological solution
1. The application of the devices or
techniques developed by science for
practical purposes.
A technical method for achieving a
practical purpose. (After Webster
1963)
2. In land use planning this concept is especially used in the context
of the emergence of completely new
technical methods for solving current
or potential problems for which no
"technological solutions" presently
exist. (C.F.S.)
Also see the related terms Technological assessment, Technological
change, Engineering solution.
The distinction between "technical
solutions" and "engineering solutions"
is that the first refers just to the development of new technical means while
the last applies to the application of
any technical means (new or old) to
solving potential problems. (C.F.S.)
Term license. For range management usage see Term permit.
Term permit (Term license)
Range management usage. A document which authorizes grazing on public lands for a stated number of years
as contrasted with an annual or temporary permit. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Temporary permit.
Terrain (Terrane)
1. The physical features of a tract
of land. (Webster 1963)
2. An area of ground considered as
to its extent and natural features in
relation to its use for a particular operation. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
A tract of country considered with
regard to its natural features, configuration, etc.; in military use especially
as affecting its tactical advantages, fitness for maneuvering, etc.; also an extent of ground, region, district, territory. (Stamp 1961)
Temporary license. For range management usage see Temporary permit.
Temporary pasture. See Pasture, supplemental.
Terrain analysis
The process of interpreting a geographical area to determine the effect
of the natural and man-made features
on a particular activity. This interpretation includes the influence of
weather and climate on those features.
(Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
Temporary permit (Temporary license)
Range management usage. A document authorizing grazing a certain
number of livestock on public lands
during an emergency or for a certain
period, terminable at the end of such
period and with no guarantee of
renewal in whole or in part. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Also see Term permit.
Terrain evaluation. See Land evaluation.
Terrain factor
1. Terrain factors consist of land
forms, drainage features, ground, vegetation, etc. and cultural features or
Terminal facilities
Terminal facilities are fixed ad216
tration, and other more complex procedures. (After Wash. State Univ.,
Coop. Ext. Serv. 1972)
Tertiary treatment removes up to
99 percent of the suspended solids and
biological oxygen demand, 95 percent
of the phosphate and 75 percent of
the nitrate from wastewater. (Martin
and Weinberger 1966)
man-made changes in the earth's surface. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962)
2. A specific attribute of the terrain that can be described in quantitative terms. (U.S. Dep. Defense 1968)
Terrain studies
Regional studies usually with an
emphasis on relief and essential physical features–soil, vegetation, and
drainage. (Stamp 1961)
T factor. For soil erosion related usages
see Soil loss tolerance.
Terrane. See Terrain.
Thermal enrichment. See Thermal pollution.
Territoriality
The behavior by which an organism
claims an area and defends it against
members of its own species. (Worthington 1974)
Thermal pollution (Thermal enrichment,
Calefaction)
Altering the amount of energy
available in the environment by the addition of heat or cold. Most frequently
this occurs in the form of the heat added by returning water which has been
used for cooling purposes to a river,
lake, estuary, bay or the ocean. However "thermal pollution" may also occur with the release of large volumes
of the cold, deep water in reservoirs
into warmer bodies of water. (E. C. T.)
Tertiary facility
Transportation planning usage. Tertiary facilities are usually intended to
provide access for a specific resource
utilization activity, such as a timber
sale or recreation site, although other
minor uses may be served. Emphasis is
given to resource service rather than
travel efficiency. Tertiary facilities
may often be developed and operated
for short term or intermittent service.
(U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 7705.43 Aug.
1975)
Also see Primary facility and
Secondary facility.
Thinning
Cutting made in an immature crop
or stand in order primarily to accelerate the diameter increment (annual
growth) of the residual trees but also, by
suitable selection, to improve the
average form of the trees that remain,
without (at least according to classical
concepts) permanently breaking the
canopy. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Tertiary sewage treatment. See Tertiary
wastewater treatment.
Tertiary treatment. See Tertiary wastewater treatment.
Tertiary wastewater treatment (Tertiary
treatment, Tertiary sewage treatment)
Wastewater treatment processes, beyond "primary" and secondary wastewater treatment, which remove or reduce the amount of nitrate and phosphate nutrients still present in their effluents. Tertiary treatment may consist of extensions or modifications of
secondary treatment processes, additional forms of chemical treatment,
electrochemical processing, carbon fil-
Thixotrophy. See Soil liquefaction.
Threatened species. See Species, threatened.
Threshold level
The minimum concentration or
amount of a given substance or condition necessary to produce a measurable physiological or psychological effect. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
217
Timber type. See Cover type, definition
1.
Timber management compartment
U.S. Forest Service usage. A compartment is defined as an organization
unit or small subdivision of forest area
for purposes of orientation, administration, and silvicultural operations,
and defined by permanent boundaries
(either of natural features or artificially marked) which are not necessarily coincident with stand boundaries. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2412.3)
Time zoning. See Zoning, time.
TLm. See Median tolerance limit.
Tolerance
1. The resistance of an organism to
the excess or the deficiency of an element or a condition in its environment–e.g., elm trees are "resistant" to
periodic flooding. (Dansereau 1957)
2. The capacity of an organism or
biological process to subsist under a
given set of environmental conditions,
such as high levels of pollution. (Sesco,
et al. 1973)
For soil erosion related usages see
Soil loss tolerance.
Timber planning
Functional planning for the growth
and harvesting of commercial trees.
(E.C.T.)
Also see Functional planning.
Timber Resource System
U.S. Forest Service usage. The role
of the Timber Resource System is to
grow and make available wood for the
nation on a continuing basis. Thus, the
system includes those activities necessary to (1) protect, improve, grow, and
harvest timber from forest land and
(2) protect, process, and utilize wood
and wood-related products. In addition to wood, the system produces
other goods and services, either by design or incidentally.
One of the six "systems" established by the U.S. Forest Service to
have a systematic, orderly way to view
and evaluate its many diverse but interrelated activities. The Forest Service
has developed this approach to better
respond to the mandates of the Forest
and Rangeland Renewable Resources
Planning Act of 1974. It has grouped
its various programs into these six
"systems," each of which incorporates
all the activities concerned with developing and managing a specific resource. (After U. S. Forest Serv. 1974A)
The six "systems" are: Land and
Water, "Timber Resource", Outdoor
Recreation and Wilderness, Rangeland
Grazing, Wildlife and Fish Habitat, and
Human and Community Development.
Topography
The configuration of a surface including its relief, elevation and the
position of its natural and man-made
features.
The physical or natural features of
an object or entity and their structural
relationships. (Webster 1963)
Topsoil
1. Earthy material used as top-dressing for house lots, grounds for large
buildings, gardens, road cuts, or similar
areas. It has favorable characteristics
for production of desired kinds of
vegetation or can be made favorable.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
2. The surface plow layer of a soil.
Synonymous with surface soil. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
3. The original or present darkcolored upper soil that ranges from a
mere fraction of an inch to two or
three feet thick on different kinds of
soil. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
4. The original or present "A" soil
horizon varying widely among different kinds of soil.
Applied to soils in the field, the
term has no precise meaning unless defined as to depth or productivity in
218
jacent to and serving the planning area.
(After U. S. Forest Serv., FSM
7705.21, Aug. 1975)
relation to a specific kind of soil. (Soil
Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Tractor logging. See Logging, tractor.
Transportation planning
The process by which new transportation facilities (and improvements to
the old facilities) are systematically designed, their adequacy tested, and
their future construction programmed.
Comprehensive transportation planning considers all modes (mass transit,
automobile, air, rail, etc.) of transportation and regards the total as a single
system. Transportation planning is a
type of functional planning. (After
Abrams 1971)
Also see Functional planning.
Trade-offs
The combination of benefits and
costs which are gained and lost in
switching between alternative courses
of action. "Trade-offs" include only
those portions of benefits and costs
which are not common to all alternative courses of action under consideration. (E. C. T.)
Traffic classification. See Traffic composition.
Traffic composition (Traffic classification)
The classification and grouping of
the various sizes and weights of vehicles making up the traffic of a road
such as passenger cars and trucks. This
is frequently called traffic classification. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSH 7709.11,
May 1969)
Transportation services land
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. Land used primarily for highways,
roads, beltways, railroads, utility
rights-of-way, airports, and other
transportation facilities, together with
necessary adjacent facilities such as approaches, underground and surface
utilities, and other servicing structures,
appurtenances, and measures. (U.S.
Soil Conserv. Serv. 1970)
Traffic volume
The number of vehicles traveling in
both directions past a given point during a specified period of time. This is
usually expressed as seasonal average
daily traffic for roads that are open
only part of the year, or annual average daily traffic for roads (highways)
open year round. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSH 7709.11, May 1969)
Travel influence zone
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Areas
comprising existing or anticipated significant public outdoor recreational
occupancy, use, and enjoyment along
existing and planned overland routes
of travel; areas in and around existing
or planned developed recreation sites.
These are areas in which beauty of the
landscape and other aesthetic values
are key management considerations
and are an important part of the outdoor environment. These areas offer
significant opportunities for existing,
planned, or anticipated recreational
use and enjoyment by people visiting
or traveling through the zone.
Includes area immediately adjacent
to and surrounding developed or planned sites where people may stroll.
Trampling
Treading under foot; the damage to
plants or soil brought about by movements or congestion of livestock and/
or people. (After Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Transitory range. See Range, transitory.
Transportation network
U.S. Forest Service usage. The
transportation network includes all
existing and planned roads, trails,
bridges, airfields, and other transport
facilities wholly or partly within or ad219
Comprises areas along existing or planned overland routes of public travel
where the immediate scenic frame or
foreground is subject to close scrutiny.
Other foreground and backdrop areas
should be recognized in zones with appropriate management emphasis on
beauty and other aesthetic values.
Roads, trails, railroads, tramways, and
ski lifts are included as overland travel
routes. This does not include work
roads, trails, and other overland routes
where public travel is only occasional.
Lands which have these characteristics and are also significantly influenced by considerations related to
water will be included in the water influence zone. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
8223.2, Dec. 1974)
2. The area adjacent to selected or
proposed highways, roads and trails
subject to special management measures to maintain or improve the
aesthetic quality for the traveler. (U.S.
Forest Serv. Region 9, 1975)
whose food is obtained from plants by
the same number of feeding steps in a
food chain are said to belong to the
same "trophic level". Thus green
plants occupy the first trophic level,
plant-eaters (i.e., herbivores), the second level, the carnivores (i.e., meat
eaters) which eat the herbivores the
third level, and secondary carnivores
(i.e., carnivores which eat other carnivores) the fourth level. (Odum 1953)
Turbidity
Defined as the capacity of materials
suspended in water to scatter light. It
is measured in arbitrary Jackson turbidity units (JTU). Highly turbid
water is often called "muddy", although all manner of suspended particles contribute to turbidity. (Feth
1973)
Type conversion
The conversion of one type of vegetation cover to another, e.g., the conversion of brush or forest covered
lands to grass as for grazing purposes
or the conversion of a white fir forest
to a ponderosa pine forest. (C.F.S.)
Trophic level
In biotic communities organisms
U
Unacceptable risk. See Risk, unacceptable.
explicitly or implicitly by the selection
of the analysis method, whether or not
the true probability distribution is
known. A probability distribution is
selected for analysis purposes based on
experience, intuitive feelings, knowledge, and the lack of knowledge.
(E.C.T.)
Also see Risk.
Unavailable forage
Forage which cannot be grazed by
livestock. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Uncertainty
1. Decision making in which there
is no objective basis for assigning numerical probability weights to the different possible outcomes or there is no
way to describe the possible outcomes.
(U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)
Under the Bayesian school of
thought the distinction between risk
and "uncertainty" is not useful and in
fact may not exist. In any practical
analysis all uncertain situations are assigned probability distributions, either
Underprivileged groups. See Disadvantaged groups.
Understocking
Range management usage. Placing a
number of animals on a given area that
will result in underutilization of the
available forage by the end of the planned grazing period. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
220
or excellence exists. (After Webster
1963)
3. The ability to produce or replicate facilities producing final consumption goods to gratify given tastes
will lie at the base of the distinction
between "producible" and "irreplaceable" assets. Irreplaceability, of
course, will be a function of the closeness of substitutes in final consumption. With this as a point of departure,
at least three classes of "irreplaceable
assets" can be distinguished. One
would be "gifts of individual genius"
such as the work of Leonardo da Vinci
or Rembrandt. A second might be
called "gifts of collective genius", represented by the cultural antiquities of
Egypt, Greece, and Rome, among
others. Finally, we have the "gifts of
nature", namely the accidents of geomorphology, biological evolution, and
ecological succession.
In the latter we differentiate between natural endowments as factors
of production, or intermediate goods,
that are transformed through some
production technology either into
other goods in process or into final
consumption goods, on the one hand,
and natural endowments that directly
give rise to stimuli eliciting satisfaction
in an ultimate consumption of finalgood sense, on the other. If a natural
resource is used as a good in process,
technology may provide a wide spectrum of substitutes for the particular
input without significantly altering the
final product either in appearance or
performance. (Krutilla, et al. 1972)
Understory
The trees and other woody species
growing under a more or less continuous cover of branches and foliage
formed collectively by the upper portions of adjacent trees and other
woody growth. (After Ford-Robertson
1971)
Undesirable species
Range management usage. Plant
species that are not desirable because
they are unpalatable or low in palatability, injurious to animals, poisonous,
poor stabilizers of soil and water, etc.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Undeveloped land (Raw land)
A term of comparison sometimes
used to contrast land which has been
built upon (i.e., "developed") or subdivided in preparation for development with land on which such activities have not taken place (i.e., raw
land). (C.F.S.)
Uneven-age management (Uneven-age silviculture)
The course of actions involved in
maintaining a forest or stand, composed of intermingling trees that differ
markedly in age. (After Ford-Robertson 1971)
Uneven-age silviculture. See Uneven-age
management.
Uneven-aged stand (All-aged stand)
A forest stand composed of intermingling trees that differ markedly in
age.
By convention, a minimum range of
10 to 20 years is generally accepted,
though with rotations of less than 100
years, 25 percent of the rotation period may be the minimum. (FordRobertson 1971)
Unique species. See Species, unique.
Unit. See Planning unit.
Unit plan
U.S. Forest Service usage. The plan
for a specifically identified planning
unit.
Unique resource (Irreplaceable asset)
1. A resource which is not duplicated anywhere. (After Webster 1963)
2. A resource for which no equal
(although different) resource in kind
Unit planning
The activity of developing a com221
et al. 1972)
Also see Urban land.
prehensive general long-range plan for
a planning unit. (W. W.)
Urban forestry
1. The practice of forestry in an urbanized environment. (Andresen 1974)
2. A specialized branch of forestry
that has as its objective the cultivation
and management of trees in urban
areas and the evaluation of their contribution to the physiological, sociological, psychological (and sometimes
economic) well-being of urban society.
(After Andresen 1974, citing Soc.
Amer. For., Urban For. Work. Group)
Universal soil loss equation. See Soil loss
equation.
Unpalatable species
Range management usage. Species
that are not readily eaten by animals.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Unsuitable range. See Range, unsuitable.
Urban and built-up land and (Urban and
built-up areas)
1. "Urban and built-up areas."
Cities, villages, and built-up areas of
more than 10 acres; industrial sites
(except strip mines, borrow and gravel
pits); railroad yards; cemeteries; airports; golf courses; shooting ranges; institutional and public administration
sites; and similar kinds of areas. Road
and railroad acreage is included, and
intermingled Federal acreages may be
included. Farmland acreage inside city
and village limits is not included. (U.S.
Dep. Agric. 1967)
2. Areas of intensive use with
much of the land covered by structures. Included in this category are
cities, towns, villages, strip developments along highways, transportation,
power, and communications facilities,
and such isolated units as mills, mines,
and quarries, shopping centers, and institutions.
Small blocks of land of less intensive or nonconforming use isolated in
the midst of built-up areas are generally included in this category. Agricultural, forest, or water area on the
fringe of urban and built-up areas are
not included, except where they are
part of low-density urban development. The "urban and built-up land"
category takes precedence over others
when the criteria for more than one
category are met. Thus, residential
areas that have sufficient tree cover to
meet forest land criteria will be placed
in the residential category. (Anderson,
Urban fringe. See Urbanized area.
Urbanized area
U.S. Bureau of the Census usage.
An urbanized area consists of a central
city, or cities, and surrounding closely
settled territory. The specific criteria
for the delineation of an urbanized
area are as follows: (1) a central city of
50,000 inhabitants or more; or twin
cities (i.e., cities with contiguous
boundaries and constituting, for general social and economic purposes, a
single community) with a combined
population of at least 50,000. (2) surrounding closely settled territory, including incorporated places of 2,500
inhabitants or more; or, incorporated
places with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants, provided that each has a closely
settled area of 100 housing units or
more; or, parcels of land normally less
than one square mile in area having a
population density of 1,000 inhabitants or more per square mile.
An urbanized area is sometimes
divided into the "central city (or
cities)" and those in the remainder of
the area or the "urban fringe." The
central city category consists of the
cities, having 250,000 inhabitants or
more, named in the title of the urbanized area.
The urbanized area can be characterized as the physical city as distinguished from both the legal city and
222
Use (Utilization)
Range management usage. The proportion of current year's forage production that is consumed or destroyed
by grazing animals.
The putting of range to a purpose
by animals such as grazing, bedding,
shelter, trailing, watering, etc. (Amer.
Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
the metropolitan community. Generally, urbanized areas are smaller than and
in most cases are contained in
standard metropolitan statistical areas
(SMSA). However, in a few instances,
the fact that the boundaries of SMSA's
are determined by political lines, and
those of urbanized areas by the pattern of urban land use, means that
there are small segments of urbanized
areas which lie outside SMSA's. In general, then, urbanized areas represent
the thickly settled core of the SMSA's,
with the exceptions noted above. (After U.S. Bur. Census 1971)
Use, allowable
Range management usage. The degree of use estimated to be proper until proper use is known. Forty or fifty
percent of the annual growth by
weight is often used as a rule-of-thumb
on ranges in good or excellent condition.
The amount of forage planned to
be used to accelerate range rehabilitation. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Urban land
1. Areas within the legal boundaries of cities and towns; suburban
areas developed for residential, industrial, or recreational purposes. (U.S.
Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. U.S. Soil Conservation Service
usage. An area so altered or obstructed
by urban works or structures that
identification of soils is not feasible.
A miscellaneous land type mapping
unit of the Soil Conservation Service.
(Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Also see Urban and built up land.
Use capability (Capability)
G.A. Hills usage. The first of Hills'
three-level system for land evaluation.
The process begins with evaluation for
"use capability" based upon inherent
usability potentials, then to evaluation
for "use suitability" on the basis of
management level potentials and finally to "use feasibility" evaluation on
the basis of usability under present
and forecasted socio-economic conditions. (After Belknap and Furtado
1967)
Also see Capability.
Urban planning (City planning)
In its common usage "urban planning" is equivalent to city planning.
However, a distinction is sometimes
made between the use of the two
terms. "City planning" can refer just
to planning activities that take place
within or at the level of a specific city
boundary. "Urban planning" can be
used to refer to planning for areas
which are in predominantly urban uses
but which are larger in extent than a
single city's boundaries. (C.F.S.)
Use, degree of
Range management usage. Utilization or consumption of plant growth
in respect to weight. It may be expressed in qualitative terms such as unused, slight, moderate, full, close, severe, over, extreme, destructive, etc.,
or as percent of weight for either an
individual plant or the vegetation as a
whole. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Urban sprawl
A term used to describe the irregular and often poorly planned spreading
of urban development into adjoining
land areas. Many suburban residential
developments are examples of urban
sprawl. (Sesco, et al. 1973)
Use district
A section of a city designated by a
223
the exercise (temporarily) of a grazing
privilege on grazing lands.
An authorization to refrain, temporarily, from placing livestock on public
ranges without loss of preference for
future consideration. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
zoning ordinance that prescribes the
use of its land and the type and characteristics of the structures that may
be placed on it.
The most common form of zoning
in the United States is that in which
"use districts" are designated (e.g.,
light
manufacturing,
commercial,
single-family residential) and only the
permitted use or a "higher" one is allowed. Thus in an area zoned for
heavy industry, all other uses would
theoretically be permitted (though
there are some exceptions to this under the principle of exclusive zoning),
whereas in an area of single-family residences, no other uses are likely to be
permitted. (Abrams 1971)
Use, nonconforming
A building or use that is inconsistent with a use district's zoning regulations. If erected after the enactment of
the ordinance it may be ordered removed. If in being before the enactment it may continue in use, but a
new nonconforming or different nonconforming use may not be substituted. Nor is its extension or enlargement permissible if the ordinance so
provides. Many ordinances permit the
rebuilding of the nonconforming
premises when destroyed by fire. Once
the use is abandoned, however, the
right to its restoration falls, and the
future use of the premises must conform to the zoning. Some states allow
for the abatement of such uses at the
end of a prescribed and usually
lengthy period of time (i.e., use of
time zoning). (Abrams 1971)
Use factor
Range management usage. An index
to the grazing use that is made of forage species, based on a system of range
management that will maintain the
economically important forage species.
(Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)
Use feasibility (Feasibility)
G.A. Hills usage. The third of Hills'
three-level system for land evaluation.
The process begins with evaluation for
"use capability" based upon inherent
usability potentials, then to evaluation
for "use suitability" on the basis of
management level potentials, and finally to "use feasibility" evaluation on
the basis of usability under present
and forecasted socio-economic conditions. (After Belknap and Furtado
1967)
Also see Feasibility.
Use, overRange management usage. Utilizing
an excessive amount of the current'
year's growth which, if continued, will
reault [sic} in range deterioration or overgrazing. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Use, pre-existing
A land use that does not conform
to a zoning ordinance but that existed
before the enactment and that therefore may not be banned until its abandonment. Sometimes the "pre-existing
use", if a nuisance, can be abated by
court action. In some jurisdictions
"pre-existing uses" have been banned
after the lapse of a reasonable period
equivalent to a prescribed "depreciation period" or amortization of its use
by time zoning. (Abrams 1971)
Use, full
Range management usage. The
maximum use that can be made of a
range during a grazing season without
inducing a downward trend in range
condition. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage.
1964)
Use, Non- (Non-utilization)
Range management usage. Lack of
224
ment of utility is possible. (O'Connell
1974)
Also see Utility theory.
Use, proper (Proper utilization)
Range management usage. The degree and time of use of current year's
growth which, if continued, will either
maintain or improve the range condition consistent with conservation of
other natural resources. (Amer. Soc.
Range Manage. 1964)
Utility
The usefulness or satisfaction causing qualities of a good or service.
(E.C.T.)
Also see Utility theory.
Use suitability (Suitability)
G.A. Hills usage. Classification
based upon the degree to which a unit,
in its present condition, can respond
to specific management practices.
(Belknap and Furtado 1967)
The capacity of a unit in its present
condition to respond to an assumed
management practice. (Belknap and
Furtado 1967)
The relative ability of a specific
area in its present condition to produce specific goods and services. (Hills,
Love and Lacate 1970)
The second of Hills' three-level system for land evaluation. The process
begins with evaluation for "use capability" based upon inherent usability
potentials, then to evaluation for "use
suitability" on the basis of management level potentials, and finally to
"use feasibility" evaluation on the
basis of usability under present and
forecasted socioeconomic conditions.
(After Belknap and Furtado 1967)
Also see Suitability.
Utility theory
1. A theory of valuation according
to some measure of individual preferences or intrinsic usefulness and satisfaction causing qualities (utility) developed in the study of welfare economics.
The valuation can occur either in
cardinal units of utility (called utils)
or as a comparison to other available
goods given by indifference curves. An
indifference curve is a delineation of
all combinations of two goods with
which an individual would be equally
pleased (indifferent between). (E. C. T.)
2. "Non-market good" valuation
usage. In attempting to place a value on
goods which are not traded in the
marketplace, proxy values can be derived by developing indifference curves
between the non-market good and a
good with a well established price.
(E.C.T.)
3. Decision theory with uncertainty usage. In choosing among alternatives where the outcome of each alternative is uncertain, each possible
outcome is weighted by its probability
of occurrence and a cardinal value of
the outcome's utility should it occur, to
obtain an expected utility value for
each alternative. The alternative with
the highest expected utility is chosen.
(After Mac Crimmon 1968)
USGS.
Geological survey, U.S. Department
of Interior.
Utilitarianism
A political philosophy based on the
principle of "the greatest good of the
greatest number". Public policy ought
to be aimed at maximumizing utility
(that is, the maximization of pleasure
for the maximum number of citizens).
The notion has been ridiculed on
the grounds that no objective assess-
Utilization. For range management usage
see Use.
Util. See Utility theory.
225
V
Valid mining claim. See Mining claim,
valid.
zoning law by a public agency vested
with the power to authorize it. It may
be given when the application of the
law creates unnecessary hardship;
where equally safe methods or materials may be used; where there are practical difficulties in meeting the existing
requirements literally; or where the deviation or exception would not affect
substantial compliance with the regulations and not threaten health or safety. (Abrams 1971)
Also see Special exception.
Value added
For a given enterprise, the market
value of goods completed, less the cost
of materials purchased from others.
Value, amenity. See Amenity.
Value judgement
A more or less subjective opinion
about the worth (e.g., good, evil, beautiful, desirable) of a thing, action or
entity (even when evaluators protest
their lack of prejudice). (Webster
1963)
Vegetation cover type. See Cover type.
Vegetation type
A plant community with distinguishable characteristics. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Also see Cover type.
Values (Value system)
1. The particular (frequently subjective) point of view of an individual
or the common point of view of a
group on an issue, way of life, or concerning the worth of things or experiences. (C.F.S.)
2. An individual or collective conception of that which is desirable. This
conception usually has both emotional
and symbolic components. Values may
range from those that are subjectively
meaningful to a given individual to
those that are shared cultural norms.
They influence the selection of the
means and ends of actions, and they
serve as criteria by which objects or
actions are evaluated. (O'Connell
1974)
Also see Value judgement.
For economic usages see Market
value, Non-market good valuation, and
Proxy value.
Veto group
A pressure group that is sufficiently
powerful to block any policy or law
that it considers inimical to its interests. (O'Connell 1974)
Viewer inferior. See Observer inferior.
Viewer normal. See Observer normal.
Viewer superior. See Observer superior.
View landscape (Visual landscape)
A landscape which due to its juxtaposition with areas of human use is
vulnerable to critical observation by
various segments of the public.
(A.W.M.)
Virgin forest
1. Natural forest virtually uninfluenced by human activity. (FordRobertson 1971)
2. A mature or overmature forest
essentially uninfluenced by human activity. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Value systems. See Values.
Variance (Zoning variance)
1. A license to do some act contrary to the usual rule. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
2. The granting of relief from the
terms or conditions of a building or
Visible area
The ground or vegetation thereon
226
cept and the types of land units it produces should be about the same as
morphological region and physiographic regions. (C.F.S.)
"Visual character type" units are
used as a frame of reference for classifying the physical features of a given
area as to their degree of scenic quality. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1974B)
Also see the related terms of the
visual management system Visual character subtype and Visual landscape
character.
that can be directly seen from a given
lookout point under favorable atmospheric conditions. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1972B)
Visitor carrying capacity. See Carrying capacity-recreation, economic.
Visitor day
The use of an area for a total of 12
person-hours by one or more people,
either continuously or spread over several visits. (E.C.T.)
Visual character subtype (Character subtype, Visual subtype)
U.S. Forest Service, Visual Management System usage. Areas of significant size and visual difference within
visual character type units–e.g., steep
mountain lands, foothill lands, rolling
plateau lands.
Subdivisions of "visual character
types" which are significantly different in visual characteristics from each
other.
"Visual character subtypes" are delineated when a larger "visual character type" unit is too broad or has too
great a visual character diversity to
provide a logical frame of reference to
usefully classify physical features.
"Subtype" units are also used to
identify those portions of major character types having distinctive or outstanding common features. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1974B)
Also see the related terms of the
visual management system, Visual
character type and Visual landscape
character.
Visual landscape. See View landscape.
Visual landscape character (Characteristic
landscape)
U.S. Forest Service, Visual Management System usage. The overall impression created by a landscape's
unique combination of visual features
(such as land, vegetation, water, structures) as seen in terms of form, line,
color and texture. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1973)
The naturally established landscape
being viewed as visually represented by
the basic vegetative patterns, land
forms, rock formations and water
forms which are in view. (U.S. Forest
Serv. 1974B)
A "visual landscape character" unit
usually makes up a small portion of a
visual character subtype, depending
upon how much of the subtype unit
can be viewed at one time. (After U.S.
Forest Serv. 1974B)
Visual quality objective
U.S. Forest Service Visual Management System usage. "Visual quality
objective" should more appropriately
be called "visual quality goals" as per
the definition of goals. Contrast the
definition of goal with that of objective.
A set of measurable goals for the
management of forest visual resources.
The stated goals of this visual management system are: (1) preservation,
Visual character type (Character type,
Visual type)
U.S. Forest Service, Visual Management System usage. A large area of
land that has common distinguishing
visual characteristics of landform, rock
formations, water forms and vegetation patterns. (U.S. Forest Serv.
1974B)
The "visual character type" con-
227
Visual sensitivity level (Sensitivity level)
U.S. Forest Service, Visual Management System usage. A three-level rating system used to delineate areas receiving different amounts of exposure
(present or potential) to user groups
with differing attitudes towards
changes in scenic quality (such as
might occur as a result of management
activities).
The system initially classifies all
travel routes, special interest areas and
water bodies into areas of primary and
secondary aesthetic management importance on the basis of their national
importance, number of users, duration
of use and area size. The system next
uses the assumptions that aesthetic
quality will be of major concern to
recreational users and minor concern
to functional users of forest areas
(such as daily commuters and loggers)
as the other basis for classifying the
entire planning area into the three sensitivity levels. (After U.S. Forest Serv.
1974)
(2) retention, (3) partial retention,
(4) modification, and (5) maximum
modification. Except for "preservation" each goal describes a different
degree of acceptable alteration of the
natural landscape based upon the importance of aesthetics.
"Preservation" allows only natural
ecological changes. "Retention" allows
management activities which are not
visually evident. "Partial retention" allows management activities which are
visually subordinate to the characteristic visual landscape. "Modification" allows management activities
that may visually dominate the original "characteristic visual landscape",
but, when vegetation and land forms
are altered, which must use the form,
line, color, texture and/or scale of that
landscape for its visual characteristics.
"Maximum modification" allows vegetation and land form altering management activities that dominate the
"characteristic visual landscape" in the
foreground and middleground but
which have the same visual characteristics as the surrounding area when
seen as background. Two additional
short-term management goals may be
required. The first, "rehabilitation", is
used to upgrade landscapes containing
visual impacts which do not meet the
quality objectives set for that particular area. The second, "enhancement",
is for landscapes having a potential for
greater natural-appearing variety. Once
one of the short-term goals is attained,
one of the five quality goals is then
applied. (After U.S. Forest Serv. 1974)
Visual subtype. For U.S. Forest Service
usage see Visual character subtype.
Visual variety class (Variety class)
U.S. Forest Service Visual Management System usage. A classification
system for establishing three visual
landscape categories according to the
relative importance of the visual features–i.e., landforms, vegetation patterns, stream or lake water forms and
rock formations. The class A ("distinctive") category contains those landscape features of unusual or outstanding visual quality, and, that are usually
not common in the visual character
type or visual character subtype. The
class B ("common") category contains
those landscape features which tend to
be common throughout the visual
character type or subtype and thus are
not of outstanding visual quality. The
class C ("minimal") category contains
those areas with few distinguishing
landscape features–including all areas
Visual resource
The composite of basic terrain, geologic features, water features, vegetative patterns, and land use effects that
typify a land unit and influence the
visual appeal the unit may have for
visitors. (Sandpoint Zone Plann. Team
1974)
228
tion (of scenic quality) –in essence, the
landscape's resistance or susceptibility
to visual changes. (Litton 1974)
2. The susceptibility of an object
or changed condition to critical evaluation as a consequence of its location in
a position where it can be readily seen
by the public.
As applied to landscapes it means
their susceptibility to criticism (pro or
con) as a consequence of their availability to public observation. (A.W.M.)
not classed as A or B.
This classification system is based
on the premise that all landscapes have
some visual values, but those with the
most variety or diversity of visual features have the greatest potential for
being or attaining high scenic value.
(After U.S. Forest Serv. 1974)
Visual vulnerability
1. The degree to which man-made
changes might be seen in the landscape and their potential for degrada-
W
Wants. See Needs.
overwater travel routes and watersports use where the immediate scenic
frame and foreground are subject to
close scrutiny. Other foreground and
backdrop areas should be recognized in
other zones with appropriate management emphasis on beauty and
esthetic values. Live and intermittent
streams and waters where developed
facilities for occupancy and use do not
exist, or are not anticipated or planned, or areas which are seldom visited
for recreation and enjoyment, are usually not included. Such areas should be
recognized in other management zones
with due consideration given to the
aquatic and related wildlife habitat and
to soil and water values. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8223.1, Dec., 1974)
2. The areas adjacent to lakes and
selected streams subject to special
management measures to protect
water quality and maintain or improve
aesthetic quality. (U.S. Forest Serv.
Region 9 1975)
Warm-water fishery
Stream and lake waters which support fishes with a maximum summer
water temperature tolerance of about
80 degrees Fahrenheit. Bluegills, perch
and largemouthed bass are examples.
(After U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2605,
Sept. 1974)
Water bloom. See Bloom.
Water influence zone
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Areas
comprising existing or anticipated significant public outdoor recreational
occupancy, use, and enjoyment along
streams and rivers and around lakes,
reservoirs, and other bodies of water,
areas in which uses and activities are
oriented to overwater travel and outdoor recreation. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 8223.1, Oct. 1973)
These are areas in which beauty,
aesthetic values, and water quality,
and usefulness are key management
values and an important part of the
environment and offer significant opportunities for existing, anticipated, or
planned use and enjoyment by persons
visiting or traveling through the zone.
Includes areas immediately adjacent
to and surrounding developed or planned sites along the banks and shores
where people may fish or stroll. Comprises areas adjacent to. the water along
Water pollution
Any substance or energy form
(heat, light, noise, etc.) which alters
the state of a body of water from what
would naturally occur. Especially associated with those altered states which
human value judgements have decreed
as bad. (E. C. T.)
Also see Pollution.
229
The 12-month period, October 1
through September 30, designated by
the calendar year in which it ends
(used with streamflow data and analyses). (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Watershed (Drainage basin, Catchment
basin, River basin)
1. United States usage. The total
area above a given point on a stream
that contributes water to the flow at that
point.
The entire region drained by a waterway or which drains into a lake or
reservoir. (After Sesco, et al. 1973)
2. British usage. The topographic
dividing line from which surface
streams flow in two different directions; the line separating two contiguous drainage areas. (Stamp 1961)
Water yield
1. The runoff from a watershed, including groundwater outflow. (U.S.
Forest Serv. 1972B)
2. Water yield is the precipitation
minus the evapotransportation. (U.S.
Forest Serv. 1972B)
Weather (Meteorological condition)
The state of the atmosphere at a
definite time and place with respect to
air temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation, cloudiness, etc. (Webster
1963)
Also contrast with Climate.
Watershed management
1. The management of all the natural resources of a watershed to protect,
maintain, or improve its water yields.
(Satterlund 1972)
Watershed protection
Watershed protection involves a
combination of complementary practices of land treatment and structural
works to maintain or improve total
yield, quality, stability of flow of surace and subsurface water and prevention of damage and loss due to excessive and uncontrolled runoff, flooding,
salination, and siltation. (Eisner 1969)
Weed cutting (Weeding)
Cutting made in a young stand, not
past the sapling stage, to free the small
trees from weeds, brush, chaparral,
vines, sod-forming grasses, or other
competing vegetation. (U.S. Forest
Serv., FSM 2471 R-3)
Weeding. See Weed cutting.
Weighting
1. Assigning numbers to express the
relative importance of items in a
group or series under consideration.
(After Webster 1963)
2. The assignment of numerical values to resource yields when their values can not be directly compared by
existing techniques for quantification
on some measurement scale. The assigned numerical values are usually reerred to as "weights" or "multipliers".
As a technique, weighting is usually
done according to some more or less
objective sense of the relative importance of the different types of resource
yields.
While weightings are usually added
(i.e., additive weighting) to obtain a
measure of the total social value of re-
Water table (Groundwater table)
The upper surface of the groundwater or that depth below which the
soil is saturated with water. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)
Water table, perched (Perched groundwater table)
The upper surface of a local zone of
soil water saturation held above the
main body of groundwater by an impermeable layer or stratum, (usually
clay) and separated from the main
body of groundwater by an unsaturated zone. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
Watertype. For G.A. Hills' land classification system usage, see Landtype.
Water year
230
United States that certain selected rivers of the nation which, with their immediate environments, possess outstanding remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural, or other similar values,
shall be preserved in free-flowing condition, and that they and their immediate environments shall be protected
for the benefit and enjoyment of present and future generations. Implements this policy by instituting a National Wild and Scenic Rivers System,
by designating the initial components
of that system, and by prescribing the
methods by which and standards according to which additional components may be added to the system
from time to time. (After U.S. Forest
Serv. 1974)
source uses or resource yield mixes for
planning areas, they may also be multiplied or divided (or some combination
of these processes) to facilitate decision making. (C.F.S.)
Welfare. See General welfare.
Wetlands
1. Areas that are permanently wet,
or intermittently water covered, such
as swamps, marshes, bogs, muskegs,
potholes, swales, glades, and overflow
land of river valleys. Large, open lakes
are commonly excluded, but many
kinds of ponds, pools, sloughs, holes,
and bayous may be included. (Veatch
and Humphrys 1966)
2. Inland usage. Any area that is
more or less regularly wet or flooded.
Where the water table stands at or
above the land surface for at least part
of the year.
3. Coastal usage. Land types such
as salt marshes, and brackish marshes
subject to saline and/or tidal influences. (Durrenberger 1973)
4. Lowlands covered with shallow
and sometimes temporary or intermittent waters. Shallow lakes and ponds,
usually with emergent aquatic vegetation (such as reeds or cattails) as a conspicuous feature, are included in the
definition, but the permanent waters
of streams, reservoirs and deep lakes
are not included. Neither are water
areas that are so temporary as to have
little or no effect on the development
of moist-soil dependent vegetation.
(Shaw and Fredine 1956)
Wilderness
1. Popularly, any tract uncultivated and uninhabited by human
beings. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
2. "Wilderness area". Undeveloped
Federal land retaining its primeval
character and influence, without permanent improvements or human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which (1) generally appears
to have been affected primarily by the
forces of nature, with the imprint of
man's work substantially unnoticeable;
(2) has outstanding opportunities for
solitude or a primitive and unconfined
type of recreation; (3) has at least
5000 acres or is of sufficient size as to
make practical its preservation and use
in an unimpaired condition; and
(4) may also contain ecological, geological, or features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value.
(Wilderness Act 1964)
A tract of land, including interior
bodies of water, open to overnight
public use and entry by foot, horseback, or hand-propelled vessel; primarily in public ownership, in the continental U.S.; not less than 100,000
Wet meadow
A meadow where the surface remains wet or moist throughout the
summer, usually characterized by
sedges and rushes. (Amer. Soc. Range
Manage. 1964)
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (82 Stat. 906;
16 U.S.C. 1271-1273, 1274(A),
1275(A) )
Declares that it is a policy of the
231
by Congress as wilderness areas, and
these shall be administered for the use
and enjoyment of the American people in such manner as will leave them
unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness, and so as to provide for the protection of these areas,
the preservation of their wilderness
character, and for the gathering and
dissemination of information regarding
their use and enjoyment as wilderness.
(After U.S. Forest Serv. 1974)
acres in extent; containing no roads
constructed for passenger car traffic in
mountainous terrain, or suitable for
passenger car traffic in desert or plains;
existing as a single unit with boundaries reasonably free of indentation;
without interruption by on-site influence, except that–effects of domestic
livestock are acceptable; effects of selection logging before 1920 are acceptable east of the 98th meridian; ecological effects of fire suppression are acceptable in all areas. (Calif., Univ.,
Wildland Res. Cent. 1962)
A continuous stretch of country
preserved in its natural state, open to
lawful hunting and fishing, big enough
to absorb a two weeks' pack trip, and
kept devoid of roads, artificial trails,
cottages, or other works of man.
(Leopold 1921)
An area where the earth and its
community of life are untrammeled by
man, where man himself is the visitor
who does not remain. (Wilderness Act
1964)
In common usage, "wilderness"
refers to those backcountry types of
wildlands which show no obvious
evidence of present or previous human
uses other than foot or pack animal
trails. Some use the terms primitive
and wilderness interchangeably to refer to all areas displaying no obvious
evidence of present or previous human
uses–other than foot or pack animal
trails. Others make a distinction between the two, using "primitive" to
refer to all areas possessing wilderness
qualities and restricting the use of
"wilderness" to only those portions
of the larger primitive area which have
officially been designated as "wilderness" areas. (After A. W.M.)
Wilderness area. See Wilderness, definition. 2.
Wilderness study area
An area which has been placed under formal consideration for possible
inclusion in the wilderness area system. A new study area in a National
Forest is removed from standard management and planning considerations
until its status as a wilderness area is
determined. After study such areas will
be classified as either nonselected
roadless areas or roadless and undeveloped areas. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM
8261.05, Apr., 1974)
Also see Roadless and undeveloped
areas and Nonselected roadless area.
Wildfire (Forest fire)
A free-burning fire.
Any fire other than a controlled,
burn or a prescribed burn, occurring
on wildland. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Any fire other than one intentionally set for management purposes and
whose extent is confined to a predetermined area on wildlands. (C.F.S.)
Wildland
1. Non-urban areas that are not intensively managed and manipulated.
They include most managed forests
but not city parks with their exotic
plants, "manicured" lawns, and sprinkler systems. The term is not exact because it includes lands that are under
management and are not truly wild.
Through long usage it has come to ap-
Wilderness Act (78 Stat. 890; 16 U.S.C.
1131-1136)
Establishes a National Wilderness
Preservation System to be composed
of Federally owned areas designated
232
2. Undomesticated vertebrate animals, except fish, considered collectively. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer.
1970)
3. Generally, all non-domesticated
animal life. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
4. More particularly, a loose term
that includes non-domesticated vertebrates especially mammals, birds and
fish and some of the higher invertebrates (such as crabs, crayfish, etc.)
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
5. Living things that are neither
plant, human nor domesticated, especially the mammals, birds and fishes that
are hunted by man for sport or food.
(Webster 1963)
ply to lands that are sparsely settled
and present a fairly natural appearance. Forests, deserts, mountains,
grasslands, and other extensive lands
are normally included. (Wagar 1964)
This term is most often used as one
of several terms of comparison contrasting the differing degrees of utilization and alteration of land which occur–e.g., urban lands, agriculture lands
and wildlands. The dividing lines between these states cannot be defined
in any generally acceptable quantitative terms. The only firm sense of differentiation between these terms exists
when they are used to describe broadly contrasting natures and intensities
of land utilization. "Wildlands" are
simply those natures and intensities of
use on the least utilized and altered
side of the continuum from totally developed to completely untouched.
(C.F.S.)
2. Lands unoccupied by crops, pastures, urban, residential, industrial or
transportation facilities.
Lands over which man has not extended his complete and permanent
domain with his bulldozers, plows and
asphalt spreaders. (After Calif. Univ.,
Wildland Res. Cent. 1959)
3. Uncultivated land, except fallow
lands. (Ford-Robertson 1971)
4. Land that is uncultivated or unfit for cultivation. (Webster 1963)
Wildlife and Fish Habitat System
U.S. Forest Service usage. This system protects and improves wildlife and
fish habitat with special emphasis on
threatened and endangered species.
Management of wildlife and fish habitats is closely coordinated with the
states because they control wildlife
and fish populations. This coordination includes (1) close working relations among National Forest, State,
and private land managers; (2) cooperative forestry programs designed to
assist non-Federal land managers; and
(3) research programs that define environmental requirements of fish and
wildlife and provide management alternatives through which these requirements can be attained.
One of the six "systems" established by the U.S. Forest Service to
have a systematic, orderly way to view
and evaluate its many diverse but interrelated activities. The Forest Service
has developed this approach to better
respond to the mandates of the Forest
and Rangeland Renewable Resources
Planning Act of 1974. It has grouped
its various programs into these six
"systems", each of which incorporates
all the activities concerned with developing and managing a specific re-
Wildlife
1. U.S. Forest Service usage. All
nondomesticated mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians living in a natural
environment, including both game species and nongame species, whether
considered beneficial or otherwise.
Animals, or their progeny, which
once were domesticated but escaped
captivity and are running wild (i.e.,
feral animals), such as horses, burros,
and hogs, are not considered to be
wildlife. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2605,
Sept. 1974)
233
2. Any area on which (many of)
the trees have been uprooted (i.e.,
windthrown) or broken by the wind.
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
source. (After U.S. Forest Serv.
1974A)
The six "systems" are: Land and
Water, Timber Resource, Outdoor
Recreation and Wilderness, Rangeland
Grazing, "Wildlife and Fish Habitat",
and Human and Community Development.
Windfirm
Trees able to withstand strong
winds–i.e., able to withstand the force
of wind without being uprooted (i.e.,
windthrown). (Ford-Robertson 1971)
Wildlife land
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. Land and water managed primarily for fish and wildlife. Wildlife may
be a secondary use of land with cropland, rangeland, woodland, etc., as the
primary use. (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv.
1970)
Windthrow (Blow down)
1. Uprooted by the wind. (FordRobertson 1971)
2. Also used to refer to a tree or
trees so uprooted. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
In forestry "windthrow" becomes
particularly important in conjunction
with the clearcutting system and clearcutting logging methods. Trees tend to
develop root systems to support themselves against the forces they face.
When either a new forest edge is
created by logging or selected trees
from a group are removed the remaining trees may face a significant increase in the force of the wind. The
trees growing on the edge of a forest
tend to shelter the interior trees, and
trees in a group protect each other from
the full force of the wind. If the
remaining trees do not have root systems capable of absorbing this additional stress they will be blown down.
(E.C.T.)
Wild river area
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act usage.
Those rivers or sections of rivers that
are free of impoundments and generally inaccessible except by trail, with
watersheds or shorelines essentially
primitive and waters unpolluted. These
represent vestiges of primitive America. (After U.S. Forest Serv. 1974)
Willingness-to-pay
An economic cconcept used either
in non-market good valuation or when
the prevailing price of a good or service is thought to be different from its
true value to an individual or society.
It refers to the price an individual
would be willing to pay rather than be
deprived of the good or service.
In precise economic theory the validity and applicability of "willingness-to-pay" is dependent on who is
assigned initial ownership rights to the
good or service being evaluated.
(E.C.T.)
Also see Consumer surplus and Producer surplus.
Woodland
U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. Land used primarily for the production of adapted wood crops and to
provide tree cover for watershed protection, beautification, etc. Does not
include farmstead and field windbreak
plantings. (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv.
1970)
Wildfall
1. A tree or trees thrown or their
stems broken off or other parts
(branches, foliage, fruit, etc.) blown
down by the wind. (Ford-Robertson
1971)
Working circle
A forest area organized -for a particular objective and under one set of
working plan prescriptions, and embodying one silvicultural system or a
234
designed combination
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
of
agement is to be modified, such as in
landscape management areas. (U.S.
Forest Serv., FSM 2412.5, May 1972)
systems.
Working group
U.S. Forest Service usage. Those
parts of a working circle that have the
same general management prescriptions.
This designation may be applied to
combinations of species, types, or
sites, such as pine and hardwood
working groups, mixed conifer and
douglas-fir working groups, and site I III and site IV-V working groups. In
some working circles a working group
is set up for areas where timber man-
Working plan
1. A plan for managing a forest.
(After Ford-Robertson 1971)
2. The written, often printed and
published management plan, aiming at
continuity of policy and action, and
both prescribing and controlling basic
operations in a forest over a period of
years. (After Ford-Robertson 1971)
WRC
Water Resources Council, U.S.
X
Xeric
adapted to dry conditions. (Dansereau
1957)
1. Refers to a habitat characterized
by dry conditions rather than mesic
(moderate) or hygric (wet) conditions.
(Hanson 1962)
2. The nature of an organism
Xerosere. See Succession, definition 1.
X section. See Cross section.
Y
Yarding
The operation of hauling timber
from the stump to a collecting point.
(Ford-Robertson 1971)
Yarding, skyline (Skyline logging)
A method for moving logs to a central loading area by the use of overhead cable systems that lift at least
one end of the log off the ground. (After Ford-Robertson 1971)
Z
Zoning, aesthetic
Zoning which regulates property in
the interest of protecting aesthetic
values.
The U.S. Supreme Court in the
1954 "Berman vs. Parker" case upheld
this extension of the original legal justification for zoning powers with its
finding that "It is within the power of
the legislature to determine that the
community should be beautiful as well
as healthy." (After Abrams 1971)
Zonal soil. See Soil horizon, definition 2.
Zoning
In general, the demarcation of a
planning area by ordinance into zones
and the establishment of regulations to
govern the use of the land (commercial, industrial, residential, type of residential, etc.) and the location, bulk,
height, shape, use, and coverage of
structures within each zone. (Abrams
1971)
235
zoning which regulate development–
i.e., types of land use which prominently alter or dominate the original
open space of an area with built-up
facilities such as buildings, streets and
other paved areas, etc. (C.F.S.)
For example, large-lot zoning and
cluster zoning are types of "development zoning". (U.S. Bur. Outdoor
Recreation 1974)
Zoning, agricultural
Zoning which restricts land uses to
agriculture and other low-density uses.
(After U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation
1974)
Zoning, cluster (Residential planned development zoning, Planned unit development zoning)
1. A form of zoning that allows a
developer to reduce his minimum lot
size below the zoning ordinance's requirements if the land thereby gained
is preserved as permanent open space
for the community. (Abrams 1971)
2. Residential planned development zoning is zoning which allows
landowners the opportunity to intensively develop one portion of their
property while leaving the remaining
portion in an undeveloped state.
"Cluster zoning". Instead of the
developer covering his tract with
equal-sized lots, the local government
alters standard lot size regulations to
permit tighter patterns of house
groupings. This can save money for the
developer; he builds the same number
of housing units, but does not have to
bulldoze as much or lay as much
asphalt and service facilities. In exchange, the developer leaves from 40
to 60 percent of the land open and
deeds it for common use of the residents.
Cluster zoning is a device for building open space into the everyday environment of residential subdivisions.
Planned unit development (i.e., cluster
development) uses this approach. (U.S.
Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Zoning, Euclidean
Zoning of the type adopted by the
city of Euclid, Ohio, and made famous
in 1926 by the United States Supreme
Court decision in village of Euclid vs.
Ambler Realty Company, upholding
the nation's first comprehensive zoning ordinance. The Euclid zoning ordinance restricted the location of
trades, industries, apartment houses,
two-family
houses,
single-family
houses, the lot area to be built upon,
the size and height of the buildings,
etc. The court found these restrictions
neither "unreasonable" nor "arbitrary." Since that time the term has
come to describe the most common
form of zoning in the United States, in
which "use districts" are designated
(i.e., light manufacturing, commercial,
single-family residential) and only the
permitted use or a "higher" one is allowed. Thus in an area zoned for
heavy industry, all other uses would
theoretically be permitted (though
there are some exceptions to this under the principle of exclusive zoning),
whereas in an area of single-family residences, no other uses are likely to be
permitted. (Abrams 1971)
Zoning, exclusive use
A zoning regulation which permits
only one type of use in a particular
established zone or district. (After
U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Zoning, conservation
Zoning which restrains development of unsuited areas such as steep
slopes with fragile soils, areas of scenic
beauty, and spaces with other natural
values. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation
1974)
Zoning, flood plain
Zoning which prohibits and restricts development within flood plains
to prevent property loss, to insure
Zoning, development
A term used to refer to all types of
236
public safety, and to enable the safe
and natural flow of streams. (U.S. Bur.
Outdoor Recreation 1974)
and coverage of structures, etc. within
each zone. (After Webster 1963 and
Abrams 1971)
Zoning, forest (Forest use zoning)
Zoning which restricts land uses to
forestry and related uses–e.g., timber
production, watershed, Christmas tree
farms, recreation, etc. (C.F.S.)
Zoning, performance (Performance standard zoning)
Regulations providing general criteria for determining the acceptability
of certain industries, land uses, and
buildings as distinguished from specification standards or detailed requirements. This type of zoning does not
bar an industry or use by name but
admits any use, provided the particular
requirements set for admission are
met. (Abrams 1971)
Zoning, land capability
Zoning which limits development in
areas which are subject to natural land
or water hazards. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor
Recreation 1974)
Zoning, large-lot
Zoning which prohibits subdivision
of land into individual parcels of less
than a specified, relatively large lot
size–e.g., 1 acre or more. (C.F.S.)
Large-lot zoning is used extensively
to retard development. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Zoning, prohibition
Any of the class of zoning regulations which only allows certain types
of use in certain kinds of areas. For
example, flood plain zoning frequently
permits only uses which do not need
structures nor reduce the flood water
storage capacity of such hazardous
areas. (C.F.S.)
Zoning, natural resource
A blanket term used to refer to all
zoning which restricts the uses that are
made of natural resource lands so as to
maintain the benefits which flow from
their natural capacities, productivity
or material contents. For example
floodplain zoning, agricultural zoning
and forest zoning are types of "natural
resource zoning". (C.F.S.)
Zoning permit
An official finding that a planned
use or structure complies with the
zoning regulations or is allowed by the
granting of a special exception or variance. No new development or substantial change of use can occur until such
a permit is issued in a planning area
regulated by zoning ordinances. (After
Abrams 1971)
Zoning, open space
Zoning which restricts land uses so
as to retain open space. (C.F.S.)
"Open space zoning" includes
large-lot zoning and cluster zoning
(forms of development zoning) and
natural resources zoning. (U.S. Bur.
Outdoor Recreation 1974)
Zoning, spot
The designation of an isolated parcel of land for a use classification
harmful to or inconsonant with the
use classification of the surrounding
area so as to favor a particular owner
The courts have held such zoning to be
"unreasonable" and "capricious". To
avoid judicial invalidation, zoning of
small areas can be enacted only when
it is in furtherance of a general plan
properly adopted by, and designed to
serve the best interests of the community as a whole. This does not mean
Zoning ordinance
A local law or regulation enacted
by a city council or other similar body
(working under the powers delegated
to it by the state) which establishes
the appropriate uses within a particular, designated area (i.e., a zone) and
the location, bulk, height, shape, use
237
that an entire city or county must be
zoned at one time, but there must be
uniformity in the class or type of
building to which the zoning applies.
(Abrams 1971)
which has been designated by the Forest Service as containing authentic, significant and interesting evidence of
our American national heritage as it
pertains to fauna. The areas are meaningful because they embrace animals,
animal groups or animal communities
that are natural and important because
of occurrence, habitat, location, life
history, ecology, environment, rarity
or other features. (U.S. Forest Serv.,
FSM 2362.44, July 1973)
Areas of this type and all other special interest areas are identified and
formally classified primarily because
of their recreational values. Areas with
similar types of values of scientific importance are formally classified as "research natural areas" (see Natural
area, research). (W. W.)
Zoning, time
Restricting an existing non-conforming use within a use district to a
specific period, upon the expiration of
which it becomes illegal. Sometimes
the time period's justification is referred to as "amortization of the use" and
it is presumed to afford the nonconforming owner a reasonable number of years within which to recover
his investment under the pre-existing
use. (Abrams 1971)
Zoning variance. See Variance.
Zoological area
U. S. Forest Service usage An area
Zooplankton. See Plankton.
238
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¤ GPO 689-987
The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
. . . Conducts forest and range research at more than 75
locations from Puerto Rico to Alaska and Hawaii.
. . . Participates with all State forestry agencies in cooperative
programs to protect and improve the Nation's 395 million
acres of State, local, and private forest lands.
. . . Manages and protects the 187-million-acre National
Forest System for sustained yield of its many
products
and services.
The Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station
represents the research branch of the Forest Service in
California and Hawaii.