mind the gap 10
spain employer
october 2010
mind the gap 10
spain employer
october 2010
Spain
employee
employer perspectives
Marc Grau i Grau, Emma Parry
introduction
In this paper, we present
information about the availability
of human resource policies and
resources that characterize quality
employment and compare the
availability of selected workplacebased resources in Spain with
four other countries: France, Italy,
Sweden and the United Kingdom.
The information presented has
been selected from the 2005
Cranet Survey. The Cranet survey is
a regular survey of human resource
management policies and practices
conducted in over 40 countries
worldwide.
Organizations that want to remain employers-of-choice must periodically assess
how shifts in the business environment might affect the effectiveness of their talent
management strategies, policies and programs. Globalization and changes in the
age composition of the workforce are two important 21st century trends that can
have a significant impact on the need to customize and adjust core strategies and
practices. Employers around the world are challenged by the need to establish talent
management policies and practices that are globally strategic and also relevant to
specific country contexts. Forward-thinking employers are considering:
ππ How might shifts in the age composition of the workforces in different
countries affect the next generation of human resource policies and
practices?
ππ How might these policies and practices support the sustainability of great
places to work?
What does “mind the gap” mean?
Train stations across England play
recorded messages to remind passengers
that they should “Mind the Gap.” These
words of caution urge train travelers to
pay attention to the space between the
door of the train car and the platform in
the station for safe commutes and travels.
agework@bc.edu
For this series of our research
publications, we have adopted the phrase,
“Mind the Gap.” The Mind the Gap series
aim to remind employers to pay attention
to any gaps that might exist between
employees’ priorities and needs and
employers’ allocation of workplace-based
resources. Our Mind the Gap papers also
aim to help our readers become aware
of such gaps in quality of employment in
other country contexts.
1
Table of Contents
Quality of Employment: Dimensions of a “Good Job” and a “Good Place to Work” 3
Quality of Employment in Spain
Indicators of Fair, Attractive, and Competitive Compensation & Benefits 4
Indicators of Opportunities for Development, Learning & Advancement 6
Indicators of Wellness, Health & Safety Protections 7
Indicators of Opportunities for Meaningful Work 7
Indicators of Provisions for Employment Security & Predictabilities
8
Indicators of Workplace Flexibility
9
Indicators of Culture of Respect, Inclusion & Equity 10
Indicators of Promotion of Constructive Relationships at the Workplace 11
Summary: Minding The Gap
12
Conclusion: Closing The Gap
12
The Sloan Center on Aging & Work in
Boston, in collaboration with the Middlesex
University Business School in London,
created the Mind the Gap series to provide
employers with basic employment-related
information country-by-country. There are
two types of papers in the Mind the Gap
series.
Employee Series: This series examines
the perspectives that adults of different
ages have about employment and the
assessments that they make about their
employment experiences. These papers
focus on one central question: Does
age affect employees’ preferences for an
idealized job and their assessments of their
employment experiences?
Employer Series: This series examines
the prevalence of human resource policies
and programs at workplaces in a selected
country. Because most talent-management
strategies and programs are age-neutral, we
compare the availability of selected human
resource policies in practices in the targeted
country with the availability of similar policies
and practices in a small number of countries
with approximate economic circumstances.
These papers focus on one core question:
How does the availability of human resource
policies and programs in the targeted country
compare with other countries?
Although papers in both series focus on
a single country, when the information
contained in two or more papers are
considered in tandem, it is possible to
consider whether employees’ perceptions
of their employment experiences vary from
country to country.
2
http://www.bc.edu/agingandwork
mind the gap 10
spain employer
october 2010
Opportunities
for Development,
Learning &
Advancement
Fair, Attractive
and Competitive
Compensation &
Benefits
Promotion of
Constructive
Relationships at
the Workplace
Quality of Employment: Dimensions of a “Good Job” and a “Good Place to Work”
Most people would agree that “good jobs” are a “good thing.” High quality jobs offer
benefits to employees and to the organizations where they work.
Wellness,
Health &
Safety
Protections
Opportunities for
Meaningful Work
Quality of
Employment
Provisions for
Employment Security
& Predictabilities
Workplace
Flexibility
Culture of
Respect,
Inclusion
& Equity
ππ Benefits for Employees: The quality of employment affects the health and
well-being of employees. Research confirms that poor quality jobs (such
as jobs requiring extreme work hours, jobs that are very demanding –
particularly those where employees do not have access to the resources
they need to meet those demands) are associated with negative outcomes,
including high stress levels and physiological reactions, like cardio-vascular
problems.1
ππ Benefits for Employers: Employers often connect the quality of employment
they offer to employees to their employer-of-choice strategies. There is some
evidence that the adoption of policies and practices that promote the quality
of employment available to employees is related to positive outcomes
for organizations, such as customer satisfaction and organizational
performance.2 Employer-of-choice strategies can result in enhanced
employee engagement which, in turn, can be linked to organizational
outcomes, including financial measures. For example, higher employee
engagement can reduce costs such as those associated with unwanted
turnover. One study found that 59% of highly engaged employees report
that they “intend to stay” with their employers in comparison to the 24%
of disengaged employees who “intend to stay.”3 A number of studies have
linked employee job satisfaction with positive performance indicators.
Fortune reports positive relationships between being recognized as a “great
place to work” and stock indices.4, 5
In this paper, we focus on eight important dimensions of the quality of employment:
••
Fair, Attractive, and Competitive Compensation & Benefits
••
Opportunities for Development, Learning & Advancement
••
Wellness, Health & Safety Protections
••
Opportunities for Meaningful Work
••
Provisions for Employment Security & Predictabilities
••
Workplace Flexibility
••
Culture of Respect, Inclusion & Equity
••
Promotion of Constructive Relationships at the Workplace
The following sections of this paper use the quality of employment framework to discuss
the availability of workplace-based policies and programs in Spain.
agework@bc.edu
3
quality employment in spain:
I. Indicators of Fair, Attractive, and Competitive Compensation & Benefits
ΩΩ Compensation and benefits are distributed in a fair and equitable manner,
meeting most of employees’ basic economic needs.
••
About 17.9% of employers in Spain reported that they offer stock options to
managers, while only 5.06% of professional workers and 2.53% of manual workers
receive these pay option.
••
Workplaces in Spain and Italy appear to be the least egalitarian between managers
and other categories of workers (Figure 1).6 By comparison, France offers the most
generous number of pay options to all categories of workers.6
••
Spanish employers (58.2%) offer a variable pay to managers based on individual
performance.6
Figure 1: Average Number of Types of Pay by Country (employee share plans, profit
sharing, and stock options)
1.47
1.5
Manual
1.2
1.15
0.3
0.0
Clerical
Professional
0.91
0.9
0.6
1.18
Managerial
0.66
0.56
0.54
0.46
0.38
0.42
0.30
0.27
0.23
Spain
0.18
0.29
0.27
0.15
Italy
0.14
France
0.27
0.20
Sweden
UK
Source: Cranet Survey (2005)6
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Opportunities
for Development,
Learning &
Advancement
Fair, Attractive
and Competitive
Compensation &
Benefits
Promotion of
Constructive
Relationships at
the Workplace
Wellness,
Health &
Safety
Protections
Opportunities for
Meaningful Work
Quality of
Employment
Provisions for
Employment Security
& Predictabilities
Workplace
Flexibility
Culture of
Respect,
Inclusion
& Equity
A scale was constructed
measuring the variety of special
pay options (aside from wage and
salaries) available to categories
of workers. Three types of special
pay options were considered
–employee share plans, profit
sharing, and stock options. For
each option, 0=no availability and
1=availability, leading to a total
scale of 0-3. As indicated in Figure
1, the availability of pay variations
is relatively low in Spain.
mind the gap 10
spain employer
october 2010
A scale was constructed
measuring the average number of
pay variations available to different
employee group levels. Three
types of levels were considered individual, team and organizationwide. For each option, 0=no
availability and 1=availability,
leading to a total scale of 0-3. The
availability of pay variations in
Spain is relatively high especially
for managers and professionals.
••
Figure 2 compares the availability of pay variations by organizational level
(individual, team, organization-wide performance) at Spanish workplaces to Italy,
France, Sweden and the UK. Spain has a relatively high availability of pay variations,
especially for managers and professionals.6 By contrast, Sweden and the UK offers,
on average, the lowest availability of pay variations by organizational level.6
Figure 2: Average Number of Pay Variations by Country
(individual, team, organization-wide performance)
2.0
1.5
1.83
1.78
Managerial
1.73
1.49
1.49
Professional
1.44
Clerical
1.09
0.93
1.0
0.94
0.63
0.62
0.52
0.47
0.5
0.0
Manual
0.80
0.49
0.42
0.29
Spain
Italy
France
0.37
0.27
0.20
Sweden
UK
Source: Cranet Survey (2005)6
agework@bc.edu
5
II. Indicators of Opportunities for Development, Learning & Advancement
ΩΩ Opportunities for the development of expanded skills and responsibilities
are available.
••
Training is one of the most important investments used by employers to increase
human capital (Becker, 1964).7 However, Spanish employers spend a low percentage
of annual payroll costs on training (2.39%). On the other hand, Swedish companies
spend 4.04% of their annual costs on training (Figure 3).6
••
When compared to Italy, France, Sweden, and the United Kingdom, Spain allows
more days on average for training, especially among professional, clerical, and
manual workers. (Figure 4).6
% of Payroll Spent Annually on Training
Figure 3: Percent of Annual Cost Spent on Training
5.0%
4.0
4.0%
3.5
3.0%
3.5
3.3
2.4
2.0%
1.0%
0.0%
Spain
Italy
France
Sweden
UK
Source: Cranet Survey (2005)6
Figure 4: Average Training Days by Job Category
8.0
7.2
7.0
6.5
6.6
6.4
Training for Managerial
6.8
5.8
6.0
5.2
5.0
5.2
Training for Professional
5.5
4.0
5.1
4.9
4.9
4.4
3.4
4.2
3.4 3.6
3.9
Training for Clerical
4.0
3.7
Training for Manual
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
Spain
Italy
France
Sweden
UK
Source: Cranet Survey (2005)6
6
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Opportunities
for Development,
Learning &
Advancement
Fair, Attractive
and Competitive
Compensation &
Benefits
Promotion of
Constructive
Relationships at
the Workplace
Wellness,
Health &
Safety
Protections
Opportunities for
Meaningful Work
Quality of
Employment
Provisions for
Employment Security
& Predictabilities
Workplace
Flexibility
Culture of
Respect,
Inclusion
& Equity
III. Indicators of Wellness, Health & Safety Protections
mind the gap 10
spain employer
october 2010
Opportunities
for Development,
Learning &
Advancement
Fair, Attractive
and Competitive
Compensation &
Benefits
Promotion of
Constructive
Relationships at
the Workplace
ΩΩ Well-being is promoted through workplace policies, and social protections are
offered in case of illness.
••
Wellness,
Health &
Safety
Protections
This dimension is omitted due to lack of data availability.
Opportunities for
Meaningful Work
Quality of
Employment
Provisions for
Employment Security
& Predictabilities
Workplace
Flexibility
Culture of
Respect,
Inclusion
& Equity
IV. Indicators of Opportunities for Meaningful Work
Opportunities
for Development,
Learning &
Advancement
Fair, Attractive
and Competitive
Compensation &
Benefits
Promotion of
Constructive
Relationships at
the Workplace
Wellness,
Health &
Safety
Protections
ΩΩ Opportunities for meaningful and fulfilling work are available.
Opportunities for
Meaningful Work
Quality of
Employment
••
Spanish employers were less likely than Italian, French, and the UK employers
to use employee performance assessments as a way of determining training and
development needs (see Figure 5).6
••
Employers in the United Kingdom (98.2%) have the largest use of employee
performance assessments as a way to determine training and development needs,
in contrast to Spain (81.9%). Employers in Italy (56.6%) have the largest use of
employee performance assessments as a way to determine organization of work; by
contrast, Spain has the least (35.7%) (see Figure 5).6
Provisions for
Employment Security
& Predictabilities
Workplace
Flexibility
Culture of
Respect,
Inclusion
& Equity
Figure 5: Use of Employee Performance Assessments for Determining Training &
Development Needs and the Organization of Work
Spanish employers (81.9%)
use employee performance
assessmants as a way to assess
training and development
needs and 35.7% use employee
performance assessments to
determine organization of work.
98.2
97.6
100%
85.9
81.9
80%
Organization of Work
56.6
60%
40%
Analysis of Training and
Development Needs
79.3
53.2
36.5
35.7
42.6
20%
0%
Spain
Italy
France
Sweden
UK
Source: Cranet Survey (2005)6
agework@bc.edu
7
V. Indicators of Provisions for Employment Security & Predictabilities
ΩΩ Terms of employment are communicated clearly, with an emphasis on smooth
transitions through jobs and careers.
••
When compared to Italy, France, Sweden, and the UK, a small percentage of Spanish
employers used recruitment freezes (11.0%), internal transfers (11.4%) or absence of
contract renewals (15.2%) during periods of reduction in the workforce (Figure 6).6
(Please note: This data was collected before the 2008 worldwide economic crisis).
Opportunities
for Development,
Learning &
Advancement
Fair, Attractive
and Competitive
Compensation &
Benefits
Promotion of
Constructive
Relationships at
the Workplace
Wellness,
Health &
Safety
Protections
Opportunities for
Meaningful Work
Quality of
Employment
Provisions for
Employment Security
& Predictabilities
Workplace
Flexibility
Culture of
Respect,
Inclusion
& Equity
Figure 6: Indicators of Employment Predictability by Country (recruitment freezes, internal transfers and absence of contract renewals)
30%
29.2
27.4
25%
23
24.3
25.6
26.9 26.4
22.7
19.8
20%
15%
27.4
24.8
Reduction in Workforce:
Internal Transfers
18.0
15.2
11.0
Reduction in Workforce:
Recruitment Freeze
No Renewal of Contracts
11.4
10%
5%
0%
Spain
Italy
France
Sweden
UK
Source: Cranet Survey (2005)6
8
http://www.bc.edu/agingandwork
Spanish employers report the
lowest use of recruitment freezes,
internal transfers, or absence of
contract renewal during periods of
reduction in the workforce.
VI. Indicators of Workplace Flexibility
mind the gap 10
spain employer
october 2010
Opportunities
for Development,
Learning &
Advancement
Fair, Attractive
and Competitive
Compensation &
Benefits
Promotion of
Constructive
Relationships at
the Workplace
ΩΩ Options, choice, and control over work conditions and hours are available.
••
Wellness,
Health &
Safety
Protections
Opportunities for
Meaningful Work
Quality of
Employment
Provisions for
Employment Security
& Predictabilities
Spain was on par with the United Kingdom in providing flexible work options to
employees. Workplaces in Sweden have the highest proportion of employees using
flexible work options, while France and Italy have the lowest proportion of the
workforce using such options.6
Workplace
Flexibility
Culture of
Respect,
Inclusion
& Equity
A scale was constructed
measuring the use of flexible work
options at the workplace. Four
types of options were considered
–job sharing, teleworking, flex
time, and a compressed work
week. For each option 1=not
used, and 6=used by over 50%
of the workforce, leading to a
total scale of 1-24 for the four
options mentioned, with 24
indicating widespread availability
of all options and 0 indicating no
availability.
Use of Flexible Work Options Index
Figure 7: Estimated Use of Flexible Work Options by Country
(Job sharing, tele-work, flexi-time, and compressed work week).
10.0
8.0
9.0
6.9
6.0
6.7
4.7
4.9
Italy
France
4.0
2.0
0.0
Spain
Sweden
UK
Source: Cranet Survey (2005)6
agework@bc.edu
9
VII. Indicators of Culture of Respect, Inclusion & Equity
ΩΩ Diversity, inclusion, and employee personal growth are valued.
••
As suggested in Figure 8, workplaces in Spain were less likely to provide programs
for minority/ethnic groups, older workers, people with disabilities, and women in the
Spanish workplace was compared to other countries.6
Opportunities
for Development,
Learning &
Advancement
Fair, Attractive
and Competitive
Compensation &
Benefits
Promotion of
Constructive
Relationships at
the Workplace
Figure 8: Programs for Targeted Employee Population Groups by Country
(minority/ethnic groups, older workers, people with disabilities, and women)
Programs for Targeted
Employee Groups Index
1.5
1.4
1.2
1.11
.97
0.9
0.6
.58
.53
0.3
0.0
Spain
Italy
France Sweden
UK
Source: Cranet Survey (2005)6
10
http://www.bc.edu/agingandwork
Wellness,
Health &
Safety
Protections
Opportunities for
Meaningful Work
Quality of
Employment
Provisions for
Employment Security
& Predictabilities
Workplace
Flexibility
Culture of
Respect,
Inclusion
& Equity
A scale was constructed
measuring the availability of
program types for particular
employee population groups.
Four types of populations were
considered –minority ethnic
groups, older workers, individuals
with disabilities, and women.
For each option 0=no (i.e. no
programs), and 1=yes (i.e. a
program exists), leading to a total
scale of 0-4 with 0 indicating
nothing available to any groups
and 4 indicating programs
available to all groups.
VIII. Indicators of Promotion of Constructive Relationships at the Workplace
mind the gap 10
spain employer
october 2010
Fair, Attractive
and Competitive
Compensation &
Benefits
Promotion of
Constructive
Relationships at
the Workplace
••
Wellness,
Health &
Safety
Protections
Opportunities for
Meaningful Work
Quality of
Employment
Spanish employers were more likely to recognize trade unions for collective
bargaining compared to the United Kingdom. However, Spain was less likely to
recognize trade unions compared to Italy or France.6
Provisions for
Employment Security
& Predictabilities
Workplace
Flexibility
Culture of
Respect,
Inclusion
& Equity
Figure 9: Recognize Trade Unions for Collective Bargaining
98.5
100%
80%
% of Employers
Opportunities
for Development,
Learning &
Advancement
ΩΩ Interactions with supervisors and coworkers are professional and respectful.
90.2
71.9
60%
50.9
40%
20%
0%
Spain
Italy
France
UK
Source: Cranet Survey (2005)6
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11
summary:
minding the gap
How do employers in Spain compare to Italy, France and the United Kingdom regarding
policies and practices relating to the quality of employment offered employees?
ππ Workplaces in Spain appear to be the least egalitarian between managers
and other groups of workers than in France, Sweden or the United Kingdom.
ππ Spanish employers have the lowest percentage of annual payroll costs spent
on training (2.39%) compared to the other four countries in this report.
ππ Spanish employers (81.9%) reported that they used employee performance
assessments as a way to determine training and development needs.
ππ A small percentage of Spanish employers reported the use of recruitment
freezes (11.0%), internal transfers (11.4%) or absence of contract renewals
(15.2%) during periods of reduction in the workforce.
ππ Spain was on par with the United Kingdom in terms of the likelihood of
providing flexible work options in the workplace.
ππ Spanish employers were more likely to recognize trade unions for collective
bargaining compared to the United Kingdom.
conclusion:
closing the gap
Several key areas in the quality of employment in Spain need improvement, particularly the
lack of funds by employers committed to training and development. On the other hand,
Spain is doing well by providing flexible work options in the workplace. All employers in
Spain should try to offer their employees the opportunity for meaningful and fulfilling work.
12
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mind the gap 10
spain employer
october 2010
about the institute
Established in 2007 by the Sloan Center on Aging & Work, the Global Perspectives
Institute is an international collaboration of scholars and employers committed to the
expansion of the quality of employment available to the 21st-century multi-generational
workforce in countries around the world.
The Global Perspectives Institute focuses on innovative and promising practices that
might be adopted by employers and policy-makers.
The Institute’s research, publications, and international forums contribute to:
ΩΩ a deeper understanding of the employment experiences and career aspirations of employees of different ages who work in countries around the world;
ΩΩ informed decision making by employers who want to be employers of choice
in different countries; and
ΩΩ innovative thinking about private-public partnerships that promote sustainable, high quality employment.
In addition to the Mind the Gap series, the Global Perspectives Institute publishes
a Statistical Profile Series that highlights workforce demographic trends in different
countries and a Global Policy Series that focuses on selected workforce policy in certain
country contexts.
For more information on SCAW publications, please visit us online at:
www.bc.edu/agingandwork
The Sloan Center on Aging & Work at Boston College promotes quality of employment
as an imperative for the 21st-century multi-generational workforce. We integrate
evidence from research with insights from workplace experiences to inform innovative
organizational decision making. Collaborating with business leaders and scholars in a
multi-disciplinary dialogue, the Center develops the next generation of knowledge and
talent management.
The Sloan Center on Aging & Work is grateful for the continued support of the Alfred P.
Sloan Foundation.
Marc Grau i Grau, is a doctoral candidate in Social Policy at the University of Edinburgh. He obtained a MBA
from ESADE Business School and a MA in Political and Social Sciences from the University Pompeu Fabra
in Barcelona, Spain. Currently, Marc serves as a Research Assistant at the International Center of Work and
Family in IESE Business School. Marc is involved in the IFREI project and other projects that focus on WorkFamily Balance. He also worked as a Western European Travel Manager in the Henkel Group.
Emma Parry, Ph.D., is a Principal Research Fellow at Cranfield School of Management. Emma is the author
of numerous publications and conference papers in the field of HRM, many of which focus on managing
an aging workforce and international comparative HRM. She also manages Cranet, an international network
of over 40 business schools worldwide that regularly conducts a comparative survey of HRM policies and
practices.
agework@bc.edu
13
references
1 For example, see:
Barnett, R. C., & Gareis, K. C. (2002). Full-time and reduced-hours work schedules and marital quality: A study of
female physicians with young children. Work and Occupations, 29(3), 364-379.
Butler, A. B., Grzywacz, J. G., Bass, B. L., & Linney, K. D. (2005). Extending the demands-control model: A daily
diary study of job characteristics, work-family conflict and work-family facilitation. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 78(2), 155-169.
Karasek, R. A., Jr. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 285-308.
Kasl, S. V. (1996). The influence of the work environment on cardiovascular health: A historical, conceptual, and
methodological perspective. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1(1), 42-42.
Johnson, J. V., & Hall, E. M. (1988). Job strain, work place social support, and cardiovascular disease: A crosssectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population. American Journal of Public Health,
78(10), 1336-1342.
Lewis, S. Brookes, M., Mark, A. & Etherington, D. (2008). Work engagement, work-family enrichment and gender:
A positive approach to quality of working life. Working Paper. London: Middlesex University Business School.
Melchior, M., Niedhammer, I., Berkman, L. F., & Goldberg, M. (2003). Do psychosocial work factors and social
relations exert independent effects on sickness absence? A six year prospective study of the GAZEL cohort.
Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 57(4), 285-293. doi:10.1136/jech.57.4.285
Swanberg, J. E., & Simmon, L. A. (2008). Quality jobs in the new millennium: Incorporating flexible work options
as a strategy to assist working families. Social Service Review, 82(1), 119-147.
Wilson, M. G., Dejoy, D. M., Vandenberg, R. J., Richardson, H. A., & McGrath, A. L. (2004). Work characteristics
and employee health and well-being: Test of a model of healthy work organization. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 77(4), 565-588.
2 For example, see:
Allen, T. D., Eby, L. T., Poteet, M. L., Lentz, E., & Lima, L. (2004). Career benefits associated with mentoring for
protégés: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1), 127-136.
Barnett, R. C., & Hall, D. T. (2001). How to use reduced hours to win the war for talent. Organizational Dynamics,
29(3), 192.
Edmans, A. (2008). Does the stock market fully value intangibles? Employee satisfaction and equity prices.
Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania- The Wharton School. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/
abstract=985735
3 Towers Perrin. (2005). Winning strategies for a global workforce: Attracting, retaining and engaging employees
for competitive advantage. Stamford, CT: Towers Perrin. Retrieved from http://www.towersperrin.com/tp/
getwebcachedoc?webc=HRS/USA/2006/200602/GWS.pdf
4 Great Places to Work Institute. What makes a great place to work: Financial results. Retrieved from http://www.
greatplacetowork.com/great/graphs.php
5 Unfortunately, most of the research linking employer-of-choice strategies with business outcomes tends to focus
on correlational relationships. Such studies do not definitively establish that being a “best place to work” causes
positive organizational performance; indeed, it also might be true that high profits and strong financial growth
cause higher employee engagement and foster perceptions that a particular workplace is an employer of choice.
6 The Cranet survey is a regular survey of human resource management policies and practices conducted in over
40 countries worldwide.
7 Becker, G.S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis with special reference to education. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
14
http://www.bc.edu/agingandwork
mind the gap 10
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october 2010
Mind the Gap Series:
mtg01:
mtg01: mtg02: mtg02: mtg03: mtg03: mtg04: mtg04: mtg05: mtg06: mtg07: mtg07: mtg08: mtg08: mtg09: mtg09: mtg10: mtg11: mtg12: mtg12: mtg13: mtg14: mtg15: mtg15: United States, Employee
United States, Employer
Japan, Employee
Japan, Employer
South Korea, Employee
South Korea, Employer
United Kingdom, Employee
United Kingdom, Employer
China, Employee
Singapore, Employer
Australia, Employer
Australia, Employee
Denmark, Employee
Denmark, Employer
Italy, Employer
Italy, Employee
Spain, Employee
France, Employee
Brazil, Employee
Brazil, Employer
Mexico, Employee
Greece, Employee
Ireland, Employee
Ireland, Employer
For all of the Center’s publications, visit our website at www.bc.edu/agingandwork
agework@bc.edu
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