AN r'TQUIBY LT'.t:O
~ESC~IOOL
~~:.IE C:~EATI7I'l'Y
o Ii'
AITD PRE:ARY GRID 1'; CEILD:lEN
A Thesis
Presented to
the Honors Conmittee
Ball State Teachers College
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for Graduation
\'lith Honors
•
by
Judi th Ann E:nsh'viller
June, 1963
-
.
I reco::nn.end this thesis for acceptance for
graduation with honors •
.
-
SpCoI!
'il-''S:7IS
I-t)
;:JNCZH
-
.
.?tt
IQ&,3
;:/.1."7
I
f --'
I 1'Jish to acl;:nmvledge the
assista~1ce
gi ve~l :-c_e
in the preparation of this paper by Dr. Elizabeth
Spencer.
PAGE
.............. ......
....... . . . . .. . ...... .1
The Problem •.........•....•.
Statement of the
Defi~itions
proble~.
1--
of the study.
.1
of Terns Used.
.3
·.................. . . . . ...3
thinking. .. ... . ...... ....... .. . .. ... .3
Creative expression.
Creative
Creative process ........••.•.....••..•...•.•.. 3
Organizatio~1.
II.
~Uf'lIE;I
of the Study.
............... .......4
.5
03' ::\ELATED LITRTtAT':JRE.
The Hature of Creativity and its Compo:1ents.
Rese2rch Related to Creativity in
You~g
....5
•.••••
Cllildre11 ...................................... 9
S tlrlElar"jr • • • • • • • • • • • • •
c
III.
Ca."} Creative Thinkinz
Suggestio:1S ?or
•
· .... ... ........ ... . . . . ..20
·. .. . .. ..... . . ...... . . .. • 21
Be Taught? .... . ........
Fare~.1.ts
and Teachers.
.22
.......... ......................26
cmrCLFSIm;s. .... ... .... ... .. .... ... ........ ..... .27
Guida.'1.ce Roles.
TH
_ J •
3I::31IOG:1AFl~
, •••.•
.... . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .... . . ... . . .. .. . . . 32
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CHAPTER I
TEE
PROBLEr·~
AND DEFINITIONS OF TERES USED
During the past several years creativity has become
a topic of major interest in educational literature and
discussions.
Educators have come to believe that creativity
and originality need to be fostered and encouraged in order
to bettE!r prepare the nation t s children a.l1d youth for the
complex vlOrld of i<[hich they i,lill be a part.
The realization
that, as a general rule, originality has been a.Dd is being
repressed in our schools has caused concern.
Confor~ty
has been found to be the major value.
I. TEE PROBLEvI
statement of the problem.
It
vlaS
the purpose of
this stv.dy to determine how creati vi ty develops in the
preschool a.Dd primary grade child and to suggest how
parents and classroom teachers
!-:laY
aid the child in
developing and maintaining his creativity.
Importance of the study.
The importance of
encouraging creativity has recently begun to receive ,.,idespread publicity.
It is nov' realized that the act of
creation contributes to the development of a heal thy, "lellrounded personality.
The place of creative thiliking in the elementary
2
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s.chool needs to be considered.
Schools have been more
concerned vTi th preserving the nation t s culture than in
contributing to it.
There has been a.11 overemphasis on
memoriza.tion ,,,i th a resulting neglect in teaching pupils
to think critically and creatively.
Attitudes,
a..'1d appreciations cannot be memorized.
concer~ts,
They result when
a person assimilates and evaluates his experiences. 1
Everyone possesses to some degree the ability
involved in being creative.
or decreased by the
'1laY
This ability ca..'1 be increased
children are treated.
Therefore,
it is a legitimate function of the home a.nd the school to
provide the experiences and guidance which will enable the
children to a.chieve their greatest creative potential.
The way children pursue their creative ability and the
tendency to give up or continue the search for creative
expression is largely a matter of the 'day their needs are
ha'1dlee by their parents and teachers. 2
There have
~1.ot
been I1any studies dealing 'vi th
creativity in young children.
Host experimenters seem to
concentrate on older individuals.
Also lacking have been
IJames A. Smith, I1Teaching Creative Thinking,"
Frontiers of Elementary Education IV (Syracuse, l'IevI York:
Syracuse Gniversity Press, 1957), p. 76.
-
.
2E. Paul Torrance, Guiding Creative Talent (EngleylOod Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 13 •
3
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suggestions for parents and teachers for hO"l to best
encourage the child.
II. DEFINITIONS OF TERi'IS USED
Creative expression.
Creative expression may be
defined as the production of something nevl, unique, or not
previously existent.3
Creative thinking.
Torr~~ce
defines creative thinking
as "the process of sensing gaps or disturbing, !Ilissing
elements; forming ideas or hypotheses concerning the:'J1;
testing these hypotheses; and
cOIT~unicating
the results,
possibly modifying and retesting the hypotheses. lIlt
Creative nrocess.
Nany writers have tried to describe
the creative process, and these descriptions shoVl a great
deal of agreement.
Host analysts ("I.'lallas, 1926;
Patric1~,
1955) identify four steps: preparation, incubation,
illumination, and revision.
Apparently the process flows
something like the follovling.
First, there is the sensing
of a need or a deficiency, random searching, and a clarification of the problem.
There fol1o\olS a period of reading,
discussing, searching, and formulating
3Smith, £2. cit., p.
4Torr~~ce,
-
.sm.
75.
cit., p. 16.
m~~y
possible
4
-
solutions to the
adva~tages
proble~.
These solutions are analyzed for
and disadvantaees.
birth of a new idea.
Out of all this comes the
Fiilally, there is experimentation to
determine vThich of the possible solutions is the most
promising for the perfection of the idea.
Such an idea may
result in inventions, scientific theories, improved products
or methods, novels or other writings, musical compositions,
paintings, or ne\'l designs.5
III. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This study was developed around the nature of
creativity
a~d
how it is developed in the child of pre-
school and early elementary school age.
vias the question of how parents
a...~d
Also considered
teachers can best
contribute to the development of the creative potential
of their children
a~d
pupils.
5'Torra~ce,
OPe
cit., p. 17.
CHAPTER II
REVI];'\'[ OF RELATED LITERATURE
~~his
chapter 'viII revievl the literature pertinent
to the study of the nature of creativity and its components.
Secondly, research relating specifically to creativity in
young children '''ill be investigated.
I.
~~HE
NATURE OF CREATDlITY A2ID IllS COHPOliJENTS
Na1J.Y authorities believe that creative talent is
to be accounted for in terr.1S of high intelligence or IQ.
Guilford, however, held this conception to be inadequate
and greatly responsible for the lack of progress in W1derstanding creativity.
He found that the factor analysis
conception of personality led to a new way of
about the creative process.
thinl~ing
According to this point of
view, creativity represents patterns of primary abilities.
These patterns ca.l1. vary "lith different spheres of creative
activit~r.
Each primary ability is a variable along which
individuals differ as on a continuum.
Guilford proposed
that a successful exploratory approach to the various
aspects of creativity could be achieved through an application of factor analysis to the problem.
The stUdy '. las
begun with carefully considered hypotheses concerning the
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possible primary abilities and the properties of each.
He hypothesized that certain kinds of factors would be
foUt"1.cl, including sensitivity to problems, ideational
fluency, flexibility of set, ideational novelty, synthesizing
ability, analyzing ability, reorganizing or redefining
ability, span of ideational structure, and evaluating
ability. 1
Subsequent research has borne Guilford out in most
of his hypotheses, with the exceptions of the synthesizing
and a."1.a1yzing abilities. 2
1,0\.[enfeld reported the basic findings of seven years
of research on creativity by the Department of Art Education
of Permsylvania state University.
The study was an attempt
to find criteria which might significantly differentiate
betvleen creative and less- or non-creative people in the
arts.
'1'he study ,.,ras compared with that of Guilford and
his starf at the University of Southern California.
The
t'lIJ'O stuc.ies came up '<lith eight similar criteria vlhich it
was believed did differentiate bet'\'ieen the creative and the
less- or non- creative individual.
IJ.p. Guilford, ItCreativity,tI The American
Psychologist, V(September, 1950), pp.~451l-.
~~J.P. Guilford, "Tr8.its of Creativity,tt Creativity
and Its Cultivation (East La.l1sing, Hichigan: Addresses at
the Interdisciplinary Symposia on Creati vi ty, l-lichigan State
University, 1957-58), pp. 142-161.
7
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These criteria are:
1. Sensitivity to problems.
2. Fluency of ideas.
3. £!'lexi bili ty •
LI-.
Originality.
5. Redefinition and the ability to rearral1ge.
6. Analysis or the ability to abstract.
'7. Synthesis and closure.
,so Coherence of organization.
~rhe
last four iter:ls \'1ere named differently in the
tvlO investigations.
After close study, it has been found
that thj;:)Y tested similar attributes. 3
strang listed tt'lelve suggested major characteristics
of the ereative person.
7hese are:
1. Sensitive perception of details in the
i'lorld of nature and the vJOrld of man.
2. Awareness of, and concern about, unsolved
problems.
3. Fluency of thought.
4. Concentration.
5. Integration.
6. Flexibility and spontaneity guided by a
goal or purpose.
7.0riginality and individuality.
8. Ability to al1alyze and abstract, and also
to synthesize.
9. Ability to go beyond the facts and discern
new implications, to imagine more than the evidence
obviously shO\'1s, to speculate on relations that may
not at present be verifiatlle.
10. Keen satisfaction in creative activities.
11. Superior abstract al1d verbal intelligence.
12. Motivat~on, character traits, and emotional
factors as well.~
3Viktor Lowenfeld, "Current Research on Creativity,tf
NEA JQyrnal, XLVII (:l{ove::lber , 1958), pp. 538-540.
.-
Y-Ruth strang, "Developing Creative POvlers of Gifted
Children," Creativity of Gifted and Talented Children (Pub.
for the American Association for Gifted Children by the
Bureau of ?ublications: Teachers College, Columbia, 1959),
pp. 21-;::'2.
-
In addition to studies concerning the nature of
creativity, several vlri ters have stated vlhat they feel is
rlecessary as a part of the creative individual t s enVirOnl:lent.
According to lv'lil t, a child must have a rich
experiential background a..'1.cl rich sensory experiences in
order to be able to create.
In addition he must have ex-
posure to great art in all its forms in order to develop
respect for original ideas and for the self-discipline
which is necessary if a person is to create.
He must be
exposed to the work of other children, and he
~ust
have
ample opportu.:f1i ties to discuss ideas a..'1.d to express himself in oral language.5
In order to think creatively each child must
identify himself "vi th his own experiences.
experience intensely.
He must
The easier it is for him to become
involved in. any given Situation, the higher is his
Elotivati,on to create from it. 6
Creative production seems to depend upon a backgroll..Yld of related experiences, the development of an urge
to expr€'ss oneself, the accessi bili ty of a '''ide variety
of materials, ample time, a permissive atIlosphere for
creatiVE ·"rork, and a teacher ""ho has had experiences in
5'?.ririaEl E. l<Jil t, Creati vi ty in the Elementary School
(He", York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, Inc., 19595, pp. 8-10.
6S:u th, QQ. cit., p. 76.
9
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creative activities.?
It is nOvT generally
assu~ed
that all individuals,
especially children and youth, have some d€gree of
creativity in one or more of a wide range of activities.
The highly creative person possesses special sensitivity
and a superior quality of mind i'lhich relates and organizes
experiences. 8
II. 3ESE.!L-qCl: :mLATED TO CREA.TIVITY IN YOillm C?:ILD2:EN
Krishnaiah conducted sociometric studies of creative
individuals as one approach to the study of peer sanctions
against highly creative persons.
The socioDetric data
"'.vere obtained in thirty-three classrooms in four schools.
Children 'vere asked to nominate three classmates in each
category: best friends, those
~"Tho
most aggressively state
their ideas, those v.Tho have the most good ideas, those
'vho thinl\: of the most vlaYs to be naue;hty, those I::ho think
of the nost i'lild or silly ideas, and those 'who hold back
their ideas.
Some of the general trends of the study can
be sUlfu"TIarized by grade levels.
In the first bro grades there was a general tendency
for
pup:~ls
i'li th ;.}oderate creativity scores to be chosen
frequently on the good-ideas criterion; whereas highly
.
. 7Ibid., pp. 81782, citing David Russell A Childrenrs
ThlnklnE~ (Nei'l Yorlt: Glnn and Co., 1956), p. 320.
8~t
"
orang, 012 • ..£ll.,
p. 20 •
10
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creative boys in particular "rere chosen as having silly
and nau/::;hty ideas to a marked degree.
1-lere fevr consistent patterns.
Other\·Jise, there
In general, it vlaS observed
that children in these grades are able to perceive the
same child as having good, naughty, and silly ideas.
IIighly creative girls tended to be chosen frequently
on the good-ideas criterion in the third grade but the
boys did not fare as ·",!ell.
The most often chosen children
on this criterion tended to nominate one or
~ore
most crE;ative but not frequently chosen children.
of the
In most
cases, pupils nominated as having ideas for being naughty
or having silly ideas vJere not chosen on the good-ideas
criterion.9
NcHillan identified three stages in the develop:nent
of the j.magination.
During the first stage, the young child
has a SEnlSe of beauty which serves as a sort of shortcut
to knOi.vledge.
As she says, "the city of gold v1i th pearly
gates, "lith crystal fountains and unblackened skies" is
real to the child at this time.
comes to grip
~ith
In the second stage, he
the realities of life.
He begins to
inquire into the reasons for things and to ask ",,,hy there
are so :nany streets that are not golden, so many fou..."'1tains
-
9P.R. Krishnaiah, IfSociornetric Studies of Creativity,"
Creativity (Proceedings of the Second lv1innesota CO:iference
on Gifted Children, 1959), 9P. 91-92.
11
that are turbid vlith filth, and so many skies that are
blackenE~d
all the tiJae."
During the third and final stage,
he begins to figure out for hi:nself the ideal of his first
vision of the world. lO
Andre'i'ls used a variety of methods and observations
in attenpting to study a variety of types of imaginative
and creative activity.
He presented three tests tachis-
toscopically with the task one of forming new products
i:~:aginative
i~:li tation,
~-:lay
j.n
c;lildre!l from t-,'lO to six ,rears of age:
experimentation, tra21sformations of
0
bj ects
and aninals, acts of sY::1pathy, dramatizations, appropriate
quotations, leadership vIi th plan, and aesthetic appreciation. II
Andre\-Js discovered that total imaginative scores
vJere
hiE~hest
six months.
\'Then
ch:~IQren
bet\..reen the ages of four years and four years,
There
vTaS
a sudden droy at about afe five
enter kindergarten.
The peak of the cbili ty
to redefine, res tructure, and recombine
three and four years.
i'TaS
reached behmen
FrO:l1 then on it decreased.
Analogy
reached a peak during the fourth year anci then declined
during the fifth year.
"Don't knm'ltf responses decreased
lOTorra..i1.ce, QJ2. cit., p.
111'D1·
0. . ,
__
lJ·
""'1
2h'
..J.
f"""\ ....
00.
12
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steadily I.,ri th chronological age 1J.p to five years '1..;hen they
started to increase.
The ;-nore creative types of i:r.agination
reached a high point from the ages of three years and a
half to four years and a half.
Their lm'lest ebb \'laS fOll..n.d
to OCClli:- during the fifth yenr .12
A.l'1dr8\·;s also described some of the unpublished -Hork
of Eartha Beckm.an Ra.'1sohoff.
She used a series of stan-
dardized inkblots and a picture test as stimuli for her
study.
The pictures for the test illere taken from current
magazines a.n.d i.>jere "typical of nodern advertising art. It
Her nethods of assessing responses reflected vThat Torra...'1ce
believed to be serious nisconceptions regarding the nature
of creative imagination.
Ansvlers to the lJictures i.·jere
scored in ter!:1s of accuracy on a scC'.le ra..71ging fro!:]. zero
to tvlO.
In evaluating the inl{blot test, she gave the
tO~J
score to those children vlho responded 11/i th the saT.e anS1"ler
five tilTleS out of five.
both
ap:~ear
Torrance stated that these Vlould
to be measures of convergent thinking.
It is
therefore not surprising that she concluded that the
imagination of young children increases 1vi th age.
Eer
study i1:lclul~ed only b-ienty-t-vlO children. 1 3
j-larkey found that the total of imaginative behavior
12Ibid., p. 86.
13Ibid., p.
-
25.
increased with age throughout the preschool period.
She
employed :':letbods of ooservatj.on to evaJ.uate thegerforr,w.nce
of children on various standardized tasl:s, such as a 1101..1sel-;:ee)ing game, the fanciful
na~ing
of visual
She
that no single test ta;s all of a child 1 s
leader-
stimu~.i,
cO~1cluded
i~aginative
abilities
and that the sane test is not equally valid at various age
levels.
on the
;She reI t that the younger chiJdren :!lade better scores
housekeepi~g
game because they were
in that type of activity.
~ore
interested
The older children were more apt
to respond to the visual stinuli in realistic
ter~s
because
they kne'd the correct ter:11S for the i tens .1)+
Gri))e:1,ls study included children1s paintings and their
verbalizations 'l:111i1e they ';,!ere paj.nting.
He f01..nd the follovling
to be s::mrces of cl1iJ.dren IS i::aginatlve ideas:
their innediate environment,
~)hysical
incidents in
aspects of
t~1e
envir-
onment, bool:s, ::1agazi::1es, pictures, and their experiences
v11 ttl travel.
Ee CO'1c}.uded that
"exce~:)t
in rare i::1stances
creativ '2 imaginatton cioes not function in children be 10'\<' the
age of five years, but some children at the age of five
exhibit a degree of it cox;arable to
old.
II
chi~dren
seven years
Gri;J)en I s study 'vms li::11 ted to forty-eight snbj ects .1S
°d
.141'
...-'21..-.,
P • 26.
151b;d
'"
__-,-_e, 1..J.
24.
-
:.i.uth Griffiths ide::1tified eleve:1 stages in the
creative drawings of
"ltlhat
the
.:Ja:::,a~_lel
young child.
chiljre~.
develo~·ment
3he felt that these sorneof the iP."'.agin.ation of the
These stages are:
1.
A stage of l1..'1differentiated scribble.
') •
'--
T")""'lp"h
... \'-'I-~L-:-J.".,:>\
'"eOp'e+-""l'
cal.__ s:')a-""'es
oos,oa11"lr c-i__ ""c 1 es
V,J..,
•
,l_-l..
and squares, wltn names SUCD as doors, wl::1dows,
B?)les, ap~lied.
3. :·~al:i::1g of aadi tional 0 bj ects by cO ilbinc:tio'lS
of lines ~nd squ2res a'ld by single circles.
4. CombinQtions of circles a.'1cJ. lines to :':1ake
:~mny other objocts, i:lith :-m~lan figure as one of the
nri~e interests.
- , 5. , JLi.Xta:;:;osi tion of many 0 bj ects rapidly drmm
ann :'lar::eQ.
6. Concentration on one object at a ti~e,
bolder work, C2re taken, and degree of detail present.
7. B'l.Ttiler.j 1..:.xta·pos::' tion, ()ut clear stj.bj ecti ve
association, work recognizable.
8. Partial synthesis, SO::le i teY:1s being ShOi'.T]l. in
definite relationshi) to each other.
9. Pure picture, one ?icture only.
10. !~uJ_ ti~~licatio~l of )ictures, joy of re 1}resentation.
11. Deve~o:cYnent of a they-,e b~T Tnea~1.S of a series
of )ict:':;.res .11J
.~1..
l..~
J..c.:';"J
~....J--:-'lJ
.4_'-
Y
to four years of age IQ was correlated
degree of creative use of certain
clay, a.:l.d
0
:-·-;.aterials (blocks,
•
There is rather general
tale~t.
with the
''"'tS) 17
"''11 ~J..
..:.""'c.....
ele~entary
~:·lay
_os~tively
school are
The rise and
cr~tical
dec1~ne
agree~ent
in the
that
t~e ~ear3
develo;~ent
of
of creative
of the child's creativity
duri'l.g this period have been :10tj_ced and reg:retted by :1lany
eOTcn tors.
16r
-i'
-..!2..:::Q.
9.
87.
l7r
-- ......Q1.£., :).
2'
-(;.
°
"
,
15
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}lore v2riec1.
~-:lO.terials
a~ld
;;~eti~lOds
have ooe'.1.
~~sed
i:'1
stl.l .cLytn.:3 the creative :90·,::er3 of chLl_:lren c3.urine: tile e1e:::entary school l:er=_od tha.:.1 6.uring the preschool years.
This is possible becaGse of the chi1d's increased ability
to cOJ1:nnnicate through S)eeCll and writing.
~ypical
':atric~,~'
ren i:::1
of ua'.1.Y of the early efforts was Kirk-
s ','lor:: ·Hi til four irL;:blots.
t::-~e
lIe reported tl18t child-
fj.rst tilree zrades are Il:ore L'laginatlve than
lie fotmd
aXl
increase
i:::1 imaginatio:1 in seventh and eighth grade stG.(e:"lts.~· '3
Colvin used
of
hu~or,
CO!·1~::,osi tion,
il1V e:::1t ion , sense
feeling, and inaginatlve and percc9tive )ower.
used fifty sets of four s1:1a11 (lOtS, re)rese:1ting
si~~r)SO:Cl
tl:e fOlE' corners of squares.
ciravlings.
Ear~s
notici!1~~
These served as stir:mli for
He assessed fluency, originality, and flexibility.
used a test requiring the subjects to
rep~esent
words
(mostly var:i.ous actions) by the use o.f Single lines.
'stephenson used a Poetry-\Iri ting Test and an Art Fors Test,19
Heari:1s maintained that it ':laS common YillO\flledge that
creative activity enjoys free expression in the first
three grades 't'!i th so:ne freedoTi renaining in gra<ies four
and fiVE?
=1e stated that there '.'IDS a rapid decline in
grades six and seven and t:lat eighth graders enjoy creative
,-
91.
19Ibid., p. 28.
16
-
expression in secret but eventually give it
that it could be revived at
allY
u~:).
He felt
time. 20
:3arkan [:lade a nu:::nber of interesting observations
concerning the
develo)~'1ent
of creativity.
snall n'lmber of ele:Jentary art teachers.
He observed a
He fOLLl'1d that
children s11O\-, greater spurts of grO\'lth at sone ages tha."1
at others.
The
aY~OLL"1t
of grovlth from first to second
grade seemed to be more
dra~atic
garten to first grade.
I!e stated that the intense curi-
than that from kinder-
osi ty of s econd.-graders about the IfY!hylt and "hovl" of things
cha::1ged into a concentrated quest for explanations among
pupils in the third grade. 2l
'rorrance conducted a study i/lhich revealed that \ilhen
childre:.1 first beein to notice sex differences--so:1e
activities are suitable only for boys and others only for
girls--their ability to think creatively tal::es a sharp
dro~).
Usually this is arouIld the age of five v;hen the
child e::1.ters Idndergarten.
.A....1J.other dro) ill the creative
pm'!ers of American children occurs at about the end of
grade three or the begi::'l.ning of grade four--about age nine.
It is believed that this c.rop may be due to increased
desire for peer acceptance all.d approval which COl:leS at
20Ibid., p}. 91-92.
-
21Ibid., p. 92.
17
-
about this age. 22
In another study, Torra..YJ.ce discovered three
characteristics I·,hich seemed to sta..YJ.d out among creative
childre~.
He compared the most creative boy and girl in
several classrooms vii th classmates "Tho had the
measured IQ.
There 1,'las a te'.l.dency for the
S2-me
crea-:~5.v2
ren to have a reputation for wild and silly ideas.
was especially true of the boys.
This
The work of the
creative children ,.,as characterized by a large
ideas "off the beaten track. It
c~lild-
nU~"1ber
of
Their drawings '<'Tere
characterized by playfulness aYJ.d humor. 23
Developers and users of i::::aginative and creative
thinking tests for
childre~
in elementary school have
consistently found little or ::10 relationship bet"jeen the
scores on these tests and tue scores achieved on tests of
intelli~;encc. 24
~~2E. Paul Torrance, !teul tural Discontinuities and
the Developrlent of Originality of thinking,1t Bureau of
Educational Research: University of Hinnesota, 1962.
~~3E. Paul Torrance, "Personali ty Development of the
Highly Creative Child,1/ Creativity (?roceedings of the
Second ~,al1i'1esota Conference on Gifted Children), pp. 98-100.
'")4E. Paul TorrarlCe, Guiding Creative Talent (Englet::.
Hood Cliffs, I'ie'.-J Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 28.
-
18
-
As a part of the U::1ion College Character research
Project, Ligon atte:npted to establish age-level
characteristics for the development of the
i~agination
from birth to age sixteen.
~Birth
to age tviO.
begin developing their
of life.
Ligon maintained that children
ima~ination
during their first year
The child questions the names of thines D.:1d
begins to atte:".pt to reproduce sOlli'1.ds and rhythms that he
hears.
Tdhen he creates something, he generally naBes it
after its completion, rather than before.
He begins to
anticipate daily routines, and by the time he is t'!,'lQ, he
has begun to look for'!,'lard to special
eve~1ts.
He is eager
to expe:riel1.ce everything through the !"ilediu;ns of touch, taste,
and sight.
He is very curioua, but each child expresses
this curiosity in a different '!,>/ay.
:li.ges tv.,ro to four.
During the ti!l1e from
bllO
to four
the child learns about the world through direct experience.
He then repeats :-lis experiences in verbal and imaginative
play.
He is thrilled about the 1.'lOnders of nature.
continu4~s
to be curious about his environment and he often
asks qw;;stions which are e:nbarrassing to adults.
experie~1ces
are lil-:ely to shake the 'Child f
in nevI discoveries.
•
S
?earful
confidence
The child often overreQches his
capaci ties and is likely to respond
frustr8.~:;ed
He
i;;i
th anger \,;hen he is
19
Ligon and his associates say that
1l.g es four to six.
most
ch=~ldren
irlagina tio~1.
the
fror: four to six years of age have a good
They Dake no state:l1ent about a declL1e in
i~agination
at about the age of five.
During this
tir1e the child first learns the skills of planning.
begj.ns to enjoy planning anticilJated play and It,.,rork.
He
tI
He
lear:J.s naul t roles and e:x:peri:-nents \·,rith :nany types of roles
through his i:naginative play.
Ee becomes able to relate
isolated events, although he !:.lay not u:J.cerstand the reason
for the relationship.
At this age, he
begi~s
to become
m·rare of the feeli:J.gs of others and considers hovl his
act~ons will affect them. 2 5
ft.ges six to eight.
According to Ligo:J., the creative
iDagination of the child takes a turn tm'lard realism
betlJeen the ages of six a::J.d eicht.
details, even in )lay.
~:e
tries to
re.t~roc1uce
Drai'lings become :::1ore representative,
al trlOugh the tendency is to dray] ·vlhat one th5_nJ:s, rather
than \'li1at is Se8'1.
Curiosity continues to ci.evelo), unless
it is severely restricted by adults. 26
Torrance states that it has been his
observatio~
that many children L1 tile first and second grCldes rej ect
25Ibid. ,
.,...., .......
..'-:":......}
26Ibid.. , p.
-
.
96.
20
-
all fa::ltasy 8::ld are 7ery
L;~)O\rer:Lshec1
Ll. the real:: of t:le
4 -J.· OIl 27
~~L Y~a('l'-J..·
~...
5 '-'a
~
l...
-.
L
III. .sm:l<lu-lY
1~his
chapter 11as prese:J.teci a reviev! of
t:L-~e
literature relating; to the nature of creativity.
as
foun(l~
in the ;"OlL"1g child has been e'!',phasized.
the reviev; the folloVling concJ_usions are
releva~l.t
F"cajor
Creativity
FrO~1
to the
present investigation:
1. Creativity is a process that can be divided
into component parts.
2. Environment is a very :Lr:1porta"1t influence
on the develop!nent of creati vi ty in childre':l.
3. The preschool period and the primary grades
are of vital iDporta~ce if creativity is to be
~levelo-oed •
Parents a~l.d teaci1ers in working v;i th
ei1ildren need to be aloJare of the stages children
follo,,! in learning to think creatively •
4:
-
.
CHAPT.2R III
-
T~ACHING
FOR CRJ1TIVITY
This chapter will present guidelines and suggestions
for parents and teachers to follow in attempting to help
their children and pupils develop their creative potential
as fully as possible.
I. CAN OR s..4..TIVE THINKDTG 13.2 T t~UGHT?
If creative
unique, parents and
best
~ethods
thinki~g
te~chers
results in something new and
need to be concerned with the
for encouraging children to come up with new
ideas, new ways of
communiccc~ting,
ne'ir
'.'fays of problem-
solving, and new ways of self-expression.
thinking be taught?
Can creative
Findings in this area arB rather scarce,
but there are indications that creative thinking can be successfully taught.
A few criteria have
e~erged
from the research
as guides for such teaching:
1. Creative activity follows developmental
8tage s. vthether the child is \vorking or playing
vri th paint, clay, blocks, rhythms, words, or other
children, he tends to manipulate and ex~lore any
particular media first, then to experiment or
c:omm.unicate 1;vith it, and finally to gain aesthetic
satisfaction from his use of it.
2. Creative thinking and self-expression is a
normal charact :oristic 0'" desirable living.
3. Creative nroduction requires an environment 'i'fhich expects and encourages it.
4. Creative thinking is no sudden burst of
i.nsight ; it requires carefully pl;:mned technique's
to bring it about.
5.
Creative thinking can nev~r be considered
22
-
a purely intellectual process for it involves emotional
and personal factors as well.
6. Oreative thinLing results from the related
experiences and concerns of children.
7. Oreative thinking develops or results from
an urge or need to express oneself.
8. There is no one way to think creatively;
the process differs from person to person and problem
to problem.
9. Creativity in all forms depends upon interrelated factors of heredity, background, training,
and temperament. l
3urton has also listed a few guides as important
general characteristics of creative activity:
1. Creative expression is uncert~in at anyone
it comes or it does not come.
2. Oreative expression is easily stimulated,
~epressed, or destroyed with finality in little
children.
3. Oreative expression is favored as a rule
by freedom from compulsion, but this is not universal.
4. Oreative expression is aided by order and
regularity of effort once production is under way;
by a place and facilities for work.
5. Creative periods of work are marked by
intense concentr2tion and absorption; sometimes by
complete dissociation. 2
~ime;
II. SUGGESTIONS FOR
PAR~l'JTS
AND 'rSACHK{S
In his Union College Character Research Ligon made
suggestions to parents as to how they could best encourage
the gro-vrth of crea ti vi ty in their children.
From birth to
1 Smi t h, £2 • cit., p • 77.
;:::Smith, .££.!.. cit., p. 77, ci ting ';lilliam Burton,
The Guidance of Learning Activities (iew York: AppletonCentury-OroftS; Inc., 1952), p. 482.
23
-
age two, cre3-tive gro"ilth can be stimulated in a variety
of ways..
Imagination can oe stimulated by such things as
dolls, large
blocks, and simple games.
The child's desire
to explore should be encouraged by making his environment
safe for him to do so.
It is suggested that parents play
si:n.ple games with children this age.
Parents should enjoy
the child's verbal play and accept without question his
names for his creations.
Ligon and his associates suggested that the two-tofour year old be provided with toys which can "become" a
number of things.
They pointed that blocks or clay can
stimulate more imagination than structured toys can.
Parents
should encourage children to do things on their own as much
as possible.
The child's curiosity can be encouraged by
being delighted Ivi th him over the ne,,, things he discovers
or
crea~es.
Confidence during the four to six year period can be
developed through creative arts, word games, and new experiences of various types.
Children's creations should
not be evaluated by adult standards.
permi tti=jd to cont-ribute their
O'im
Children sdould be
ideas in planning sessions.
It is important that their questions receive simple but direct
and honest answers. 3
J~igon
and
recommends the encouragement of role-playing
par~icipation
3Torrance,
in adult activities during the period from
QE~
cit.,
pp. 87-89
24
-
six to eight years of age.
It is important that children
be allowed to continue as long as possible without help on
their various projects.
played.
Successful efforts should be dis-
It is important that adults continue to answer
questions impartially and directly.4
Strang also offers suggestions for the encouragement
of creativity.
The influence of the attitude of the child's
culture toward creativity must be recognized.
Creativity
requires qUiet for contemplation, a democratic home and
school
at~osphere,
and good timing of the needed encourage-
ment and reinforcement.
The teacher should build a back-
ground of knowledge and skill in the child, offer opportunities and materials for exploration, and maintain an
attitude of inquiry herself. 5
vfil t describes the role of the teacher in the
fostering of creative thinking.
There must be no
judgment
of right or wrong, good or bad in the products created.
The creator must find his otm way and make his O1-m judgmente
The teacher
s~ould
ask questions to encourage the
child along the lines of his own thinking.
The teacher
must accept whatever the child expresses and must above
4~., pp. 95-96.
5Strang, £E. cit., pp. 24-29.
-
25
all value the original
idea.
The expression of ideas must
always take precedence over the correct form.
The creative
6
process is of far more consequence than the product.
There seems to be rather general agreement that
creativity is best fostered in a per:nissi ve atmosphere, an
environment that encourages a flow of new ideas and independence of thought.
must
fO~3ter
If this is true, classroom climates
psychological safety and freedom, and encourage
individual and varied responses.
The child should be free
from fear of criticism as far as possible. 7
Haney writes of the classroom in which creativity
plays an important part:
The teacher's primary concern in such a
classroom is to provide ~ich experience. There
must be percept before concept, impression before
expression. Too often children gxpress little
because they have little to say.
Haney also
offers a few suggestions of classroom
activities which seem to help foster creativity.
1. Read aloud to the class; urge the pupils
to read.
2. Quote the line that fits the mood of the
moment.
3. Use pictures freely.
4. Take note of the world around you as a
group.
6 Wilt , Q2. cit., p. 8.
-
7David C. Sanders, Elementar ;i;ducation Clnd the
Academically Talen~ed :t:upil [riashington: Natiol1al~ducation
Association, 1961), p. 54.
8Theresa Haney, "A Climate for Creativity," Educational Horizons (Official publication of Phe Lambda
Thete), XL, Spring, 1962, p. 178.
26
5. Do things with th2 intention of
studying your reactions. For instance, take 9
a walk togeth?r and keep note on Ttlhat is seen.
III.
GUID~~CE
ROLES
Torrance feels that teachers may be of valuable
assistance to the creative child by assuming some of the
roles of guidance wor:{ers in s='hools where there are none.
These guidance roles must be differentiated from the other
roles of the teacher.
She may serve as an occasional
:'J~1ich
"refuge" for the child from the problems
likely to encounter in his daily life.
he is
She may serve the
child as sort of a "sponsor" or "patron".
The teacher
needs to do her best to help the child understand his
divergence
fro~
his classmates.
She provides the child
wi th a place where he m::ly communicate his id'eas without
fear of ridicule.
The teacher =hould see to it that the
child's creative talent is recognized by o~hers.
She may
play a nost important part by helping parents and others
to understand the crea~ive child. lO
9Ibid., p. 179.
-
lOTorrance, £E. cit., pp. 7-8.
CHAPTER N
COj>JCLUSIOIZS
This study vlaS undertaken for the purpose of
determining the vlay creativity develops in young children
and hm>! parents and teachers ::nay best aid this development.
Creative expression vlaS defined. as the flproduction of
so:netbin[ nm·"
unique, or
~l.ot
previously existent. II
The najor literature in the field of creativity
illas revie,,;ed.
Lm-renfeld t
S
From Guilford t s factor
a~1alysis
study and
research the components of creati vi ty "lere
found to be:
1. 3ensitivity to pro'oler::s.
2. Fluency of ideas.
3. Flexibility.
4. Originality.
5. Redefinition and the ability to rearrange.
S. Arw.lysis or t~le ability to aostl'3ct.
7. Synthesis and closure.
j. Coherence of organization.
3trang listed twelve similar factors.
Several
~riter1s
opinions on necessary aspects of
the creative person t s envirollnont ';Jere given.
i:lere
su~h
Included
things as a rich backgroul1o. of experiences,
exposure to great art, e:xposure to the Hork of other
chiJ_<iren, 8l1.U a . . lide variety of
.-
;~;aterials
',7i th Fhich. to
2 8
-
A review of creativity research relating specifically
to yOll:.'1.g chilcJren ,"as 9resented.
KrisiL.'1.aiah s tU\lied peer
san.ctions a,;:ainst the highly creative child
use of sociometric tech..'1.iques.
types
o~: i~naginative
~)lay
throu~th
the
Andre':!s observed various
in children fro;r;. t'VJO to six.
lIe noticed such things as imitation, experi3entation,
tr2,nsfo::>mations, and ciranatizations.
the total of
inag~native
1,:arkey fOll:.f'lQ that
behavior increased with age through-
out the preschool period.
In his study of children's
paintings and their verbalizations
l~lile
palntlng, Grippen
concluQ(:;d that creative imagination does not ofte::1
in children below the age of five years.
fU~'1ction
Griffiths iden-
tified eleven stages in chilCren's creative drawings which
she felt souewhat
nation.
paral~el
the
develop~ent
of the
i~agi­
Barkan found that there "las a greater spurt of
grovTth :Ln art bet,:.!een fj_rst a''1d second grade tha:'1 bet'i'Jeen
kindergarten and first grode.
Second-graders were intensely
curious about the tI'ilhy" and the "hovJ. 1I
'V!a:lted
~lore
cO:':lplete explanations.
Third-graders
Torrance discovered
a decline in creativity of children at about age five end
age ni:..1e.
In 8'1other stt:lly he pointed out three
COl:~;,on
characteristics of creative ct-lilc1ren; tiley te2:'ld to have
a reputatio::1 for 'l:Tild and silly ideas, the,,' flave a nucber
of l...illusual ideas,
-
fulness and
hu~or.
a~lC:~
their ""lork is cJ:laracterizeo. O:T play-
Ligon
atte~pted
to establish certain
29
-
age-level characteristics for the developsent of the
i~agination
in
chil~ren.
Some guidelines for teaching in such a
encourage creativity were given.
develoInental.
The
environ~ent
:lan~er
Creative activity is
It is a nor:lal aspect of desirEl ble
needs to expect
as to
an~
~i ving.
encouraze creativity.
E;10tiol1.al factors are il1.volvecl as '<.:e11 as intellectual
ones.
Creativity results from chi'dre::1's experiences.
There mcst be an urge to express oneself.
~rocoss
differs froD person to person.
suggestioYls to parents
listed
s~ch
age:le'1t of
a~--L~
cre~tivc
Ligon Dade
teachers in l1is study.
things as direct
curios~L ty,
The
ans~ers,
He
creative toys, encour-
and freedoc to '\-lOrl;: 0::1 their O1·:n.
;,'Jilt stated that teachers :nust :nake no judgnel1.t on creative
pro~j ects.
They nU.st allm-, the e:cr;)ression of ideas to take
precedence over the correct
for~.
i:''l,Dorta:1t than the product.
The process is more
Torra~1ce
felt that teachers
l"ight fill a vi tal need by servj.ng as substi tute
gu:~::3.ance
i,wrl':ers \·!here there are notlG.
?rom this study it seems that creativity is
devE;lopmental [md that it nust be encouraged at each
stage.
If the child does not receive respect and
encouragene1t for his creative efforts, he \·ril1 lear:1 to
confor~'~
-
see~lS
in order to avoid. bei::1g different.
that lJroviding t;1e necessary
res~pect
'J:herefore, it
and
encourage:~lent
30
-
are the
,:~os t
Lrportant t8.sks ofoarents
fostering creativity.
It is also
teachers in
Ct,
i~portant
that the child
be enablec"i. to experience widely and to expcrL:ent with a
wide variety of nedia.
The role of the )al--ents and the kindergarten
teacher are high13 i;-;lportant, for s tud:ies have shm·m
T
that a child's
hi~hest
he enters school.
'pe~:
of
creativ~ty
cases before
During the fifth year, v!hile the child
is in kindergarten, creativit7 reaches a very low point.
It is
i':~l)erative
that )ars1.ts
of this so tjat so
will
no~
~uch
Gt:l(
eClucators be l':aa.e aI'mre
of our nation's creative
~otential
be lost.
It see:11S
ap~~rol')riate
to conclude . ..;i th a :-lassage
School.
•
Exper:LYJentation is the };:eynote. li'or every
successful invention there are probably a
hu..ndred tries. l"or every poe:1, story, oil
painting, buil(ing design or ballet there is
usually a history of years of experi~enting
and putting different ele~ents together to
:na1Ie a satisfyinG ·\'IDole. Children :TIust try
'~hi~1gs out..
They r:lust test the"edilr[~, I,·.rhatever
it is, to ~iscover its li2its, its possibilities.
Eo",l 'Hill they 1:...'1.01;1 it I'JOn t t ,.Jork if they don t t
'~ry?
Don't fancy that your ol'ln perso'1al
experiences will provo a thing to the~.
~Jaturally they build on what others ;lave
discovered to 30;"1e extent, but plucking
~he strings of the violin, ~iscovering pitch
in various sizes of ~ails or water glasses,
1·lUi.;,
a 1·'
~ ~
.
to:> i t ·,OLLw8S,
. , '~1; ~.
o·
J.~ 0 ] ___
.. orc;:,
a~
OlL1G.~ 0_1. J_'
t.,n~_r
t.,CS t·,
lrlb
liquids ant solids and te~geratures, finding
':;11e use of tools--thesc and ~"la~1y other ti1ings
-:;hey l~lUSt c~o for the:'"1selves. School :Lsn t t the
Y>
-
1
,
....,
31
-
only 2Jlace :'lOSt of the';: "i.-lill experime':1t,
but it ". Till be the o2.11y Dlace \'lhere so::ne
children \·rill have this opportll..'1.i ty.l
If the child is to be cre2tive, a':1d it is
belj_eved that all
chilclre~l.
~ow
have SOlJ.e creative pote'1tial,
he ".mst be allovlecl to do, to learn, to liisc1J,ss, to thin1;:,
and to discover for himself in an at=osphere of respect
and e::1courage:Jent.
p.
~,r
00.
32
:2IDLIOG:nETY
A. BOOKS
1.
T:ill, t:Iilhel:nina, Helen K. ::ackintosh, and Arne
n3~ldall.
Hm'! Children Ca.n Be Creative.
~/rashi'lEton: U.S. Depart;entof Health,
Education and '\'Jelfc~re, 1954-.
2.
3a-:1<:1erS, Dnvi,~ C. 3lementary Education and t~e
:;'cadel:J.icall.Y Talented ~upil. \',Jashington:
]ational Education Association, 1951.
3.
Torrance, E. Poul. Guiding Creative Talent. Engle~ood Cliffs, New Jersey: Pre~tice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
4.
'.'Jilt, }'liria:-11 E. Creativity in th~ Elementary School.
::ievJ 'York: Ap~Jleton-Century-Crlfts, Inc., 1959.
:3. iLL:tTICLE3 IN COLLECTIO:JS
1.
Coo:~,
~'Jalt8r 1,1.
tlCreative Talent and Educatio:'l,"
greativity, E. Paul Torrance, eaitor. iroceedings
:)f the Second_ l;irElesota Conference on Gi~·ted. Children.
:~Tinneapolis: Uni versi ty of l-iinnesota, 1959. Fp. 1-2.
2.
l<'ro~T:l,
3.
Getze1s, J.'d. a.'1d P.i:;. Jackson. tiThe Social Context
of Giftedll.ess: A =·~ul tiJimensional Ap~)roach to
Definition and :<ethod, II Creativity, E. Pau120rra'1ce,
eell tor. Proceedings of the SeconCl :~innesota
Conference on Gifted Children. I"linneaDolis:
University of ::in~lesota, 1959. Pp. 28:34.
Erich. "The Creative Attitude, IT Creativity and
.Its Cultivation, Harold I:. A..Ylderson, editor. Addresses
Presented at the Interdisciplinary 3y~posia on
Creativi ty at :Iichigan State '0nivorsi ty. Nev.' "York:
:2ar:per a.nd Brothers, 1959. Pp. 44-54-.
4. Guil':ord, J.P. IITraits of Creativity," Creativity a.lld
.Its Cultivation, Harol~l .~~. &"'1dersOYl, eeii tor.
Addresses Presented at the Interclisciplin3ry SY11posia on Creati vi ty at ::ichiEan state Uni versi ty.
-J
".
.I-'
19.-"''-''
.,8'H "IT
_'.. orl:::
;.1ar-;:;er ano_" Bro"ners,
_ ):;1. .:.D,,,y. 11.2
~"1- - ]/1
_~;_.
,-
33
5.
Kri;,hnaiah? P •. ~. "30cio:netric studies of Creat=-vi ty, 11
~~reativlty, E. Paul Torra.Ylce, editor.
Proceedings
of t:1.e Second ::innesota Conference on Gj_f-cec, Children.
::ill'1.eapolis: University of ::Lmesota, })59. Pp. 91-92.
6.
Lowenfeld, Viktor. r'What is Creative i'eaching?lI
~;reati vi ty, E. ?au1~orral1ce , editor.
Proceedings
of the Second i=in1.esota Confere~l.ce on Gifted Children •
.,.
1 lS:
.
~~.
-.
t
J C 5~9 • t'p.
'"'
3 O-)\...
0
r-'
:.lIl..l1.eapO
L!nlverSl. t Y 01......'ln~leso·a,_j
c-
7.
:,lay, :::10110. liThe ~'raturc of Creati vi ty," Creati vi ty and
Jts Cultivation, Harold E. Anderson, editor.
Addresses Presented at the Interdisciplinary Sy~posia
on Creativity at :.::ichigan State University. :~ew
~[or1-;:: Harper and 3rothers, 1959.
.?p. 55-63.
8.
Smith, James A. "'.:..'eaching Creative Thinking," Frontiers of Ele~TIentary Education IV, Vincent J.
Glennon, editor. Syracuse, Hew Yor}::: 3yracuse
University t:ress, 1957. P~J. 74-32.
'7.
Stoddard( ?eorge_D. lIerea~ivi~y in Educat_ion,"
~:::rea tl Vl ty ~ Its Cul tl va tlon, Harold .',~.
Anderson, editor. Addresses Presented at the Interdisci~;linary 3Y~:lposj_a on Creativity at i'1ichigan State U-liversi ty. Ne'.>! Yorll:: Earper and
Brothers, 1959. Pp. 1~1-202.
10. strang, Ruth.
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•
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34
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13.
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--'
' 1 'lS: ~1'
-'
t8,
" '.'.>,);.
-~ h"o
D
r'3'
_,In:1ea~}o
vnlverSl, t Y O.L"',~,ln:1eSO
l:p.
'j
_L~_.
Agai~st
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__
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D. i='APER:3
•
1.
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Indiana: Da11 state Teachers College Graduate
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)
,
..