Natural Fuels Photo Series Tutorial
STUDENT WORKBOOK
Land Management Tool Training Package
Fire and Environmental Applications Team
USFS - PNW Research Station
Pacific Wildland Fire Sciences Laboratory
400 North 34th Street, Suite 201
Seattle, Washington 98103
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................................. i
Photo Series Tutorial ............................................................................... ii
Welcome the Natural Fuels Photo Series Tutorial............................................ 1
Part 1: Introduction to the Photo Series........................................................ 2
What is the Natural Fuels Photo Series? ..................................................... 3
Why is the Natural Fuels Photo Series Needed? ........................................... 4
Potential Applications .............................................................................. 5
Available Photo Series Volumes ................................................................ 6
Ordering Printed Photo Series................................................................... 7
Part 2: Development of the Photo Series ...................................................... 9
How Were the Photo Series Developed? ................................................... 10
Photo Series by Volume ......................................................................... 11
About the Photographs .......................................................................... 14
Sampling Design for Each Site ................................................................ 15
A Note on Fuel Models ........................................................................... 16
Part 3: How to Use the Photo Series........................................................... 18
Getting Started .................................................................................... 19
Notes to Users ..................................................................................... 20
Framing Fuels ...................................................................................... 21
Making a Visual Inventory...................................................................... 22
Using Stereo Photos.............................................................................. 23
Matching Photos to Your Site .................................................................. 24
Estimating Fuel Values .......................................................................... 25
Summing Your Fuel Estimates ................................................................ 26
Complex Sites ...................................................................................... 27
Limitations........................................................................................... 28
Metric Conversions................................................................................ 29
Scientific Names ................................................................................... 30
Fuel Categories: Crosswalk to the FCCS ................................................... 31
Entering Photo Series Data in the FCCS ................................................... 32
Part 4: Digital Photo Series ....................................................................... 39
Opening the Digital Photo Series ............................................................. 40
Browsing Sites by Volume...................................................................... 41
Search for Sites.................................................................................... 42
Search by Map .................................................................................. 43
Search by Variable ............................................................................. 44
Viewing Data in Metric Units................................................................... 45
Viewing and Saving High-Resolution Images............................................. 46
Printing Site Data ................................................................................. 47
Downloading Site Data .......................................................................... 48
Photo Series Documentation .................................................................. 49
Part 5: Details by Volume ......................................................................... 50
Volume I: Interior Pacific Northwest ....................................................... 51
Mixed Conifer .................................................................................... 52
Western Juniper................................................................................. 53
Sagebrush ........................................................................................ 54
Grasslands ........................................................................................ 55
Volumes II and IIa: Alaska.................................................................... 56
Black Spruce ..................................................................................... 57
White Spruce .................................................................................... 58
Hardwood Succession to Spruce........................................................... 59
Volume III: Rocky Mountains ................................................................ 60
Lodgepole Pine .................................................................................. 61
Quaking Aspen .................................................................................. 62
Gambel Oak ...................................................................................... 63
Volume IV: Southwest.......................................................................... 64
Southwestern Pinyon Juniper ............................................................... 65
Southwestern Chaparral...................................................................... 66
Southwestern Sagebrush .................................................................... 67
Volume V: Central and Lake States ......................................................... 68
Midwest Red Pine and White Pine ......................................................... 69
Northern Tallgrass Prairie.................................................................... 70
Mixed Oak ........................................................................................ 71
Jack Pine .......................................................................................... 72
Volume VI and Via: Southeast ................................................................ 73
Longleaf Pine..................................................................................... 74
Pocosin............................................................................................. 75
Marshgrass ....................................................................................... 76
Sand Hill........................................................................................... 77
Sand Pine Scrub ................................................................................ 78
Southeast Hardwoods......................................................................... 79
Volume VII: Western U.S....................................................................... 80
Oregon White Oak.............................................................................. 81
California Deciduous Oak .................................................................... 82
Mixed Conifer with Shrubs................................................................... 83
Hawaii................................................................................................. 84
Hawaii Grasslands.............................................................................. 85
Hawaii Shrublands ............................................................................. 86
Hawaii Woodlands .............................................................................. 87
Hawaii Forests ................................................................................... 88
Part 6: Case Studies ................................................................................ 89
Southern Case Study ............................................................................ 90
Step 1: Finding matches to your site .................................................... 91
Step 2: Estimating Tree Characteristics................................................. 93
Step 3: Estimating Shrub Characteristics............................................... 94
Step 4: Estimating Herbaceous Understory Characteristics....................... 96
Step 5: Estimating Woody Material Characteristics.................................. 98
Step 6: Estimating Forest Floor Characteristics....................................... 99
Step 7: Summary Table .....................................................................100
Western Case Study.............................................................................101
Step
Step
Step
Step
Step
Step
Step
Step
1: Finding matches to your site ...................................................102
1a: Notes to Users .....................................................................103
2: Estimating Tree Characteristics................................................104
3: Estimating Shrub Characteristics..............................................105
4: Estimating Herbaceous Understory Characteristics......................107
5: Estimating Woody Material Characteristics.................................108
6: Estimating Forest Floor Characteristics......................................109
7: Summary Table .....................................................................110
i
Introduction
Ground inventory procedures that directly measure site conditions such as fuel loading
and arrangement, vegetation structure, and composition exist for most ecosystem types
and are useful when a high degree of accuracy is required. However, ground inventories
are time consuming and expensive. Photo series can be use to make quick, easy, and
inexpensive determinations of fuel quantities and vegetation conditions when less precise
estimates are acceptable.
About the Natural Fuels Photo Series
The Natural Fuels Photo Series currently includes eleven volumes representing various
regions of the United States and one volume from Brazil. There are one to four series in
each volume, each having four to seventeen sites. Sites include standard, wide-angle,
and stereo-pair photographs. Each group of photos includes inventory data summarizing
vegetation composition, structure, and loading; woody material loading; density by size
class, forest floor depth and loading; and various other site characteristics.
Photo series are important land management tools that can be used to ecologically
assess landscapes through appraisal of fuels (i.e., living and dead woody material and
vegetation biomass) and site characteristics. Once an ecological assessment has been
completed, fuel treatment options such as prescribed fire, thinning or biomass removal
can be planned and implemented to better achieve desired effects while minimizing
negative impacts on other resources.
The photo series is useful in several branches of natural resource science and
management. Inventory data such as these can be used as inputs for evaluating
vegetation assemblages, animal and insect habitat, nutrient cycling, and microclimate.
Fire managers will find these data useful for predicting fuel consumption, smoke
production, fire behavior, and fire effects during wildfires and prescribed fires. In
addition, the photo series can be used to appraise carbon storage, an important factor in
predictions of future climate, and to link remotely-sensed signatures to live and dead
fuels on the ground.
The Natural Fuels Photo Series continues to evolve and grow as land managers,
researchers, and policy-makers identify ecosystems for which vegetation and fuel
inventory data are needed. Future volumes are planned for the Northeast (Red spruce
and balsam fir, pitch pine, pitch pine scrub, and mixed hardwoods); Southwest (Juniper
and oak woodlands of the borderland region); Montana (Juniper and shrublands of the
Missouri Breaks region); and Mexico (pine and oak).
For more information, contact:
Roger Ottmar, Research Forester
Fire and Environmental Research Applications Team
USDA Forest Service Pacific Wildland Fire Sciences Lab
400 North 34th St, Suite 201
Seattle, Washington 98103
Office phone: (206) 732-7826; Cell phone: (206) 849-3172
E-mail: rottmar@fs.fed.us
ii
Photo Series Tutorial
The following pages follow the online tutorial which can be downloaded and/or viewed
at:
http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/products/tutorials/
The student workbook includes everything in the tutorials and provides space at the
bottom of each page for your notes.
1
Welcome the Natural Fuels Photo Series Tutorial
To start the Natural Fuels Photo Series tutorial, click on a topic in the tutorial index. You can view
the entire tutorial page by page by clicking the ► button at the top right of each screen or look up
specific topics by clicking them in the index.
If you click on a hyperlink within a tutorial page, please use the back button in your browser or
click on the topic in the tutorial index to return to that tutorial page.
Tip: Many graphics in this tutorial have orange borders to highlight specific areas in the photo
series.
Notes:
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2
Part 1: Introduction to the Photo Series
•
What is the Natural Fuels Photo Series?
•
Why is the Natural Fuels Photo Series needed?
•
Potential applications
•
Available photo series volumes
•
Ordering printed photo series
Notes:
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3
What is the Natural Fuels Photo Series?
Natural Fuels Photo Series volumes have been created for major fuel types throughout the United
States including Hawaii and Alaska (see map below). A photo series is a set of single and stereo
photographs that represent varying levels of fuels in similar vegetation types.
Each photo series is designed to make fast, easy and inexpensive evaluations of fuel and
vegetation conditions and is accompanied by data tables including fuel loading, vegetation and
site characteristics.
Notes:
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4
Why is the Natural Fuels Photo Series Needed?
•
The Natural Fuels Photo Series provides an efficient tool to estimate fuel and stand
characteristics from a variety of ecosystems throughout the United States.
•
Fuels inventories that directly measure site variables (including fuel loading and
arrangement, vegetation structure and composition, etc.) can be conducted when a high
degree of accuracy is required for a particular application. However, they are time
consuming and expensive.
•
The photo series can be used to make quick, easy, and inexpensive estimates of fuel
quantities, vegetation structure, and stand conditions when less precise estimates are
acceptable.
Notes:
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5
Potential Applications
There are many potential applications for photo series assessments, including:
•
Developing stand treatment options, such as prescribed fire or harvesting, based on
observed fuel characteristics.
•
Predicting fuel consumption, smoke production, fire behavior, and fire effects for wildfires
and prescribed fires, using models such as Consume 3.0 or FOFEM.
•
Estimating carbon storage in observed fuels.
•
Creating maps and GIS layers representing live and dead fuel loadings estimated from the
natural fuels photo series.
•
Creating custom fuel models.
•
Creating custom fuelbeds in the Fuel Characteristic Classification System that represent
fuel conditions on sites that you are managing or researching.
Notes:
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6
Available Photo Series Volumes
Natural Fuels Photo Series
•
Volume I: Mixed-conifer with mortality, western juniper, sagebrush, and grassland types
in the interior Pacific Northwest.
•
Volume II: Black spruce and white spruce types in Alaska.
o
Volume IIa: Hardwoods with spruce in Alaska
•
Volume III: Lodgepole pine, quaking aspen, and gambel oak types in the Rocky
Mountains.
•
Volume IV: Pinyon-juniper, chaparral, and sagebrush types in the southwestern United
States.
•
Volume V: Midwest red and white pine, northern tallgrass prairie, and mixed oak types in
the Central and Lake states.
o
•
Volume Va: Jack pine in the Lake States.
Volume VI: Longleaf pine, pocosin, and marsh grass types in the Southeast United States.
o
Volume VIa: Sand hill, sand pine scrub, and hardwoods with white pine types in
the Southeast United States with supplemental sites for volume VI.
•
Volume VII: Oregon white oak, California deciduous oak, and mixed-conifer with shrub
types in the Western United States
•
PNW-GTR-545: Grassland, shrubland, woodland and forest types in Hawaii
•
Volume VIII: Hardwood, pitch pine and red spruce/balsam fir types in the northeastern
United States (in publication)
Activity Fuels Photo Series (activity fuel photo series are not detailed in this tutorial)
•
PNW-GTR 231: Stereo photo series for quantifying forest residues in coastal Oregon
forests: second-growth Douglas-fir - western hemlock type, western hemlock - Sitka
spruce type, and red alder type.
•
PNW-GTR-258: Stereo photo series for quantifying forest residues in the Douglas-fir western hemlock type in the Willamette National Forest.
Notes:
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7
Ordering Printed Photo Series
The following printed photo series were developed by the Fire and Environmental Applications
Team (FERA) and can be ordered using the links provided in the table.
FERA continues to develop additional photo series to represent the major fuel types throughout
the United States. For future additions to the series, please check the FERA website
(http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/).
ID
Volume
No.
Title
Estimated
Cost
Ordering
Link
NFES 2580
I
Mixed-conifer with mortality, western
juniper, sagebrush, and grassland
ecosystem types in the interior Pacific
Northwest
$33
Order
NFES 2581
II
Black spruce and white spruce ecosystem
types in Alaska
$32
Order
NFES 2668
IIa
Hardwoods with spruce in Alaska
$34
Order
NFES 2629
III
Lodgepole pine, quaking aspen, and
gambel oak ecosystem types in the Rocky
Mountains
$37
Order
NFES 1084
IV
Pinyon-juniper, chaparral, and sagebrush
types in the southwestern United States
$28
Order
NFES 2579
V
Midwest red and white pine, northern
tallgrass prairie, and mixed oak types in
the Central and Lake states
$37
Order
NFES 2669
Va
Jack pine in the Lake States
$37
Order
NFES 2630
VI
Sand hill, sand pine scrub, and hardwoods
with white pine types in the Southeast
United States with supplemental sites for
Volume VI
$30
Order
NFES 1119
VIa
Sand hill, sand pine scrub, and hardwoods
with white pine types in the Southeast
United States with supplement sites for
volume VI
$45
Order
Notes:
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8
NFES 2719
VII
Oregon white oak, California deciduous
oak, and mixed-conifer with shrub types in
the Western United States
$50
Order
Grassland, shrubland, woodland and forest
types in Hawaii
free
Email:
cwright@fs.fed.u
s
Hardwood, pitch pine and red
spruce/balsam fir types in the northeastern
United States
n/a
not currently
available
PNW-GTR231
Stereo photo series for quantifying forest
residues in coastal Oregon forests: secondgrowth Douglas-fir - western hemlock
type, western hemlock - Sitka spruce type,
and red alder type.
free
Email:
rottmar@fs.fed.
us
PNW-GTR258
Stereo photo series for quantifying forest
residues in the Douglas-fir - western
hemlock type in the Willamette National
Forest.
free
Email:
rottmar@fs.fed.
us
PNW-GTR545
In
Publication
VIII
Notes:
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9
Part 2: Development of the Photo Series
•
How were the photo series developed?
•
Photo series by volume
•
About the photographs
•
Sampling design for each site
•
A note on fuel models
Notes:
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10
How Were the Photo Series Developed?
•
Sites photographed for each series were selected to show a range of conditions of several
site attributes depending on the ecosystem type. For example, the Alaska hardwood
photo series displays sites in order of their relative density of spruce and hardwood trees
(Figure 1).
•
Photographs were taken, and fuel loading, stand structure, and vegetation composition
data were collected using standardized sampling procedures.
•
Each photo series generally displays one wide-angle photograph and at least one stereo
photo pair per site.
•
In certain ecosystems, additional photos were taken to demonstrate, for example, leaf-on
and leaf-off conditions in deciduous forests.
Notes:
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11
Photo Series by Volume
Photo series sites were selected to show a range of fuel and vegetation conditions depending on
the ecosystem type. The following table summarizes the main ranges depicted in each photo
series.
Volume
Volume I
Photo Series
Western mixed-conifer with
mortality
Down and dead woody material and
insect-related tree mortality of mixed
conifer stands.
Western juniper
Western juniper density.
Western sagebrush
Sagebrush density.
Western grassland
Total biomass.
Alaska black spruce
Tree size and density of black spruce.
Alaska white spruce
Tree size and density of white spruce.
Additional variable: woody material
loadings.
Hardwoods with spruce in
Alaska
Density of spruce trees.
(Interior Pacific
Northwest)
Volume II
Represented Range(s)
(Alaska)
Volume IIa
(Alaska hardwoods)
Volume III
Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine Down and dead woody material
loading.
(Rocky Mountains)
Rocky Mountain quaking aspen Down and dead woody material
loading.
Volume IV
Rocky Mountain gambel oak
Live woody biomass.
Southwest pinyon-juniper
Total aboveground biomass.
(Southwest)
Notes:
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Volume V
Southwest sagebrush
Shrub biomass.
Southwest chaparral
Biomass, species composition, plant
size, and plant density.
Midwest red and white pine
Down and dead woody material
loading.
Midwest northern tallgrass
prairie
Total biomass.
Midwest mixed oak
Loading of woody material.
Midwest jack pine ecosystems
Crown closure of jack pine forests.
Southeast longleaf pine
Biomass of understory vegetation.
Southeast pocosin shrublands
and woodlands
Aboveground shrub biomass. There
are two subseries (shrub and woodland
pocosin) in this series.
Southeast marsh grass
Total aboveground biomass.
Southeast sand hill
Percentage of turkey oak (Quercus
laevis) in overstory tree composition in
sand hill sites.
Southeast sand pine scrub
Percentage of sand pine (Pinus clausa)
in overstory tree composition in sand
pine scrub.
Southeast hardwoods with
white pine
Degree of eastern white pine (P.
strobus) invasion in hardwood forests.
(Midwest)
Va
(Midwest Jack Pine)
VI
(Southeast)
Volume VIa
(Southeast sandhill,
sandpine and
hardwoods)
Notes:
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Volume VII
Oregon white oak
Density of Oregon white oak (savannah
to woodland).
California deciduous oak
Density of oak savannahs.
Mixed conifer with shrubs
Percent cover of shrubs
Grassland types of Hawaii
Plant groups based on primary species
composition. Where multiple sites
have similar grasslands species, they
are in order of increasing vegetation
biomass.
Shrubland types of Hawaii
Total standing biomass.
Woodland types of Hawaii
Understory vegetation loading.
Forest types of Hawaii
Forest type groups based on primary
species composition. Broadleafdominated forests are followed by an
assortment of conifer-dominated
forests including slash pine plantation
sites.
(Washington, Oregon &
California)
PNW-GTR-545
(Hawaii)
Notes:
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14
About the Photographs
•
Each digital photo series site generally displays at least one wide-angle photograph and a
stereo photograph pair.
•
The sign in these photographs is a 1-foot square, and the pole is painted in contrasting
colors at 1-foot intervals to provide scale.
•
The pole is 30 feet from the camera.
•
Summary data relate to the field of view of the stereo photograph pair but are based on
measurements taken in the sample area only.
•
No sampling occurs in the foreground between the camera and the sign.
•
Electronic images are available in the digital photo series.
Notes:
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15
Sampling Design for Each Site
Each photo series site is sampled to measure fuel loading and vegetation characteristics. The
sampling area is designed to represent fuels and vegetation within the photo point's 32 degree
field of view (see diagram below).
In each sampling layout:
•
Tree canopy cover is measured using a spherical densiometer or densitometer at
systematically located points.
•
Tree species composition, size and other dimensions are recorded on twelve 0.005 acre
plots or the entire sampling area if tree density is low.
•
Understory vegetation height (shrubs, forbs, graminoids) is measured at the nodes in the
diagram (25 pts).
•
Understory plant coverage is measured along three 100-foot line transects.
•
Understory vegetation is collected from 6-12 clipped vegetation plots (0.25-4 m2), ovendried, and weighed for biomass.
•
Woody fuels are measured along forty 30-foot random azimuth planar intersect transects
(Brown 1974).
•
Forest floor depth, constancy (cover), and loading (depth x bulk density) is measured at
75-80 systematically located point.
Notes:
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16
A Note on Fuel Models
Each photo series was designed to provide fuels and vegetation data from which managers can
generate their own customized fuel models or types.
The 20 National Fire-Danger Rating System fuel models (Deeming et al. 1977, Burgan 1988) and
the 13 fire behavior fuel models (Albini 1976) are general and broadly applied; we did not feel
that it was appropriate to assign a standard fuel model to each of the photo series sites.
Scott and Burgan (2005) recently developed a new set of fuel models and based - many of which
are based on data found in the Natural Fuels Photo Series.
Albini, F.A. 1976. Estimating wildfire behavior and effects. General Technical Report INT-30.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station. 92p.
Notes:
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Burgan, R.E. 1988. 1988 revisions to the 1978 National Fire-Danger Rating System. Research
Paper SE-273. Asheville, N.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern
Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, North Carolina. 39 p.
Deeming, J.E.; Burgan, R.E.; Cohen, J.D. 1977. The National Fire-Danger Rating System-1978.
General Technical Report INT-39. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. 66 p.
Scott, J. H.; Burgan, R. E. 2005. Standard fire behavior fuel models: a comprehensive set for
use with Rothermel's surface fire spread model. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-153. Fort
Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 72
p.
Notes:
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18
Part 3: How to Use the Photo Series
•
Getting started
•
Notes to users
•
Framing fuels
•
Making a visual inventory
•
Using stereo photos
•
Matching photos to your site
•
Estimating fuel values
•
Summing your fuel estimates
•
Complex sites
•
Limitations
•
Metric conversions
•
Scientific names
•
Fuel categories: crosswalk to the FCCS
•
Entering photo series data in the FCCS
Notes:
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19
Getting Started
The Natural Fuels Photo Series is a tool for quickly and inexpensively evaluating a variety of fuel
and vegetation conditions. Despite its ease of use, care must be taken when evaluating field sites
to only refer to photo series sites that are appropriate matches.
To start, select an area in the landscape that is representative of the site that you are interested
in categorizing. To best match the conditions of your field site, consider using more than one site
from the photo series. In many cases, you will need to use multiple sites within a single photo
series, and possibly sites in more than one series or volume to estimate various fuel
characteristics.
For example, if you are working in the Southwest (example displayed below), and your site is
dominated by Pinyon-Juniper, there are 14 photo series sites to select as possible matches. You
may also find it helpful to refer to the Western Juniper series in the interior Pacific Northwest.
•
To estimate the aboveground biomass of Pinyon-Juniper, you may find a suitable match or
extrapolate between two sites that span your observations.
•
To estimate shrub biomass, however, the closest match to your site may be found in the
Southwestern Sagebrush series.
Example: Southwestern United States Pinyon Juniper Series
PJ 01 – low total aboveground PJ 07 - moderate total
biomass
aboveground biomass
PJ 14 - high total
aboveground biomass
Notes:
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20
Notes to Users
Before you use a photo series, it is important to read the Notes to Users section in front of the
series. For example, in the Southeast sand hill series, the Notes to Users specify that sampling
occurred before leaf flush and represent leaf-off conditions. If you were using the photo series
during summer months, you would need to adjust your estimates
accordingly.
Notes:
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21
Framing Fuels
I your mind, frame your site into fuel categories. In many cases, you will need to use multiple
sites within a photo series and possibly sites within different photo series to estimate the values
you require for the various fuels within your site.
Notes:
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22
Making a Visual Inventory
Make a visual inventory of the site by observing fuel and stand conditions within the field of view
and comparing them with the stereo-pair photographs as follows, remembering that the data
tables relate to the area behind the sign in the stereo-pair photographs:
1. Observe each fuel characteristic of interest (for example, individual woody fuel size classes
or the shrub stratum).
2. Select a photo series site that nearly matches the observed characteristics or multiple
photo series sites that encompass the observed characteristics.
3. Using the data summary tables, look up the value for the characteristic being estimated or
interpolate a value between multiple photo series sites.
4. Repeat these steps for each size class or stand characteristic of interest.
Notes:
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23
Using Stereo Photos
You can get additional perspective on fuel arrangement by viewing the stereophotos with a
stereoscope. The three dimensional view can help you separate fuel components and more
accurately estimate characteristics such as woody fuel loading or distinguish small trees from a
shrub layer.
Notes:
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Matching Photos to Your Site
Select a photo series example or multiple examples to match observed characteristics of the site
that you are evaluating. In this example, two similar sagebrush photos are compared to better
estimate actual shrub loading.
Southwest U.S. Sagebrush
SWSB 06
SWSB 07
Notes:
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25
Estimating Fuel Values
Use the data summary tables associated with each photo to estimate specific fuel values. If you
don't find an exact photo series match to your site, you can extrapolate between two sites (scroll
down to view example).
For example, if shrub coverage and height at your sagebrush-dominated site appeared to be
between SWSB 06 and SWSB 07, you could estimate the live shrub loading as the average of the
two values (3.16 tons/acre).
Southwest U.S. Sagebrush
SWSB 06
SWSB 07
Notes:
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26
Summing Your Fuel Estimates
Once you have estimated all of the fuelbed components (trees, shrubs, down woody fuels,
grasses and other herbaceous vegetation, etc), the total loading or stand condition can then be
calculated by summing the estimates.
If the site being inventoried has areas with obvious differences in woody material or stand
conditions, you can make separate determinations for each area and then weight and cumulate
the loading for the whole site.
Notes:
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Complex Sites
If your site has obvious differences in woody fuels or stand conditions, you can make separate
determinations for each unique area and then weight and calculate the loading for the whole site.
Keep in mind that photo series data reflect average conditions for the entire site, so pictures with
limited depth of view may be difficult to match to your field condition. You may need to
corroborate your choice of photo series sites by comparing onsite measurements or estimates to
data presented in the tables.
For example, in this longleaf pine - turkey oak forest, the foreground of the site is open while the
background is much more densely stocked. Two separate photo series evaluations and/or some
on-site fuel evaluations would be required to characterize the fuels at this site.
Tip: For larger areas, there may be many fuel types for which you will need to make estimations.
Notes:
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28
Limitations
There are many situations in which you will not be able to reliably estimate fuel conditions using
only the photo series. In these cases, you will need to corroborate your estimates using actual
field measurements. Whenever you use the photo series, carefully consider the following
limitations and read the Notes to Users specific to each photo series:
•
Some fuel characteristics, including the depth, loading and bulk density of the forest floor,
and proportions of sound and rotten woody material, are not distinguishable in a
photograph. If you need these values for your inventory, you will need to measure them or
estimate them using a different tool or reference.
•
Fuels or vegetation may not be visible from a single vantage point at your field site or be
obscured by other fuels. Make sure you make a thorough reconnaissance of the site in
making your estimations.
•
If your site has seasonal variation in fuel conditions (for example, a deciduous forest in
leaf or leaf-off condition), be aware of what the photo series data actually represents
relative to the current condition of your site.
•
Large logs (> 3 inches in diameter) are heavy. Small differences in the number of large
logs can translate into substantial differences in woody material loading.
•
Many sites will not have an exact match in the photo series. In these cases, you should
include multiple photos in your interpretation.
•
Bulk density values for calculating litter and duff loading are available in some but not all
volumes.
•
The Natural Fuels Photo Series was developed over many years; earlier volumes do not
contain all of the variables collected in later volumes. In addition, the datasets are
somewhat dependent on the ecosystem type.
Notes:
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29
Metric Conversions
The photo series are published using English units. You can convert the values using the
conversion table provided below (also provided at the front of the publication) or view reports in
metric units using the Digital Photo Series.
METRIC CONVERSIONS
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters
1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 meter
1 square foot = 0.0929 square meter
1 acre (ac) = 4,046.9 square meters
1 acre = 0.4047 hectare
1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kilogram
1 ton = 0.9072 metric ton
1 ton = 907.2 kilograms
(°F - 32) (5/9) = °C
1 pound·acre-1 (lb·acre-1) = 1.1209 kilogram/hectare
1 pound·acre-1 = 1.1209 E-04 kilograms/square meter
1 ton·acre-1 = 0.2242 kilogram/square meter
1 ton·acre-1 = 2,241.7023 kilograms/hectare
1 ton·acre-1·inch-1 = 8.8256 kilograms/cubic meter
1 ton·acre-1·inch-1 = 8,825.6 grams/cubic meter
1 ton·acre-1·inch-1 = 8.8256 E-03 grams/cubic
centimeter
Notes:
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30
Scientific Names
The introduction to each photo series volume includes a Species List that allows you to look up
scientific names to reference the accepted common name. Because plants can have many
common names, we elected to use scientific names throughout the photo series.
Tip: The digital photo series allows you to search the published photo series by common or
scientific name.
Example: Volume VI (Southeastern US)
SPECIES LIST
Scientific and common species names are from NRCS (1999).
SCIENTIFIC NAME
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
COMMON NAME
TREES:
Acer rubrum
Gordonia lasianthus
Nyssa sylvatica
Persea borbonia
Pinus palustris
Pinus serotina
Sabal palmetto
Red maple
Loblolly bay
Blackgum
Redbay
Longleaf pine
Pond pine
Cabbage palmetto
GRASSES AND FORBS
Aristida spp.
Threeawn (wiregrass)
Arundinaria gigantea ssp. tecta Switchcane
Sawgrass
Cladium spp.
Rush
Juncus spp.
Muhly
Muhlenbergia spp.
Pitcherplant
Sarracenia spp.
Cordgrass
Spartina spp.
SHRUBS
Ilex glabra
Lyonia lucida
Serenoa repens
Smilax spp.
Vaccinium corymbosum
Zenobia spp.
Inkberry (gallberry)
Fetterbush lyonia
Saw palmetto
Greenbrier
Highbush blueberry
Honeycup
Notes:
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31
Fuel Categories: Crosswalk to the FCCS
Many of the Natural Fuels Photo Series were created prior to the development of the Fuel
Characteristic Classification System (FCCS). Although some of the terms differ between the
FCCS and photo series, you can enter photo series data into the FCCS.
The following table provides a crosswalk from the photo series to the FCCS:
Natural Fuels Photo Series
FCCS
Fuel Category
Stratum
Category or Categories
Saplings and Trees
Canopy
Trees, Snags
Shrubs (Understory vegetation)
Shrub
Primary and secondary layers
Graminoids and Forbs (Understory vegetation) Nonwoody Fuels
Primary and secondary layers
Woody materials
Woody Fuels
Sound and rotten wood
Forest floor - litter or surface material
Litter-Lichen-Moss Litter
Forest floor - lichen
Litter-Lichen-Moss Lichen
Forest floor - cryptograms
Litter-Lichen-Moss Moss
Forest floor - duff
Ground Fuels
Duff
Tip: several fuel categories in the FCCS are not included in the photo series, including stumps,
piles (woody fuel accumulations), squirrel middens, and basal accumulations. If your fuel type
has any of these categories, you will need to make independent measurements to collect these
data.
Notes:
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32
Entering Photo Series Data in the FCCS
The following table provides a full translation between inputs to the FCCS (organized by fuel
strata, including Canopy, Shrub, Nonwoody fuels, Woody fuels, Litter-Lichen-Moss, and Ground
fuels) and data available in the Natural Fuels Photo Series. There are certainly other ways to
translate photo series data into the FCCS; consider this as an optional guide. Not all categories
listed in the table will pertain to your fuelbed.
Tip: Photo series data is not always consistent between volumes. Sampling inventories have
evolved over the years and also can vary between ecosystems.
Stratum
Category
Canopy
Tree
Subcategory
FCCS Input
variable
Natural Fuels Photo
Series Data
Total canopy cover
Crown closure (%) in the
Stand Information table
Overstory,
Midstory &
Understory
You can break out the size
class data (<= 4", 4-9", 916", > 16") of the Sapling
and Tree (or Overstory)
table into the overstory,
midstory and understory
subcategories however you
like. Notes that your forest
type may not have all three
layers.
Percent cover (%)
You will need to estimate
percent cover based on a
site observations and/or
portion of total canopy
cover.
Height (ft)
Live tree avg. height (ft) in
Sapling and Trees table by
size class.
Height to live crown
(ft)
Live tree avg height to live
crown (ft) in Sapling and
Trees table by size class.
Live foliar moisture
content (%)
You will need to estimate or
accept the FCCS fuelbed
Notes:
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33
Stratum
Category
Subcategory
FCCS Input
variable
Natural Fuels Photo
Series Data
default.
Density (# /acre)
Live tree density (stems/ac)
in Sapling and Trees table
by size class.
Diameter at breast
height (inches)
Live tree avg DBH (in) in
Sapling and Trees table by
size class.
Tree species scientific Species listed by size class
name and relative
(you may wish to use
cover (%)
percent of stems as a proxy
for relative cover or
estimate relative cover in a
site visit).
Snag
Ladder fuels
Class 1 snag
with foliage,
Class 1 snag
with foliage,
Class 2 snag,
Class 3 snag
Dead trees are listed in the
Saplings and Trees (or
Overstory) table, but you
will need to make your own
assessment of snag decay
class subcategories.
Density (#/acre)
Dead tree density
(stems/ac) in Sapling and
Tree table by size class.
Diameter (in)
Dead tree avg DBH (in) in
Sapling and Trees table by
size class.
Height (ft)
Dead tree avg height (ft) in
Sapling and Trees table by
size class.
Min, Max height and
ladder fuel type
(arboreal lichens &
moss, climbing ferns
& other epiphytes,
dead branches,
leaning snags, string
or fuzzy bark, tree
regeneration, vinesliana)
Not supported by the photo
series with the exception of
tree regeneration (you
might use the Sapling and
Trees table to estimate min
and max height of tree
regeneration).
Notes:
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34
Stratum
Category
Shrub
Primary and
secondary
layers
Subcategory
FCCS Input
variable
Natural Fuels Photo
Series Data
FCCS allows for primary and
secondary layers for
fuelbeds that have 2 shrub
layers. If you have a single
shrub layer, you can simply
enter it in the primary shrub
layer.
Percent cover (%)
Shrub coverage (%) is listed
in the Understory
Vegetation table of some
photo series volumes.
Height (ft)
Shrub avg height (ft) is
listed in the Understory
Vegetation table of some
photo series volumes.
Percent live (%)
You will need to estimate or
accept the FCCS fuelbed
default.
Live foliar moisture
content (%)
You will need to estimate or
accept the FCCS fuelbed
default.
Species
(% relative cover)
"Most common species"
names are listed in the
Understory Vegetation
table. You will need to
estimate the % relative
cover of each shrub species.
Nonwoody Primary and
Fuels
secondary
layers
Nonwoody fuels refer to
herbaceous vegetation.
FCCS allows for primary and
secondary layers for
fuelbeds that have 2
nonwoody layers (i.e., forb
and graminoid). If you have
a single nonwoody layer,
you can simply enter it in
the primary nonwoody
layer.
Percent cover (%)
Forb and graminoid
Notes:
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35
Stratum
Category
Subcategory
FCCS Input
variable
Natural Fuels Photo
Series Data
coverage (%) is listed in the
Understory Vegetation table
of some photo series
volumes.
Woody
Fuels
All downed and
dead woody
fuel
Sound wood
Height (ft)
Forb and graminoid height
(ft) is listed in the
Understory Vegetation table
in some photo series
volumes.
Percent live (%)
You will need to estimate or
accept the FCCS fuelbed
default.
Live foliar moisture
content (%)
You will need to estimate or
accept the FCCS fuelbed
default.
Loading (tons/acre)
Loading (lbs/ac) is listed in
the Understory Vegetation
table of most photo series
volumes.
Species
(% relative cover)
"Most common species"
names are listed in the
Understory Vegetation
table. You will need to
estimate the % relative
cover of each nonwoody
vegetation species.
Depth (in)
Not supported by the photo
series; you will need to
estimate this value by
envisioning all fuels
uniformly spread throughout
your field site.
Total percent cover
(%)
Not supported by the photo
series; you will need to
estimate the total percent
cover of all woody fuels.
0 - 1/4 inch diameter <= 0.25 sound loading
(tons/acre)
(tons/acre) in the Woody
Material table.
Notes:
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36
Stratum
Category
Subcategory
FCCS Input
variable
Natural Fuels Photo
Series Data
1/4 - 1 inch diameter 0.26-1.0 sound loading
(tons/acre)
(tons/acre) in the Woody
Material table.
1 - 3 inch diameter
(tons/acre)
1.1 - 3.0 sound loading
(tons/acre) in the Woody
Material table.
3 - 9 inch diameter
(tons/acre)
3.1 - 9.0 sound loading
(tons/acre) in the Woody
Material table.
9 - 20 inch diameter
(tons/acre)
9.1 - 20.0 sound loading
(tons/acre) in the Woody
Material table.
> 20.0 inch diameter > 20.0 sound loading
(tons/acre)
(tons/acre) in the Woody
Material table.
Species (and relative
cover)
Rotten wood
3 - 9 inch diameter
(tons/acre)
3.1 - 9.0 rotten loading
(tons/acre) in the Woody
Material table.
9 - 20 inch diameter
(tons/acre)
9.1 - 20.0 rotten loading
(tons/acre) in the Woody
Material table.
> 20.0 inch diameter > 20.0 rotten loading
(tons/acre)
(tons/acre) in the Woody
Material table.
Sound, rotten,
and lightered
stumps
Inputs include stump
density (#/acre),
diameter (in), height
(ft), and species (%
relative cover).
Not supported by the photo
series; you will need to take
stump measurements.
Woody Fuel
Piles, jackpots
Accumulations and windrows
Inputs include type
(pile, jackpot or
windrow), width (ft),
length (ft), height
(ft), and density
(#/acre).
Not supported by the photo
series; you will need to take
woody fuel accumulation
measurements.
Stumps
Notes:
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37
Stratum
Category
LitterLichenMoss
Ground Lichen
Subcategory
Moss
Litter
Ground
Fuels
Duff
Upper duff or
Lower duff
FCCS Input
variable
Natural Fuels Photo
Series Data
Depth (in)
Depth (in) listed under
Lichen in Alaska photo
series volumes.
Percent cover (%)
Constancy (%) listed under
Lichen in Alaska photo
series volumes.
Depth (in)
Depth (in) listed under
Cryptogams or Moss in
select photo series.
Percent cover (%)
Constancy (%) listed under
Cryptogams or Moss in
select photo series.
Type (spaghnum or
other moss)
You must specify type based
on your field observations.
Depth (in)
Depth (in) listed under
Litter.
Percent cover (%)
Constancy (%) listed under
Litter in select photo series.
Arrangement
(normal, fluffy, or
perched)
You must specify an
arrangement based on your
field observations.
Type (% cover of
applicable types)
Generally not specified in
the photo series; you must
specify based types and the
relative cover of each type
based on your field
observations.
Percent rotten (%)
Not supplied by the photo
series; you will need to
estimate the percentage of
rotten wood in the duff.
These subcategories are
specified in Alaska photo
series volumes. If your site
has two distinct duff layers
and is not covered by an
Alaska photo series, you will
need to take your own
Notes:
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38
Stratum
Category
Subcategory
FCCS Input
variable
Natural Fuels Photo
Series Data
measurements.
Depth (in)
Depth (in) listed under Duff.
Percent cover (%)
Constancy (%) listed under
Duff in select photo series.
Derivation (dead
moss and litter and
fibric peat for upper
duff layer, humus or
muck or humus peat
for lower duff layer)
You must specify a
derivation based on your
own field observations.
Squirrel
middens
Inputs include depth
(in), radius (ft), and
density (#/acre)
Not supported by the photo
series; you will need to take
squirrel midden
measurements.
Basal
accumulation
Inputs include depth
(in), radius (ft), and
percent affected (%
of trees)
Not supported by the photo
series; you will need to take
basal accumulation
measurements.
Notes:
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39
Part 4: Digital Photo Series
The Digital Photo Series is a web-based software application that includes a fuels database with a
user-friendly interface. It was designed to include all data in the published photo series in
addition to data that were collected but not printed due to publication limitations. The web-based
application allows you to browse, query, and compare all of the photo series. You can save highquality photographs and create data tables in plain text (.txt), Microsoft Excel (.xls), and xml
(.xml) formats.
The Digital Photo Series is intended to complement, not replace, the paper and ink versions
available now and in the future. Published volumes are more appropriate for use in the field and
can be used with a stereoscope for a three-dimensional view of photo series sites.
This part of the tutorial covers:
•
Opening the Digital Photo Series
•
Browsing sites by volume
•
Searching for sites
o
Search by map
o
Search by variable
•
Viewing data in metric units
•
Viewing and saving high-resolution images
•
Printing site data
•
Downloading site data
•
Photo series documentation
Notes:
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40
Opening the Digital Photo Series
The Digital Photo Series can be accessed at the link: http://depts.washington.edu/nwfire/dps/
and will work on any web browser. To begin using the Digital Photo Series, click on the Search
for sites or Browse sites by volume tabs.
Notes:
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41
Browsing Sites by Volume
When you first click on the Browse Sites by Volume tab, you will need to expand the selection
tree to select a site:
1. Click on the + button to the left of your photo series volume of choice (for example, III:
Rocky Mountains)
2. Click on the + button to the left of a photo series (for example, LP: Rocky Mt. Lodgepole
Pine)
3. Click on a site to view the photo and associated data tables (LP 02 displayed below).
Notes:
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42
Search for Sites
Click on the Search for sites tab to query the natural fuels photo series database. You can
query the fuels database by:
1. Clicking on photo series locations in the U.S. map.
2. Using query variables including the photo series, state, ecoregion, species, etc.
Notes:
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43
Search by Map
Click on a location on the U.S. map. The right panel will display a zoom of that region. To view
sites for a given location, click on a dot (if you hover your mouse over a cluster of dots, a tool tip
will list the sites within that cluster). Scroll down for search results. In this example, the map
query resulted in 5 sites in the Jack Pine series. Click on a site thumbnail to view associated site
information and data tables.
Photo series sites were often located close together and may appear as a tight cluster of dots. If
you move your cursor above each dot or cluster of dots a box indicating which sites are
represented will appear.
Notes:
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44
Search by Variable
You can search for photo series sites using a large number of search variables and combinations
of search variables. Click on the toggle boxes to select search variables. If you decide to remove
a search variable from your query, select the blank box at the top of each search variable list to
clear your previous selection. Once you have specified your query, click the Get sites button. All
matches will be displayed in the lower box. Click on a site thumbnail to view site information and
associated data tables.
The example below shows all sites in the Lodgepole Pine series that include overstory species
whose common name starts with "lodgepole" AND whose tree density is less than or equal to 400
trees per acre.
Tip: Because there are so many potential search variables, it is easy to come up with no
matches. If your query does not produce a match, try simplifying it or modifying numeric search
variables.
Notes:
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45
Viewing Data in Metric Units
To switch between English and metric units in the Digital Photo Series, simply toggle between the
two options when viewing a photo series site.
Notes:
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46
Viewing and Saving High-Resolution Images
Pictures in the Digital Photo Series are wide angle photographs and represent an area slightly
larger than that from which the data were collected.
To view and save a larger image:
•
•
Left click on a thumbnail to see a larger, higher-resolution version.
Right click on the high-resolution image to save it to your computer.
Notes:
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47
Printing Site Data
For a printout of site data, click on the [Print Site] link at the top left of the display panel. The
contents of the entire display panel, including the site photo and associated data tables, will be
sent to your printer of choice.
Tip: Some data tables are too wide for a standard portrait printout. In this case, you should
change the layout to landscape or reduce the size of your printout under printer properties.
Notes:
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48
Downloading Site Data
You can download photo series site data in your choice of three file formats: plain text (.txt),
Microsoft Excel (.xls), and XML (.xml). Scroll to the bottom of any displayed photo series site and
click on one of these options. You will be given the option to open the zipped data files or save
them to your computer.
Notes:
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49
Photo Series Documentation
All of the documentation included in the printed photo series volumes is available to you in the
Digital Photo Series. To view documentation on the 1) entire photoseries, 2) specific to a
published photo series volume, or 3) Notes to Users on a specific photo series, scroll to the
bottom of any displayed photo series site and click on one of three options (Photo Series,
Published Volume, or Series Name).
Notes:
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50
Part 5: Details by Volume
This part of tutorial highlights the 11 available volumes of the natural fuels photo series. For each
volume (including supplemental volumes), we detail the ranges of fuel and vegetation conditions
each photo series represents, sample photographs, and any notes specific to the photo series.
•
Volume I: Mixed-conifer with mortality, western juniper, sagebrush, and grassland
ecosystem types in the interior Pacific Northwest.
•
Volume II: Black spruce and white spruce ecosystem types in Alaska.
o
Volume IIa: Hardwoods with spruce in Alaska
•
Volume III: Lodgepole pine, quaking aspen, and gambel oak ecosystem types in the
Rocky Mountains.
•
Volume IV: Pinyon-juniper, chaparral, and sagebrush types in the southwestern United
States.
•
Volume V: Midwest red and white pine, northern tallgrass prairie, and mixed oak types in
the Central and Lake states.
o
•
Volume Va: Jack pine in the Lake States.
Volume VI: Longleaf pine, pocosin, and marsh grass types in the Southeast United States.
o
Volume VIa: Sand hill, sand pine scrub, and hardwoods with white pine types in
the Southeast United States with supplemental sites for volume VI.
•
Volume VII: Oregon white oak, California deciduous oak, and mixed-conifer with shrub
types in the Western United States
•
PNW-GTR-545: Grassland, shrubland, woodland and forest types in Hawaii
Notes:
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51
Volume I: Interior Pacific Northwest
This volume contains four photo series in the interior Pacific Northwest.
Each group of photos includes inventory information summarizing vegetation composition, structure and loading, woody material
loading and density by size class, forest floor depth and loading, and various site characteristics.
Mixed Conifer
(17 sites)
Western Juniper
(4 sites)
Sagebrush
(4 sites)
Grasslands
(4 sites)
Notes:
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52
Mixed Conifer
The 17 sites in this series are ordered from light to heavy woody material loading.
MC 01 - light woody material loading
MC 09 - moderate woody material loading
MC 17 - heavy woody material loading
Notes:
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53
Western Juniper
The 4 sites in this series are ordered from lowest to highest density of western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis).
WJ 01 - low western juniper density
WJ 04 - high western juniper density
Notes:
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54
Sagebrush
The 4 sites in the series are ordered from lowest to highest density of sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata).
SB 01 - low sagebrush density
SB 04 - high sagebrush density
Notes:
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________________________________________________________________________________________
55
Grasslands
The 4 sites in this series are ordered from lowest to highest total biomass loading.
BG 01 - low grass loading
BG 04 - high grass loading
Notes:
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________________________________________________________________________________________
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56
Volumes II and IIa: Alaska
These volumes contain three photo series devoted to spruce forests and hardwood forests succeeding to spruce in Alaska.
Each group of photos includes inventory information summarizing vegetation composition, structure and loading, woody material
loading and density by size class, forest floor depth and loading, and other site characteristics.
Black Spruce Forests
White Spruce Forest
Hardwood forests
(14 sites)
(12 sites)
(15 sites)
Notes:
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57
Black Spruce
The 14 sites in this series are ordered primarily from smallest to largest average tree diameter at breast height (dbh) and secondarily
from highest to lowest tree density (i.e., if two or more sites have the same average tree dbh, the site with the highest tree density
appears first).
BS 01 - smallest tree diameters
BS 07 - moderate tree diameters
BS 14 - largest tree diameters
Notes:
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58
White Spruce
The sites in this series are ordered from smallest to largest average tree diameter at breast height (dbh).
WS 01 - smallest average trees
WS 06 - moderate average trees
WS 12 - largest average trees
Notes:
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59
Hardwood Succession to Spruce
Sites are ordered with increasing relative density (percentage of stems) of spruce trees > 2 inches dbh.
AKHD 01 - Low spruce density
AKHD 07 - Moderate spruce density
AKHD 15 - High spruce density
Notes:
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________________________________________________________________________________________
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60
Volume III: Rocky Mountains
This volume contains 3 photo series of forest types in the Rocky Mountains.
Each group of photos includes inventory information summarizing vegetation composition, structure and loading, and as appropriate,
woody material loading and density by size class, forest floor depth and loading, and various site characteristics.
Lodgepole pine
(13 sites)
Quaking aspen
(13 sites)
Gambel oak
(9 sites)
Notes:
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61
Lodgepole Pine
The 13 sites in this series are ordered from lightest to heaviest loading of woody material. The figure below shows how sites would
be ordered by successional status from seral to climax.
LP 01 - light woody material loading
LP 07 - moderate woody material loading
LP 12 - heavy woody material loading
Notes:
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62
Quaking Aspen
The 13 sites in this series are ordered from lightest to heaviest loading of woody material.
QA 01 - light woody material loading
QA 07 - moderate woody material loading
QA 12 - heaviest woody material loading
Notes:
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63
Gambel Oak
The 9 sites in this series are ordered from lowest to highest loading of live woody biomass (i.e., trees, shrubs, and seedlings).
GO 01 - low live woody biomass
GO 05 - moderate live woody biomass
GO 09 - high live woody biomass
Notes:
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64
Volume IV: Southwest
This volume contains three photo series displaying a range of natural conditions and fuel loadings in pinyon-juniper, sagebrush, and
chaparral types in the Southwestern United States.
Each photo series includes inventory information summarizing vegetation composition, structure and loading, and as appropriate,
woody material loading and density by size class, forest floor depth and loading, and various site characteristics.
Pinyon-Juniper
Chaparral
Sagebrush
(14 sites)
(16 sites)
(11 sites)
Notes:
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65
Southwestern Pinyon Juniper
The 14 sites in this series are ordered from lowest to highest loading of total aboveground biomass.
PJ 01 - low total aboveground biomass
PJ 07 - moderate total aboveground
biomass
PJ 14 - high total aboveground biomass
Notes:
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66
Southwestern Chaparral
The 16 sites in this series are ordered from lowest to highest biomass of all shrubs.
CH 01 -low shrub biomass
CH 08 - moderate shrub biomass
CH 16 - high shrub biomass
Notes:
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67
Southwestern Sagebrush
The 11 sites in this series are ordered from shortest to tallest mean shrub height.
SWSB 01 -low shrubs
SWSB 06 - medium shrubs
SWSB 11 - tall shrubs
Notes:
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68
Volume V: Central and Lake States
This volume contains three photo series of major vegetation types in the Midwest. The supplemental volume Va contains a photo
series of Jack Pine forests in the Midwest.
Each photo series contains single and stereo photographs that display a range of natural conditions and fuel loadings. Each site
includes inventory information summarizing vegetation composition, structure and loading, and, as appropriate, woody material
loading and density by size class, forest floor depth and loading, and various site characteristics.
Midwest Red and
White Pine
(13 sites)
Northern Tallgrass
Prairie
(17 sites)
Mixed oak
(11 sites)
Jack Pine
(19 sites)
Notes:
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69
Midwest Red Pine and White Pine
The 13 sites in this series are ordered from lightest to heaviest loading of woody material.
MP 01 - light woody material loading
MP 07 - medium woody material
loading
MP 13 - heavy woody material loading
Notes:
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70
Northern Tallgrass Prairie
The 17 sites in this series are ordered from lightest to heaviest loading of total biomass.
TP 01 - low biomass
TP 09 - moderate biomass
TP 17 - high biomass
Notes:
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71
Mixed Oak
The 11 sites in this series are ordered from lightest to heaviest loading of woody material.
MO 01 - light woody material loading
MO 06 - moderate woody material loading
MO 11 - heavy woody material loading
Notes:
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72
Jack Pine
The 19 sites in this series are ordered from smallest to largest percentages of crown closure in jack pine forests.
JP 01 - low crown closure
JP 09 - moderate crown closure
JP 19 - high crown closure
Notes:
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73
Volume VI and Via: Southeast
Volume VI contains 3 photo series including longleaf pine, pocosin, and marshgrass types in the Southeast United States.
Volume VIa contains 3 additional photo series including sand hill, sand pine scrub, and hardwoods ecosystems in the southeastern
United States.
Each photo series includes inventory information summarizing vegetation composition, structure and loading, and, if applicable,
woody material loading and density by size class, forest floor depth and loading, and various site characteristics.
Longleaf pine
Pocosin
Marshgrass
Sand hill
Sand pine scrub
SE Hardwoods
(n = 10)
(n = 8)
(n = 10)
(n = 11)
(n = 4)
(n = 7)
Notes:
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74
Longleaf Pine
The 10 sites in this series are ordered from lowest to highest loading of understory vegetation biomass, not including forest floor
material. The last two sites (LLP 09 and LLP 10) were added to this series to represent high understory loading sites and are
contained in Volume VIa.
LLP 01 - low understory biomass
LLP 05 - moderate understory biomass
LLP 10 - high understory biomass
Notes:
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75
Pocosin
The sites in this series are divided into 2 subseries: one dominated by woodland species (PW 01 and PW 02) and the other by shrub
species (PS 01 to PS 06). Within each subseries, sites are ordered from low to high aboveground shrub biomass.
PW 01 - Pocosin woodland.
Low shrub biomass.
PW 02 - Pocosin woodland.
High shrub biomass.
PS 01 - Pocosin shrubland.
Low shrub biomass
PS 06 - Pocosin shrubland.
High shrub biomass.
Notes:
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76
Marshgrass
The 10 sites in this series are ordered from low to high total biomass. Sites MG 05a and MG 10 are contained in Volume VIa and
were added to the series to better represent the range in biomass loading over the series.
MG 01 - low biomass
MG 05a - moderate biomass
MG 10 - high biomass
Notes:
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77
Sand Hill
The 11 sites in this series are ordered from low to high relative density (i.e., percentage of stems) of Quercus laevis (turkey oak).
SH 01 - low density
SH 06 - moderate density
SH 10 - high density
Notes:
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78
Sand Pine Scrub
The 4 sites in this series are ordered from highest to lowest density of Pinus clausa (sand pine).
SPS 01 - low sand pine density
SPS 04 - high sand pine density
Notes:
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79
Southeast Hardwoods
The 7 sites in this series are ordered be degrees of Pinus strobus (eastern white pine) invasion, from lowest to highest density.
HP 01 - low pine density
HP 04 - moderate pine density
HP 07 - high pine density
Notes:
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80
Volume VII: Western U.S.
The Oregon White Oak and California Deciduous Oak woodland series displays a range of natural conditions and fuel loadings in
deciduous oak woodland and savannah ecosystems in Washington, Oregon, and California.
The mixed conifer series displays a range of natural conditions and fuel loadings in mixed-conifer with shrub ecosystems in
southwestern Oregon.
Each group of photos includes inventory data summarizing vegetation composition, structure, and loading; woody material loading
and density by size class; forest floor depth and loading; and various site characteristics.
Oregon White Oak
California Deciduous Oak
Mixed Conifer
(n=10)
(n=11)
(n=11)
Notes:
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81
Oregon White Oak
The 10 sites in this series are ordered by increasing percentage of crown closure.
WO 01 - low oak crown closure
WO 05 - moderate oak crown closure
WO 10 - high oak crown closure
Notes:
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82
California Deciduous Oak
The 9 sites in this series are ordered by increasing percentage of oak crown closure.
CDO 01 - low oak crown closure
CDO 05 - moderate oak crown closure
CDO 09 - high oak crown closure
Notes:
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83
Mixed Conifer with Shrubs
The 11 sites in this series are ordered by increasing percentage of shrub coverage.
MCS 01 - low shrub coverage
MCS 06 - moderate shrub coverage
MCS 11 - high shrub coverage
Notes:
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________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
84
Hawaii
This volume contains 4 photo series including grassland, shrubland, woodland and forest types in Hawaii. Each group of photos
includes inventory information summarizing vegetation composition, structure, and loading, and as appropriate, woody material
loading and various site characteristics.
Unlike other photo series volumes, Hawaii sites were selected to represent some of the high variation in environmental and botanical
conditions on public lands. Owing to sampling constraints and the diversity of habitats in Hawaii, not all vegetation types present in
the islands were sampled, and depictions of ranges of fuel and vegetation conditions was not possible in this volume.
Grasslands
Shrublands
Woodlands
Forests
(n=13)
(n=7)
(n=7)
(n=9)
Notes:
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85
Hawaii Grasslands
The 13 sites in this series are arranged into plant groups based on primary species composition. Where multiple sites have similar
grasslands species, the arrangement is in order of increasing vegetation biomass.
HG 02 - Pili Grass on a recent lava flow.
Low biomass.
HG 07 - Crimson fountaingrass. High
biomass.
HG 13 - Guineagrass. High biomass.
Notes:
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86
Hawaii Shrublands
The 7 sites in this series are arranged in order of increasing total standing vegetation biomass.
HS 01 - low standing biomass
HS 04 - moderate standing biomass
HS 07 - high standing biomass
Notes:
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87
Hawaii Woodlands
The 7 sites in this series are arranged in order of increasing understory vegetation loading (i.e., graminoids, shrubs, and forbs).
HI W 01 - low understory vegetation loading
HI W 04 - moderate understory vegetation
loading
HI W 07 - high understory vegetation
loading
Notes:
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________________________________________________________________________________________
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88
Hawaii Forests
The 9 sites in this series are arranged into forest type groups based on primary species composition. Broadleaf-dominated forests
are followed by an assortment of conifer-dominated forests including slash pine plantation sites.
HI F 01 - Metrosideros polymorpha (Ohia)
forest
HI F 05 - Pinus radiata (Monterey pine)
forest
HI F 09 - Pinus elliotii (Slash pine) forest
Notes:
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89
Part 6: Case Studies
The following three case studies provide you with regional examples of how the photo series can
be put to use.
•
Southern Region: Planning for prescribed fire in longleaf-pine-turkey oak
•
Western Region: Evaluating fuel conditions and treatment options in central Oregon
•
Boreal Region: under development
You will get the most out of the regional case studies if you work along with them using the
corresponding published photo series volumes.
Each regional case study is designed to demonstrate the photo series and is continued throughout
the a series of tutorials on the Fuel Characteristic Classification System (FCCS), Consume 3.0 and
Fire Emissions Production system (FEPS). If you are planning to use the photo series in
conjunction with other FERA products, including FCCS, Consume, and FEPS, please refer to the
tutorials webpage (http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/products/software_tutorials.html) for a
continuation of these case studies.
Notes:
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90
Southern Case Study: Fire Management Planning in
Georgia
You are a fire management officer for a forest reserve in south central Georgia. As part of your
prescribed burn planning, the forest supervisor has requested an assessment of the fuel
characteristics and a fire hazard survey in an area of the district near second homes and cabins.
The common fuelbed is a longleaf pine with turkey oak component with some palmetto shrub and
wire grass cover. The site has not been burned for 5 years.
Use the Natural Fuels Photo Series volumes to estimate fuel loadings and other characteristics of
this site.
Note: These site photos show the site during leaf-on for turkey oak (left) and a leaf die-back
(right).
Notes:
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91
Step 1: Finding matches to your site
To find suitable matches to your site, there are several options to choose from in the
Southeastern US Photo Series (volumes VI and VIa) The closest set of matches to this longleafpine - turkey oak forest is in the Sand Hill photo series (Volume VIa). The 11 sites in this series
are ordered from low to high relative density of turkey oak. This site appears to have a relatively
high density of turkey oak and the best overall match is SH 10. You might also want to consider
the longleaf pine photo series (LLP04 is also a close match).
Tip: Remember - rarely, if ever, is there a perfect match to your site. As you will see in the
following pages, we will refer to several photo series sites to interpolate fuel characteristics.
Georgia Field Site
Sand Hill (SH) - 10
Notes:
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92
Step 1 continued
In reviewing potential matches, it's helpful to read the Site Information for each photo series
site.
Tip: A Species List is included in the beginning of each photo series volume that provides
common names for each scientific name used in the volume.
SH 10 Site Information and Stand Information tables:
Notes:
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93
Step 2: Estimating Tree Characteristics
Let's begin with tree characteristics. One of the main reasons we selected SH 10 is that it
appeared to be the most similar to the forest composition. To actually do this, matching a photo
of a field site with the photo series will not suffice. We visited the field site, did a thorough
reconnaissance, and determined that the tree density and forest composition were indeed most
similar to SH 10 (LLP 04 also was a possible match).
In this example, we will use the Sapling and Tree data (highlighted in orange) from SH 10, but in
your application, you could take averages between two similar sites if you felt your stand wasn't
adequately represented by a single photo series site.
Tip: All turkey oak trees > 4.5 feet tall are considered as sapling and trees.
Sandhill (SH) 10: Sapling and Tree Data
Notes:
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94
Step 3: Estimating Shrub Characteristics
In our walk through the field site, we determined that the shrub layer was most similar to the
photo series site LLP 03. We estimated total shrub percent cover at 10% and the average height
was 2.3 feet. The longleaf pine series does not include percent cover and height data for
understory vegetation. If we wanted to use a photo series to estimate shrub percent cover and
height rather than estimating these variables ourselves, the Sand Hill series provides percent
cover and height estimates and also contains some suitable matches to this site.
Tip: When reviewing potential matches in the photo series, be sure to focus on the fuel layer of
interest. In this case, the trees do not appear similar between our Georgia field site and LLP 03,
but for shrub characteristics, we are only concerned about the similarity of understory
vegetation.
LLP 03 Understory vegetation table:
Notes:
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95
Georgia Field Site
Sandhill (SH) 06
Note that the turkey oak in the field site photo is considered the trees and saplings table.
Notes:
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
96
Step 4: Estimating Herbaceous Understory
Characteristics
There are many possible matches to the herbaceous understory vegetation at our site, which has
about 50% wiregrass coverage (Aristida stricta) with an average height of 1.6 feet. We selected
Longleaf Pine site LLP 04 as an approximate match. Based on field observations, we know that
wiregrass coverage and loading is likely double that of LLP 04 (1.34 tons/acre).
The longleaf pine photo series only lists loadings. The Sand Hill series includes species height and
percent cover in addition to loading and may also contain suitable matches.
Tip: The term graminoid refers to grasses and other grass-like vegetation. Forbs refer to
herbaceous (nonwoody) vegetation other than grasses.
LLP 04 Understory Vegetation Table:
Notes:
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97
Georgia Field Site
Longleaf Pine (LLP) 04
Notes:
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98
Step 5: Estimating Woody Material Characteristics
As with all photo series assessments, a careful reconnaissance of the field site is important to
select suitable photo series site(s) to estimate woody material. In our Georgia field site, we
determined that the site didn't have many 1-hour fuels (< 1/4 inch) and that most loadings
appeared to most closely match SH 11.
Tip: Woody fuels assessments, in particular, will become easier and more accurate as you
calibrate your eyes with repeated use of the photo series in a variety of field settings.
Sand Hill site SH 11
Notes:
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99
Step 6: Estimating Forest Floor Characteristics
From our field reconnaissance of the Central Oregon site, we estimated litter depth was 0.5 inch
with 90% cover and duff depth was 1 inch with 70% cover. The Notes to Users section of the
PNW Interior Mixed-Conifer photo series contains bulk density values used for calculating litter
and duff loading. Similar values may be back-calculated using the data provided in each of the
Lodgepole Pine site datasets.
Using a litter bulk density estimate of 3 tons/acre-inch and duff bulk density estimate of 12.1
tons/acre-inch, we estimated the following:
Litter loading (tons/acre) = 0.5 inch x 3 tons/acre-inch x 0.9 (cover) = 1.35 tons/acre
Duff loading (tons/acre) = 1 inch x 12.1 tons/acre-inch x 0.7 (cover) = 8.47 tons/acre
Notes:
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100
Step 7: Summary Table
We have now estimated fuel characteristics from trees to the forest floor at the Central Oregon
site and are ready to enter our data into the Fuel Characteristics Classification System to report
on fuel characteristics and the fire hazard potential of our site.
Tip: Notice how we need to translate some of the terminology from the natural fuels photo series
to the Fuel Characteristics Classification System. For example, tree and sapling data are entered
in the Canopy stratum and divided into three canopy layers (overstory, midstory, and
understory).
The following table will be used to create a customized fuelbed in the Fuel Characteristic
Classification System tutorial.
Notes:
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101
Western Case Study: Evaluating fuel conditions and
treatment options in central Oregon
You are a fire management officer for the USDA Forest Service outside of Bend, Oregon. The
lodgepole pine forests in your district have experienced high mortality from ongoing bark beetle
outbreaks and a prolonged regional drought. These forests are dominated by lodgepole pine with
scattered ponderosa pine, and most sites have high woody fuel loadings associated with recent
tree mortality.
The district ranger has asked you to evaluate the fuel conditions and fire hazard of these
lodgepole pine forests and develop a treatment plan that includes forest thinning and prescribed
fire.
Use the Natural Fuels Photo Series to estimate fuel loadings and other fuel characteristics of this
site.
Tip: members of the Fire and Environmental Applications Team actually visited the site
photographed below and took field measurements of the fuels to compare with estimations in the
photo series.
Notes:
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102
Step 1: Finding matches to your site
To find suitable matches to your site, there are several options in the Interior PNW Mixed Conifer
with Mortality and Rocky Mountain Lodgepole Pine series. Depending on which fuel types you are
estimating, you may also find it useful to refer to the Jack Pine in the Lake States series.
Because lodgepole pine and jack pine have similar growth forms, the tree and sapling estimates
in the Jack Pine series may be particularly helpful.
The photo matches below focus on the visual similarity in tree density and size classes. As you
will see in the following pages, we will refer to several photo series sites to estimate fuel
characteristics for different strata.
Central Oregon Site
LP 11
Notes:
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103
Step 1a: Notes to Users
When reviewing potential matches to your field site, it is important to review the Notes to Users
page at the beginning of each series. For example, the Rocky Mountain Lodgepole Pine series has
the following notes. Of particular intereset in the case of the lodgepole pine photo series is that
the series is ordered from lightest to heaviest loading of woody material and that an alternate
ordering is by successional status.
Notes:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
104
Step 2: Estimating Tree Characteristics
If you need to collect accurate tree density, diameter and height data, you should survey the site
using standard inventory methods. However, if you only need an approximate estimate of the
density of trees by diameter class, you may find sites within the photo series that match or
bracket your site conditions.
In this example, lodgepole pine (LP 11) is one of several potential matches that can be used to
estimate tree characteristics. The actual density of small diameter lodgepole pine was about
1/5th the density of < 4 inch saplings and trees in LP 11. However, the 4-9 and 9-16 inch size
classes were quite close to the actual field measurements (173 vs. 134 trees/acre in the 4-9-inch
size class and 72 vs 84 trees/acre in the 9-16-inch size class). Our site didn't contain any >16
inch diameter trees, so we won't use that column.
Lodgepole Pine (LP 11): Sapling and Tree Data
Notes:
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
105
Step 3: Estimating Shrub Characteristics
The shrub layer in this fuelbed is almost uniformly bitterbrush with approximately 30% cover with
a average height of 1.5 feet. The best match for this bitterbrush assemblage is actually found in
the Interior PNW Sagebrush series (SB 02); you might also find a suitable match in the
Southwestern Sagebrush series. Scroll down to view the photo series data and photo matches
between the central Oregon field site and SB 02.
Tip: Because sagebrush and bitterbrush have similar growth habits, we used the data from SB
02 to represent our site even though SB 02 is approximately half bitterbrush and half sagebrush.
SB 02 Site Information & Vegetation and Biomass Data Tables:
Central Oregon Site
Notes:
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
106
SB 02
Notes:
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
107
Step 4: Estimating Herbaceous Understory
Characteristics
In the Central Oregon field site, there was virtually no herbaceous understory (including grasses
or other herbs), so no estimations using the photo series are required. However, if your site did
have a grassy understory, you could have used data from several sites in the lodgepole pine and
mixed-conidfer with mortality series to acquire data about herbaceous fuels.
Notes:
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
108
Step 5: Estimating Woody Material Characteristics
The Interior PNW Mixed Conifer with Mortality and Lodgepole Pine series are both ordered by
woody fuel loading and contain potential matches to our site.
LP 07 provides a close match to the woody material loadings at the Central Oregon site.
Lodgepole pine LP 07
Oregon Field Site
Notes:
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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109
Step 6: Estimating Forest Floor Characteristics
From our field reconnaissance of the Central Oregon site, we estimated litter depth was 0.5 inch
with 90% cover and duff depth was 1 inch with 70% cover. The Notes to Users section of the
PNW Interior Mixed-Conifer photo series contains bulk density values used for calculating litter
and duff loading. Similar values may be back-calculated using the data provided in each of the
Lodgepole Pine site datasets.
Using a litter bulk density estimate of 3 tons/acre-inch and duff bulk density estimate of 12.1
tons/acre-inch, we estimated the following:
Litter loading (tons/acre) = 0.5 inch x 3 tons/acre-inch x 0.9 (cover) = 1.35 tons/acre
Duff loading (tons/acre) = 1 inch x 12.1 tons/acre-inch x 0.7 (cover) = 8.47 tons/acre
Notes:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
110
Step 7: Summary Table
We have now estimated fuel characteristics from trees to the forest floor at the Central Oregon
site and are ready to enter our data into the Fuel Characteristics Classification System to report
on fuel characteristics and the fire hazard potential of our site.
Tip: Notice how we need to translate some of the terminology from the natural fuels photo series
to the Fuel Characteristics Classification System. For example, tree and sapling data are entered
in the Canopy stratum and divided into three canopy layers (overstory, midstory, and
understory).
The following table will be used to create a customized fuelbed in the Fuel Characteristic
Classification System tutorial.
Notes:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________