Submicron Structures Technology and Research
1.0
Submicron Structures Technology and
Research
Academic and Research Staff
Prof. H.I. Smith, Dr. M.L. Schattenburg, J.M. Carter
Visiting Scientists
H. Kawata,1 I. Plotnik,2 I. Tanaka3
Graduate Students
S. Ajuria, E.H. Anderson, H.A. Atwater, P. Bagwell, W. Chu, L. Clevenger, J. Floro, S.M.
Garrison, J. Im, K. Ismail, E. Jiran, H.J. Kim, Y-C. Ku, U. Meirav, P. Meyer, A. Moel, J.E.
Palmer, S.L. Park, H.M. Quek, J. Scott-Thomas, G. Shahidi, M. Toth, A.T. Yen
1.1
Submicron Structures Laboratory
The Submicron Structures Laboratory at MIT develops techniques for fabricating
surface structures with linewidths in the range from nanometers to micrometers, and
uses these structures in a variety of research projects. These projects of the laboratory,
which are described briefly below, fall into four major categories: development of
submicron and nanometer fabrication technology; deep-submicron electronics and
quantum-effect electronics; crystalline films on amorphous substrates; and periodic
structures for x-ray optics and spectroscopy.
1.2
Microfabrication at Linewidths of 100nm and Below
Joint Services Electronics Program (Contract DAALO3-86-K-0002)
National Science Foundation (Grant ECS 87-09806)
Erik H. Anderson, James M. Carter, William Chu, Hui M. Quek, Irving Plotnik, Mark L.
Schattenburg, Anthony T. Yen, Henry I. Smith
A variety of techniques for fabricating structures with characteristic dimensions of
0.1 ym (100 nm) and below are investigated. These include: x-ray nanolithography,
holographic lithography, achromatic holographic lithography, electron-beam
lithography, reactive-ion etching, electroplating and liftoff. Development of such
techniques is essential if we are to explore the rich field of research applications in the
deep-submicron and nanometer domains. X-ray nanolithography is of special interest
1
Hampshire Intruments, Inc.
2
Nippon Sheet Glass
3
Osaka Prefecture University
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Submicron Structures Technology and Research
because it promises to provide high throughput and broad process latitude at linewidths
of 0.1 pm and below, something that cannot be achieved with scanning- electron-beam
lithography. We are developing a new generation of x-ray masks made from inorganic
membranes (Si, Si 3N4 , and SiC) and are investigating means for precisely controlling
mask-wafer gap, and achieving nanometer alignment. Phase shifting and transform
x-ray masks (i.e., in-line x-ray holography) may permit us to achieve sub-50 nm
linewidths at finite gaps. In this year we showed that if the absorber introduces a piphase shift in addition to about 10db attenuation the intensity profile at the edge of a
feature is steeper than with conventional masks. This is because low levels of radiation
that diffract into the shadow region behind an absorber are partially cancelled by the
phase shifted radiation transmitted by the absorber. This enables either an increase in
the allowable mask-sample gap at a given linewidth or improves the process latitude
at a given gap.
A new tri-level technique for making, by electron-beam lithography, x-ray masks
with linewidths of 50 nm was developed in collaboration with IBM. This technique
allows us to fabricate x-ray masks with patterns of arbitrary geometry and replicate them
in our own laboratory, as illustrated in figure 1.1.
85nm
Figure 1.1 X-ray nanolithographic replication of 85 nm-linewidth patterns created on the x-ray mask by
scanning e-beam lithography.
Techniques for making x-ray masks from crystallographic templates are being improved. We hope to achieve x-ray replication in PMMA with nanometer scale line-edge
smoothness.
An achromatic holographic lithography configuration was developed which allows
us to produce periodic structures with linewidths ~ 50 nm over large areas, using
deep-UV sources that have poor temporal and spatial coherence, such as the ArF laser.
We have also developed a means of feedback stabilizing the fringe pattern against vibrations and other disturbances. Although holographic techniques can be used to
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~_~_--~~--C=---CL~I
Submicron Structures Technology and Research
prepare experimental samples, there are important advantages to using them only for
preparing x-ray masks. These masks are then replicated using x-ray nanolithography.
With CK and CuL x-ray lithography high-aspect-ratio (almost 8:1) structures with
linewidths less than 50 nm have been produced in PMMA.
1.3
Improved Mask Technology for X-Ray Lithography
Semiconductor Research Corporation (Contract 87-SP-080)
Yao-C. Ku, Irving Plotnik, Henry I. Smith
In order to utilize x-ray lithography in the fabrication of submicron integrated electronics, distortion in the x-ray mask must be eliminated. Distortion can arise from stress
in the absorber, which is usually gold or tungsten. Tungsten is preferred because it is
a closer match in thermal expansion to Si, and other materials used as mask membranes.
However, W is usually under high stress when deposited by evaporation or sputtering.
We have demonstrated that tensile stress in W can be compensated by ion implantation.
Strain-induced
deflection
interferometer.
Membrane deflection due to stresses ~ 7x109 dynes/cm 2 are reduced
of
Si 3 N 4 or
Si
to zero by implantation of lx1016 Si atoms/cm
membranes
2
is measured
in
a Linnik
at 25 keV. Stress compensation occurs
because the implantation into the top 10nm of the W film causes a compressive stress
which in turn produces a torque to compensate the torque produced by the native
tensile stress. In the future we will develop a capacitive method of measuring membrane deflection so that stress correction can be done in situ, during film deposition,
or in real time during ion implantation.
1.4
Theoretical Analysis of the Lithography Process
Semiconductor Research Corporation (Contract 87-SP-080)
Henry I. Smith
In an earlier theoretical analysis of lithography we studied the effects of statistical
fluctuations on linewidth control, and compared the pixel transfer rates of the various
lithographic techniques. This analysis has been expanded to include the effects of
nonuniform illumination and other non-ideal factors. We have also derived a method
for quantifying process-latitude in lithography, a critically important figure-of-merit in
manufacturing. The normalized-process-latitude-parameter was evaluated, as a function of minimum linewidth, for several UV and deep UV projection system, and for an
x-ray system based on a laser-produced plasma source. As expected, the x-ray system
showed a significantly larger process latitude in the important linewidth range between
0.1 and 1 ym.
1.5
Studies of Electronic Conduction in
One-Dimensional Semiconductor Devices
Joint Services Electronics Program (Contract DAALO03-86-K-O002)
National Science Foundation (Grant ECS 85-03443)
Submicron Structures Technology and Research
S.B. Field, Jerome C. Licini, Udi Meirav, Samuel L. Park, John Scott-Thomas, Dimitri
A. Antoniadis, Marc A. Kastner, Henry I. Smith
At low temperatures, Si inversion layers of two-dimensional-electron-gas, with
widths less than 100 nm in Si, and less than 1 yum in GaAs, become quasi-onedimensional. This happens when inelastic scattering is sufficiently reduced that the
electronic wave functions have phase coherence over distances larger than the device
width.
Three techniques are being employed to fabricate one-dimensional devices. In the
first, field-effect transistors are fabricated in Si with widths as narrow as 50 nm. The
narrow gate of these MOSFET's is created by glancing-angle evaporation of tungsten
onto a 50-nm high step etched in a 100-nm thick oxide on a Si (100) surface. In a
second technique, the inversion layer is created under a narrow slot in a wide metal gate
by applying a potential to an upper metal gate separated from the first by a layer of
Si0 2 . The lower gate with the narrow slot is fabricated using x-ray lithography and
lift-off. To create one-dimensional devices in GaAs we are exploring the possibility of
using p-implants to confine the two-dimensional electron gas created by modulation
doping or by a gate.
Recently, using devices fabricated by the first and second techniques, a new collective state of the electron gas in high magnetic fields was discovered. Initial experiments
were done on quasi-one dimensional Si inversion layers, about 100 nm wide and 7 pm
long. At 100 mK and low magnetic fields the usual small negative magnetoresistance,
and the universal conductance fluctuations associated with localization in one dimension, were observed. In a larger magnetic field of about 4T, however, there is a
magnetic-field-induced transistion to a new state, with conductance almost ten times
larger than in zero field. This giant negative magnetoresistance is astonishing. The
conductance per square of the Q1 D device, once the new state is formed, is ten times
larger than its 2D counterpart. Figure 1.2 shows that in high magnetic fields the
conductance rises sharply at certain gate voltages and has plateaus in between. This
is reminiscent of the quantum-Hall effect, and it is likely that the high-field state in the
Q1D inversion layer is related to the quantum-Hall state in the 2D electron gas. However, the pattern of the plateaus and the temperature dependence of the structure in the
conductance-versus-gate voltage provides strong evidence that new many-body effects
are important.
There is no model that predicts these phenomena in detail. However, it has been
suggested that 1 D confinement of the 2D gas might lead to a charge or spin density
wave instability when the width is comparable to, but somewhat larger than, the magnetic length (i.e., the radius of the Landau orbit). Such instabilities lead to a gap which
remains at the Fermi energy over a wider range of filling factors than for the quantumHall state. The plateaus would then reflect plateaus in px, because pxx would be zero.
Experiments are underway to explore how the properties of the high-field state depend
on the channel width and mobility. The split, dual-gate configuration produces an inversion layer - 30 nm wide. The high-field state has been observed in this structure
as well, but at much higher magnetic fields, as expected.
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Submicron Structures Technology and Research
4
-O
C:
o
00
0
3.0
6.0
4.5
7.5
VG [Volts]
Figure 1.2 Conductance as a function of carrier density (VG) at three magnetic fields and T=100 mK. Note
that, although the values are not integral multiples of e2/h , the largest steps have 2e 2/h . The risers shift linearly
in magnetic field. The dashed curve in the top panel is the conductance at B=0.
1.6
Surface Superlattice Formation in Silicon Inversion
Layers using 200 pm Period Grating-Gate Field-Effect
Transistors
Joint Services Electronics Program (Contract DAALO03-86-K-0002)
U.S. Air Force - Office of Scientific Research (Grant AFOSR 85-0376)
Phillip F. Bagwell, Anthony T. Yen, Dimitri A. Antoniadis, Marc A. Kastner, Terry P.
Orlando, Henry I. Smith
We have been investigating electronic conduction and distinctly quantummechanical effects in a surface superlattice (SSL) device. The device is a Si MOSFET
with a dual stacked gate configuration. The lower gate is a tungsten grating of 200 nm
period (100 nm nominal linewidth), and the upper gate is a uniform metal pad separated
from the grating by 200 nm of deposited SiO 2 . We call these devices grating-gateThe grating gate is fabricated using x-ray
field-effect transistors (GGFET's).
nanolithography and grating contact pads are made with deep-UV lithography. Drainto-source current in the SSL device runs perpendicular to the grating wires. A distinguishing feature of our GGFET's is that the strength of the periodic modulation in the
channel, and the inversion-layer electron density, can be independently controlled by
external voltage supplies. At low temperatures we observe a modulation of the inver-
Submicron Structures Technology and Research
sion layer conductance with gate voltage that is about one hundred times larger than
the universal fluctuations predicted by the theory of Lee and Stone. This is consistent
with electron back diffraction from the imposed periodic potential.
The first generation of devices had low fabrication yields due to poor gate contacts,
adhesion problems, metallization problems and shorts to the substrate. Devices also
had low mobility due to radiation damage. These problems have been resolved and
second generation devices have been fabricated and tested. The first set suffered from
unfavorable line-to- space ratio in the grating gate, making it impossible for us to invert
regions in between grating lines. A third set of devices is being fabricated with proper
line-to-space ratio.
We have also developed a semiclassical algorithm to calculate the effects of free
electron motion perpendicular to the superlattice, elastic impurity scattering, inelastic
scattering between electrons and by phonons, and finite temperature on the
conductance of these devices. The observability criterion arising from this model is that
energy averaging
Kt from finite temperature and ~ h/t from a random impurity configuration must be smaller than the energy gaps at each mini-Brillouin zone boundary.
Elastic scattering, by itself, does not lead to energy averaging but, coupled with inelastic
scattering, sets the scale of the energy averaging. If no inelastic scattering is present
in the device, elastic scattering leads to fluctuations in conductance of size e2/h . In this
regime, the observability criterion is that we must impose an average conductance
modulation larger than e2/h. We are currently implementing this semi- classical algorithm to calculate the conductance of GaAs superlattice devices, described in the next
section.
1.7
Study of Surface Superlattice Formation in
GaAs/GaAIAs Modulation Doped Field-Effect
Transistors
U.S. Air Force - Office of Scientific Research (Grant AFOSR 85-0376)
William Chu, Khalid Ismail, Dimitri A. Antoniadis, Marc A. Kastner, Terry P. Orlando,
Henry I. Smith
We have used the modulation-doped field-effect transistor (MODFET) as a test vehicle for studying electron back diffraction in a GaAs/GaAIAs material system. In a
regular MODFET the current transport is modulated by a continuous gate positioned
between source and drain. In our device, the grating-gate MODFET, shown in figure
1.3, we have combined x-ray nanolithography and liftoff to achieve a 0.2 pm-period
grating-gate (100nm linewidth). By biasing this gate we can introduce a periodic
modulation of the charge concentration in the 2D-gas residing at the GaA1As/GaAs
interface. As a result an electron traveling from source to drain sees a periodic array of
barriers. The height of these barriers and the electron concentration can be altered by
changing the bias condition on the gate. Theory predicts that such a structure would
result in energy gaps opening up in the energy band. This should be manifest as a drop
in conductance whenever the Fermi energy is swept across any of those gaps. In our
first batch of working devices current we observed plateaus while sweeping the
grating-gate voltage. This effect was repeatable from one device to another. In com6
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Submicron Structures Technology and Research
parison, regular MODFET's, which were fabricated on the same sample, had a smooth
current increase. This gives evidence that the observed plateaus are a manifestation of
electron back diffraction caused by the periodic modulation. Differentiating our results,
the effect is more pronounced, as shown in figure 1.4, and had distinct features which
were quadratically spaced, as expected for a parabolic energy band.
SOURCE
DRAIN
20prn
02
.
n+-AlGaAs
Undoped AIGaAsl7
0.1Fm
ni-GaAs
42nm
7.5nm
SI Substrate
Figure 1.3 Schematic cross section of a grating-gate MODFET device. The channel width and length are both
20 ym. An undoped GaAs/GaAIAs superlattice (not shown) was used to trap impurities diffusing out of the
substrate.
Because this sample had a mobility of 250,000 cm 2 /V sec at 4 K the calculated mean
free path of electrons is ~ 1.2 yum. We believe that due to the high material purity,
universal conductance fluctuations have been suppressed, since in this regime both the
elastic and the inelastic scattering times are comparable. Preliminary magnetoresistance
measurements confirm this idea.
We are planning to fabricate devices with grid-gates (figure 1.5) to confine the
electron motion in two dimensions. We also intend to exploit our lithographic capabilities to push our grating-gate periodicity down by a factor of two to 100nm period
(50nm linewidth). Under those conditions the superlattice effects should become more
prounounced at 4 K, and might also become observable at much higher temperatures.
Submicron Structures Technology and Research
10
20
30
VGS (mV)
Plots of transconductance, gm , versus gate-to-source voltage, VGS
Figure 1.4
source-drain voltage, VDS.
Figure 1.5 X-ray lithographic replication of a grid pattern in PMMA.
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,
for several values of the
Submicron Structures Technology and Research
1.8
Investigation of One-Dimensional Conductivity in
Multiple, Parallel Inversion Lines
Joint Services Electronics Program (Contract DAALO03-86-K-0002)
U.S. Air Force - Office of Scientific Research (Grant AFOSR 85-0376)
Phillip F. Bagwell, Anthony T. Yen, Dimitri A. Antoniadis, Marc A. Kastner, Terry P.
Orlando, Henry I. Smith
In order to study one-dimensional conductivity without the statistical fluctuations
normally associated with small systems, field-effect devices have been fabricated which
use a submicron-period grating-gate structure to produce 250 narrow inversion lines in
parallel. The device is fabricated on the same substrate and by the same procedures as
the Si GGFET's discussed in section 1.6. In fact, the major difference is that the grating
lines are now parallel to the electron flow. Others have reported a variety of devices
which produce a single narrow "micro-channel," but the expected quasi-onedimensional density of states has generally been obscured by large random fluctuations
Here, the parallel measurement of many such oneinherent in small systems.
dimensional conductors results in an improved signal-to-noise ratio in the density-ofstates sampling. This is due to the incoherence of random fluctuations in different
micro-channels in the same device. Proper independent biasing of the two gate
electrodes results in the formation of a parallel array of 50 to 100-nm-wide lines of inversion charge connecting the source and drain. Transconductance measurements
demonstrate a weak, regular modulation that is consistent with the expected quasione-dimensional density-of-state. These experiments are being repeated with a new
generation of devices.
We understand the conductance modulation in a quasi-one-dimensional wire as
arising from scattering between subbands. As the Fermi level passes into a new subband, we expect a large decrease in conductance. Inelastic scattering at finite temperature will tend to destroy this effect. The same semi-classical modeling techniques used
for the surface-superlattice devices have been used to model conductance in singlewire, and multiple wire arrays. We have developed an analytic formula showing that
conductance in the wire array closely approximates a quasi-1 D wire for a Fermi energy
small compared to the scale of the confining potential.
1.9
Study of Electron Transport in MOSFET's in Si with
Deep-Submicron Channel Lengths
Joint Services Electronics Program (Contract DAALO3-86-K-0002)
Ghavam Shahidi, Dimitri A. Antoniadis, Henry I. Smith
Electron conduction in sub-100-nm channel length, Metal-Oxide- Semiconductor
Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFET's) in Si is investigated. The devices were fabricated
with a combination of x-ray nanolithography and optical projection lithography. The
x-ray mask, which defined the minimum lithographic features, was fabricated with
conventional photolithography, anisotropic etching of a Si template, and oblique
shadowing of the absorber. The gate oxide thickness for these devices was typically
Submicron Structures Technology and Research
7.5 nm, but in some cases as thin as 2.5nm . Electron velocity overshoot, to values
exceeding bulk saturation values of 107 cm sec- 1 at room temperature and 1.5 x 107 cm
sec- 1 at liquid nitrogen temperature, was observed. A non-uniform channel doping was
employed to achieve high electron mobility in the inversion layer, while at the same time
preventing punchthrough. The doping in the inversion layer is about 1016 cm- 3 . Control
of punchthrough is achieved by a boron implant in the channel of 4 x 1012 cm- 2 at 50
keV. After oxidation at 900'C for 10 min in 02, to grow the gate oxide, the boron profile
remains abrupt with a peak concentration of about 2.2 x 1017 cm- 2 at 0.19 Um depth.
The low-field mobility was estimated from long channel MOSFET's on the same
substrate to be about 450 cm 2/Vsec.
In addition to velocity overshoot we have also investigated hot electron effects,
specifically channel-hot-electron-generated substrate currents. For channel lengths in
the range 0.15 ym < L < 0.5 um the normalized substrate current at constant (VDS VDSAT) increases with decreasing channel length, presumably because of an increase in
the maximum field near the drain. However, as the channel length is decreased below
0.15 um, a decrease of the normalized substrate current is observed. We believe that
this effect accompanies the onset of electron velocity overshoot over a large portion of
the channel, and is due to either a decrease of carrier temperature or a relative decrease
of the carrier population in the channel, or both.
We have also used indium as an alternative channel implant. Because of higher
atomic number one can achieve lower surface doping, and bring the implant peak very
close to the surface, thus resulting in higher threshold voltages and a reduction in
short-channel effects. Short-channel MOSFET's with indium as the channel implant
and gate oxide thickness of 2.5 nm gave transconductances of 720 mS/mm, and reduced short-channel and hot-electron effects. Further work in characterization of devices with indium implants is continuing.
1.10
Crystalline Films on Amorphous Substrates
National Science Foundation (Grant ECS 85-06565)
U.S. Air Force - Office of Scientific Research (Grant AFOSR 85-0154)
Sergio Ajuria, Harry A. Atwater, Jerrold A. Floro, Hui Meng Quek, Henry I. Smith, Carl
V. Thompson
We are investigating methods for producing crystalline films on amorphous
substrates. This is motivated by the belief that the integration of future electronic and
electrooptical systems will be facilitated by an ability to combine, on the same substrate,
a broad range of materials (Si, Ill-V's, piezoelectrics, light guides, etc.). Zone melting
recrystallization (ZMR) of Si on amorphous Si0 2 has been highly successful, but
device-quality films are obtained only at the expense of high processing temperatures
since the Si must be melted. Other materials, such as Ge and InSb, have also been
successfully zone melted. ZMR has been an important testing ground for materials
combination, and for a number of novel concepts based on the use of lithography to
control in-plane orientation and the location of defects (so-called defect entainment).
The most promising approach in the long-term to crystalline films on amorphous
substrates is, in our view, based on surface-energy-driven secondary grain growth
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Submicron Structures Technology and Research
(SEDSGG). In this approach, no melting or phase change occurs. Instead, we take
advantage of the very large surface energies inherent in ultrathin (20 nm) films to drive
the growth of large secondary grains having specific crystallographic planes parallel to
the surface. This phenomenon has been demonstrated, as has the use of very fine
gratings (~100 nm linewidths) to control the in-plane orientation (i.e., graphoepitaxy
in combination with SEDSGG). Currently, research is focused on basic studies of grain
growth and coarsening phenomena in ultra-thin films of model materials such as Ge,
Si, Ag and Au. We also investigate means of promoting grain growth at temperatures
many hundreds of degrees below the melting point. These include ion-bombardmentenhanced grain growth (IBEGG), laser illumination, and use of selective dopants.
Theoretical models for surface-energy-driven secondary grain growth were developed
and have, for the most part, been confirmed by experiments on Si, Ge and Au films. If
our basic studies prove fruitful we may be able to develop a low temperature method,
applicable to all crystalline film materials, for producing device-quality films on amorphous substrates. By means of lithography, defects in the films, such as dislocations
and stacking faults, would be localized at predetermined positions, out of the way of
devices.
1.11
Ion-Bombardment-Enhanced Grain Growth in Thin
Films
National Science Foundation (Grant ECS 85-06565)
U.S. Air Force - Office of Scientific Research (Grant AFOSR 85-0154)
Harry A. Atwater, Jerrold A. Floro, Henry I. Smith, Carl V. Thompson
Grain growth in polycrystalline films can lead to formation of low-defect-density or
single-crystal film. We have been investigating the effect of ion bombardment on the
motion of grain boundaries in normal and secondary grain growth, so called ionbeam-enhanced grain growth (IBEGG). The scientific objective is to better understand
how grain boundaries move. The technological objective is to develop a low temperature process for obtaining crystalline films on amorphous substrates. IBEGG has been
studied experimentally in thin (i.e., < 1000 A) Ge, Au and Si films. Ion beams in the
40 - 100 keV range have been employed, resulting in an ion damage profile whose peak
is approximately in the center of the thin film. Concurrent with ion bombardment,
samples were annealed at 500 and 1050 0 C for Ge and Si, and at room temperature for
Au. The temperature is chosen so that ion damage is annealed dynamically. IBEGG
has been characterized by varying the ion dose, ion energy, ion flux, ion species, temperature, and thin film deposition conditions. The effect of these parameters on grain
size and microstructure has been analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively using
transmission electron microscopy (TEM). A transition state model has been developed
to describe the motion of grain boundaries during ion bombard-ment. The model accounts for the dependence of IBEGG on experimental para-meters. An atomistic picture
of the jump rate at grain boundaries during IBEGG has been proposed. Monte-Carlo
simulation of ion range and defect production was performed using the TRIM code and
a modified Kinchin Pease formula. The calculated defect yield per incident ion was
correlated with enhanced grain growth, and used to estimate the number of atomic
jumps at the grain boundary per defect generated at the boundary for a given driving
force, a quantity which is approximately constant for a given film material. The IBEGG
and thermal growth rates have been related to their respective point defect populations.
Submicron Structures Technology and Research
That is, grain growth rate appears to depend only on the concentration of vacancies and
interstitials, irrespective of whether they are created thermally or by ion bombardment.
Recently, we have extended the study of IBEGG to the low energy range (< 1 keV).
Experiments are done in an ultrahigh vacuum system so that material lost through
sputtering can be replaced by deposition from a separate source.
1.12
Epitaxy via Surface-Energy-Driven Grain Growth
U.S. Air Force - Office of Scientific Research (Grant AFOSR 85-0154)
Jerrold A. Floro, Joyce E. Palmer, Carl V. Thompson, Henry I. Smith
Grain growth in polycrystalline films on single-crystal substrates can lead to formation of low-defect-density or single-crystal films. This process is expected to minimize
the production of extended defects in large misfit systems, a problem difficult to avoid
in conventional heteroepitaxy. We are investigating surface-energy-driven secondary
grain growth in semiconductor and metal films on single crystal substrates. We are also
further developing the theory of epitaxy by surface-energy-driven secondary grain
growth, including effects due to grain boundary motion and due to coarsening via surface diffusion.
1.13
Submicrometer-Period Gold Transmission Gratings
for X-Ray Spectroscopy
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (Subcontract 2069209)
Erik H. Anderson, Mark L. Schattenburg, Henry I. Smith
Gold transmission gratings with periods of 0.1 to 0.2 um, and thickness ranging from
0.5 to 1 /um are fabricated using x-ray lithography and electroplating. The x-ray masks
are made either with holographic lithography or scanning-electron-beam lithography.
Transmission gratings are either supported on polyimide membranes or are made selfsupporting by the addition of crossing struts. They are used for spectroscopy of the
x-ray emission from plasmas produced by high-power lasers. Gratings fabricated in our
lab by these techniques are used in key diagnostic instruments associated with the soft
x-ray laser research at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
1.14
High-Dispersion, High-Efficiency Transmission
Gratings for Astrophysical X-Ray Spectroscopy
National Aeronautics and Space Adminstration (Grant NGL22-009-683)
Erik H. Anderson, Mark L. Schattenburg, Claude R. Canizares, Henry I. Smith
Gold gratings with spatial periods of 0.1 - 1.0 pm make excellent dispersers for high
resolution x-ray spectroscopy of astrophysical sources in the 100 eV to 10 KeV band.
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These gratings are planned for use in the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF)
which will be launched in the mid 1990's. In the region above 3 KeV, the requirements
of high dispersion and high efficiency dictate the use of the finest period gratings with
aspect ratios approaching 10:1. To achieve this we first expose a grating pattern in 1.5
ym -thick PMMA over a gold plating base using x-ray nanolithography. To date, we
have worked with gratings having periods of 0.3 or 0.2 um (linewidth 0.15 - 0.1 um).
Gold is then electroplated into the spaces of the PMMA to a thickness of 1 j/m. Flight
prototype gratings have been fabricated and are undergoing space worthyness tests.
In the initial stage of this program we used the carbon K x-ray (l=4.5nm) which required that the mask and substrate be in contact to avoid diffraction. This, in turn,
caused distortion of the grating. To avoid this problem we are developing a new technology of microgap x-ray nanolithography using the copper L x-ray (,=1.33nm).
1.15
Soft X-Ray Interferometer Gratings
Collaborationwith KMS Fusion, Inc.
Erik H. Anderson, Henry I. Smith
In the soft x-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum (1-10 nm) reliable optical
constant data is scarce or non-existent. In order to fill this gap, an achromatic
interferometer instrument is under construction at KMS Fusion Inc. The critical optical
components of this instrument are a set of matched, 200-nm-period transmission
gratings which will be fabricated at MIT. Because these gratings will be used in an
interferometer, the phase-front quality must be extremely good and, at the same time,
the lines must be free-standing, i.e.; have no support structure that would attenuate the
x-rays. The fabrication process uses a thin membrane of silicon oxynitride which is then
etched to make free-standing lines. Gold lines were found to have too much distortion
for this application.
Theses
Atwater, H.A., Ion Beam Enhanced Grain Growth in Thin Films, Ph.D. diss., Dept. of
Electr. Eng. and Comp. Sci., MIT, 1987.
Modiano, A.M., Real Time Control, Acquisition, and Image Processing for the Scanning
Tunneling Microscope, S.M. thesis, Dept. of Electr. Eng. and Comp. Sci., MIT, 1987.
Journal Articles
Anderson, E.H., A.M. Levine, and M.L. Schattenburg, "Transmission X-Ray Diffraction
Grating Alignment using a Photoelastic Modulator," submitted to Appl. Opt.
Anderson, E.H., K. Komatsu, and H.I. Smith, "Achromatic Holographic Lithography in
the Deep UV," to be published J. Vac. Sci. Technol.
Atwater, H.A., C.V. Thompson, and H.I. Smith, "Interface-Limited Grain Boundary
Motion During Ion Bombardment," to be published Phys. Rev. Lett.
Submicron Structures Technology and Research
Canizares, C.R., H.V.D. Bradt, G.W. Clark, A.C. Fabian, P.C. Joss, A.M. Levine, W.H.G.
Lewin, T.H. Market, W. Mayer, J.E. McClintock, S.A. Rappaport, G.R. Ricker, M.L.
Schattenburg, H.I. Smith, and B.E. Woodgate, "The MIT Spectroscopy Investigation
on AXAF and the Study of Supernova Remnants," Astro. Lett. 26:87 (1987).
Chou, S.Y., D.A. Antoniadis, H.I. Smith, and M.A. Kastner, "Conductance Fluctuations
in Ultra-Short-Channel Si MOSFET's," Solid State Commun. 61:571 (1987).
Chou, S.Y., and D.A. Antoniadis, "Relationship between Measured and Intrinsic
Transconductances of FET's," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices ED-34:448 (1987).
Chou, S.Y., D.A. Antoniadis, and H.I. Smith, "Application of the Shubnikov-de Haas
Oscillations in Characterization of Si MOSFET's and GaAs MODFET's," IEEE Trans.
Electron Devices ED-34:883 (1987).
Garrison, S.M., R.C. Cammarata, C.V. Thompson, and H.I. Smith, "Surface-EnergyDriven Grain Growth During Rapid Thermal Annealing (<10s) of Thin Silicon
Films," J. Appl. Phys. 61:1652 (1987).
Im, J.S., H. Tomita, and C.V. Thompson, "Cellular and Dendritic Morphologies on Stationary and Moving Liquid-Solid Interfaces in Zone-Melting Recrystallization," Appl.
Phys. Lett. 51:685 (1987).
Ismail, K., W. Chu, D. Antoniadis, and H.I. Smith, "Surface-Superlattice Effects in a
Grating-Gate GaAs/GaA1As Modulation-Doped Field-Effect Transistor," to be published Appl. Phys. Lett. March 1988.
Kastner, M.A., S.B. Field, J.C. Licini, and S.L. Park, "Anomalous Magnetoresistance of
the Electron Gas in a Restricted Geometry," submitted to Phys. Rev. Lett.
Kastner, M.A., R.F. Kwasnick, J.C. Licini, and D.J. Bishop, "Conductance Fluctuations
Near the Localized-to-Extended Transition in Narrow Si MOSFET's," Phys. Rev. B
36:8015 (1987).
Ku, Y-C., E.H. Anderson, M.L. Schattenburg, and H.I. Smith, "Use of a Pi-Phase Shifting X-Ray Mask to Increase the Intensity Slope at Feature Edges," to be published
J. Vac. Sci. Technol.
Palmer, J., C.V. Thompson, and H.I. Smith, "Grain Growth and Grain Size Distribution
in Thin Germanium Films on SiO2," J. Appl. Phys. 62:2492 (1987).
Shahidi, G.G., D.A. Antoniadis, and H.I. Smith, "Observation of Electron Velocity
Overshoot at Room and Liquid Nitrogen Temperatures in Silicon Inversion Layers,"
IEEE Electron Devices Lett. EDL-9:94 (1988).
Shahidi, G.G., D.A. Antoniadis, and H.I. Smith, "Reduction of Channel- Hot-ElectronGenerated Substrate Current in Sub-150 nm Channel Length Si MOSFET's," submitted to IEEE Electron Device Lett.
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Submicron Structures Technology and Research
Shahidi, G.G., D.A. Antoniadis, and H.I. Smith, "Electron Velocity Overshoot in
Sub-100 nm Channel Length MOSFET's at 77K and 300K," to be published J. Vac.
Sci. Technol.
Smith, H.I., "A Model for Comparing Process Latitude in UV, Deep-UV and X-Ray
Lithography," to be published J. Vac. Sci. Technol.
Conference Proceedings
Anderson, E.H., D. Kern, H.I. Smith, "Fabrication by Tri-Level Electron Beam
Lithography of X-Ray Masks with 50 nm Line Widths and Replication by X-Ray
Nanolithography," Microcircuit Engineering '87, International Conference on
Microlithography, Paris, France, September 22-25, 1987.
Antoniadis, D.A., "Quantum Mechanical and Non-Steady-State Transport Phenomena
in Nanostructured Silicon Inversion Layers," Extended Abstracts, 19th Conference
on Solid State Devices and Materials, Tokyo, Japan, August 25-27.
Cammarata, R.C., C.V. Thompson, and S.M. Garrison, "Secondary Grain Growth During
Rapid Thermal Annealing of Doped Polysilicon Films," presented at the spring Materials Research Society meeting, 1987.
Plotnik, I., M.E. Porter, M. Toth, S. Akhtar, and H.I. Smith, "lon- Implant Compensation
of Tensile Stress in Tungsten Absorber for Low Distortion X-Ray Masks," International Conference on Microlithography and Related Microelectronics Technologies,
September 23-25, 1986, Interlaken, Switzerland; published in Proceedings Microcircuit Engineering '86, eds. H.W. Lehmann and C. Bleiker, 51. New York: NorthHolland Press, 1987.
Schattenburg, M.L., I. Tanaka and H.I. Smith, "Microgap X-Ray Nanolithography,"
Microcircuit Engineering '87, International Conference on Microlithography, Paris,
France, September 22-25.
Thompson, C.V., and H.I. Smith, "Secondary Grain Growth in Thin Films, Phase Transitions in Condensed Systems - Experiment and Theory," In Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, eds. G.S. Cargill III, F. Spaepen, and K.N. Tu, 499,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Materials Research Society, 1987.
Professor Carl V. Thompson
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RLE Progress Report Number 130