Molly Sween
Foundations of Social Theory
James S. Coleman
Coleman’s why question: Why and how do norms come into existence?
 “In this book I refuse to take norms as given; in this chapter I ask how norms can emerge
and be maintained among a set of rational individuals” (242)
Coleman’s motivational mechanism: Individuals are motivated by self interest and act in such a
way that will result in rewards rather than punishment for their behaviors
Key Ideas:
Norm: socially defined actions of appropriate and inappropriate behavior
 “Norms are devices for controlling actions in the interests of persons other than the actor”
(294)
Characteristics of norms:
 “Property of a social system, not of an actor within it” (241)
 Specify actions that are correct or incorrect
 Purposively generated-benefits those who create and follow norms (i.e. beneficiaries of
norms) and harms those who do not follow norms (i.e. target actors)
 Established through social consensus
 Enforced by sanctions-informally or legally
Focal actions: action for which the norm is directed (246)
Proscriptive norms: discourage focal action (247)
Prescriptive norms: encourage focal action (247)
Sanction: exercising one’s right to control a focal action (248)
Negative sanction: inhibiting focal action (248)
Positive sanction: inducing focal action (248)
Focal
Action
Proscriptive
Norms
Negative
Sanctions
Prescriptive
Norms
Positive
Sanctions
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How and why do norms emerge?
 Events have external consequences which impact others (i.e. externalities)
o Can be (+)action benefits others, or (-)action is harmful to others
o “Norms emerge as a result of purposive actions on the part of actors who
experience externalities from others, potential beneficiaries of the norm” (287)
 Individuals engage in exchanges-something to offer one another (254)
 Assuming that there is an interdependence among parties, norms arise when equal
exchange becomes less likely (parties of two or more)
How and why do sanctions emerge?
 Norms are most effective when there are effective sanctions put in place to enforce them
 Sanctions based on elements of social structure:
o Social relationships: When a social relationship exists between two parties, it is easier
to sanction the actions of a third party who is disrupting the balance (269)
o Cost of sanctions: Sanctioning another is costly, especially if one is interested in
continuing a relationship with the one who is being sanctioned (286)
o Social closure: closure of the network in which a relationship exists between those
who “experience externalities from another’s actions” (278)
 “Closure reduces the net costs of applying a sanction, because the consensus that
occurs in structures having closure provides the legitimacy (that is, the right) for
actors to apply sanctions” (285)
Who enforces the sanctions behind norms?
 Internal and external sanctions (policing)
 Internal sanctions learned through socialization-“instillation…of the conscience or
superego” (294)
o Example: Parent/child relationship
 External sanction: punish or reward their behavior
 Internal sanction: illustrate your disappointment or happiness in response to an
action
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