AN ARCHITECTURAL COMPARISON OF CONTEMPORARY
APPROACHES AND PRODUCTS FOR INTEGRATING
HETEROGENEOUS INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Amar Gupta
Technical Advisor: Prof. Stuart E. Madnick
Researchers:
Teresa Wingfield and
Christopher Poulsen
Working Paper
3084-89
November 1989
Comments and suggestions should be directed to:
Dr. Amar Gupta
Principal Research Associate
Sloan School of Management
MIT Room E40-265
Cambridge, MA
02139
Telephone:
(617) 253-8906
0
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1989.
All rights
reserved.
Contents
of
this
working
paper
cannot
be
photocopied or quoted without advance written approval from
Principal Investigator.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
SECTION
1.0
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.7.
SECTION
2.0
HIGHLIGHTS OF PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS AND APPROACHES
2.1. BBN Systems and Technologies:
Cronus ........2-2
2-4..........2-4
2.2. Booz Allen:
IDIMS
............
2.3. Cambridge Technology Group:
SURROUND
........2-6
2.4. Cincom:
SUPRA .
.............................. 2-8
2.5. Cognos Corporation:
POWERHOUSE .............
2-10
2.6. Control Data Corporation:
ASCENT .
..........
2-12
2.7. Control Data Corporation:
CDM*PLUS .........
2-15
2.8. Data Integration, Inc.:
Mermaid
............2-17
2.9. Digital Equipment Corp.:
Rdb/VMS, DBMS ..... 2-20
2.10.Gupta Technologies, Inc.:
SQL System .......
2-22
Distribut ed
2.11.Honeywell Federal Systems, Inc.:
.2-24
Database Testbed System....
· ··
.. ·...
.2-27
2.12.IBM:
DB2, SQL/DS, SAA, and others
FOCNE
.2-30
2.13.Information Builders, Inc.:
2.14.Interbase Software Corporation:
INTERBA SE. .2-32
2.15.Massachusetts Institute of Technology:
Composite Information Systems.......... ....
2-34
2.16.Metaphor Computer Systems, Inc.:
DIS... .... 2-38
2.17.0n-Line Software International, Inc.:
RAMIS Information System ....
.........
... .2-40
.2-42
2.18.Oracle Corporation:
ORACLE.............
.2-44
2.19.Relational Technology, Inc.:
INGRES....
2.20.Software AG:
ADABAS....................
.2-46
.2-48
2.21.Sybase, Inc.:
SYBASE...................
2.22.Tandem Computers Incorporated:
NonStop SQL .2-5i
2.23.TRW:
TDIE ..............................
.2-52
2.24.Xerox Advanced Information Technology:
Multibase..... ....·.......
·. ·..........
INTRODUCTION
.....................
.1-1
Background..............
Functional Deficiencies. ..................... 1-2
Levels of Integration... ..................... 1-4
..................... 1-7
Constraints..............
. ...................
1-8
Models and Schemata..... .
Languages ............... ....................1-12
General Directions......
.................... 1-13
Te..e..es
.
SECTION
.
·
.
·
,.
.
3.0. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
3.1. Unintrusive Integration ..............
...... 3-1
3.2. Intrusive Integration.................. ...... 3-3
3.3. Interfacing with Controlled Redundancy. ...... 3-4
3.4. Interfacing with Transaction Transfer.. ...... 3-5
3.5. Additional Evaluation Criteria......... ...... 3-6
3.6. Conclusion............................. ...... 3-9
REFERENCES ..............
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.....
.....
R-1, R-2
.......
.............B-1,
B-2
ABSTRACT
Virtually all large organizations are faced with the problem
of intelligently accessing and integrating information maintained
in islands of disparate computer-based systems.
claim
vendors
that
their
respective
products
Since a number of
and
services
can
overcome the problem of integration, a comprehensive study was made
into
the
services,
means.
of
a
technical
as
This
new
well
characteristics
as
additional
of
ones
all
these
identified
through
and
other
report documents the results of this study in terms
taxonomy
for
classifying
various
integrating heterogeneous information systems.
principal
products
concepts and issues pertaining to
presented in this report.
approaches
for
In addition, the
this
field are
also
SECTION ONE:
1.1.
Background
Most
organizations
INTRODUCTION
today depend on
a portfolio
of
information
processing machines, ranging from mainframes to microcomputers and
from general purpose workstations to very specialized systems, to
meet
their
computational
requirements.
While
the
individual
hardware and software components in the growing array of computer
systems
may
meet
the
objectives
for
which
each
was
initially
designed, their heterogeneity presents a major obstacle to ready
access and assimilation of information.
It requires tremendous
amounts of time and effort to retrieve information from multiple
systems today, and in many situations, it is simply not feasible
to obtain integrated responses in desired timeframes.
As compared to the intra-organizational situation discussed above,
the
issues
involved
in
integrating
information
interorganizational basis are even more complex.
greater
heterogeneity
in
technical
First, there is
capabilities
organizations as compared to a single organization.
is
less
likelihood
standards.
sharing
of
of
reaching
consensus
on
on
across
Second, there
common
goals
and
Third, non-technical issues, such as access rights and
costs,
acquire
organizations are involved.
added
importance
when
multiple
Integration of relevant information
from various computer-based systems is indeed a challenging task.
1-1
1.2.
Functional Deficiencies
The problem of inefficient, incomplete, and time-consuming access
to
information
can
be
traced,
from
a
technical
viewpoint,
to
functional deficiencies at several levels as described below:
Structured and Unstructured Applications
Conventional and computer-based information systems have
been designed with specific applications in view. These
systems
are
efficient
for
performing
the
originally
intended application, but they are inefficient in dealing
with ad hoc queries or new unanticipated applications.
Information versus Knowledge
Traditional database systems focus on retrieval of data,
and on performing elementary operations
(e.g., sorting
and merging).
both data
Such
systems
cannot use
and
programs to respond intelligently to queries like "How
many vehicles can be made available to evacuate personnel
from the vicinity of a disaster site within a specified
period of time?"
which require analysis of many factors.
Diverse types of Information
Different
types
of
information
1-2
(numerical,
graphic,
pictorial,
different
speech, and video) are
ways.
During
designed to manipulate,
information.
During
textual information.
the
referenced
sixties,
in very
computers
were
store, and retrieve numerical
the seventies,
the
focus was on
Relatively less effort has so far
been directed towards efficient storage and retrieval of
pictorial information and its combination with numerical
and textual information.
Communications
In spite of continuing effort by a number of national
and international institutions, it is still difficult to
transfer
complex
information
across
computers
of
dissimilar architectures.
Granularity
It
is
difficult
to
judge
what volume
of
information
should be made available, and how it should be arranged
and tailored to meet the needs of the person requesting
the information.
Security
It
is
necessary
to
determine
who
can
access
the
information, and what each person is permitted to modify.
1-3
III
This
aspect
especially
is
important
for
applications
involving more than one organization.
Semantics
It
is
difficult
to
specify
without
desired
information
exactly
the
knowing
subset
details
of
the
of
Further, a particular piece of
systems being accessed.
information may possess different connotations on various
systems.
spare
Conversely, the same item (such as a particular
may be
part)
specified
by different
numbers
on
The above list describes a few of the
various systems.
key technical problems.
In
are
there
addition,
restrict integration.
variables,
distributed
Partial
a
global
solutions are
are
that
Because of the large number of issues and
solution
information
solutions
impediments
non-technical
major
to
systems
has
becoming
the
problem
remained
available,
of
an
elusive
however,
identified and analyzed in later
integrating
dream.
and
sections of
these
this
report.
1.3.
Levels of Integration
Integration of information resources can be visualized at different
levels.
At the least complex end of the spectrum, information can
be exchanged across a network using basic facilities such as remote
1-4
procedure call [13] and message passing.
a new
layer
of
software
can
be
At the next higher level,
created
to
idiosyncrasies of different host machines.
insulate
users
from
This layer can provide
uniformity at the level of logically centralized file servers as
in the case of Andrew at CMU [2],
or at the level of application
programs as in the case of Project Athena at MIT [3].
The
approaches
significant
described
degree
of
in
user
the
preceding
involvement.
instances of integration of information.
paragraph
Also,
they
require
represent
The focus of this report
is, however, on integration of information systems.
Further, the
emphasis is on systems "dissimilar" from each other in terms of:
*Hardware, for example, one information system using an
IBM mainframe and a second system functioning on
Unisys hardware;
*Operating systems, for example, one information system
using OS/MVS, and other using UNIX;
*Data models, for example, one system using network
data models, and the other using relational data
models;
*Database management systems, for example, one using
INGRES,
and
the
other
using
ORACLE
database
management systems, respectively.
Apart
from the above differences arising from dissimilarities in
hardware and software, different information systems use different
sets of design decisions and underlying assumptions. For example,
one system may be using annual salary of personnel while another
may be using monthly salary;
further, the salary in one case may
be
budgeting
gross
salary
second case,
printing
(typical
of
it may be net
checks).
salary
Similarly,
a
1-5
systems),
(typical of
particular
whereas
in
the
systems used
for
spare
part
may
be
ILI
specified by one part number in one system and by a different part
number
in
reconciled
a
second
when
system.
attempting
All
to
these
integrate
differences
dissimilar
must
be
information
systems.
There
are
two
facets
to
integration--physical
Physical integration,
logical integration.
integration
and
accomplished through
physical connectivity, refers to the process of establishing actual
Logical integration
communication links among disparate systems.
refers to
the process of accessing disparate
systems
in concert
This involves reconciliation
for generating integrated responses.
of different assumptions and perspectives embedded in the systems
being
At the
integrated.
logical
level,
the
integration system
must:
*Know where all the information is stored, along with
the data formats and the query languages of the
local systems;
*Decompose the query into subqueries that can be
executed by local systems;
*Accumulate the results from all the subqueries;
*Reconcile differences among the results accumulated;
and
*Formulate integrated answers.
All
the
above
tasks
must
ideally
in
this
report
require
carried
out
with
no
However, many products discussed
modification to existing systems.
later
be
significant
changes
to
existing
information systems.
Based on the
level
of integration achieved, and some additional
1-6
characteristics,
distinguished.
various
These
types
of
integration approaches
approaches,
using
the
can be
terminology
of
different researchers who have used dissimilar terms to refer to
same or similar ideas, include the following:
*Cooperation System for Heterogeneous Data Base
Management System [4].
*Federated Database [5,9].
*Composite Information System [6].
*Knowledge Based Integrated Information System [7,11].
*Multidatabase [8,10].
*Superdatabase [12].
Instead
of
attempting
to
cover
all
the
views
expressed
individuals who coined these terms and phrases,
by
the
the endeavor in
this report is to encapsulate the main concepts and the emerging
technologies
and products that
enable
integration
of
dissimilar
information systems.
1.4.
Constraints
The design of an integrated information system is constrained by
the following facts:
(a) The
new
system
must
integrate
existing
information
systems, each of which was designed independently with
little premonition,
if any, that the system would form
part of a larger system at a future date.
(b)
Each existing information system must be fully understood
in order
to
semantics.
comprehend all underlying
assumptions
and
Rarely are these systems fully and accurately
1-7
II'
documented.
(c)
The
allow
must
design
flexibility
to
add
or
remove
individual systems into the integrated configuration. As
such, it requires detailed knowledge of both immediate
and long-term constituents of the integrated system.
least amount of changes to
The design must involve the
(d)
Transactions, irrespective of whether
existing systems.
they
are
manipulation
systems,
or
queries
maintained
information
of
of
each
in
its
imposes
which
retrieval
involve
updates,
or
individual
set
own
of
reconciled by
requirements and standards which must be
the new system.
The
goal
is
to mitigate
all
the
above-mentioned
problems
in an
efficient and effective manner.
1.5.
Models and Schemata
A Distributed Heterogeneous Database Management System attempts to
meet
the
above
and
aggregate,
distributed,
goal
to
by
providing
update
the
facilities
information
systems.
heterogeneous
maintained
A
a)
in
typical
heterogeneous approach is characterized by the
access,
to
to
multiple,
distributed
following:
The use of a common data model, with appropriate mapping
to data models of participating systems;
(b)
The
support of
a
standard user
language for
retrieving
data on a global basis in all cases, and also for storing
data in some cases;
1-8
(c)
The
ability
to
decompose
a
user
request
into
an
equivalent set of subqueries expressed in the format and
manner required by participating systems;
(d)
The capability to resolve incompatibilities in semantics,
data structures, and other parameters;
(e)
*The
mechanism
information
to
take
provided
by
the
individual
participating
pieces
systems
and
of
to
integrate them in order to provide a cohesive response
to the original user request.
In addition to the above, some approaches facilitate implementation
of
sophisticated
ability
to
draw
features such as
inferences
in
authorization control and the
situations
involving
missing
or
conflicting data.
When data need to be retrieved from a single file, it is sufficient
to simply know the file design including the keys for
records.
accessing
One single view or schema of the file design meets the
requirements of the systems analyst and the user.
However, when
there are several disparate information systems and there are many
users from different disciplines, each user tends to look at the
information from his or her perspective.
schema,
By having more than one
it is feasible to handle complex problems, as well as to
achieve data independence.
Most experts recognize the requirement for three types of schema.
This notion of a three-schema architecture originated in 1977, when
the
Study
Planning
and
Requirements
1-9
Committee
(SPARC)
of
the
III
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) published a report on
The three types of schema are as
this subject [14].
(a)
Global conceptual
is intended as a
This schema
schema:
follows:
blueprint that shows the existence of all the information
in
maintained
the
all
systems.
information
To
enable
intelligent access and integration, the conceptual schema
must
be
designed
incorporate
to
stored data.
For this reason,
to as
schema.
logical
There
semantics
the
it is sometimes
is only one
all
of
referred
global
schema
for the entire enterprise.
(b)
Local
or internal
schema:
This schema covers the data
in an individual information system, that may itself be
hosted
on
internal
one
or
schema
more
for
implies
a
there
system, a
each information
environment necessarily
local data models.
Since
computers.
is
one
complex
large number
of
such
The collection of such local models
is referred to as a local schemata.
(c)
External
application
or
schema:
This
schema describes
the user or the application view of the distributed data.
Since each class of users or applications will view the
data in a different manner, more than one external schema
is required.
This collection is referred to as
external
schemata.
The strategy used to map information between
schemata
determines
dissimilar
the
overall
architectures,
meet user expectations.
to
capability
maintain
these three types of
to
mediate
integrity of
data,
across
and
to
Transformation of information between the
1-10
three
schemata
dictionary.
Use
is
ideally
managed
very powerful
of
via
data
a
three-schema
definition
data
is
language
critical in defining the global schema in terms of objects, events,
and integrity constraints [15].
It
is
important
to
that many
emphasize
commercial
products
approaches do not support the concept of a global schema.
a relational
schema approach,
no
technological
exchanged
Instead,
table or matrix is established between the
external schemata and the available internal schemata.
either
and
required
Such a two-
the interfacing approach, offers
referred to as
integrity
control
over
data
through
transaction
passing
[15].
or
by
Data
are
controlled
In the former case, all transactions are transmitted
redundancy.
from the source database to the destination database, where they
are
transformed
schemata.
to
adhere
to
the
requirements
In controlled redundancy,
of
the
external
instantaneous copies of the
source database are stored at multiple nodes of the network, and
these copies are replaced by new versions at periodic intervals.
Both alternatives of the interfacing approach attempt to meet new
user
and
application
consistent
set
of
needs
rules
in
an
governing
ad
hoc
the
manner,
overall
without
any
computational
environment.
To overcome the above
schema
approach,
strategic nature.
problems,
especially
it is necessary to use a three-
in applications
All the major
of
a critical
or
a
research programs funded by the
U.S. Government, such as Multibase, Integrated Information Support
1-11
III
System,
and
Integrated
Administration
Comparative
System,
evaluation
appears in [16,17].
of
critical
and
three-schema
Manufacturing
adopted
of
eight
the
major
Distributed
three-schema
initiatives
Database
approach.
in
this
area
To maintain adequate integrity of shared data
strategic
approach
importance,
cannot
be
the
need
for
overemphasized.
utilizing a
This
aspect
acquires added importance when an application needs to access data
from
various
DBMS-based
information
systems,
as
well
as
from
earlier file systems that contain no notion of DBMS.
1.6. Languages
The only database language that has gained endorsement from major
computer
manufacturers,
and
from
standards
organizations such as ANSI and ISO, is SQL.
used
to
create
external schema.
tabular
views
Further,
that
establishing
SQL statements can be
approximate
the
notion
of an
it can be used to create a conceptual
schema, although a semantically weak one [18].
Intended to be used
for queries, SQL has no internal schema.
There are several flavors of SQL in existence.
A number of vendors
claim to offer support for multiple versions of SQL.
Further, some
SQL based integration approaches can deal with legacy systems that
offer no support for SQL.
SQL are
In such cases user queries expressed in
converted into the native languages of the participating
information systems.
1-12
There is a recent trend towards using graphics techniques to select
From a user perspective, these icon-
databases, files, and tables.
oriented approaches are far friendlier than traditional language
However, there is still no common graphics
oriented techniques.
interface that has been
endorsed by a critical mass of vendors.
Even with a proprietary graphics interface, navigation with icons
may be especially
relevant for users at the top echelons of
the
organization.
1.7.
General Direction
The basic concepts outlined above have been used in evaluating the
principal products and approaches that are commercially sold.
list of vendors
specifications
contacted is
are
tabulated
placed at Appendix A,
For
B.
in Appendix
The
and detailed
the
subset of
products and approaches that hold some degree of relevance, a brief
write-up
presented
taxonomy
was
in
is
integration,
on
each
product.
Section
2 of
this
report.
created
for
generated
and
classifying
recommendations
appropriate set of technologies.
1-13
are
These
In
Section
different
made
write-ups
for
3,
are
a new
approaches
to
selecting
an
III
SECTION TWO:
HIGHLIGHTS OF PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS AND APPROACHES
In Section 1, the fundamental principles of integrating dissimilar
information systems were presented.
products
and
approaches
are
In
discussed
this
and
section, principal
analyzed using
these
fundamental principles.
The products and approaches described in this section were derived
from numerous sources, including articles in computer journals and
magazines, proceedings of relevant conferences, lists of conference
participants,
and
various companies.
personal
From the
discussions
with
representatives
initial list generated,
in
the systems
previously covered in References [1] and [16] were deleted, unless
the complexion of the system had changed significantly during the
intervening period.
The material presented in this section is not
an exhaustive survey of all issues, but rather a discussion that
covers the whole field taking all significant design approaches in
view.
It should be emphasized that some companies offer customized
services,
rather than a product, making it difficult to evaluate
them in detail.
introduction,
features.
In this section, each product is described by an
its
functional
architecture,
and
its
Additional details are tabulated in Appendix B.
2-1
salient
2.1.
BBN Systems and Technologies:
Cronus
Cronus is an environment designed to support coherent integration
of heterogeneous computer systems.
to
provide
an effective,
The objectives of Cronus are:
general-purpose,
distributed computing
environment composed of hosts with differing hardware and operating
systems; to support an integrated computing environment consisting
of both the
native operating system
environment and the Cronus
environment; and to provide comprehensive support for development
of
large-scale
distributed
applications.
Cronus
began
as
a
research project funded by the Rome Air Development Center and the
Naval Ocean Systems Center in 1981.
The project was a two-year
joint effort between BBN Systems and Technologies Corporation and
Xerox Advanced
Information
Technology, both of
Cambridge,
Mass.
The first prototype from this project became operational in 1984.
Cronus
models.
basis.
supports
both
object-oriented
Global updates may be
and
relational
local
data
performed on an object by object
Update operators for insertion, deletion, and modification
are in algebraic form and operate associatively on sets of tuples.
Stored update
procedures may include
conditional
statements and
expressions.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Cronus
runs
on
top
hardware platforms.
of
existing
operating
systems
on
various
The Global Schema definition is supported for
object-oriented data storage and retrieval.
2-2
Every system resource
is an object and is accessed through operations defined by the type
of
the
object.
supports
Cronus
heterogeneity
by
serving
as
a
bypassable layer of abstraction between applications programs and
Through this approach, both conventional
native operating systems.
access to native operating systems resources and services and
access to a coherent, uniform (object-oriented) system interface,
regardless of computer system base, are supported.
Distributed
query
translation
of
operations
on
processing
high-level
data
stored
and
require
capabilities
into
sequences
of
possibly
different
sites.
requests
at
update
algebraic
The
algebraic approach defines a collection of "physical" operators on
tuples
and
takes
into
account
the
indexes, and the physical location.
when
two
algebraic
expressions are
sort
order,
the
presence
of
Transformation rules determine
equivalent,
and optimization
rules specify when it is profitable to transform an expression into
another equivalent one.
Salient Features
Cronus incorporates an evolutionary approach in its design.
claims
upgrade
impact
that its Open Architecture
or
on
replace
the
rest
components
of
the
or
system.
approach makes
technology
There
with
Cronus
it possible to
little
is uniformity
or
no
across
diverse operating systems, hardware platforms, and applications.
2-3
III
2.2.
Booz Allen:
IDIMS
IDIMS is an expert system oriented approach designed by Booz Allen
to
provide
automated
data
access.
The
user
obtains
access
throughout the distributed data environment with a single global
manipulation language and a user-friendly, intelligent interface.
Upon receipt of a query, IDIMS decomposes the query into a set of
database
calls
violations
on
and
function
databases;
applications;
formulates
determines
queries
in
security
appropriate
languages and queries databases; applies functions to retrieve data
and
finally
interface,
displays
the
data
via
in a style appropriate
a
state
to the
of
the
art
graphic
type and the number of
data elements to be displayed.
It is important to note that IDIMS is not a commercial
shelf" product, but instead a conceptual
Allen
to
achieve
automated
data
framework used
access.
Although
a
"off the
by Booz
complete
production system has not yet been implemented, Booz Allen claims
that it has built systems which relate to each functional component
of IDIMS.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The IDIMS system consists of a Query Processor, a Knowledge base
for
database
models
and
function
models,
a
Query
Language
Generator, and a Natural Language Processor.
The Query Processor translates a global data manipulation language
2-4
query into a series of data and function calls using the database
and function models knowledge bases.
it plans the
In doing so,
appropriate databases and functions to apply, chooses between plans
using query
optimization and
consideration techniques,
time
and
executes plans by calling the Query Language Generator to retrieve
data.
In addition,
it
determines whether
are
there
potential
security violations for the local databases queried.
The Data Base Models Knowledge Base is a structure which maintains
data models for each of the distributed local databases.
models
contain
rules
information and
on
These
security consideration,
representative query language, data, data type, and host computer.
The Function Models Knowledge Base is a structure which maintains
knowledge about the available procedures to alter or determine data
Each function model provides for a specific logical
attributes.
data
linking
procedure
describes
domain,
Processor
uses
the
such
range,
and
as
correlate,
process
Function Models
sum,
and
definition.
Knowledge
Base
join,
The
to
and
Query
determine
which functions satisfy given constraints.
The
Query Language Generator
translates
the
global manipulation
language into the appropriate local database query language.
then makes these queries and retrieves the data.
Query
Language
Generator
maintains
translations
It
Accordingly, the
for
each
local
database language and procedures to send queries to each computer
on the network.
2-5
III
The
Natural
through
Language
the natural
interface
natural
language
limited
use
can
individuals
which
capabilities
Processor provides an additional
This processor then translates
to query databases.
language into the IDIMS global manipulation language
using conceptual dependency and case grammar.
SALIENT FEATURES
IDIMS is not a product, but an approach that eliminates the need
for the user to know multiple query languages, locations of data,
schemata.
manipulation
and
paradigms,
database
A
high-level,
supported; however, updates are
iconic, global query language is
not supported.
2.3.
The
SURROUND
Cambridge Technology Group:
Cambridge
Group
Technology
Mass.,
Cambridge,
of
(CTG)
specializes in providing customized distributed heterogeneous data
A small group of users and
integration within short time frames.
managers from the client company interface with SURROUND developers
at
CTG
prototype
The
goal
implement
to
software
of a functional
of
CTG
is
to
interfaces
as
well
as
a
rapid
application within a one week period.
construct
a
user-friendly
system which
focuses on one particular strategic- application.
CTG applications support queries and updates.
are
supported
via
SURROUND
interface
and
Local data models
coordination
tools.
Complete data transparency is provided for geographically dispersed
2-6
locations via dialup ASCII modems.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The UNIX operating system is used as a major part of the SURROUND
service
to
Software
tools
UNIX
various
access
individual
from
information
the
incompatibilities
resolve
where
environment
of
environments,
extract
then transfer
data
distributed
programs,
the
and
systems.
different
information
is
joined
to
together.
Talk Tools are communication tools which imitate the code that the
The host computer accepts commands from
host computer understands.
the Talk Tool and sends results back to the same Talk Tool in the
UNIX environment.
There are also a variety of tools for attaining
security,
connectivity,
and
management,
network
for
gauging
performance.
The construction of the global schema is tailored to the needs of
the
language;
SQL
Data
SURROUND
application.
it supports
formatted
Handler
files
and
global updates.
the
does
not
define
a
data
manipulation
interface currently used by the user.
with modified versions
are accessed
communication
tools
on
remote
system
of
SQL
perform
Commander, a proprietary tool, handles transaction
management functions.
SALIENT FEATURES
Rapid prototype systems have been developed for TRANSCOM, General
Electric, and other
organizations within one
2-7
week spans
of
time.
CTG claims that it can provide production software in as little as
months.
three
databases
can
Record
structures
added quickly, making
be
easily and new
changed
can be
the SURROUND
environment
flexible.
Cincom:
2.4.
SUPRA
SUPRA, a product of Cincom, provides a commercial
implementation
Such an architecture,
of the ANSI/SPARC Three Schema Architecture.
insulates applications from changes in
described in Section 1.5,
the physical storage and conceptual database, reduces development
and
and
costs,
maintenance
increases
useful
the
life
of
applications.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The
integrates distributed heterogeneous
SUPRA system
databases
and manages distributed processing by having a SUPRA kernel reside
locally within each host machine or database.
This has the effect
of making the hosts aware of the integrated database network and
in
essence
creates
a
"standard
protocol"
which
the
components,
the
through
databases can communicate.
The
SUPRA
consists
kernel
of
two
basic
engine
Distributed Relational Data Manager (DRDM), and the Heterogeneous
Data
Management
Global
Processor
Directory.
Using
(HDMP),
the
along
kernel
on
with
each
a
of
the
host,
the
portion
local
requesting node coordinates the entire unit of work, including the
2-8
decomposition of the query into separate neutral protocol requests
and the determination of where to send them.
The local/receiving
nodes, each with its own kernel, translate the request into the
appropriate local
data manipulation language,
gather the
data,
perform calculations, and return the result to the requesting node.
In this decentralized structure, each node is intelligent and has
the ability to coordinate with each other via knowledge of the
network
in
the
resident
Global
Directory.
This
approach
to
distributed database and processing management assumes that most
of the data accessed by any given node reside locally and that an
"independent"
node,
with
the
ability
to
process
significant speed and reliability advantages.
locally,
has
In those instances
where the data are not local, the Global Directory contains the
information to tell
the DRDM where to get
network is not dependent on the
Directory or engine.
them.
As such,
the
reliability of a central Global
If any one node goes down, only the data
residing at that node become inaccessible, not the whole system.
Additionally, by distributing the necessary processing information,
every
transaction
need
not
access
eliminating a potential bottleneck.
copy of
the
Global
Directory, the
a
central
directory,
thus
However, with more than one
SUPRA approach implies more
maintenance and overhead compared to a single copy approach.
Every
time the Global Directory is updated at one node, the update must
be
reflected across the
entire network
transactions throughout the network.
2-9
creating a "cascade" of
III
SALIENT FEATURES
SUPRA currently provides for the use of synonyms and the resolution
of
scale
table
conflicts.
oriented
language.
The
The
decentralized approach allows
and working
to each user's particular application
contains
Directory
Global
the
a synonym
to
ability
retain
rules for performing scale translation and calculation before data
integration.
to
the
A unique feature called "triggers",
of
possibility
could be
established
combined
together,
a
data
For
conflict.
example,
to ensure that two numbers,
be within
a
alerts
the user
a
trigger
before they are
certain percentage of
At execution time, when a user wishes to combine the
each other.
two numbers,
a violation of this requirement would lead to an interrupt, and the
user to be prompted about the problem.
SUPRA utilizes
a
commit
two phase
procedure
which
provides
While assuring secure updates
concurrency control.
good
SUPRA or
for
other database management systems which support two phase commits,
the
product
currently
only
allows
updates
from
join
views
to
distributed databases which use SQL.
2.5.
Cognos Corporation:
POWERHOUSE
PowerHouse consists of four components: PowerHouse 4GL, PowerHouse
StarBase,
StarNet
and
generation language;
database management
and
StarGate
is
a
StarGate.
PowerHouse StarBase is a
system;
gateway
StarNet is
provider
2-10
4GL
PowerHouse
a
fourth-
relational
network
to
is
other
routing
software;
supported
local
database management systems. The PowerHouse 4GL was developed by
Cognos Corporation, Ottowa, Ontario while the remaining components
were
developed by InterBase
Software Corporation,
Bedford, MA.
Cognos began to market the Relational DBMS of InterBase and its
distributed
technology
in
conjunction
with
the
PowerHouse
application development language in 1988.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
In this approach, there is no concept of a single global schema.
Instead, multiple relational schemata may be referenced, even from
within the
same program.
selectively access
and
Relational operators are utilized to
merge
pieces
of
data.
Research
on a
distributed query engine is currently in progress.
A
discussion
provided
of
later
difference
the
capabilities
under
between
its
own
PowerHouse
of
InterBase
prototype
and
manipulation language supported.
components
overview.
InterBase
is
is
The
main
global
data
Both products support SQL and
Groton Data Manipulation Language, but the stand-alone PowerHouse
4GL is unique to PowerHouse.
One of
the benefits of
access
to
the PowerHouse 4GL
is that
it provides
relative Record Management Service files
and network
databases in addition to sequential and indexed Record Management
Service
The
files
Open
database
and relational
Systems
protocol.
Relational
databases
supported by InterBase.
Interface
(OSRI)
PowerHouse
2-11
4GL
elements
is
for
a relational
transaction
III
processing, report generation and batch updating use a relational
access approach which makes it possible to embed OSRI calls into
This means that as more local data models are added
the elements.
to the configuration, it is possible to develop applications which
access them using PowerHouse.
The PowerHouse 4GL product set includes PhD master data dictionary.
Using PhD,
resident
it is possible to treat all meta-data as if they were
in
a
single
logical
dictionary.
Thus,
one
need
not
redefine meta-data in the PhD dictionary.
SALIENT FEATURES
The
salient features
listed in
prototype also apply here.
expert
systems and
the description of the
Cognos
is attempting to
object-oriented techniques
in
InterBase
incorporate
the
PowerHouse
product.
2.6.
ASCENT
Control Data Corporation:
is derived
from
the
ASCENT
Technology
Information
System
developed by Lawrence Livermore National Labs (LLNL).
system originally commenced
in
the
(TIS)
Work on this
early seventies.
CDC has a
technology transfer license with LLNL (actually with the University
of
California)
to
support
this
technology,
and
to
take
it
into
production.
ASCENT
is
a
suite
of
software
2-12
products
that
provides
automation,
office
networking,
communications,
database
and
services within an interactive environment that is common to all
interpretive
scripting language that can simulate an interactive
to
connected
when
user
powerful
a
supports
ASCENT
of
portion
*gateway
The
users.
heterogeneous
a
remote
This
computer.
gateway serves as a tool that can be programmed with the scripting
language
to log into databases and to extract data
from a broad
range of remote systems.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHI TECTURE
A collection of software modules, known as the Intelligent Gateway
Processor
(IGP), use a UNIX system as the link between menu type
front-end
systems
IGP
The
mainframes.
and
geographically
front-end
and
program,
technically
Integrated
disparate
Information
System (IIS), offers menus composed of descriptor files which might
consist of classes of information resources, specific connections
to
remote
utilities.
that
hosts,
local
database
options,
In addition to menus, IIS
overlaps
the
with
UNIX
Shell
or
available
system
understands a command set
command
set.
As
IIS
is
implemented in a script-driven interpreter, UNIX commands can be
recognized even without arguments, and prompts can be enabled for
arguments or options.
The Network Access
Machine
(NAM), an extended implementation
of
the specifications published by the National Institute of Standards
and
Technology,
provide
access
utilizes
to
other
a variety
computer
2-13
of communication
systems.
methods
Currently
NAM
to
can
III
interface with direct asynchronous connections between two hosts,
NAM uses
most autodial modems, TCP/IP networks and X.24 networks.
an
to
necessary
remote
establish
systems.
This
to
language
communication
interpreted
and
connections
language
specify
dialogues
conduct
structured
includes
logic
the
with
constructs,
extensive pattern matching capabilities and capabilities to insert
These filters are specialized
"filters" in an existing connection.
programs written to modify the appearance of the data.
environment, ASCENT*gateway must be driven by
In a heterogeneous
the
UNIX
"host
system"
database
elements from
specific data
language control.
system
management
their remote
computers
to
extract
script
under
The DHDBMS places these data elements into the
proper place in the "logical record" requested by the user.
requires no software
approach
systems
since
each
system
to be
added
that
feels
to any
the
of the
This
remote
language
scripting
interactions with other remote systems are identical in appearance
to interactions with its own users.
SALIENT FEATURES
ASCENT*gateway allows automated access and connectivity to local
or
remote
computing
resources.
and message
electronic
mail
including
addressing,
functions.
integrated
services
forwarding,
within
and
A menu-driven user interface
software
applications,
administration tools.
2-14
provides
ASCENT*mail
a
mail
complete
computer
file
management
is available
utilities,
network
to access
and
system
2.7.
Control Data Corporation:
CDM*PLUS
The concept of CDM*plus was developed and prototyped with direction
and funding from the Integrated Information Support System (IISS,
pronounced I2S 2) initiative of the U.S. Air Force.
CDM*plus defines
and categorizes data using the ANSI/SPARC Three Schema Architecture
discussed in Section 1.5.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The CDM*plus dictionary/directory is loaded and maintained via the
Neutral Data Definition Language (NDDL) which describes all metadata to the ANSI/SPARC based three schema structure.
based
and describes
alter, and drop.
objects with verbs
such
as
NDDL is SQL
create,
Each schema has unique commands.
define,
For example,
in the internal schema, the NDDL can describe the three basic types
of database models.
NDDL provides inter-schema mappings using the
conceptual schema or the data model as the base.
and
machine
readable
language
that
can
be
NDDL is a human
used
in
either
in
interactive mode or in batch mode, as well as on forms.
The mapping strategy between the schema allows data to be accessed
without
regard
to
the
location
or
the
storage mechanism.
For
example, an application can join two relational user views from the
external schema that each map to two entities.
turn can be
mapped
to multiple
databases and
These entities in
database
types
on
multiple computers without burdening the user or developer with all
of the details of the actual conversions, translations or mappings.
2-15
III
is critical to provide a buffer for life cycle
This independence
maintenance as applications and storage structures change, and to
provide
the
capability for
joins
outer
and
full
referential
relational
between
integrity)
(including
operation
heterogeneous
databases.
Queries can be embedded into current applications written in Cobol,
These queries are precompiled by CDM*plus using the
C, or Fortran.
external schema view and transformed into actual database queries.
All code necessary to access the databases is generated including
Since
DBMS precompilations.
the
base
schema
is
conceptual
the
schema or data model, domain constraint checking and referential
integrity
checking
conceptual schema.
by
the
Code
can
be
automatically
enforced
based
on
the
After the code is generated, it is transferred
Manager
to
the
computers
appropriate
local
where
compiles, DBMS precompiles, and links are accomplished.
All
query processing
the
Network
is
Transaction
controlled
Manager
by
two
(NTM),
CDM*plus
which
process to process communication capabilities
in
the
distributed
environment,
and
the
components:
controls
unique
that are necessary
CDM*plus
Distributed
Request Supervisor (DRS), which controls the actual queries on each
This approach
host and formulates the messages sent to the NTM.
allows
serial or parallel processing of queries.
In the serial
process, one query produces input for other queries.
Each
local
node
(CDMR) modules
contains
to
an
facilitate
NTM
and
multiple
distributed
2-16
CDM*plus
processing.
runtime
The
CDMR
incorporates
DRS,
Aggregators,
File
Utilities
and
Code
Manager.
Query modules in applications that attempt to integrate information
from
multiple
statements.
heterogeneous
databases
This
for
allows
because
applications
changes
easier
to
the
be
replaced
of
maintenance
only
systems
by
NDML
legacy
require
re-
the necessary code.
to generate all
precompilation
can
SALIENT FEATURES
CDM*plus
load
requires
that
model
one
provides
it
addition,
storage
of
conceptual
into
global
the
view
CDM.
The
view
conceptual
provides
the
his or her
the user to model
of
the
view
users'
data.
the
the
of
Modeling
architecture
complete
the
between
independence
data,
schema
three
of
enterprise and to
actual
data,
the
and
In
data.
physical
and
the
of
integration
applications and databases with CDM*plus is done in an evolutionary
manner,
allowing for
the
time
rather than a full
2.8.
Data Integration,
a
Mermaid,
product
trademark
marketed
by
implementation
of one
application
at a
rewrite of the entire system.
Inc.:
Mermaid
Unisys,
of
is
an
integrated
Inc.
Data. Integration,
It
data
allows
access
users
of
multiple relational or network database management systems, running
on different machines, to access and manipulate data using standard
SQL,
even
Integration
data
type,
when
may
the
participating
require
translation
systems
translation
of
the
units,
2-17
of
the
don
not
data
combination
support
into a
or
SQL.
standard
division of
II1
Only updates to a single database are
fields, and encoding values.
presently
supported.
to
Updates
replicated
and
fragmented
relations may cross databases, but the updates to all databases are
not made concurrently.
The Mermaid system is designed for an environment in which there
are many databases
independently administered and where
that are
With Mermaid, new
it is not feasible to standardize on one DBMS.
applications
may
be
either
developed
at
the
global
level
when
distributed access is required, or above an existing old database.
Local administrators grant access permissions to users of Mermaid
and then Mermaid adds an additional level of access control.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The
major
are:
processes
User
Process,
Interface
Distributor
Process, DBMS Driver Process, and Data Dictionary/Directory (DD/D).
The
User
validator,
Interface
the
contains
Process
query
library,
and
the
the
SQL
parser,
report
the
query
generator.
The
Distributor Process contains the optimizer and the controller.
The
optimizer plans query execution and the controller starts processes
and coordinates execution.
There is one DBMS Driver Process for
each database to be accessed.
the
language
translation,
It contains the schema translation,
and
the
DBMS
interface.
The
Data
Dictionary/Directory (DD/D) is a database that contains information
about
the
schemata,
users,
host
computers,
supports three layers of schema definition.
2-18
and
network.
It
A
user
input
is
either
a
command
interface or an SQL query.
to
execute
within
the
user
The SQL query is parsed, validated,
translated into Distributed Intermediate Language (DIL), and sent
to the distributor process which performs the Distributed Execution
Monitor function.
The optimizer plans the execution by consulting
the DD/D for the location of the relations.
It sends commands and
subqueries to the controller for transmission to the DBMS drivers.
The driver reads a message which may be a command to initialize,
terminate, execute
schema and data of the
query from the global
form into the local form and then translates it from DIL into the
local DBMS language.
The first time that a relation is retrieved,
the data are translated into the global form.
SALIENT FEATURES
Mermaid treats files as large objects.
structured data.
Qualification is done on
The user selects qualified objects to view.
The
system then starts a retrieval process and a display process that
are customized for the file type.
Communication between processes is done using standard protocols.
The
main processes use TCP/IP on an Ethernet.
If TCP/IP is not
available on the computer with the DBMS, another protocol may be
used
to
communicate
between
the
controller
and
the
driver
or
between the driver and the DBMS.
Mermaid
is
written
as
a
set
of
processes
with
well
defined
interfaces so that it can be customized for different environments.
2-19
III
It can also be embedded in or called by other products and it can
use other products to process the output.
Digital Equipment Corp.:
2.9.
Rdb/VMS,DBMS
two alternative methods for
(DEC) offers
Digital Equipment Corp.
One method
distributed data management in the VAX/VMS environment.
is
geared towards a decentralized
environment with users having
their own processing resources and connected through a Local Area
Network.
The
other
method
is
directed
towards
centralized
distributed processing with a VAX cluster comprising two or more
Each
VAX processors, and the database located on a common disk.
of
these
methods
can
used with
be
either
of
the
two
data
DEC
management systems:
Rdb/VMS is a relational DBMS while Digital's
Database
System
model.
that
Management
uses
a
hierarchical/network
Further, VAXlink Client is a layered VMS software product
provides
extract
(DBMS)
IBM mainframe
unidirectional
it
capabilities;
works
in
database
access
with
conjunction
and
VAXlink
Answer/DB Extractor to access IMS and VSAM data structures and to
transfer extracted data to Rdb/VMS databases.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
VAX
SQL
is
interactive
databases
(DSRI).
Digital's
and
version
software
that conform to
of
ANSI
development
SQL
and
interface
is
used
for
Digital Standard Relational
as
an
relational
Interface
Used to define, access, and update relational databases,
it is characterized by an interactive data manipulation language,
2-20
a data definition language utility, preprocessors and dynamic SQL
DEC's Database Management System
for COBOL, FORTRAN, C, and PL/I.
uses
the
Network
Language
Manipulation
(NML),
a
standard
for
network models.
A Database Control System (DBCS) provides the connections between
the
application program and the database locations for
Base Management System.
to the DBCS.
the
Data
Application programs transmit information
The DBCS transfers all
information
call for data to the User Work Area (UWA).
requested by a
Information in the UWA
is then used to update the database.
The VAX Distributor distributes
access tool
to DSRI.
for IBM databases),
data
from any Rdb/VMS, VIDA
(an
or any other database conforming
The commands of the VAX Data Distributor allow the user
to specify the data to be distributed, the type of copy to be made,
the
target
kinds
of
extraction
node,
copies
and
are
rollups,
the
transfer
permitted
and update
by
and replications.
this
schedules.
tool:
These
Three
extractions,
copies effect
only
the target database.
Digital's distributed, active, open-architecture dictionary is the
VAX Common Data Dictionary/Plus (CDD/Plus).
one
VAX CDD/Plus provides
logical dictionary system that is physically dispersed, thus
eliminating the need to develop separate dictionaries
proprietary tools or applications.
2-21
to support
'I1
SALIENT FEATURES
Digital
claims
management
to
one
provide
of
the
the VAX/VMS
systems for
best
relational
environment.
database
is a widely
VMS
used operating system for development and execution of a wide range
Apart from the above products marketed directly
of applications.
by DEC, a number of other vendors have opted to select VAX hardware
as the host system for reconciling the idiosyncracies of individual
components in a distributed, heterogeneous environment.
2.10.
SOL SYSTEM
Gupta Technologies, Inc.:
Gupta Technologies, Inc. of Menlo Park, Calif., supports relational
database networking.
The
SQL
SYSTEM allows
applications
running
on a PC to use data residing on minis, micros, and mainframes.
primary
elements
of
the
SYSTEM
SQL
are:
The
SQLWindows,
SQLBase,
SQLTalk and SQLNetwork.
SQLBase is a distributed relational DBMS
be used
computer
as
a
standalone
based
DBMS,
workstations
as
on
a
database server
network,
a
is
fully
compatible with
and
as
for
a
personal
gateway
to
The SQL language syntax of
mainframe database management systems.
SQLBase
It can
for PC networks.
those
of
IBM's
DB2
and
SQL/DS.
Gupta Technologies claims to be the first company to offer advanced
concurrency,
distributed
automatic
consistency,
and
dynamic
recovery
for
a
relational DBMS on a personal computer.
SQLWindows and SQLTalk allow the programmer or user to utilize SQL
2-22
without having to develop and compile programs.
SQLWindows is an
advanced applications
graphics,
generator which
supports
dialogue and help boxes and mouse pointing devices.
a
complete
programs.
procedural
SQLTalk is
language
and
provides
menus,
It contains
exits
to
other
an interactive data management program for
accessing SQLBase via the SQL language.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The
SQLNetwork
database
components
management
enable
systems to
servers on the same network.
SQLNetwork are:
mini,
appear
micro
like
and
mainframe
SQL
distributed database
The three components comprising the
the SQLRouter, the SQLGateway, and the SQLHost.
Requests for data are handled differently based on the location of
the
databases.
The SQLRouter
is
the
software
requests to databases within the PC network.
on
each
PC
and
requires
NetBIOS
on
that directs
SQL
SQLRouter must reside
each
workstation.
The
SQLGateway routes SQL requests to databases outside of a single PC
network.
It runs as a memory resident program on the PC/AT and
accesses a file containing the databases to which it can establish
a connection at load time.
This file also contains the physical
node location of these databases.
SQLHost software resides on the host computer and transforms the
host DBMS into a database server that accepts SQL requests routed
to
it by SQLGateway.
acceptable
to
the
It
host
translates SQL
DBMS
and
2-23
commands
forwards
the
into a format
information
for
III
processing.
The
results
then sent back
are
to
the network.
A
different version of SQLHost is necessary for each different SQL
because
DBMS
of
in
variations
SQL
application
and
program
interfaces.
SALIENT FEATURES
SQLNetwork was designed to allow applications to take advantage of
to transparently access
the capabilities of a personal computer,
databases that reside on diverse servers, and to serve many users
with
a
amount
large
processing
cooperative
underway
Ingress,
2.11.
DDTS
user
The
data.
capabilities
in
for
Software
SQLHost
to
DOS,
support
UNIX
and
SQL/DS,
Oracle,
Distributed Database
a
testbed
emphasizing
modularity
and
distributed heterogeneous database management.
at
OS/2
full
and Sybase.
Honeywell Federal Systems, Inc.:
Testbed System
is
provided with
is
SQLNetwork provides access to DB2 and development
environments.
is
of
Computer Sciences
designing
and
Center
building
a
(CSC) of
system
flexibility
The project began
Honeywell with
that
could
evaluating alternate approaches and algorithms
for
be
the
aim of
utilized
for
for managing data
stored in several databases on different platforms.
Although DDTS
is not a product, Honeywell utilizes this technology in specific
contracts.
2-24
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
DDTS supports a five-schema architecture.
divided
into
the
global
The internal schema is
representation
schema,
representation schema and the local internal schema.
the
local
In addition,
there is an external schema and a conceptual schema which follow
the terminology of Section 1.5.
design a global
schema
A bottom-up approach is used to
for multiple
databases.
First,
a local
representational schema is built from the description of the local
database.
Next, all local representational schemata are integrated
to form the global representation schema.
Finally, the conceptual
schema describing semantic integrity constraints to be enforced by
DDTS is constructed.
The DDTS
system architecture
computing
in which a set
concurrent processes.
message exchange.
is based on a model
of distributed
of abstract processors execute
sets of
Local and remote processes communicate via
DDTS consists of a set of Application Processors
(APs) which control user interfaces and manage transactions, and
Data Processors (DPs) which manage data.
The GORDAS Command Interface (GCI)
enables multiple retrieval and
update requests expressed in GORDAS, a high-level query language.
Before a GORDAS transaction is executed, the GORDAS requests are
translated
Translation
to an
internal
and
Integrity
representation
possesses
representation
Control
features
(TIC)
of
for
processing
module.
relational
The
by
the
internal
algebra
and
relational calculus, and is similar to an internal representation
2-25
III
of SQL.
Materialization and access planning (MAP) result in a strategy for
processing
response
distributed
time
transmission
(the
and
time
the
queries,
updates
and
transactions.
elapsed
between
the
start
time
at
which
the
required computer) and the total time
result
of
the
arrives
The
first
at
the
(the sum of the time of all
transmissions) are minimized with MAP.
The
Distributed
execution
of
a
Execution
Monitor
transaction as
(DEM)
performs
directed by MAP.
distributed
Based on status
information returned by the Local Execution Monitors (LEMs) during
execution, the DEM decides to commit or abort a transaction.
DDTS
uses a two-phase commit protocol during transaction execution.
resolve concurrency
control
conflicts,
the
transaction
is
To
rolled
back and then restarted.
The Local Operations Module (LOM) of each DP acts as an interface
between the LEM and the local DBMS.
LOM provides local translation
and optimization of subtransactions that have been assigned to the
DP
by
MAP.
internal
The
LOM
translates
representation
to
subtransaction
data
manipulation
requests
requests
in
the
in
the
language of the local DBMS.
SALIENT FEATURES
DDTS
is
problems
a
useful
tool
associated
for
with
evaluating
approaches
distributed,
2-26
to
the
heterogeneous
various
database
management.
2.12.
IBM:
IBM faces
DB2.
SOL/DS. SAA.
and others
a challenge in developing its integrating approach.
It
commands a major presence in the mainframe computer market and in
the
personal computer market.
approaches
that
own systems,
or
It can either
enable
integration
it can
develop approaches
architectures as well.
of
come up with design
information
that
hosted
on
its
encompass non-IBM
So far, the emphasis has been on the former
alternative.
The IBM System Application Architecture (SAA) serves as a framework
for developing consistent applications across
three IBM computing
environments:
SAA
of software
support
System/370, AS/400
interfaces,
for distributed
and PS/2.
conventions,
files
is a collection
and protocols,
and includes
and distributed databases
that are
resident within one of these environments, and conform to certain
design guidelines.
IBM
is
developing
a
new
relational
Unix
oriented
approach
that
would integrate their AIX line (System/370, RT, and PS/2) as well
as
communicate
and PS/2)).
with
Details
their
SAA database
of this
line
(System/370, AS/400,
approach have not yet been
released
by IBM.
At a lower level, IBM provides support for linking information from
distributed
relational
(SQL/DS)
2-27
and
hierarchical
(IMS)
local
III
In addition, its Data Extract product
database management systems.
sets,
data
VSAM
and
sets,
physical
tables, DL/I data
SQL/DS
(DXT) can extract data from DB2 tables,
data
sequential
sets,
and
convert them for loading into other DB2 tables, physical sequential
data sets,
files.
and CMS
DXT users can also write generic data
interfaces for accessing non-IBM (OEM) databases on MVS.
In
1988,
October
to
for
SQL
distributed
The new DB2 and SQL (called SQL/DS) use relational
environments.
concepts
and
DB2
upgraded
IBM
integrate
In
information.
because
case,
either
a
central DBMS is not assumed, each location has all the capabilities
a
by
overall
distributed
affected
by
the
DBMS
relational
local
offered
network
role
of
as
may
Local
well.
system
the
and
in
participate
are
functions
distributed
in
an
not
processing.
Flexibility is provided for deciding how data will be distributed
and
The
processed.
SQL
data
manipulation
language
remote tables or a user may work with a local copy.
be
stored
in
one
large
table
or
split
into
can
access
Also, data may
several
parts
to
accommodate data which may be accessed and updated only at certain
local
locations.
Extracts,
snapshots,
and data
replication are
various types of copies which enhance retrievals and updates.
A user may extract a copy of one database table and load it into
another database.
Extracts are useful for migrating data from one
data format to another and for maintaining read-only copies of a
subset of data that rarely changes.
Snapshots are read-only copies
of tables that are automatically made by the system on a periodic
basis specified by the user.
These are useful for locations that
2-28
need an automated process for receiving updated information on an
With the data replication support, any location
occasional basis.
may update any copy of a table, and these updates are sent to other
This
automatically.
locations
is effective
for
that
situations
require high reliability and quick data retrieval with few updates.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Distributed relational data are accessed either on a remote unit
of work or
on a distributed unit of work.
permits access to a single,
remote relational DBMS within a unit
A unit of work is a set of one or more related requests
of work.
An application
which must all complete successfully or not at all.
can
program
of work
Remote unit
residing in
application
query
update
data
from
any
number
a single DBMS within a unit of work.
can
programs
management
systems
SQL/DS
DB2
and
and
one
have
at
remote
access
a
in
data
time,
in
In
addition,
multiple
database
separate
unit-of-work
tables
of
of
units
capability
as
work.
well
as
support for single SQL requests.
Distributed unit of work provides access
database management
systems
application program can
within
a
to multiple
single
read and update data
unit
of
relational
work.
from any number of
database management systems within a single unit of work.
However,
a single SQL statement must refer to data from a single DBMS.
features
of
distributed
unit
of
work
are:
An
complete
Key
location
transparency, coordinated system security mechanisms to determine
whether the application is authorized to access the remote systems
2-29
III
and data, and the two-phase commit protocol to ensure termination
DB2 supports distributed unit-of-work.
consistency.
SALIENT FEATURES
IBM states that its leadership in stand-alone database management
products resulted from its advanced data security, data integrity,
recovery capabilities.
and data
of
its
is to apply this
relational
distributed
to
products.
DB2 and SQL/DS have referential integrity which ensures
consistency
implementation
objective
expertise
the
the
Its
of
data
values
between
columns
related
of
two
different tables.
2.13.
FOCNET,
Information Builders, Inc.:
derived
from
FOCUS
interfaces
language and
provide
Network
is
Products,
marketed
headquartered in New York City.
Information Builders, Inc.,
nonprocedural
FOCNET
DBMS
logical
is
access
called FOCUS.
to
data
in
by
Its
Various FOCUS
hierarchical,
relational, and network models on remote machines.
FOCNET
permits
simultaneously.
multiple
individuals
to
update
a
database
A change/verify protocol confirms that the record
has not been updated by another user before it modifies the record.
In cases where the record has been changed, the update is reapplied
against the updated version.
Also, this approach allows a user to
define commit and rollback specifications for transactions.
2-30
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
A
client/server model
layer is inserted on top of the
system and
the access-method
node.
three
Its
network
components
transport
software
architecture of
client
are
and
server
each
operating
participating
software,
interfaces
software.
This
to
approach
reduces network traffic and takes full advantage of available CPU
resources.
Most
local
a Master File Description
databases must have
(MFD).
All files must be described in the FOCUS Master Dictionary before
FOCUS can access their data.
The master dictionary provides much
more
and data
than
conventional
file
information.
FOCUS
file
descriptions can also contain security restrictions, field aliases,
data validation criteria, predefined relational join operations,
and multiline column titles for use in reports.
FOCUS supports 4GL FOCUS, third generation languages, and ANSI SQL
global data manipulation languages.
the
dialect
appropriate
database
engines
which
of
use
SQL
Read/write interfaces generate
for
many
variations
well-known
from
this
relational
standard
data
manipulation language.
Dynamic
relational
different
tables
optimized
by
processing
addition,
join operations
and
databases
balance
on
the
tree
one
time.
record-by-record
including
based
at
linkage
permit
functionality
indexing
to
16
Processing
is
operations
of
accelerates
2-31
to
the
the
up
and
database.
speed
of
set
In
data
III
retrieval
and
online
updates
of
large
databases.
Users
can
logically invert FOCUS databases to further optimize retrievals.
SALIENT FEATURES
FOCNET runs on many platforms under a variety of operating systems.
The
list
of
database
local
systems
management
supported
impressive as is the list of supported network services.
FOCUS is
It is suited for developing
the most widely used 4GL in the world.
software and provides
is
automated application development and
for
maintenance.
Interbase Software Corporation:
2.14.
INTERBASE
Interbase is a product of Interbase Software Corporation, Bedford,
Although Interbase operates in a variety of software and
Mass.
its Digital Standard Relational
hardware environments,
(DSRI) compatibility makes
Interface
it most suited for use with other DEC
Relational local data models, indexed and
DSRI-compatible tools.
sequential Record Management Service files, and UNIX stream files
are supported by Interbase.
Global
updates
interactive
to
session,
databases
as
can
Interbase
be
in
performed
allows
multiple
the
same
simultaneous
transactions per process and provides for two-phase commits.
These
two features can be used to ensure that a transaction which updates
more
than
one
database
will
complete
correctly
or
not
at
Partial commits and partial rollbacks are possible as well.
2-32
all.
Interbase uses multigenerational data structures for data storage.
Records are
record
record.
are
never updated, but only added.
deleted
by
the
next
Old versions of
transaction which
accesses
the
the
This means that update access to data being processed by
another user is allowed.
On actual update, Interbase will impose
the record it originally retrieved with the record it is trying to
update.
If they are different, the transaction is rolled back and
the user is informed of this fact.
Changes required to local databases are minimal.
The Rdb database
of DEC permits access to Interbase files through VMS.
The ORACLE
gateway requires an additional table to be defined on the database,
access
to tables
in
the data dictionary, and
two
servers to be
started on the target node.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Interbase supports two global data manipulation languages: SQL and
the Groton Data Manipulation Language.
These two languages may be
used in precompiled third-generation language source programs or
in the Query Language Interpreter (QLI).
language into BLR,
The QLI translates either
a lower level language based on the DSRI, which
may be generated and read by programs.
Although InterBase has no global conceptual schema, it provides a
navigation path to distributed local
database management systems
through a database handler which defines node names
databases.
for multiple
A program called Y-valve determines if requested data
2-33
III
In the case of remote data,
are on a local node or a remote node.
the
is
request
routed
the
through
network
and
the
remote
data
dictionary is accessed.
or
Interbase
and
BLR
ORACLE,
passed
to
the
to
restricted
access
ORACLE
SQL
method.
is
systems
heterogeneous
between
incompatibility
is
in the BLR
left
requests are
data
With
language.
gateway
RDB
level
lower
through
Data
the
format
transparently
handled by a XDR layer.
SALIENT FEATURES
is
Interbase
supports:
It
(OLCP).
transactions;
commit;
designed
multi-user,
complex
applications
concurrent update;
automatic
serializable and high concurrency levels; two-phase
and
transactions;
multiple
database
per
process.
transactions
on-line
handle
to
These
features
multiple
provide
parallel
excellent
concurrency control capability.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology:
Information Systems
2,15,
Composite
The concept of Composite Information Systems (CIS) has evolved at
the
School
Sloan
Technology.
1978,
The
of
Management
of
Massachusetts
enhancements
to
been made during the intervening years.
in this
of
first paper on this technique was published in
and significant
discussed
Institute
report
tend to focus
the
original
concept have
While all other approaches
exclusively on technical
issues, the CIS approach emphasizes that it is necessary to address
2-34
a number of inter-related strategic, organizational and technical
issues,
in order
applications,
to
implement
functional
systems
areas,
that can effectively
organizational
span
boundaries,
and
geographic separations.
Strategic
issues include
organizations,
needs.
One
motivating cooperation between multiple
each with its own goals,
critical
priorities,
factor for such cooperation
and security
is participant
consensus on the issue of access to each others' technical and nontechnical
information.
information,
and
the
benefits
for
the
such
as
domains
to each participating group,
responsibility
advance,
Issues
of
each
final
constituent
system
to
of
and the
must be
succeed
in
shared
role
resolved
a
real
in
world
environment.
Organizational
issues
include
the
process
of making
changes in complex organizational environments.
controlled
The latest results
from the realm of inter-organizational networks have been utilized
to
explain
individuals,
focused
the
multiple
groups,
and
forces
that
modulate
organizations.
standards has been conceived
Also,
to serve
behavior
the
as the
notion
of
of
foundation
for neutral representation as well as for the delineation of more
elaborated standards.
Technical
logical
issues
levels.
relate
Physical
to
connectivity
at
connectivity refers
actual communication among disparate systems,
as
bandwidths,
security,
availability,
2-35
both
physical
to the
and
process of
and covers aspects
reliability,
and
inter-
network protocol conversions.
process of
answers.
to
Logical connectivity refers to the
accessing disparate
systems
in
concert for
composite
One of the major challenges in logical connectivity is
reconcile
the
different
assumptions
and
perspectives
in
the
systems being integrated.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The
operational
abbreviated
prototype
of
CIS
from CIS Tool Kit.
is
This
called
CIS/TK,
prototype
which
is based on
is
the
three-schema approach, with one integrated global schema, multiple
local
schemata,
and
multiple
application
schemata.
The
CIS/TK
architecture includes multiple Application Query Processors (AQPs),
one
Global
Query
Processors (LQPs).
Processor
(GQP),
and
multiple
Local
Query
There is one AQP for each application, and this
AQP converts an application model query, defined by an application
developer,
into a sequence of global
to the GQP, and receives the
Processor
(LQP)
schema queries, passes them
results.
Similarly, a Local Query
interfaces between the global data processor and
an individual query command processor (e.g., a DBMS).
The
primary query processor
schema query
into abstract local
appropriate LQPs,
to the AQP.
is
and joins the
the
GQP.
queries,
It
converts
a global
transmits them to
the
results before passing them back
The GQP must know how to get the data, how to map
global schema attribute names to the column names, and how to join
results
from
different
concept agents.
tables.
This
is
done
with
the
aid
of
Conceptually, each concept agent is composed of
2-36
three functional components, as follows:
(a)
A concept definition which defines the rules and data,
given the global schema and an application model;
(b)
A concept processor which pursues the goal of the concept
and
agent, given its rules and data;
(c)
A message handler which sends and receives messages on
behalf of the concept agent.
The
notion
inferencing,
of
agents
concept
in
situations
is
used
involving
to
missing
perform
and
concept
conflicting
information.
utilizes
CIS/TK
approach.
object-oriented
an
Physical
communication details and database idiosyncracies are encapsulated
within the object.
The object-oriented language utilized by CIS/TK
is based on an enhanced version of Knowledge-Object Representation
CIS/TK
is
currently
databases
at
MIT,
Language.
several
and
providing
others
integrated
outside
MIT.
access
to
External
databases include Reuter's Textline and Dataline and I.P. Sharp's
Disclosure.
SALIENT FEATURES
CIS is an integrated methodology that attempts to systematically
deal
with
strategic
technical problems
organizational
problems,
that
are
inherent
in
problems,
any endeavor
integrating islands of disparate information systems.
an
operational
prototype
that
utilizes
innovative
perform logical connectivity in an effective manner.
2-37
aimed
and
at
CIS/TK is
concepts
to
III
2.16.
Metaphor Computer Systems, Inc.:
DIS
a product
is
of
View, California.
and
relational
Metaphor
DIS
Computer
Systems,
Inc.
of Mountain
Through the combination of a graphical interface
database
technology,
DIS
lets
users
access
data
from multiple databases, perform analysis, and construct their own
applications
professionals,
multiple
without
DIS
programming.
provides tools
sources;
database
tools
for
query
direct and easy access to data;
Designed
for
strategic use
tools
and
business
of data from
report
writers
for
spreadsheets to analyze data; plot
to view data graphically;
and text processing
tools to add
commentary to the analysis.
Currently,
databases
DIS
and
only
to
provides
some
flat
for
files
relational format used by DIS.
their
own
management
systems
relational
data
access
after
they
to
SQL
are
relational
converted
to
There is no plan to provide direct
access to non-SQL environments.
database
data
However, to the extent local SQL
can
model
translate
(e.g.,
other
Ingres),
databases
DIS
can
into
access
them.
There
is
no
logical
schema
which
management systems in the network.
or
several databases
encompasses
all
database
However, a local schema of one
is graphically depicted for
the user.
This
provides the ability to "click" on each database and instantly see
a list of its tables.
DIS can be used to query multiple physical
database management systems concurrently through multiple windows,
and to combine and manipulate such data using the spreadsheet tool.
2-3'8
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
DIS is a network of workstations (soon to include PS/2's and PC's)
and servers that interact with relational databases.
Databases can
reside on Metaphor database servers as well as on non-Metaphor host
machines.
Metaphor
files
and
communication
servers
can provide
electronic mail and print services, plus access to a wide range of
multi-vendor environments.
The main data access tool is the Query tool.
the
appropriate database is connected
When it is selected,
and each of
its
tables and
its columns are displayed in a window.
As the user chooses columns
with
a
the
mouse,
the
database
tables
will
Query
be
tool
draws
joined
to
picture
retrieve
the
showing
how
data.
Then
the
it
translates the graphic query into SQL and sends it to the database.
If data are not directly accessible to DIS via a gateway, they can
be
downloaded
to
a
Metaphor
database
server.
Host
resident
"formatters" are available for converting flat data files into the
relational
format used by DIS.
SALIENT FEATURES
This product claims
Querying
tables
can
and
be
to provide
done
columns
without
within
provided to the user.
a
a true user
ever
friendly data access.
touching
physical
the
database
keyboard.
are
All
graphically
The spreadsheet, the plotting facility, and
the word processing tools are very practical features. The list of
2-39
III
government and commercial customers attests to the ability of this
product to provide management with easy access to information.
IBM
has invested in Metaphor Computer Systems, Inc. and is currently
working with it to provide a similar interface for IBM mainframes.
2.17.
On-Line Software International,
System
Inc.:
RAMIS Information
RAMIS Information System from On-Line Software International, Inc.,
headquartered
in
Fort
New
Lee,
Jersey,
is
developing and running end-user applications.
of many diverse components such as:
used
primarily
The system consists
a centralized database, a data
reporting and graphics facilities, links
dictionary,
for
to external
database management systems, data manipulation tools, a procedural
language for application development, menu architecture development
facilities, micro-to-mainframe communications, and data transfer
facilities.
The RAMIS database may be
files
comprised of
Most non-RAMIS
or databases.
accessed in a read-only mode.
databases
may
be
queried
both RAMIS and non-RAMIS
files and databases may be
However, DB2 and SQL/DS relational
and
updated
from
within
data
from
multiple
the
RAMIS
environment.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
RELATE
is
a
facility
to
combine
files
operating on them as if they were flat relational tables.
2-40
by
RELATE
provides relational capabilities regardless of the organization of
the source of the data.
The user must specify the database or the
file, the data to be retrieved, the record selection criteria and
how the data are to be associated.
The RAMIS Database Manager reads and updates RAMIS, DB2, and SQL/DS
files.
It
allows
interconnected
with one
multiple
physical
to from a single data view.
relational view of the data.
physical
files
databases
may
be
treated
to
be
A user
logically
is presented
In the same way, multiple
as
one
logical
database.
Specialized interfaces are required for accessing other non-RAMIS
files and databases.
RAMIS has a totally integrated, menu-based architecture front end
to
all
components
of
the
system.
Application
developers
can
utilize the menu interface, use a command language, and construct
their own customized menu interfaces.
SALIENT FEATURES
The
RAMIS
under
Information
diverse
System operates
operating
environment for managing,
data stored both
files.
in RAMIS
systems.
on various
It
provides
IBM platforms
a
flexible
retrieving, manipulating and reporting
format
and
in external
databases
Direct interfaces within RAMIS allow users to
and
read non-
RAMIS files and databases using RAMIS language facilities.
It is
not necessary to convert external files into a RAMIS file to access
the data.
2-41
III
2.18.
Oracle Corporation:
ORACLE was
to
serve
ORACLE
developed by Oracle
as
integrated
a
general
interface
for
purpose
III
relational
tool
retrieving
database management systems.
DBase
Corporation, Belmont, California,
for
providing
data
from
a
uniform,
several
existing
ORACLE connects with SQL/DS, DB2 and
databases.
There
is
also an ORACLE utility
for 123.
ORACLE
which
is
constantly
IBM determined
management
system.
evolving
in the
The
to
meet
1970s to
System
R*
define the
influence of
IBM
is
specifications
"ideal"
further
database
seen
in
the
global data manipulation language which is a superset of SQL,
the
IBM
developed
Standard
Query
Language.
ORACLE
is
a
widely-
installed DBMS in the VMS environment.
Both distributed query and single-node transactions are supported
by ORACLE.
For updates at multiple nodes,
there is no assurance
that transactions will either be committed or rolled back together.
Data
loss
techniques.
can
only
be
prevented
by
application
programming
Global updates and the two-phase commit procedure will
be supported in the next product
release.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The Open Systems Architecture of ORACLE for distributed processing
and distributed database management is SQL*Star.
of three ORACLE products:
SQL*Net,
2-42
It is comprised
Distributed ORACLE relational
DBMS, and SQL*Connect.
SqL*Net
provides
distributed
capability,
processing
and
the
application software can run on a different machine from the ORACLE
kernel.
Users
environments.
interface
can
SQL*Net
to
arbitrary
network
SQL*Net is communications protocol independent.
It
consists of a generic layer which is common to all protocols and
environments, and a custom layer which is specific to each protocol
and operating system.
The
Distributed
transparency,
multiple
ORACLE
site
single
transactions
and
relational
DBMS
transactions,
site
autonomy.
location
supports
multi-site
To
meet
updates
in
System
R*
specifications, ORACLE is planning multi-site updates in a single
transaction,
releases.
replication
and
table
partitioning
for
future
Distributed data dictionaries contain information about
local data and how to get access to global data.
SQL*Connect allows ORACLE to communicate with non-ORACLE database
management systems.
Plans for broadening access to other database
management systems, as well as to non-database file systems (VSAM,
Record Management Service) are continuing.
Query optimization is
achieved by using an array interface to transfer data in batches.
This insures that the network is used efficiently.
SALIENT FEATURES
ORACLE products run on an impressive range of mainframes, minis,
2-43
III
workstations and personal computers (over 90 hardware platforms),
and support a large number of operating systems and a wide variety
of network
services.
The designers intend to encrypt usernames,
passwords, and SQL data.
Computer
Approaches for meeting B1 and C2 National
Security Center
(NCSC) security requirements are under
development.
2.19.
Relational Technology. Inc.:
INGRES
is
marketed
California.
the
by
Relational
INGRES
Technology,
Inc.
of
Alameda,
Products of this company are used extensively around
world.
Approaches
environments
have
been
originally
extended
designed
to
cater
for
to
homogeneous
heterogeneous
situations.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The
INGRES
approach
consists
of:
INGRES/NET
Network
Protocol
Support, INGRES/STAR Distributed Data Manager, and INGRES Database
Gateways.
INGRES
INGRES/NET is a transparent software layer that provides
protocol
communications.
a
network
INGRES/STAR
and
support
for
DECnet,
TCP/IP,
SNA
and
ASYNC
This software allows access to databases across
performs
Distributed
automatic
Data
data
Manager,
conversion.
With
simultaneous
access
distributed databases across a network is possible.
the
to
INGRES/STAR
provides complete location transparency and local autonomy.
INGRES
Database Gateways enable other types of databases and file systems
to be included in a distributed database. The appropriate gateway
2-44
module must reside on the local host.
Relational, hierarchical,
and network local data models are supported.
A
two-phase commit protocol
processing. If a site
is used for distributed transaction
involved in a transaction is
other sites are automatically rolled back.
inaccessible,
When a system crashes,
INGRES backs out all pending transactions and returns the database
to a consistent state without operator intervention.
The global data manipulation language of INGRES is ANSI SQL.
After
receiving a SQL query from an application, INGRES/STAR breaks it
into
subqueries and
directs
managers and gateways.
them to
the
appropriate
local
data
Next, each local data manager executes its
respective subquery and the data are transferred to INGRES.
Data
can be transparently joined and combined with INGRES SQL end-user
interfaces or application development tools.
The INGRES/STAR Distributed Data Manager combines distributed query
optimization with parallel processing.
The distributed optimizer
selects
a multicomputer
the
best
This approach
route
for
satisfying
reduces network
request.
traffic and
improves performance.
With this open, multi-server architecture,
system administrators
can customize their environment by assigning various servers with
dissimilar
transaction
priorities
for
applications
different
to
a
high
tasks,
and
priority
by
server
connecting
and
batch
report-oriented applications to a lower-priority server.
INGRES
allows
dynamic
control
of
2-45
parameters
to
adjust
the
III
concurrency of
the
system to
the needs
of
the
application set.
Transaction and decision support applications may be executed at
the same time.
wide
Also, the multi-server architecture allows systemand
monitoring
system management.
for
of
database
sessions
A virtually
infinite
number of
control
real-time
simultaneous
users is possible.
The
INGRES
data
dictionary
stores
all
related
performance
information-table structures and sizes, available indexes, and data
The more information is provided in the
distribution statistics.
dictionary, the more intelligent is the Query Optimizer.
The Query
Optimizer produces query execution plans which can be examined to
determine
the
effects
of
adding
indexes,
selecting
different
storage structures, and adding data distribution statistics.
SALIENT FEATURES
INGRES incorporates many of the features required for distributed
transaction
applications
including
recovery, and table fragmentation.
two-phase
commit,
automatic
Distributed query optimization
strategies and full parallel query execution capabilities enhance
its distributed on-line transaction processing capability.
2.20.
Software AG:
ADABAS
The ADABAS DBMS, developed by Software AG of West Germany, is a
(ISA).
Used in
distributed processing)
and ADA-
part of an open Integrated Software Architecture
conjunction with NET-WORK
(for
2-46
NET (for distributed databases), ADABAS
networks
ADABAS
can support heterogeneous
involving IBM, SIEMENS, DEC-VAX and WANG computers.
DBMS
supports
relational,
hierarchical,
and
network
The
local
data models.
ADABAS
is
designed
center
environments.
for
production,
It
claims
to
development,
handle
and
information
both high
transaction
volumes and complex ad hoc queries operating against large volumes
of data.
Distributed transactions can be in the form of a series
of updates to different databases which might involve more than one
network node.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
ADABAS uses either SQL embedded in COBOL, FORTRAN or PLI or NATURAL
as
its
global
data
manipulation
language.
NATURAL
is
a
fourth
generation language based on a Communication Interface and standard
protocols.
NATURAL applications may be ported without modification
across
wide
a
range
of
system
environments
and
hardware
architectures.
The
ADANET
product
ADABAS call to be
of
defines logical
database
AG
allows
a
user
level
logical
translated into one or more physical calls in a
transparent manner.
table
Software
A
dynamically maintained ADANET translation
databases
representations.
supported by ADANET:
and
Three
their corresponding
logical
file
physical
structures
are
replicated, distributed and isolated files.
2-47
III
PREDICT is the centralized integrated active data dictionary.
structure
of
the
metadata
in
describes
PREDICT
the
The
logical
and
physical interconnections of all data and programs to be managed.
PREDICT offers a user-friendly, menu-driven user interface for the
information.
management of data and application
SALIENT FEATURES
The
Open
level
Integrated
of
management.
local
in
functionality
application
hardware
Software Architecture
areas
such
application
solutions,
as
a
provides
(ISA)
end
access,
user
and
development
high
database
It also provides software independence across multiple
databases.
requiring any change
platforms without
and operating
update
Global
is
processing
for
supported
relational, network and hierarchical local data models.
in
The global
data manipulation language of ADABAS reduces dependencies on third
generation languages and is highly portable.
2.21.
Sybase. _Inc.:
SYBASE
SYBASE is marketed by Sybase,
can
handle
data
in
either
It
Inc. of Emeryville, California.
hierarchical
form
Data in a network DBMS are accessed via a
or
relational
form.
relational interface.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The
Sybase
components:
Distributed
the
Sybase
System
Data
is
Server,
2-48
comprised
the
Sybase
of
three
major
OpenServer,
and
the Sybase StarServer.
The Sybase DataServer allows remote queries
and distributed transactions across multiple DataServers while the
Sybase OpenServer extends this capability to other applications or
DBMS Servers, including non-SQL systems.
The Star Server adds the
functionality of site transparency, including cross-site joins and
views, and the Distributed Data Dictionary.
is
in
the
final
stage
of
beta
testing;
The SYBASE OpenServer
the
DataServer
and
the
StarServer are commercially available.
The SYBASE DataServer allows multi-site update transactions, while
ensuring the logical consistency of the data via a two-phase commit
protocol.
progress
A 'commit service' running at a designated site logs the
of a transaction.
The commit service logs
when all sites will be prepared.
that point,
notes about
If the transaction fails before
it will be backed out; if it fails after that point,
it will be rolled forward.
With its multithreaded client/server architecture, SYBASE assumes
many of the functions of an operating system.
SYBASE avoids the
overhead of process swapping by scheduling and activating users.
Multiple users share a single copy of the SYBASE image, data and
procedure cache, and transaction log.
requires
only
30
KBytes
of
Because each additional user
memory,
hundreds
of
users
can
simultaneously access and update data on any node in a distributed
network, according to Sybase.
A Virtual Server Architecture
(VSA) for Symmetric Multiprocessor
Systems is scheduled for beta testing.
2-49
The VSA treats processors
III
as resources to be allocated on an as-needed basis.
or
a
user
is
not
restricted
to
a
specific
An application
processor;
instead
applications may run on various processors at different points in
time depending on the number of blocks for I/O requests or other
reasons.
Four key features of VSA are:
synchronization control,
automatic load balancing, optimal resource utilization, and dynamic
configuration.
SYBASE uses a Distributed Data Dictionary, consisting of synonyms
which are used to locate objects, and Remote Object Catalogs which
contain
information about
the
characteristics
of those objects.
With this approach, users and applications need not be concerned
with changes in the physical location of an object.
SALIENT FEATURES
Sybase
is a leader
in
secure database
management
systems.
The
SYBASE Secure SQL Server meets Division B security requirements
defined by the National Computer Security Center.
In compliance
with Division B specifications, SYBASE offers the ability to store
data of multiple security classifications in a single database.
Because networking was built as a key part of SYBASE, rather than
as an add-on, network usage is optimized.
efficiently
by
sending
a
single
The network is used more
'execute
procedure'
command,
instead of an individual SQL statement.
SYBASE allows server-to-server communications.
2-50
Multiple users may
share the communication link between servers, thus eliminating the
overhead of opening and closing a linkage for each user.
2.22.
Tandem Computers Incorporated:
Tandem
Computers
Incorporated,
NonStop SOL
headquartered
in
Cupertino,
California, offers software and network compatible systems ranging
from mainframes
to
low-cost network
nodes.
Because
all
Tandem
processors use the same operating system and distributed database,
as many as 255 systems with a maximum of 4,080 processors can be
linked to form a geographically dispersed network.
system
can
support
hundreds
of
terminals
and
An individual
a
database
with
billions of bytes of data.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
GUARDIAN
90,
a
message
based
operating
system,
supports
the
parallel architecture of Tandem NonStop systems.
Key features of
GUARDIAN
data
90
are:
fault
tolerance,
distributed
capabilities, high transaction throughput,
security,
data
integrity,
and
the
processing
linear expandability,
ability
to
link
systems,
resources, and devices.
GUARDIAN 90
supports fault tolerant process pairs.
In the
case
where a system software error causes a process to fail, its backup
process takes over in another processor.
manages communication between processors.
is always ensured.
In addition, GUARDIAN 90
Database availability
Mirrored volumes of data are stored on a pair
2-51
III
of
physically independent
disk drives.
When
a
failed drive
is
operational again, the system automatically brings it up to date.
The
systems
disk
is
resume normal
fully
updated.
mirrored operation after the
its
Via
message
system,
restored
GUARDIAN
90
coordinates all distributed activity in a fashion that makes all
data accesses transparent to the user.
An application can read,
write, and update data regardless of the physical location of the
data.
A built-in password security system is used to control file,
device and process availability.
Tandem offers integrated security
and encryption products to protect information
from unauthorized
access.
SALIENT FEATURES
The multiple parallel processing capability, the fault tolerance
capability, and the expandability feature make NonStop SQL a good
product for on-line transaction processing (OLTP).
Tandem Corp. has signed integration agreements with Oracle Corp,
Sybase, Inc., Relational Technology, Inc. (Ingres), and Information
(FOCUS) to
port
their
front-end
tools
to
Tandem
Builders,
Inc.
Systems.
Details of the approaches used by these companies are
presented in their respective subsections.
2.23.
TRW:
TDIE
TDIE is a data integration engine developed by TRW, Redondo Beach,
California.
Unlike conventional efforts which use a gateway with
2-52
query
language
language.
is
A
mapping,
TDIE
has
no
global
data
manipulation
local DBMS is used and a connection to a remote DBMS
triggered
when
a
user
issues
a
demand
requiring
data
integration.
TDIE is not oriented towards any particular environment.
is
required
management
in existing applications.
systems
may be
added to
Additional
the
No change
local database
system configuration and
more than one global schema is permitted.
An
integrated
hierarchical,
updating
scheme
relational
and
uniform
network
query
data
frequently
intervals.
a given data category.
accessed
This
and
must
approach
avoids unnecessary
be
updates
are
source
files at a
polled
unnecessary
for
Automatic
Types of data
current
eliminates
and
models.
is performed by polling the potential
rate suitable for
changes
performs
that are
at
short
activity
copying of bulk data by transferring
and
only the
in data.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The
TDIE
is comprised of
Interface Manager.
the
Data Transform Manager and the
Host
These may reside on one processor or they may
be partitioned across multiple processors.
The
Data
Transform
Manager
contains
which defines the global conceptual
dictionary
supplies
scripts,
the
centralized
schema.
translation
2-53
dictionary
This knowledge-based
software,
and
data
III
Scripts are instructions for
locations for full data integration.
data transfer, which are sent to the Host Interface Manager, while
software
translation
the
contains
one query
translation of
the
language to another.
To add another local DBMS, translators and scripts must be added
to
Advisor
Integration
a
TRW
provides
for
interactive
dictionary.
the
front
end
called
tool
of
construction
a
the
global
integrating schema.
The Host Interface Manager is the bridge to the host applications.
It
provides
critical
for
automatic
applications
in
control are not supported.
updating
and
transaction
data
retrieval.
real-time
or
processing
Time-
Also, because TDIE is not a distributed
heterogeneous DBMS, concurrency control is an important issue.
SALIENT FEATURES
TDIE
supports
global
updates
and
the
enables
integration
hierarchical, relational, and network data models.
of
It is layered
on top of the existing systems and does not require any change to
them.
New systems can be added as requirements change.
Also, the
TDIE can be implemented in increments as desired.
2,24.
Xerox Advanced Information Technology:
Multibase
was
developed
by
Research
Computer Corporation of America.
2-54
and
Multibase
Systems
This division was
Division
of
acquired by
Xerox
and
is
(Xerox AIT).
Xerox
AIT
now
called
Xerox
Advanced
Information
Technology
Although Multibase is a prototype and not a product,
utilizes
distributed
this
heterogeneous
technology
database
for
providing
management
customized
systems
for
its
clients.
Multibase provides a uniform, integrated interface for retrieving
data from several existing database management systems.
It allows
databases,
through a
common query language, using a single conceptual schema.
Multibase
a user
is
to
reference
designed
to
data
serve
as
in heterogeneous
a
tool,
general
orientation towards any particular
without
application area.
specific
It
allows
existing applications to operate without change and also permits
new local systems to be included in an existing multibase system
configuration.
The integrated access available through Multibase does not provide
either
the
capability
to update
data in
local databases
ability to synchronize read operations across
or
the
several sites.
In
order to process user queries, the system must request and control
specific services offered by the local systems (e.g., locking local
items).
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Multibase uses the language DAPLEX as its global data manipulation
language.
DAPLEX provides constructs
that allow users
real world situations in an efficient manner.
2-55
to model
A three level schema
III
of
is
definitions
of
global
components.
These
process
Database
Interface
employed
as
discussed
information
are:
Global
(LDI).
Processor, Decomposer, Merger
The
retrieval
Data
GDM
Section
1.5.
The
involves
two
main
and
Local
in
Manager
performs
(GDM),
tasks
of
Command
and Distributed Execution Monitor.
The LDI design of Multibase is based on the needs of a local DBMS,
for example, a more sophisticated LDI is designed to support a file
system as compared to the one that supports a DBMS.
SALIENT FEATURES
Multibase provides an integrated scheme for uniform query access
to
dissimilar
network
local
systems
data
including
models,
and
hierarchical,
File
optimization is performed in Multibase.
2-56
Systems.
relational,
Global
and
query
SECTION THREE:
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The first section of this report explained the basic principles of
integrating disparate information systems.
In the next section,
a broad spectrum of commercially-marketed products and approaches
were discussed.
Based on the material covered so far, this section
develops a set of recommendations for selecting the optimal product
or products.
In particular, the information presented in Section
2 and Appendix B is utilized to develop a taxonomy for classifying
all the alternative approaches.
In
Section
1.4,
it
was
emphasized
that
changes
information systems should be as little as possible;
case, no change should be required.
to
existing
in the ideal
Subsequently, in Section 1.5,
the importance of a single global conceptual schema was emphasized.
Many products and approaches tabulated in Appendix B indicate that
multiple
various
global
schemata
users.
schemata,
not
considerations
can
be
created
to
suit
From a technical viewpoint,
these
global
are
that
schemata.
were
These
examined
while
the
needs
are
some
developing
of
external
of
the
the
broad
categories described in the succeeding subsections.
3.1.
Unintrusive Integration
This is the most elegant form of integrating information systems.
The word "unintrusive" connotes that the integration methodology
does
not
demand
that
specific
3-1
modules
be
resident
in
each
III
participating
definite
information
system
in products
assumption
existing information
systems
Figure
belonging
cannot,
and
to
1).
this
There
is
a
category that
should not, be
tampered
a single global conceptual schema
On top of these systems,
with.
(see
is introduced.
Use
of
this
various
modification.
items
in
use
schema with names
systems.
participating
system, which will
The
of
appropriate
a
existing
the
or
a
multidivision
information
not
will
systems
of
any
require
These systems will be accessed by a central system
global
a
multiorganization
organizations
and
divisions
that holds
that
implies
environment
a
in
approach
and
locations
user will
A
access
of
all
the
data
central
retrieve information from appropriate sources.
central
controls
system
on
data
and
a
single
integrity,
global
access
schema
rights,
offers
and
the
a new information system over time.
feasibility of developing
The main disadvantage of this approach is that is difficult to make
global updates to multiple systems as there is no control over the
capabilities
of
individual
information
systems.
The application
program must, therefore, be designed to safeguard the integrity of
the updates.
Notable
Computer
products
in
Corporation
this
of
category
are:
America
and
Multibase
now
(developed by
marketed
by
Xerox);
Mermaid (developed by Unisys and now marketed by Data Integration,
Inc.);
and CDM*Plus (developed under the IISS initiative of U.S.
3-2
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development
money,
now
and
and
of
marketed
these
all
the
Control
by
three
these
products
is
of
not
still
forefront in evaluating and field-testing these products.
in the
Integration
Intrusive
Approaches in this category require
information
these
sums
huge
Defense organizations have been
commensurate with the investment.
3.2.
The
Corporation).
involved
products
of
acceptance
Data
These
systems.
network
or
systems
services,
to
the
location
of
specific
typically
are
modules
store
some modification of existing
information
utilized to
location
on
within
modules
of
perform
specific
files, or to initiate secondary processes in case some information
resources
are not operational
requests
(see
Figure
2).
or unusually slow in
If
these
modules
are
responding to
designed
and
implemented properly, and if the existing information systems offer
the
to
flexibility
organizational
accept
these
modules
then
considerations,
from
technical
approach
this
can
and
offer
significant performance improvements over the approach outlined in
Section
existing
employ
3.1.
information
outdated
documentation,
Notable
The main drawback,
however,
frequently
systems
programming
lies
use
practices,
in the
older
offer
fact
that
technologies,
little
good
and can only be modified after prolonged effort.
products
in
this
category
include
SUPRA
(original
technology developed in West Germany and now marketed by CINCOM),
INGRES (from Relational Technology Inc.), and Sybase (from Sybase).
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In
the
case
of
Sybase,
it
appears
that
the
present
family
of
products support SQL databases only, and support for non-SQL based
databases and file systems is still being tested.
There are some
restrictions on the types of data models and data formats supported
by these
three products.
For example, Supra requires data to be
in first normalized form and keys to be in ascending or descending
order.
CINCOM is interested in developing a common protocol for
integrating
heterogeneous
multiple companies.
analyze
potential
databases,
that
could
be
utilized by
Because of these reasons, it is important to
applications
carefully
to
determine
which
of
these products, if any, is appropriate in the short-term and in the
long-term.
3.3.
Interfacing with Controlled Redundancy
In this approach, no effort is made to create a global conceptual
schema.
Instead,
based
on
the
perceived
needs
of
the
user,
strategies are designed to get the necessary pieces of information
on a "just-in-time" basis (see Figure 3).
a
hypothetical
100,000
items
application
(which
inventory levels)
be
could
which
be
available
As an example, consider
requires
key
that
customers,
every morning.
information
spare
Assume
parts,
that
on
or
the
existing information systems that are used to track the position
of these items are updated with different periodicity:
on a yearly basis,
very few
some on a monthly basis, a large percentage on
a weekly basis, another
large percentage on a daily basis, and the
rest on a six-hourly basis.
In such a situation, information can
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be obtained in advance;
further,
to fulfil anticipated requests
one can get information only for the items that have changed since
the previous status report.
One
product
that
Engine from TRW.
status
of
a
transmitted
exemplifies
this approach
is Data
Integration
In this patented approach, when a change in the
source
information
to the destination
system
occurs,
this
change
is
application with a priority that
would allow it to reach the destination before the next scheduled
time of retrieval.
The software to accomplish this task and other
related tasks is comprised of two types of material:
a basic data
engine, which is site independent, and additional material which
must be customized to each site.
in
C
and
can
operate
in
a
The basic data engine is written
UNIX
or
a VAX
environment.
The
additional material can be generated with an expert system called
Integration Advisor, which was originally written in LISP and has
recently
been
converted
representative of TRW, the
engine
to
the
size
of
to
C.
According
ratio of
the
to
a
technical
the size of the basic data
additional
material
is
5:1.
Incidentally, TRW has recently been awarded a multiyear contract
by the U.S. Department of Defense.
3.4.
This
Interfacing with Transaction Transfer
is
the
simplest
technique
for
managing
heterogeneous information system environment.
a global
transactions
a
Instead of creating
schema or prestaging data to meet expected needs,
3-5
in
this
approach implies that action begins after a user enters a command.
Unless the user is willing to tolerate long delays, this approach
is good only in situations where only a small number of information
systems need
to be
accessed
response
in
to
the
user query
(see
Figure 4).
Among the notable products in this category, the one that deserves
mention
here
possesses
is
DIS
two unique
Computer
from Metaphor
characteristics.
Systems,
First,
is
it
completely
icon-driven and as such it is very easy to learn and use.
IBM has
invested in Metaphor Computer Systems Inc.
DIS
Inc.
Second,
and they are
working together to provide a similar interface for IBM mainframes.
As such, the DIS interface has the potential of becoming a commonly
used standard for dealing with multiple information systems.
3.5.
Additional Evaluation Criteria
In addition to determining which of the four distinct approaches
described in Sections 3.1-3.4 above may be most appropriate for a
particular
other
application,
technical
it
is necessary
and non-technical
specific implementation strategy.
issues
to
examine
before
a number
of
embarking on
a
These issues are delineated in
the following paragraphs.
3.5.1. Composition of Transactions
Transactions
are
of
two
types:
3-6
queries
and
updates.
In
our
III
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context, a query involves
based
systems,
consistent,
reading of data
manipulating
and
then
the
data
presenting
the
in multiple computer-
retrieved
result
to
to
the
make
them
user.
The
original data in source computer-based systems remain unaltered by
a query.
various
with
An update, however,
than
It is much more difficult to deal
systems.
information
updates
results in modification of data in
with
queries.
If
an
application
involves
then a significant number of the alternative approaches
updates,
discussed in Section 2 should be deleted from consideration.
The
ones to be deleted can be readily identified from Appendix B, which
contains
a
specific
on
question
how
update
transactions
are
managed.
3.5.2.
Security Considerations
When one makes
it easier to automatically access relevant pieces
of information in disparate systems, the same capabilities become
available to any unauthorized user of the system.
set of systems is more vulnerable
Any
integrated
to security violations than a
single information system.
None
of
the
vendors
was
specifically
asked
to
comment
on
this
issue, although a few of them have provided information on their
compliance level with security requirements defined by the National
Computer
weightage
Security
in
the
Center.
case
of
This
large
issue
may
hold
defense, banking,
applications.
3-7
significant
and
insurance
III
3.5.3.
Most
Corporate Expertise
large
corporations
computer
tended
have
to
concentrate
integrating systems of their respective makes only.
in
Section 2, there was
solutions
pertaining
to
their
concepts, and larger
of
families
up
come
For example,
IBM and DEC
respective
companies
smaller
Frequently,
a discussion
with
companies tend to endorse
on
suggesting
of
products.
non-traditional
them after these
concepts have attained some degree of maturity and acceptance by
the market.
The fact that the companies who developed good prototypes such as
Multibase and Mermaid later spun off their development groups must
be
viewed
caution.
with
must
organizations
be
is
This
careful
an
about
evolving
selecting
field,
only
and
the
user
set
of
products and services that are likely to be supported by more than
one company.
3.5.4.
Applications and Development Strategy
In
current business
the
environment of
increasing
globalization
and corporate reorganizations, applications and functions are apt
to
change
in
relatively
short
periods
of
time.
The
present
technical report has been written without any specific application
in
view.
important
As
in
feasible to
an
the
organization
short-term
make more
determines which
and
specific
the
long-term,
comments about
3-8
applications
it would
the
are
become
relevance
of
different products and approaches.
It is important to note that any endeavor towards integration has
ramifications
for
future
approach must offer
fashion.
over
integration
The
selected
the flexibility to be enhanced in a modular
Further, public-domain
proprietary
initiatives.
ones.
approaches
Based
on
should be
these
preferred
considerations,
a
development strategy can be delineated.
3.6.
Conclusion
The integration of existing information systems involves a careful
analysis of many technical, organizational, and strategic issues,
and the surmounting of many technical and nontechnical barriers.
This
technical
capabilities
information.
report
related
to
has
focused
logical
on
access
products
to
relevant
and
their
pieces
of
For discussion of other approaches and issues, the
reader may wish to refer to Ref. [2] and the set of eight books on
Knowledge
Based
Integrated
Information
Systems
Engineering
published by M.I.T.
The problem of heterogeneity can be overcome either by integration
or
by
interfacing.
To
decide
which
option
to
select,
it
is
worthwhile to look back to the stage when the concept of database
management system originated.
If one wanted to deal with a single
clearly-defined application, it was better to write a customized
program to do so;
however, if there were many users with diverse
3-9
III
needs,
it became increasingly attractive to use the concept of a
database
management
system,
even
investment at the initial stage.
the metalevel today.
though
it
involved
a
larger
The same considerations apply at
If access to multiple information systems is
needed exclusively for a small set of clearly-defined applications,
the interfacing alternative should suffice.
However, if there is
likely to be an array of broad applications, it appears preferable
to take the integration alternative.
Remember that "just as the
evolution of integrated database management technology displaced
conventional
piecemeal
programming
approaches
in
the
1960s,
similarly the new information integration approaches will lead to
a significantly different computational
2000 A.D.!"
[1].
3-10
environment by the year
REFERENCES
[1]
Gupta, Amar, Integration of Information Systems:
Bridging
Heterogeneous Databases, IEEE Press, New York, 1989.
[2]
Morris, J.H., Satyanarayanan, M., Conner, M.H., Howard,
J.H., Rosental, D.S.H., and Smith, F.D., "Andrew: A
Distributed Personal Computer Environment," Commun. ACM,
Vol. 29, 3, March 1986, pp. 184-201.
[3]
Balkovich, E., Lerman, S., and Parmelo, R.P.,
in Higher Education:
The Athena Experience,"
ACM, Vol. 28, 11, Nov. 1985, pp. 209-215.
[4]
Adiba, Michel, and Portal, Dominique, "A Cooperation
System for Heterogeneous Data Base Management Systems,"
Inform. Systems, Vol. 3, 1978, pp. 209-215.
[5]
McLeod, Dennis, and Heimbinger, Dennis, "A Federated
Architecture for Database Systems, " in AFIPS Conf. Proc.,
Vol. 49 (National Computer Conf., 1980), pp. 283-289.
(6]
Lam, Chat Y. and Madnick, Stuart E., Composite
Information Systems - A New Concept in Information System,
Working Paper #35, Center for Information Systems Research,
Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, May 1978.
[7]
Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, Knowledge-Based Integrated
Information Systems Engineering:
Highlights and
Bibliography, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1987.
(NTIS/DTIC Accession # A 195850).
[8]
Litwin, Witold et al, "SIRIUS Systems for Distributed Data
Management," in Distributed Databases, edited by:
H.
Schneider, North-Holland Publishing Co., 1982, pp. 311-366.
[9]
Heimbinger, Dennis, and McLeod, Dennis, "A Federated
Architecture for Information Management,"
ACM Transactions
on Office Information Systems, Vol.3, No. 3, July 1985, pp.
253-278.
[10]
Thompson, Glenn Ray, Multi-database Concurrency Control,
Doctoral Dissertation, Oklahoma State University,
Stillwater, Oklahoma, 1987.
"Computing
Commun.
[11] Madnick, Stuart E., and Wang, Y. Richard, "Integrating
Disparate Databases for Composite Answers," in Proc. of
the Twenty-first Annual Hawaii International Conference
on System Sciences, Vol.II, January 1988, pp. 583-592.
[12]
Pu, Carlton, Superdatabases for Composition of Heterogeneous
Databases, Technical Paper No. CUCS-243-86, Columbia
1'
University, New York, 1986.
[13]
Gibbons, Phillip B., "A Stub Generator Multilanguage RPC in
Heterogeneous Environments, IEEE Transactions on Software
Engineering, Vol. SE-13, No. 1, January 1987, pp. 77-87.
[14]
The ANSI/XI SPARC DBMS Framework Report of the Study on
Database Management Systems, AFIPS. 1977.
[15] Appleton, Daniel S., "The Technology of Data
Datamation, November 1, 1985, pp. 106-116.
Integration,"
[16]
Bhalla, S., Prasad, B.E., Gupta, A., and Madnick, S.E., "A
Technical Comparison of Distributed Heterogeneous Database
Management systems," in Integrating Distributed Homogeneous
and Heterogeneous Databases:
Prototypes, edited by Amar
Gupta and Stuart Madnick, M.I.T., Cambidge, MA, 1987, pp.
161-218.
[17]
Reddy, M.P., Prasad, B.E., and Reddy, P.G., "Query
Processing In Heterogeneous Distributed Database Management
Systems" in Reference [1] above, pp. 264-277.
[18]
Thompson, Paul, "Reference Models for Information
Engineering," in Reference [1] above, pp. 291-291.
R-2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]
Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds.,
Knowledge-Based
Development Methodologies Plan, M.I.T.,
1987
[2]
KBIISE--Vol. 2:
Integrated Information Systems
(NTIS/DTIC Accession # A
Cambridge, MA,
195851).
Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE--Vol. 3:
Integrating Distributed Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
Databases:
Prototypes, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA, 1987
(NTIS/DTIC Accession # A 195853).
[3]
Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE--Vol. 4:
Object-Oriented Approach to Integrating Database Semantics,
M.I.T., Cambridge, MA, 1987 (NTIS/DTIC Accession # A
195854).
[4]
Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE--Vol. 5:
Integrating Images, Applications and Communications
Networks, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA, 1987 (NTIS/DTIC Accession #
A 195854).
[5]
Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE--Vol. 6:
Strategic, Organizational, and Standardization Aspects of
Integrated Informations Systems, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA, 1987
(NTIS/DTIC Accession # A 195855).
(6]
Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE Vol. 7:
Integrating Information Stystems in a Major Decentralized
International Organization, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA, 1987
(NTIS/DTIC Accession # A 195856).
[7]
Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE--Vol. 8:
Technical Opinions Regarding Knowledge-Based Integrated
Information Systems Engineering, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA,
1987 (NTIS/DTIC Accession # A 195857).
[8]
Wang, Richard, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., Connectivity
Among Information Systems, CIS Project, M.I.T., 1988.
[9]
Special Issue on Distributed Heterogeneous Systems,
Proceedings of the IEEE, Volume 75, No. 5, May, 1987.
[10] Bachman, Charles W., and Ross, Ronald G., "Toward a More
Complete Reference Model of Computer-Based Information
Systems," Computers and Standards, Vol. 1, North-Holland
Publishing Company, 1982, pp. 35-48.
[11] Cole, Robert, "A Method for Interconnecting Heterogeneous
Computer Networks,"
Software-Practice and Experience, Vol.
17, No. 6, June 1987, pp. 387-397.
[12] Gavish, Bezalel, and Pirkul, Hason, "Computer and Database
B-1
'II
Location in Distributed Computer Systems," IEEE Transactions
on Computers, Vol. C-35, No. 7, July 1986, pp. 583-590.
B-2
I
Appendix A
COMPANIES CONTACTED AND APPLICABILITY
0
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1989.
All rights
reserved.
Reproduction of tables or quotation form them
prohibited. All requests for grant of permission should be
directed to the principal investigator, Dr. Amar Gupta.
Telephone (617) 253-8906.
III
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Appendix B
DETAILED CHARACTERISTICS OF
PRODUCTS AND APPROACHES
©
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1989.
All rights
reserved.
Reproduction of tables or quotation form them
prohibited.
All requests for grant of permission should be
directed to
the principal investigator, Dr. Amar Gupta.
Telephone (617) 253-8906.
111
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M.I.T. Sloan School of Management
Working Paper Series
Papers by Stuart Madnick
V
Paper#
Date
Title/Author(s)
1839
11/86
"A Microcomputer-Based Image Database Management System,"
Prasad, B., Gupta, A., Toong, H., and Madnick, S.,
1776
4/86
"INFOPLEX: Research in a High-Performance Database Computer,"
Madnick, S., and Hsu, M.
1685
6/85
"Impact of Schedule Estimation on Software Project Behavior," AbdelHamid, T., and Madnick, S.
1366
10/82
"An Integrative Approach to Modeling the Software Management
Process: A Basis for Identifying Problems and Evaluating Tools and
Techniques," Adbel-Hamid, T.K., and Madnick, S.
1334
5/82
"The Dynamics of Software Project Scheduling: A System Synamics
Perspective," Adbel-Hamid, T.K., and Madnick, S.
1333
5/82
"A Model of Software Project Management Dynamics," Adbel-Hamid,
T.K., and Madnick, S.
1047
4/79
"Properties or Storage Hierarchy Systems with Multiple Page Sizes
and Redundant Data," Lan, C.Y., and Madnick, S.
1046
8/78
"Inforlex Data Base Computer Architecture - Concept and Directions,"
Lam, C.Y., and Madnick, S.
993
5/78
"Compostie Information Systems - A New Concept in Information
Systems," Lam, C.Y., and Madnick, S.
920
3/77
"A Systematic Approach to the Design of Complex Systems:
Application to DBMS Design and Evaluation," Andreu, R.C., and
Madnick, S.
910
3/77
"Trends in Computers amd Computing: The Information Utility,"
Madnick, S.
883
1/77
"Institutional and AD-HOC Decision Support Systems and Their
Effective Use," Donovan, J.J., and Madnick, S.
846
4/76
"Virtual Machines A Concept That has Comparative Advantages in
Security, Integrity, and in Decision Support Systems," Donovan, J.J., and
Madnick, S.D.
Please Use Attached Form When Ordering Papers
M.LT. Sloan School of Management
Working Paper Series
Papers by Stuart Madnick
Title/Author(s)
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Paver #
Date
776
3/75
"An Application of a Generalized Management Information System to
Energy Policy and Decision Making: The User's View," Donovan, J.J.,
Gutentag, L.M., Madnick, S., and Smith, G. N.
771
3/75
"Data Security and Data Processing," Madnick, S.
770
3/75
"Infoplex - Hierarchical Decomposition of a Large Information
Management System Using a Microprocessor Complex," Madnick, S.
769
3/75
"Design of a General Hierarchical Storage System," Madnick, S.
723
7/74
"Virtual Information in Data-Base Systems," Folinus, J.J., Madnick, S.,
and Schutzman, H.B.
722
5/74
"Application and Analysis of the Virtual Machine Approch to
Information System Security and Reliability," Madnick, S., and
Donovan, J.J.
648
3/73
"An Approach to Information System Isolation and Security in a
Shared Facility," Madnick, S., and Donovan, J.
645
2/73
"Recent Technical Advances in the Computer Industry and Their Future
Impact," Madnick, S.
Please Use Attached Form When OrderingPapers
M.LT. Sloan School of Management
Working Paper Series
Papers by Stuart Madnick
John Norris McGuire Professor of Information Technology
Paper#
Date
Title/Author(s)
3157
6/90
"The Composite Information Systems Laboratory (CSL) Project at MIT,"
Madnick, S., Siegel, M., and Wang, R.
3180
5/90
"The Elusive Silver Lining: How We Fail to Learn from Failure in
Software Development," Adbel-Hamid, T.K., and Madnick, S.
3119
2/90
"A Polygen Model for Heterogeneous Database Systems: The Source
Tagging Perspective," Wang, Y.R., and Madnick, S.
3120
12/89
"Motivating Strategic Alliance for Composite Information Systems:
The Case of a Major Regional Hospital," Osborn, C.S., Madnick, S., and
Wang, Y.R.
3100
12/89
"A Polygem Data Model for Data Source Tagging in Composite
Information Systems," Wang, R., and Madnick, S.
3084
11/89
"An Architectural Comparison of Contemporary Approaches and
Products for Integrating Heterogeneous Information Systems," Gupta,
A., and Madnick, S.
3092
10/89
"Schema Integration Using Metadata," Siegel, M., and Madnick, S.
3091
10/89
"CISL: Composing Answers from Disparate Information Systems,"
Madnick, S., Wang, Y. et al.
3061
8/89
"Information Technology Platform for the 1990's," Madnick, S.
3015
5/89
"A Global Query Processing in Composite Information Systems," Wang,
Y.R., and Madnick, S.
2075
9/88
"Software Productivity: Potential, Actual, and Perceived," AbdelHamid, T., and Madnick, S.
2061
8/88
"Logical Connectivity: Applications, Requirments, and an
Architecture," Madnick, S., and Wang, Y.R.
2031
6/88
"Motivating Strategic Alliances for Composite Information Systems:
The Case of a Major Regional Hospital," Osborn, C., Madnick, S., and
Wang, Y.R.
2029
6/88
"Inter-Database Instance Identification in Composite Information
Systems," Wang, Y.R., Madnick, S., and Horton, D.
2025
6/88
"Connectivity Among Information Systems," Wang, Y.R., and Madnick,
S.
M.I.T. Sloan School of Management
Working Paper Series
Papers by Stuart Madnick
Title/Author(s)
Paper #
Date
2022
5/88
"Implementing Message Oriented Transaction Processing for Distributed
Database Management Systems," Bhalla, S., and Madnick, S.
1862
5/88
"Evolution Towards Strategic Applications of Databases Through
Composite Information Systems," Madnick, S., and Wang, Y.R.
1981
2/88
"A Framework and Comparative Study of Distributed Heterogeneous
Database Management Systems," Bhalla, S., Prasad, B., Gupta, A., and
Madnick, S.
1980
2/88
"Modeling the Dynamics of Software Project Management," AbdelHamid, T., and Madnick, S.
1977
1/88
"On the Portability of Quantitative Software Estimation Models,"
Abdel-Hamid, T., and Madnick, S.
1975
1/88
"Facilitating Connectivity in Composite Information Systems," Wang,
Y.R., and Madnick, S.
1866
12/87
"A Conceptual Model for Integrated Autonomous Processing: An
International Bank's Experience with Large Datebases," Frank, W.,
Madnick, S., and Wang, Y.R.
1876
4/87
"Hierarchical Timestamping Algorithm," Hsu, M., and Madnick, S.
1875
4/87
"Time Slice Manipulation in Information Heirarchy," Hsu, M., and
Madnick, S.
1871
3/87
"An Integrative System Dynamics Perspective of Software Project
Management: Arguments for an Alternative Research Pardigm,"
Abdel-Hamid, T., and Madnick, S.
1868
3/87
"Perspectives on the Effective Use, Planning, and Impact of Information
Technology," Madnick, T.
1867
2/87
"The Economics of Software Quality Assurance: A System Dynamics
Based Simulation Approach," Abdel-Hamid, T., and Madnick, S.
1864
2/87
"A Temporal and Spatial Locality Theory for Characterizing Very
Large Data Bases," Madnick, S., and Moulton, A.
1861
2/87
"Key Concerns of Executives Making I/S Decisions," Madnick, S., and
Wang, Y.R.
Please Use Attached Form When OrderingPapers
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