Assessment Report for Anth 101 Fall 2013
Anth 101 Introduction to Anthropology, is an entry-level introductory course that provides students with
an overview of research and theory in the four fields of anthropology: biological anthropology,
archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology. A survey of peoples and cultures, past
and present, from many parts of the world, this course provides students with an introduction to the
biological and cultural diversity of the human species, as well as a historical perspective on the
development of anthropology and the relevance of anthropology to contemporary human problems.
This course satisfies a Social Sciences requirement in any curriculum and is part of the Pathways
Flexible Core category II.D Individual and Society.
I.
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Learning Outcomes and General Education Objectives
Anth 101 addresses the following General Educational Objectives and Learning Outcomes
CUNY Pathways Learning Outcomes II.D. Individual and Society
General Education Objectives
Gather, interpret, and assess information
Students will understand anthropological text
from a variety of sources and points of view.
effectively through readings in the textbook and
ancillary documents and articles on different
cultures across the globe
Evaluate evidence and arguments critically
Students will critically evaluate anthropological
theories and research on human culture and society or analytically.
Students will identify and apply key concepts from Identify and apply the fundamental
anthropological research in the cross-cultural study concepts and methods of a discipline or
interdisciplinary field exploring the
of individuals and society
relationship between the individual and
Students will apply anthropological methods to
understand how the relationship of individual and society.
society differs across a broad range of cultures and
societies.
Through anthropological texts on a wide variety of Examine how an individual's place in
cultures and societies, students will understand how society affects experiences, values, or
choices.
society and social rank influence an individual’s
experiences, values and choices
Articulate and assess ethical views and
Students will evaluate ethical views from a crosstheir underlying premises.
cultural perspective
Students will learn how to understand the
development of ethical views, values and practices
from a historical and cultural perspective
Students will apply ethnographic research and texts Articulate ethical uses of data and other
to understand and respond to contemporary social information resources to respond to
problems and questions.
issues and problems
Students will understand the ethical issues
connected with ethnographic research and will be
able to identify sound ethnographic methods
Students will understand how to apply ethnographic
methods and data ethically in response to social
issues and problems
Identify and engage with local, national, or
Through cross-cultural readings in anthropology,
global trends or ideologies, and analyze
students will gain an understanding of the impact
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local, national and global trends can have on
individual and collective choices and decision
making.
their impact on individual or collective
decision-making.
II. Discussion of Assessment Tools
In Fall 2013 four sections of Anth 101 with a total of 88 students completed the assessment task. The
assessment was a task-based reading assignment designed to evaluate the critical thinking skills of our
anthropology students. This task was based on a concept developed by the assessment committee of the
Social Sciences Department, which has chosen to assess the critical thinking skills of students across all
of the social sciences disciplines based on their reading comprehension of disciplinary-specific texts. To
this end, I selected a short excerpt on virginity testing from an introductory anthropology textbook by
Richard Robbins, Anthropology: A Problem Based Approach. I consider this a relevant text because it
calls on students to evaluate an unfamiliar cultural practice from several points of view; it draws on
anthropological methods; it highlights several anthropological concepts which students would be
expected to master at the conclusion of Anthropology 101, including cultural relativism, ethnocentrism,
kinship and descent practices, gender relations, the clash between Western and non-Western cultures,
and the impact local behaviors can have on issues of far-reaching global concerns.
The text is followed by 12 multiple choice questions which are designed to assess the competence of
students' critical thinking skills as categorized by a standard critical reading rubric. This text was chosen
because it addresses the above General Education Objectives for Anthropology, and because it can be
utilized to evaluate disciplinary-specific questions which align with the categories outlined on the
standard critical reading rubric by Amanda Deal and Melissa Rareshide of Winston-Salem State
University in their Critical Reading Manual. This rubric sets forth 5 categories for evaluating students’
critical reading abilities: Constructing Meaning; Contextualizing; Using Other Perspectives and
Positions; Evaluating Evidence and Drawing Conclusions. I have designed 3 multiple choice questions
for each category on the rubric. As discussed by the assessment committee, successfully answering all
three questions will count as Mastery of the criteria. Two correct questions will be assessed as Strong
Development. One correct question will be considered Weak Development, and 0 correct questions in a
section would be considered Emergent within the given category on the rubric. Below I have included
the reading, the test questions, instructions for students, and the rubric that will be used to evaluate
students’ critical thinking skills.
III. Overview and Analysis of Results
Taken as a whole, there was a wide range of student performance for each of the four rubric categories.
When only mastery level is considered, Constructing Meaning was the strongest category, with 80.68%
of the students achieving this level. The other three categories were relatively low. Only 44%
demonstrated mastery of the Contextualizing category; 65.9% demonstrated mastery of Using Other
Perspectives and Positions; and 64.7% demonstrated mastery of Evaluating Evidence and Drawing
Conclusions. When examined only based on the level of mastery, there appears to be a stark difference
in the ability to perform the four tasks of the rubric, and Contextualizing seems to be the weakest of the
four categories.
However, when we instead group the students into 2 levels of strong or weak, a significantly different
picture emerges. In my analysis I combined the Strong and Mastery levels into one level of Strong, and
the Weak and Emerging levels into one level of Weak. Analyzed thusly, it quickly becomes apparent
that the vast majority of students achieved Strong or higher levels on each of the assessment categories.
97% tested Strong or higher in the category Constructing Meaning; 85.2% tested strong or higher in
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Contextualizing; 95.4% tested strong or higher on Using Other Perspectives and Positions; and 80.6%
tested strong or higher on Evaluating Evidence and Drawing Conclusions. The weakest areas for
students were the categories of Contextualizing (with 14.7% at the level of weak or emerging), and
Evaluating Evidence and Drawing Conclusions (with 13.6% at the level of weak or emerging).
1. Constructing Meaning
This was the strongest category measured. A full 97.7% measured Strong Development or Mastery of
this category.
71 students (80.68%) demonstrated mastery of this category
Another 16 students (18%) demonstrated Strong Development
Only 1 student (1.1%) scored as weak in this category
0 students scored as emergent
Constructing Meaning
Mastery
Strong
Weak
Emergent
2. Contextualizing
This category had the fewest students who had reached a level of Mastery (44%), but 85.2% measured
Strong development or Mastery.
39 students (44%) demonstrated mastery.
Another 36 students (40.9%) demonstrated Strong Development
12 students (13.6) were Weak in this area
1 student (1.1%) was classified as emergent
Contextualizing
Mastery
Strong
Weak
Emergent
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3. Using Other Perspectives and Positions
Overall, students tested high in this category: 95.4% were at the level of Strong Development or
Mastery.
58 ( 65.9%) students demonstrated mastery
26 (29.5%) demonstrated Strong Development
3 (3.4%) students demonstrated Weak development
1 (1.1%) student demonstrated Emergent development
Using Other Perspectives and
Positions
Mastery
Strong
Weak
Emergent
4. Evaluating Evidence and Drawing Conclusions
Overall, this was the weakest category in the assessment, with 80.6% at a level of Strong Development or
Mastery.
57 (64.7%) Master
19 (21.5%) Strong Development
9 (10.2%) Weak Development
3 (3.4%) Emerging
Evaluating Evidence and
Drawing Conclusions
Mastery
Strong
Weak
Emergent
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IV. Analysis of Individual Questions within Categories
While the analysis of the four categories highlights the students' general strengths and weaknesses, a
closer analysis of the individual questions within the categories can point to more specific areas that
could merit further investigation. For this part of the analysis, I calculated which specific questions
students were consistently answering incorrectly and which wrong answers they were choosing.
In some cases, no clear patterns emerge, while in others a consistency in the choice of a wrong answer
can indicate specific problems to be addressed, either with the learning process or with the question
itself.
Constructing Meaning
For the category Constructing Meaning, the overall accuracy rate was very high. The lowest accuracy
was with question number 1.
Nine of the 88 total students incorrectly responded to question 1 (89.7% accuracy rate). In each
instance, the student incorrectly chose the answer b. This information was presented in the text as a local
belief, but these 9 students indicated that it was factual information from the text. This could indicate
several things. I could be an indication that the wording of answer b is unclear. It could also indicate a
difficulty in distinguishing between factual information and beliefs or opinions that are presented in a
text.
Question 1. According to Carol Delaney’s book The Seed and the Soil, which of the following
statements is true:
a. Turkish women gather seeds to plant in the garden before their wedding
b. Once a Turkish woman has had sexual relations, she may become pregnant at any time, even years
after intercourse.
c. Turkish villagers are obsessed with farming and planting seeds
d. Turkish villagers symbolize reproduction through the use of agricultural metaphors
Six students incorrectly responded to question 2 (93% accuracy rate). Four chose question b; One chose
question a; and one chose question c.
Question 2. According to the passage, which of the following is a true statement about traditional
Turkish society?
a. If a women has sexual relations before marriage, she will not be allowed to marry.
b. Men are more highly valued because they contribute the “seed” in reproduction.
c. Men and women must prove their virginity before marriage.
d. Virginity is valued in women because it is believed to ensure the paternity of the children within a
marriage.
Three students responded incorrectly to question 3 (96.5% accuracy rate). One student answered b and
two students left this one blank.
Question 3. In traditional Turkish society, the bloody sheet is displayed by the groom the morning after
the wedding in order to:
a. bring shame upon the bride and her family
b. oppress women
c. prove the virginity of the bride to the village
d. bring about a better harvest
Contextualizing
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The accuracy rate for the questions in the category Contextualizing was consistently average, ranging
from 72.7 to 79.5%. This section focused on specific anthropological terms and indicates some
weaknesses in this area.
18 missed question #1 (79.5% accuracy rate). 9 answered a; 6 answered b; 3 answered d
Question 1. Richard Robbins includes information from Carol Delaney’s book The Seed and the Soil
primarily because:
a. he wants readers to accept the practice of virginity testing
b. he wants readers to understand what a metaphor is
c. he wants readers to consider applying the cultural relativist approach to the practice of virginity
testing
d. he wants readers to understand the farming techniques of a traditional Turkish village
21 missed question # 2 (76% accuracy rate). All of the incorrect responses marked answer a. This
indicates students were mixing up two key anthropological concepts.
Question 2. When an individual condemns or judges the practices or beliefs of another culture based on
his or her own norms and values, this is an example of which of the following anthropological concepts:
a. cultural relativism
b. ethnocentrism
c. ethnography
d. evolution
24 missed question # 3 (72.7% accuracy rate). 15 marked a; 2 marked c; 6 marked d; 1 did not answer.
This indicates some confusion with the anthropological concepts of kinship and descent.
Question 3. Based on this excerpt, we can conclude that traditional Turkish society is characterized by
which of the following kinship patterns:
a. Matrilineal
b. Patrilineal
c. Polyandry
d. Polygyny
Using Other Perspectives and Positions
The category Using Other Perspectives addresses a key anthropological concept, and students performed
very highly on two of the questions (98.8 and 92% accuracy). Question number 2 was a serious
stumbling block for a significant number of students, with an accuracy rate of only 69.3%.
One student missed question #1 (98.8% accuracy rate). They chose answer a.
Question 1. According to the passage, Turkish villagers believe women should be virgins before
marriage because
a. women are viewed as weaker than men
b. this is believed to help ensure the paternity of children, which is important for determining land
inheritance rights.
c. the villagers are superstitious, ignorant and bound to tradition
d. the villagers do not believe that women have sexual desires
27 students missed question number 2 (69.3% accuracy rate). 14 chose b; 3 chose c; 8 chose d; 2 were
blank. This could indicate students did not carefully read the text, did not read the text to the end, where
this information is provided, or it could reflect an element of ethnocentrism on the part of the students,
who view these influences as nonwestern.
Question 2. According to Robbins, religious texts and beliefs influence sexual practices and norms:
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a. in both North America and Turkey
b. only in rural areas of Turkey
c. only in rural areas of the United States
d. only in areas where western forms of education have not been developed
7 students missed question number 3 (92% accuracy rate). 2 chose b; 4 chose c; 1 chose d.
Question 3. According to the passage, within a traditional Turkish village, paternity is important because
a. it determines who will inherit the father’s property
b. it determines who will become leader of the village
c. it determines who will be responsible for harvesting the field
d. it determines who will be able to vote in village elections
Evaluating Evidence and Drawing Conclusions
For this category, there was a wide range of accuracy between the questions: 73.8, 81.8, 93%. On the
most frequently missed question (Question 3), students consistently marked the same wrong answer,
highlighting a pattern to investigate further.
16 missed question number 1 (81.8% accuracy rate). 7 chose a; 3 chose b; 5 chose d; 1 blank
Question 1. According to Robbins, Turkish understandings of reproduction
a. are vastly different from American and therefore backwards
b. are incorrect and therefore must be updated with modern understandings of biology
c. share metaphorical similarities with American notions about reproduction
d. are connected with agriculture and therefore more authentic than American notions of reproduction
6 missed question number 2 (93% accuracy rate). 3 chose a; 2 chose c; 1 blank.
Question 2. Based on the evidence provided in the passage, Robbins concludes that
a. Women are treated unfairly in rural Turkish society
b. American anthropologists should join the human rights campaign against virginity testing
c. American activists should campaign in support of forced virginity testing
d. American activists should aim to understand the cultural and historical context of virginity testing
before joining campaigns for or against the practice.
23 missed question number 3. (73.8 accuracy rate) Twenty chose c; 1 chose a; 2 blank. Here a strong
pattern emerges. Most students who missed this question chose c, arguing that the text demonstrated
gender inequality in Turkey. This could indicate several things. I could mean that the answer is poorly
worded. It could point to an ethnocentric perspective toward Turkey. It could also indicate difficulty
drawing conclusions without injecting one's own biases into the equation.
Question 3. Based on the information provided in the passage, which of the following conclusions can
be clearly made about virginity testing:
a. virginity testing proves that traditional Turkish society does not value women
b. virginity testing is practiced as part of a traditional Turkish wedding ritual
c. virginity testing is a clear demonstration of gender inequality in traditional Turkey
d. virginity testing proves that Turkish women are stronger than Turkish men
V. Conclusions
The assessment indicates that overall students in the Anth 101 courses are demonstrating a strong level
of achievement with the General Education learning objectives presented above, but there are several
specific areas where improvement can be made. Based on the analysis of the incorrect answers, there is
an indication that a small fraction (10%) of students have difficulty distinguishing between information
that is factual and information that is presented as another's belief or opinion. Furthermore, this analysis
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indicates some inconsistency with the specific anthropological terms assessed here. This could be the
result of different emphases in the material covered in the various Anth 101 courses. It could be the
result of covering the material at different times during the semester. It could indicate that this material
could be presented more clearly. Particularly striking is the number of students (23.8%) who confused
the key terms ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Overall, the students demonstrated a very strong
ability to use other perspectives and positions, which is one of the primary tasks of the Anth 101 course.
Close analysis of this area, however, also indicates some room for improvement. Answers to several
questions indicated that students' biases against non-western societies at times hampered their critical
reading abilities.
VI. Action Plan
Upon completing the close analysis of the responses from the Fall 2013 assessment task, several
recommendations are set forth to be addressed in the Anth 101 courses and in the next assessment.
In terms of classroom issues, efforts could be made to discuss the way academic information is
presented, emphasizing that not all information is factual. Students may be used to reading textbooks
and memorizing facts. Therefore, when presented with academic arguments or essays that present
multiple opinions, students may assume that all of the information is factual. Some students seem to
believe that when an author discusses a topic, that this is tacit approval of or even propaganda for this
topic. This can lead to serious confusion. Efforts could also be made in the classroom to highlight the
distinction between the anthropological concepts of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Related to
this, some students indicate an ethnocentric perspective that biases their understanding of the
information they are reading. This could be addressed when specifically covering the topic of
ethnocentrism.
Because this assessment was conducted late in the semester, the number of students participating was
lower than expected. I would recommend that the next assessment be conducted a few weeks before the
end of the semester. However, because in part this assessment is evaluating students' mastery of
anthropological concepts, the assessment should not be conducted before the last month of classes.
The close analysis of the individual questions and answers indicates that some may have been poorly
worded or ambiguous. Therefore, for the next assessment, I recommend several changes to the
questions and the addition of one question per rubric category so that it is in line with the departmental
assessment in the Social Sciences Department.
Specific changes:
Constructing Meaning Question 2 will now read Based on the information provided in the above
passage, which of the following is a true statement about traditional Turkish village society:
Question 3 will now read In traditional Turkish village society, the bloody sheet is displayed by the
groom the morning after the wedding in order to:
Contextualizing Question 3 will now read Based on this excerpt, we can conclude that traditional
Turkish village society is characterized by which of the following descent patterns:
Evaluating Evidence Question 2 will now read The evidence provided in the text best supports which of
the following statements:
Question 3 answer c will now read Virginity testing is a clear demonstration that Western women have a
higher level of gender equality than Turkish women.
Appendix A. Fall 2013 Critical Reading Rubric
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rubric - return to initial plan: 0-1 = emerging; 2 = weak development; 3 = strong development; and 4 =
mastery
Rating Criteria
Emerging
Weak
Strong
Mastery
0
Development
Development
3
1
2
Derives
Usually derives Always derives accurate
Constructing Meaning Derives meaning
from texts in a
meaning from accurate meaning meaning from texts by
confused or
texts in a
from texts by
making sense of written
inaccurate way
limited fashion, making sense of words and analyzing
makes sense of written words
reading with respect to
written words
and analyzing
prior knowledge,
but no further
reading with
research and experience
analysis
respect to prior
knowledge,
research and
experience
Reads written
Makes
Usually connects Always connects written
Contextualizing
language in
connections in a written language language with contexts
isolation or connects limited fashion with contexts
such as prior experience,
it to irrelevant or
between written such as prior
historical setting,
inaccurately
language and
experience,
physical setting,
understood contexts contexts
historical setting, knowledge of the
physical setting, discipline, etc.
knowledge of the
discipline, etc.
Attempts to
Usually
Always explores
Using Other Perspectives and Takes text at face
value, showing
explore
explores
perspectives,
Positions
minimal awareness perspectives,
perspectives,
assumptions, purposes,
of perspectives,
assumptions,
assumptions,
and techniques
assumptions,
purposes, and
purposes, and
exemplified or implied
purposes, and
techniques
techniques
by the text
techniques
exemplified or exemplified or
implied by the implied by the
text
text
Draws
Draws
Draws conclusions and
Evaluating Evidence and Conclusions are
Drawing Conclusions
inconsistently tied conclusions that conclusions that related outcomes
are logically tied are logically tied (consequences and
to some of the
to a range of
implications) that are
information, relatedto information
(because
information,
logical and reflect
outcomes
including
student’s informed
(consequences and information is
evaluation and ability to
implications) are chosen to fit the opposing
desired
viewpoints;
place evidence and
oversimplified.
conclusion), some related outcomes perspective discussed in
related outcomes (consequences priority order.
(consequences
and implications)
and implications) are identified
are identified
clearly
clearly.
Appendix B. Fall 2013 Assessment Task: Reading and Questions
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Task- Critical Reading in Anthropology
Instructions. Please read the passage below called “Virginity Testing in Turkey.” When you are
finished reading, answer the multiple choice questions that follow the passage. You may consult the
passage as you answer the questions. When answering the questions, choose only one answer and do
not leave any questions blank.
Virginity Testing in Turkey
Excerpt from the Textbook Cultural Anthropology: A Problem Based Approach by Richard Robbins
Traditionally, young women in Turkey, as in some other cultures, are expected to avoid sexual relations
prior to marriage, although the same rule does not apply to men. The morning after the wedding, the
bride’s virginity is revealed by displaying the sheet that was spread on the couple’s wedding bed with
the telltale hymeneal blood stain. An American human rights group condemned this practice, as well as
reports of forced virginity tests on hospital patients, students and applicants for government jobs. Is the
human rights group being ethnocentric in judging Turkish customs by American cultural norms, or is it
correctly identifying abuses of women that must be corrected? Does it help if we further understand the
so-called logic behind the belief?
Anthropologist Carol Delaney, in her book on Turkish village society, The Seed and the Soil, describes
how virginity testing is related to the way that Turkish villagers conceptualize and explain the
reproductive process. They see reproduction as symbolically similar to the planting and growing of
crops; the man provides the “seed” with his semen, and the woman serves as the “soil” in which the seed
germinates and grows. As a metaphor for reproduction, the idea of the seed and the soil provides
villagers with a way of thinking about and understanding reproduction. However, the metaphor of seed
and soil has at lease one very important implication. Because seeds do not have a limited life span,
villagers believe that once planted, the seed (semen) may grow at any time. Consequently, if a woman
has had sexual relations with a man other than her husband at any time prior to her marriage, the
paternity of the child will be in doubt. And because descent in traditional Turkish villages is closely tied
to many things, including property rights, uncertainty about the identity of the true father can have major
implications. Thus, in the context of Turkish beliefs about procreation, virginity testing may make
sense. Furthermore, Turkish beliefs about conception are not that far removed from our own, since our
language draws from the same agricultural metaphors as that of Turkish villagers to explain
reproduction. We talk about women being “fertile” or “barren” and semen “fertilizing” “eggs.”
“Sowing one’s oats” as an expression of sexual activity is still heard in parts of the United States and
Canada. Furthermore, these views are reinforced by religious taboos, legitimized in the Koran and the
Old Testament. Thus, before we either condemn or accept the Turkish villagers for their treatment of
women, we need to examine what their beliefs tell us about our own, which may be equally problematic.
Key Concepts: Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism, Kinship, Descent, Gender, Ethnographic Methods,
Cross-cultural beliefs and practices
Read through each answer carefully and select the best one.
I. Constructing Meaning
1. According to Carol Delaney’s book The Seed and the Soil, which of the following statements is true:
a. Turkish women gather seeds to plant in the garden before their wedding
b. Once a Turkish woman has had sexual relations, she may become pregnant at any time, even years
after intercourse.
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c. Turkish villagers are obsessed with farming and planting seeds
d. Turkish villagers symbolize reproduction through the use of agricultural metaphors
2. According to the passage, which of the following is a true statement about traditional Turkish society?
a. If a women has sexual relations before marriage, she will not be allowed to marry.
b. Men are more highly valued because they contribute the “seed” in reproduction.
c. Men and women must prove their virginity before marriage.
d. Virginity is valued in women because it is believed to ensure the paternity of the children within a
marriage.
3. In traditional Turkish society, the bloody sheet is displayed by the groom the morning after the wedding
in order to:
a. bring shame upon the bride and her family
b. oppress women
c. prove the virginity of the bride to the village
d. bring about a better harvest
II. Contextualizing
1. Richard Robbins includes information from Carol Delaney’s book The Seed and the Soil primarily
because:
a. he wants readers to accept the practice of virginity testing
b. he wants readers to understand what a metaphor is
c. he wants readers to consider applying the cultural relativist approach to the practice of virginity
testing
d. he wants readers to understand the farming techniques of a traditional Turkish village
2. When an individual condemns or judges the practices or beliefs of another culture based on his or her
own norms and values, this is an example of which of the following anthropological concepts:
a. cultural relativism
b. ethnocentrism
c. ethnography
d. evolution
3. Based on this excerpt, we can conclude that traditional Turkish society is characterized by which of the
following kinship patterns:
a. Matrilineal
b. Patrilineal
c. Polyandry
d. Polygyny
III. Using Other Perspectives and Positions
1. According to the passage, Turkish villagers believe women should be virgins before marriage because
a. women are viewed as weaker than men
b. this is believed to help ensure the paternity of children, which is important for determining land
inheritance rights.
c. the villagers are superstitious, ignorant and bound to tradition
d. the villagers do not believe that women have sexual desires
2. According to Robbins, religious texts and beliefs influence sexual practices and norms:
a. in both North America and Turkey
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b. only in rural areas of Turkey
c. only in rural areas of the United States
d. only in areas where western forms of education have not been developed
3. According to the passage, within a traditional Turkish village, paternity is important because
a. it determines who will inherit the father’s property
b. it determines who will become leader of the village
c. it determines who will be responsible for harvesting the field
d. it determines who will be able to vote in village elections
IV. Evaluating Evidence and Drawing Conclusions
1. According to Robbins, Turkish understandings of reproduction
a. are vastly different from American and therefore backwards
b. are incorrect and therefore must be updated with modern understandings of biology
c. share metaphorical similarities with American notions about reproduction
d. are connected with agriculture and therefore more authentic than American notions of reproduction
2. Based on the evidence provided in the passage, Robbins concludes that
a. Women are treated unfairly in rural Turkish society
b. American anthropologists should join the human rights campaign against virginity testing
c. American activists should campaign in support of forced virginity testing
d. American activists should aim to understand the cultural and historical context of virginity testing
before joining campaigns for or against the practice.
3. Based on the information provided in the passage, which of the following conclusions can be clearly
made about virginity testing:
a. virginity testing proves that traditional Turkish society does not value women
b. virginity testing is practiced as part of a traditional Turkish wedding ritual
c. virginity testing is a clear demonstration of gender inequality in traditional Turkey
d. virginity testing proves that Turkish women are stronger than Turkish men
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