Lesbian Literature in America in the Twentieth Century: A Syllabus
An Honors Thesis (HONRS 499)
Elizabeth G. Danner
Thesis Advisor
Christine Smith
Ball State University
Muncie, Indiana
July 1995
July 1995
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Purpose of Thesis
Literature by Lesbians is often omitted or overlooked by many survey courses,
including those found in many Women and Gender Studies programs. This
syllabus explores the progression of Lesbian literature and cultures as they are found
in twentieth-century American society and provides a resource for future
colloquiums dealing with these subjects. The selections, which are organized
chronologically, were chosen specifically to expose students to a range of literary
genres and Lesbian issues. Included are discussion questions and project guidelines
which are intended to promote student involvement in the readings and subjects.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many thanks go to Kim and Jesse in the Women and Gender Studies Office
for their encouragement in my efforts and their patience in my enthusiasm.
Thanks to the Honors College for providing me with the opportunity and the
incentive to complete a project such as this. As advisor, Chris Smith provided the
resources and guidance I needed, as well as the freedom to make this work
completely my own. Of all the friends whose patient listening skills or creative
contributions were an aid to the completion of this thesis, it seems that thanks are
especially due to Dan Fitzstephens, whose grammar guidance and helpful insight
into the professorial mind were invaluable.
A special thanks goes to my sister Courtney for her help in keeping me on
task and her praise when the work was finally done. Finally, I need to offer heartfelt
thanks to my parents for not preaching "tolerance" of homosexuality, but rather
teaching intolerance of ignorance in whatever form it exists.
Lesbian Literature
Course Objectives:
The colloquium will survey twentieth century American fictional works written by and
about Lesbians. The focus of study will be on Lesbian cultures and perspectives as they are
presented in the readings. Moving chronologically through the century, the works include both
mainstream classics and lesser-known pieces of literature in order to demonstrate fully the
changes which have occured in the Lesbian community, as reflected in a rich and varied literary
tradition. Students will be encouraged to examine issues -- historical and current, personal and
public -- which Lesbians have had to face. The reading and writing assignments will foster
critical inquiry and deepen understanding of the literature while broadening the perspectives
from which students view Lesbians and Lesbianism.
Required Texts:
Allen, Claudia. Movie Queens. Chicago: Chicago Plays, Inc., 1991.
Brown, Rita Mae. Rubyfruit Jungle. NY: Bantam Books, 1973.
Morgan, daire. The Price of Salt. NY: Arno Press, 1952.
Rule, Jane. Desert of the Heart. NY: Arno Press, 1964.
Wilhelm, Gale. We Too Are Drifting. NY: Amo Press, 1935.
Hiatt packet
Grading and Attendance Policy:
Grade will be based on a possible 200 pOints (180+ is an A, 160-179 is a B, etc.). The
midterm and final are each worth 50 points; the project is worth 100 points (see separate
sheet). Five extra credit readings will be offered at 5 points each. A one page typed review will
be required for students to receive the extra points. Attendence is essential to attain the full
benefit of the instruction offered; therefore, any absence in excess of three will be penalized as
per Ball State University Undergraduate Handbook rules.
1
WEEK #1: Welcome to the Wonderful World of Lesbian Literature!
Day 1 -- Introduction to course, explanation of course content, goals, etc.
Day 2 -- Willa Cather, "Tommy, the Unsentimental."
(Optional reading: Linnea Stenson, "From Isolation to Diversity: Self and Communities in
Twentieth-Century Lesbian Novels.")
WEEK #2: Closets and Other Secret Places
Day 1 - Gertrude Stein, "Ada." Also H.D., "The Wise Sappho."
Day 2 - Amy Lowell, "Venus Transiens;" "Madonna of the Evening Flowers;"
'The Weather-Cock Points South;" "Opal;" "Decade."
WEEK #3: The Thirties
Day 1 - Gale Wilhelm, We Too Are Drifting.
Day 2 -- Djuna Barnes, "Nightwatch," from Nightwood.
WEEK #4: The Forties
Day 1 -- Sarah Dreher, Hollandia '45.
Day 2 -- Guest Speaker
(Optional reading: Kate Adams, "Making the World Safe for the Missionary Position:
Images of the Lesbian in Post-WW II America.")
WEEK #5: The Fifties
Day 1 -- Qaire Morgan, The Price of Salt (1st 1/3)
Day 2 -- 2nd 1/3 of Salt.
WEEK #6: Cruising the Bookstores
Day 1 -- Final 1/3 of Salt.
Day 2 - Ann Bannon, excerpt from Beebo Brinker; watch "Forbidden
Love."
(Optional reading: Lee Lynch, "Cruising the Libraries")
WEEK # 7: Love in the Time of the Cleavers
Day 1 -- finish "Forbidden Love."
Day 2 -- Jane Ru1e, Desert of the Heart (lst 1/3)
WEEK #8: Deserters
Day 1 -- 2nd 1 /3 of Desert . ..
Day 2 -- finish Desert . ..
(Optional reading: Gillian Spraggs, "Hell and the Mirror: A Reading of Desert of the
Heart. ")
WEEK #9: Riding the Wave
Day 1 - MIDTERM; proposals for projects due.
Day 2 - Lorde, "Love Poem," "Woman;" Brown, "Dancing the Shout. .. "
2
WEEK #10: From the Desert to the Jungle
Day 1 - Rita Mae Brown, Rubyfruit Jungle (first half).
Day 2 - finish Rubyfruit ...
WEEK #11: Motherhood and Lesbians
Day 1 -- Sima Rabinowitz, "Lullaby;" Lorde, "Now That I Am Forever With
Orild," "Black Mother Woman."
Day 2 -- Beth Brant, "A Long Story."
WEEK #12: Types and Stereotypes
Day 1 -- Lee Lynch, "Stone Butch;" Barbara Ruth, "Playing Roles;"
Christine Cassidy, "Walt Whitman: A Model Femme;" Cheryl Oarke, "'Of
Althea and Flaxie."
Day 2 - Audre Lorde, excerpt from Zami: A New Spelling of My Name.
(Optional reading: Barbara Smith, ''The Truth That Never Hurts: Black Lesbians in Fiction
in the 1980's")
WEEK #13: Bashing ... and Bashing Back
Day 1 -- Chrystos, liOn My Way;" Aalfs, "Branded," "Letter to Claudia
Brenner."
Day 2 - Cardea, ''Tremors;'' Parker, "Boots Are Being Polished;"
WEEK #14: Silence=Death
Day 1 -- Oaudia Allen, Movie Queens.
Day 2 - watch "Go Fish;" projects due.
WEEK #15: Gone Fishing
Day 1 - finish "Go Fish."
Day 2 - review for FINAL
3
Proiect Guidelines
Students will be required to complete a project worth 100 points. That's half of the
final grade, so the project should reflect serious research or creative thought (hopefully
a little of both). Students may go the more traditional academic route by writing papers
or reviews, or they may experiment with innovative project ideas. Creative projects
must be accompanied by a 3 page (typed) explanation of their work. Papers should be
a minimum of 8 typed, double-spaced pages.
Project suggestions:
- Write a paper on one of the authors studied and present it to the class.
- Read and review a novel, play, or collection of poems written by a Lesbian in
this century. Author must be American.
- Write your own play (may be one-act), poems, or short story which focuses on
a theme or piece of work studied in class.
- Compile an annotated bibliography of at least 15 works by twentieth-century
Lesbian authors.
- Collect several reviews of (or, possibly, introductions to) one of the works from
the first half of the century and compare what was said about the subjects
dealt with when it was first written as opposed to more recent discussion.
- Write a journal which is written from the perspective of one of the characters in
the readings.
- Paint, draw, or otherwise visually recreate a scene from one of the readings.
- Be creative!!
Discussion Questions
for "Tommy, the Unsentimental:"
1. Why does Harper fail to recognize the "square ness and honesty of spirit" in
Tommy that others recognize?
2. Explore the possibilities of who Tommy might be talking about in the final
line of the story.
3. Why is Tommy perceived as being "unsentimental?" What are the
implications for her character?
4. What does Tommy mean when she talks about "kinds of people?" Discuss
what social roles a Lesbian might have had at the turn of the century.
for NAda:"
1. Who is the "someone who was loving" Ada? Why does this person make
Ada happy?
2. Who are the family members that Ada likes? What do they have in
common?
3. Why would the fact that Ada " was charming inside in her" not be evident
to everyone? To whom was it evident?
for 17he Wise Sappho:"
1. What makes this a "Lesbian" story? Why would it be included in an
anthology of Lesbian fiction? Would you include it?
2. What makes Sappho "wise," according to the author? Address her
discussion of moderation.
3. What would be H.D.'s purpose in writing this story? Why would she
choose Sappho? Why would she choose to include the points that she did?
for Lowell:
1. Analyze the use of the erotic in Lowell's poetry. What is the flower to
which the author refers in "Weather-Cock?"
2. Discuss the different stages of a relationship during which Lowell may
have written each poem, particularly IIOpal" and IIDecade." How can you tell
when she wrote them?
3. Who might be the subject of IIMadonna of the Evening Flowers?" Define
the author's relationship to this person.
for We Too Are Drifting:
1. Compare the relationship Jan has with Madeline to the one she has with
Victoria. What role do the two women play in her life? How does she
benefit from each one? How does she suffer?
2. How does Kletkin's death affect Jan, particularly in her relationship with
Victoria? What does she realize about herself?
3. Imagine what might happen at the end of the novel. How might Jan's life
be affected by Victoria's return? How might Victoria's life be changed by her
trip?
for UNightwatch:"
1. In what ways does meeting Robin change Nora? What was she like before
they met? And after?
2. What are some possible meanings of Nora's dream?
3. Compare Robin to the subject of Lowell's IIMadonna of the Evening
Flowers."
for Hollandia '45:
1. Does this seem an accurate portrayal of life in the WAC? What are the
author's limitations?
2. What do you think the play says about the separation of the sexes during
times of war? Do you agree?
3. Why does Kit refuse to tear down her tent? What does the tent represent?
Why would Marian want to destroy it?
4. How do the women view their treatment in the army? Do they feel they
are seen as equals? Do they want to be?
for The Price of Salt:
1. How does Therese adjust to falling in love with Carol? What are some of
her concerns? Are they similar to the concerns of some of the characters in
the previous reading? How are they different?
2. Explore the possible meanings of the title.
3. How do the characters change throughout the novel? What might cause
these changes? How do the characters affect each other?
for Beebo Brinker:
1. Who helps Beebo come to accept her sexuality? How does that character (or
characters) do it?
2. What incident gets Beebo kicked out of school? Why did she do it? What
does she realize about herself?
3. How does Beebo's self-image affect her relationships with women? What
in her life caused it to be that way? What happens to her self-image in New
York?
for IIForbidden Love:"
1. Discuss the different ways each woman discovered her sexuality and how
she dealt with it.
2. What were options for Lesbians in the fifties? What types of lives did the
women in the movie lead?
3. What books were available to Lesbians in the fifties? How did they find
these books?
4. In the film, Ann Bannon discusses some ways in which her situation was
unique. What does she say about most stories dealing with Lesbians? Is what
she said evident in the excerpt of Beebo Brinker?
for Desert of the Heart:
1. Examine several of the religious allusions and references made in the book.
Who initiates them? Who are they directed toward? How do the different
characters react to them?
2. Explore the importance of place (desert as metaphor) evident in the novel.
How does the desert affect Evelyn? How does it affect Ann? Does this
change? In what ways, and why?
3. Is there a dilemma about either Evelyn's or Ann's sexuality? Whose
dilemma is it, and what conclusions are eventually drawn? Is this the central
conflict?
for ULove Poem," IIWoman," and UDancing:"
1. Compare Lorde's use of the erotic with Lowell's. Examine in particular the
earth as metaphor for the female body.
2. Why is Brown's poem titled as such? What movement is she talking
about? Who is silencing her "song?"
for Rubyfruit Jungle:
1. Discuss some of the class issues evident in the novel.
2. At what point does Molly understand that she is a Lesbian? What makes
her decide this, and how does she feel about it?
3. Under what circumstances does Molly reconcile with her mother? On
what terms do they part? What caused their relationship to weaken in the
first place?
for Rabinowitz and Lorde:
1. Who is struck by maternal urges in "Lullabyr Why is this surprising?
Should it be?
2. Who is speaking in each of Lorde's poems? Discuss the connections she
draws between mother and child.
3. What did Lorde learn from her mother? What does she hope her child
will take from her?
for n A Long Story:"
1. Why does the author compare Native American and Lesbian culture? Do
you think it is a valid connection?
2. Who is taking the children away from the Native Americans? Who is
taking the child from Lesbian parents? What are the reasons each has for
doing so?
3. How does separation affect the children who are taken? How does it affect
the mothers?
for Lynch, Ruth, Cassidy, and Clarke:
1. What does Lynch mean when she says the stone butch is "their ultimate
woman?" Who are "they?"
2. To what roles does Ruth compare the butch/femme dichotomy? Does she
say it is a valid distinction?
3. What arguments does Cassidy use to assert Whitman's place in the
butch/ femme dichotomy?
4. How do Althea and Flaxie reflect the butch/ femme divisions? How do
they differ from the stereotype?
for Zami:
1. How much of a role does clothing play in the butch/ femme dichotomy?
How strictly is it enforced?
2. Why does the author enjoy the fact that she and Kitty have matching belts?
What might this represent to her?
3. In what ways is race reflected in the narrator's description of Lesbian
culture?
for Chrystos and Aalfs:
1. How does Chrystos respond to the attack on her sexuality? Does she come
away from the incident stronger? Why or why not?
2. What "war" does Aalfs refer to in "Branded?" How does she plan to fight
it? Why does she contend that women are the "battlefield?"
3. Discuss the need to write a letter to Claudia Brenner. What might a
Lesbian feel when reading about an attack like this? What are some possible
responses?
for Cardea and Parker:
1. What are the "tremors" to which Cardea refers? How might they affect
Lesbians and Lesbian cultures? How might they affect all women?
2. Explore the ways in which "the bond of sister / mother daughter lover
friend" might help heal the emotional wounds associated with rape.
3. Whose boots does Parker say are being polished? For what purpose? How
does she suggest avoiding the outcome she sees as imminent?
4. What is "perversion," according to Parker? Discuss the legal and social uses
of this term.
for Movie Queens:
1. What "types" (butch/ femme, closet/ out, etc.) do Adele and Meg represent?
Are they metaphors or are they fully developed characters?
2. How did Meg and Adele manage to hide their sexuality from the public?
Why did they feel the need to hide?
3. Imagine what will happen to Meg and Adele after the close of the play.
Resources
Aalfs, Janet. "Branded." Lesbian Culture: An Anthology. Eds. Julia Penelope and
Susan J. Wolfe. California: The Crossing Press, 1993. (p. 191)
Aalfs, Janet. "Letter to Claudia Brenner: In Memory of Rebecca Wight." Lesbian
Culture: An Anthology. (p. 193)
Adams, Kate. "Making the World Safe for the Missionary Position: Images of the
Lesbian in Post- World War II America." Lesbian Texts and Contexts: Radical
Revisions. Eds. Karla Jay and Joanne Glasgow. New York: NY UP, 1990.
(p.255)
Allen, Claudia. Mavie Queens. Chicago: Chicago Plays Inc., 1991.
Andersen, Margaret L. and Patricia Hill Collins, eds. Race, Class, and Gender: An
Anthology. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1992.
Ashton-Jones, Evelyn, and Gary A. Olson. The Gender Reader. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon, 1991.
Bannon, Ann. "Beebo Brinker." Lesbian Culture: An Anthology. Eds. Julia
Penelope and Susan J. Wolfe. California: The Crossing Press, 1993. (p.97)
Barnes, Djuna. Nightwood. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1937.
Brant, Beth. "A Long Story." Women on Women: An Anthology of American
Lesbian Short Fiction. Eds. Joan Nestle and Naomi Holoch. New York:
Plume Books, 1990. (p. 95)
1
Braxton, Joanne M. and Andree Nicola McLaughlin, eds. Wild Women in the
Whirlwind: Afra-American Culture and the Contemporary Literary
Renaissance. New Jersey: Rutgers UP, 1990.
Brown, Rita Mae. "Dancing the Shout to the True Gospel or The Song Movement
Sisters Don't Want Me to Sing." Cries of the Spirit: A Celebration of
Women's Spirituality. Ed. Marilyn Sewell. Boston: Beacon Press, 1991. (p.48)
Brown, Rita Mae. Rubyfruit Jungle. New York: Bantam Books, 1973.
Burford, Barbara, Lindsay MacRae, and Sylvia Paskin, eds. Dancing the Tightrope:
New Love Poems By Women. New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1987.
Cardea, Caryatis. "tremors." Lesbian Culture: An Anthology. Eds. Julia Penelope
and Susan J. Wolfe. California: The Crossing Press, 1993. (p.240)
Case, Sue-Ellen. Feminism and Theatre. New York: Methuen, 1988.
Cassidy, Christine. "Walt Whitman: A Model Femme." The Persistent Desire: A
Femme-Butch Reader. Ed. Joan Nestle. Boston: Alyson Publications, 1992.
(p.392)
Cather, Willa.
"Tommy, the Unsentimental." Women on Women: An Anthology
of American Lesbian Short Fiction. Eds, Joan Nestle and Naomi Holoch.
New York: Plume Books, 1990. (p.7)
Chrystos. "On My Way." Lesbian Culture: An Anthology. Eds. Julia Penelope and
Susan J. Wolfe. California: The Crossing Press, 1993. (p. 185)
Clarke, Cheryl. "Of Althea and Flaxie." The Persistent Desire: A Femme-Butch
Reader. Ed. Joan Nestle. Boston: Alyson Publications, 1992. (p. 54)
2
Cruikshank, Margaret. Lesbian Studies: Present and Future. New York: The
Feminist Press, 1982.
Dreher, Sarah. "Hollandia '45." Lesbian Culture: An Anthology. Eds. Julia
Penelope and Susan J. Wolfe. California: The Crossing Press, 1993. (p.65)
Forbidden Love, eds. Cathy Gulkin and Denise Beaudoin, National Film Board of
Canada, 1992.
Furtado, Ken, and Nancy Hellner. Gay and Lesbian American Plays: An Annotated
Bibliography. New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1993.
Garber, Linda. Lesbian Sources: A Bibliography of Periodical Articles, 1970-1990.
New York: Garland Publishing, 1993.
Gilbert, Sandra M. and Susan Gubar. The Norton Anthology of Literature By
Women: The Tradition in English.
New York: W.W.Norton Company, 1985.
Grahn, Judy. The Highest Apple: Sappho and the Lesbian Poetic Tradition. San
Francisco: Spinsters, inc., 1985.
H.D. liThe Wise Sappho." The Penguin Book of Lesbian Short Stories. Ed. Margaret
Reynolds. New York: Viking Press, 1993.
Jay, Karla and Joanne Glasgow, eds. Lesbian Texts and Contexts: Radical Revisions.
New York: New York UP, 1990.
Lorde, Audre. "Black Mother Woman." Cries of the Spirit: A Celebration of
Women's Spirituality. Ed. Marilyn Sewell. Boston: Beacon Press, 1991. (p. 75)
3
Lorde, Audre. "Love Poem." Lesbian Culture: An Anthology. Eds. Julia Penelope
and Susan J. Wolfe. California: The Crossing Press, 1993. (p.271)
Lorde, Audre. "Now That I Am Forever With Child." The Norton Anthology of
Literature By Women: The Tradition in English. Eds. Sandra M. Gilbert and
Susan Gubar. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1985. (p. 2251)
Lorde, Audre. "Woman." Lesbian Culture: An Anthology. Eds. Julia Penelope and
Susan J. Wolfe. California: The Crossing Press, 1993. (p. 273)
Lorde, Audre. "Zami: A New Spelling of My Name." Touching Fire;' Erotic
Writings By Women. Eds. Louise Thornton, Jan Sturtevant, and Amber
Coverdale Sumrall. New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, Inc., 1989. (p.136)
Lowell, Amy. "Decade." The Norton Anthology of Literature By Women: The
Tradition in English. Eds. Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar. New York:
W.W. Norton and Company, 1985. (p. 1300)
Lowell, Amy. "Madonna of the Evening Flowers." Norton Anthology. (p.1298)
Lowell, Amy. "Opal." Norton Anthology. (p. 1299)
Lowell, Amy. liThe Weather-Cock Points South."
Lowell, Amy. "Venus Transiens."
Norton Anthology. (p. 1299)
Norton Anthology. (p. 1297)
Luczak, Raymond, ed. Eyes of Desire: A Deaf Gay and Lesbian Reader. Boston:
Alyson Publications, 1993.
Lynch, Lee. "Cruising the Libraries." Lesbian Texts and Contexts: Radical Revisions.
Eds. Karla Jay and Joanne Glasgow. New York: NY UP, 1990. (p.39)
4
Lynch, Lee. "Stone Butch." The Persistent Desire: A Femme-Butch Reader. Ed.
Joan Nestle. Boston: Alyson Publications, 1992. (p.405)
Mills, Jane. Woman Words:
A Dictionary of Words About Women. New York:
Henry Holt Co., 1989.
Moraga, Cherrie, ed. This Bridge Called My Back: Writings By Radical Women of
Color. Massachusetts: Persephone Press, 1981.
Morgan, Claire. The Price of Salt. New York: Amo Press, 1952.
Munt, Sally, ed. New Lesbian Criticism: Literary and Cultural Readings. New York:
Columbia UP, 1992.
Nestle, Joan, ed. The Persistent Desire: A Femme-Butch Reader. Boston: Alyson
Publications, 1992.
Nestle, Joan and Naomi Holoch, eds. Women on Women: An Anthology of
American Lesbian Short Fiction. New York: Penguin Books Ltd., 1990.
Palmer, Paulina. Contemporary Lesbian Writing: Dreams, Desire, Difference.
Philadelphia: Open UP, 1993.
Parker, Pat. "Boots Are Being Polished." Lesbian Culture: An Anthology. Eds. Julia
Penelope and Susan J. Wolfe. California: The Crossing Press, 1993. (p. 161)
Penelope, Julia and Susan J. Wolfe, eds. Lesbian Culture: An Anthology. California:
The Crossing Press, 1993.
Rabinowitz, Sima. "Lullaby." The Persistent Desire: A Femme-Butch Reader. Ed.
Joan Nestle. Boston: Alyson Publications, 1992. (p. 390)
5
Reynolds, Margaret, ed. The Penguin Book of Lesbian Short Stories. New York:
Viking Press, 1993.
Rule, Jane. The Desert of the Heart. New York: Arno Press, 1964.
Ruth, Barbara. "Playing Roles." The Persistent Desire: A Femme-Butch Reader. Ed.
Joan Nestle. Boston: Alyson Publications, 1992. (p.451)
Sewell, Marilyn, ed. Cries of the Spirit: A Celebration of Women's Spirituality.
Boston: Beacon Press, 1991.
Smith, Barbara. "The Truth That Never Hurts: Black Lesbians in Fiction in the
1980's." Wild Women in the Whirlwind: Afra-American Culture and the
Contemporary Literary Renaissance. Eds. Joanne Braxton and Andree Nicola
McLaughlin. New Jersey: Rutgers UP, 1990. (p. 213)
Spraggs, Gillian. "Hell and the Mirror: A Reading of Desert of the Heart." New
Lesbian Criticism: Literary and Cultural Readings. Ed. Sally Munt. New
York: Columbia UP, 1992. (p.115)
Stein, Gertrude. "Ada." The Norton Anthology of Literature By Women: The
Tradition in English. Eds. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar. New York: W.W.
Norton and Company, 1985. (p.1334)
Stenson, Linnea A. "From Isolation to Diversity: Self and Communities in in
Twentieth-Century Lesbian Novels."
Sexual Practice/Textual Theory: Lesbian
Cultural Criticism. Eds. Susan J. Wolfe and Julia Penelope. Massachusetts:
Blackwell Publishers, 1993. (p. 208)
Thornton, Louise, Jan Sturtevant and Amber Coverdale Sumrall. Touching Fire:
Erotic Writings By Women. New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, 1989.
6
Wilhelm, Gale. We Too Are Drifting. New York: Arno Press, 1935.
Wolfe, Susan J. and Julia Penelope, eds. Sexual Practice/Textual Theory: Lesbian
Cultural Criticism. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1993.
Zimmerman, Bonnie. The Safe Sea of Women: Lesbian Fiction, 1969-.J989. Boston:
Beacon Press, 1990.
7