Legislation, Commercialization, and the
Development of Alternative Energy Technologies
An Honors Thesis (HONR 490) By Grey Harris Thesis Advisor Donald Gilman Ball State University Muncie, IN June 2015 Expected Date of Graduation July 2015
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Abstract
"Legislation, Commercialization, and the Development of Alternative Energy
Technologies" addresses the reality of fossil fuels as a dwindling resource. Only an
adaptation of its infrastructure to alternative power generation will pennit America to
survive in a post-fossil fuel world. A reviewing major oflegislation passed in the United
States since the 1920s dealing with alternative energy illustrates that there are two current
legislative paths to America's energy future. One is to amass as many fossil fuels as is
possible and to rely on them indefinitely. This method is short-sighted, considering
predictions that the world's oil supply will run out well within the next century. The other
option is to invest in wind, solar and geothennal energy production sources. The paper
addresses that these systems, at full cost effective capacity, will never be able to meet the
current, let alone future, energy requirements of those living in the United States.
Nuclear fusion energy could, in theory, provide such energy needs. There have been two
government funded and one private enterprise that have attempted to utilize this resource.
They have had varying degrees of success. Private industry is currently prevailing in
creating fusion technology and thus is the best chance for American energy
independence. This thesis argues that the Unites States must invest in domestic fusion
energy development if it wishes to be energy independent in a world without fossil fuels.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Donald Gilman for his sage counsel through this project, as well
as for his years of support for my research in this area. His support of students
participating in the annual Butler Undergraduate Research Conference made this project
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possible. I would also like to thank Dr. Eric Hedin for fostering my initial interest into
fusion based energy.
Page 3 Table of Contents
Title Page................................................................................................ 1 Abstract and Acknowledgements...................................................................................2 Introduction ...........................................................................................5 I. Alternative Energy Technologies ............................................................... 6 II. Policies Leading to Fusion .................. ................................................. 12 III. The Science and Politics ofNuclear Fllsion ..............................................16 IV. Epilogue: Congressional (In)action vs. Commercial Enterprise .......................20 Reference Page .....................................................................................23 Page 4
Introduction
The world is running out of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are currently essential to
producing electricity in the United States, and if fossil fuel becomes unavailable, America
will be unable to produce sufficient electricity to meet its basic needs. In order to
maintain the current level of energy usage, the United States must develop alternative
methods of producing energy that do not rely on fossil fuel technologies. The nation has
been attempting to find an alternative to fossil fuel ever since the 1920s; however, none
of the technologies developed over that time has been capable of creating a cost effective
alternative to fossil fuels. Only one technology has a chance of replacing fossil fuels in
such a way, and that is fusion based nuclear reactors. This Crisis has not gone unnoticed;
however; in a time of division in American politics, the future of American energy seems
uncertain.
Some politicians advocate investing in wind and solar power while others
advocate simply drilling more oil. The only certainty is that within the near future, when
America depletes its fossil fuels, it will be too late to start looking for alternative
solutions. This study will therefore look into the problem of American alternative energy
technology through an analysis of three issues. First, it will analyze the various
alternative energy technologies that the nation has developed and funded since the 1920s.
Second, it will analyze the three leading projects that are attempting to make fusion
energy a reality. Third, it will analyze the politics that surround alternative energy
technologies in the United States, and offer a suggested course of action to make the
country self-sustaining.
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I. Alternative Energy Technologies
The United States has been developing alternative energy technologies since the
1920s and Congress has passed significant pieces of energy legislation. In order to
appreciate the importance of the future of fusion, one needs to examine other alternative
technologies.
The first significant attempt to develop alternative energy technologies came in
the form of hydroelectricity. One of the first pieces of legislation that influenced
American alternative energy policy was the Federal Water Power Act of 1920 which
passed on June 10th of 1920 in an effort to coordinate the development of hydroelectric
power plants across the United States. It was designed to take advantage of new
advancements in the field of hydroelectric energy production and it helped develop
projects such as the Hoover Dam. The Federal Water Power Act also created the Federal
Power Commission which was tasked with granting permits to new hydroelectric
projects. The Commission also guaranteed that a certain percent of profits from the dams
would then be allocated to the respective state.
Hydroelectric power is created by harnessing the kinetic energy of flowing water.
This energy is harnessed when water turns turbines; it is widely utilized today in the
United States. However, it does not produce enough power to replace fossil fuels in
America with the current number of hydroelectric power plants. There are serious
concerns surrounding the construction of additional hydroelectric facilities. The
construction of a hydroelectric dam necessitates the creation of a reservoir. This reservoir
is incredibly destructive to the surrounding ecosystem, and can also displace people. The
dams also have negative effects on those living downstream. It can prevent wildlife from
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making full use of the river that it dams. Because of these environmental impacts, it
would be difficult to gain the needed political support to create sufficient numbers of
hydroelectric facilities to replace fossil fuel energy production. Because of this
environmental factor, it would therefore be irresponsible to significantly expand
hydroelectric passed energy production.
The Hoover Dam is the largest Hydroelectric facility in the United States of America. The Second World War resulted in significant scientific advancement for the
United States. During the war, the government developed nuclear weapons of mass
destruction through the Manhattan Project. These weapons were utilized against the
empire of Japan in order to end the Second World War. After this war, because of the
destructive nature of nuclear weaponry, the United States government censored any
references to the mechanisms involved with nuclear fission. Eventually, though, scientists
saw the utility of nuclear energy and began to develop schematics to use nuclear fission
reactors to produce electricity. This led to two acts, the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 and
the Atomic Energy Act of 1954. The 1946 legislation determined that nuclear fission
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technology would be controlled by the civilian population rather than the military. The
1954 legislation was part of Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace program, and was made to
encourage the development of privately owned nuclear power plants. It also set up
regulations for these plants regarding waste disposal, allowing private citizens to patent
nuclear reactor designs, an act which had been banned under the strict censorship that had
followed World War II.
Nuclear fission reactors work by taking large atoms, usually either uranium-235
or plutonium-239, and firing a stream of neutrons into the atom. This causes the atom to
split, releasing gamma radiation and kinetic energy. The kinetic energy is used to heat the
liquid water coolant which creates steam. This steam is then used to tum turbines and
produce electricity. The gamma radiation is incredibly harmful to humans, animals, and
ecosystems. The reaction also processes additional neutrons which can trigger a nuclear
chain reaction. This chain reaction can be very dangerous and lead to meltdown
situations, such as the nuclear accidents at Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, and Fukushima.
These meltdowns produce radioactive fallout which can travel over great distances and
negatively affect millions of people. The reactors also have very harmful waste elements
in the form of expended fuel rods. This nuclear waste is currently stored in the Yucca
Mountain
facility in Nevada; however, this storage system poses significant risks to the ecosystem.
Because of the high risk factors of meltdown, and because of the waste storage issues,
nuclear fission rectors are not feasible replacements for fossil fuel energy production.
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Arial Photograph of the Chernobyl Nuclear Plant Disaster
By the 1970s the three most prevalent modern alternative energy technologies
were Wind power, solar power, and geothermal energy. The significant piece of
legislation that launched these three technologies was the Energy Tax Act of 1978. This
legislation had two major functions. First it provided funding in the form of tax breaks for
private citizens to convert to solar, wind, and geothermal energy production systems. It
also set up a gas guzzler tax which a person paid when they purchased a vehicle which
had an official gas mileage that was below a certain level. This level was adjusted many
times over time. This legislation is reflective of modern day attempts to move away from
oil a push America toward solar, wind, and geothermal energy.
Wind power is essentially based on very old technology. It utilizes the wind to
turn windmill blades to produce electricity. There are severa] problems with this
technology, such as storage of the electricity created for use when wind is low or non­
existent, the tendency for windmills to overload in heavy wind, and the opposition that
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wind fanns find from the local population when they are installed. Another problem is
that wind power cannot replace fossil fuel energy production in a cost effective manner.
The construction and maintenance of sufficient windmills would, in theory, drive up the
cost of power for the average American household to an unstainable point.
A Small, Land based Wind farm .
Another contemporary source of generating energy, solar energy utilizes solar
panels to collect photons from sunlight and tum them into electricity. Although it is the
most utilized form of alternative energy on the planet, the maintenance cost of the vast
number of mirrors and solar panels needed to generate sufficient energy to meet
America's energy needs in a world without fossil fuels is exorbitant and ultimately
prohibitive.
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The Gemasolar Power Plant near Seville in southern Spain consists of an incredible 2,650 panels
Finally, geothermal energy produces electricity by tapping into the heat found in
earth's crust, which is both residual heat from the formation of the planet and heat
produced from the radioactive decay of elements. Energy is produced by harnessing this
heat to tum turbines and produce electricity. This technology has been traditionally
limited to certain geographic areas that have sufficiently high temperatures to harness,
and new technologies are expanding the range of geothermal power. Unfortunately, it still
is not very cost effective, and it will significantly increase the cost of energy to the
average household.
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Ball State University in Muncie Indiana has the largest Geothermal Power Plant in the United States II. Policies Leading to Fusion
In the early 1980's, the United States began to look into producing synthetic fuels
that could replace fossil fuels, and to provide alternative policies and technologies to
implement new advances in energy technology. The U.S. Synthetic Fuels Corporations
Act of 1980 created the U.S. Synthetic Fuels Corporation which was made to help private
business build and develop facilities that make synthetic liquid fuels. The corporation
was met with strong resistance from politicians who felt that the corporation represented
goverrunent intervention in our capitalist economy. It was deemed an overall failure since
it was unable to meet the levels of liquid synthetics required by the legislation.
In the same year the U.S. Synthetic Fuels Corporations Act of 1980 was passed,
Congress produced a host of other legislation including the Biomass Energy and Alcohol
Fuels Act of 1980, the Renewable Energy Resources Act of 1980, the Geothermal Energy
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Act of 1980, and the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act of 1980. All of this
legislation was an attempt to reduce American dependence on foreign oil and to develop
the American domestic alternative energy. Some of this legislation, such as the Biomass
Energy and Alcohol Fuels Act, and the Geothermal Energy Act of 1980, were very
successful at developing new industry in the United States. The Biomass Energy and
Alcohol Fuels Act developed the ethanol industry, which uses agricultural crops such as
com to produce fuel.
The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act, though, failed to gain public
momentum since the public sector did not fully understand the technology behind the
energy production systems and thus did not want to risk investing in it. The technology
would have been able to produce electricity from inherent properties of the ocean. This
nonetheless helped raise public awareness concerning alternative energy.
The POET ethanol plant in North Manchester Indiana
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210 kilowatt Ocean Thermal Plant in Hawaii
The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 was created with the sole purpose of
regulating the storage of nuclear waste. In the largely unregulated environment before
this legislation, nuclear waste was stored on site for many nuclear reactors. Waste from
nuclear weapons was being stored on military bases. The legislation was originally
intended to survey and set up several locations across the United States. The state in
which a proposed location was designated was given a veto power. In the end only one
location was approved: Yucca Mountain in Nevada. Nevada now opposes the storage
facility and claims that it originally was under the assumption that other facilities would
be built. In reality, Yucca Mountain is the only federal storage facility for nuclear waste.
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The entrance to the Yucca Mountain complex
The Energy Policy Act of 1992 was passed to set energy standards for buildings,
electric cars, and promote alternative fuels; it required federal car fleets to have a certain
percentage of vehicles on alternative fuels. It promoted competitive development of
alternative energy systems with the use of federal funding. It is largely an update of the
1980 legislation that advocated the development of private sector American alternative
energy.
A Tesla Electric car with a charging station. Vehicle systems Such as this one was one of the goals of The Energy Policy Act of 1992 The Energy Policy Act of 2005 was a comprehensive piece of energy legislation
that deals with the entire energy policy of the United States. It does address alternative
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energy and promotes wind, fission, and other alternative energy through government
subsidies. In spite of this, advancement the legislation provides several benefits to
traditional fossil fuel industries, such as encouraging drilling in the Gulf of Mexico and
exemptions from certain federal environmental legislation. The Energy Improvement and
Extension Act of2008 provided additional benefits to the alternative energy industry,
including subsidies and tax breaks.
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 is better known as Barack
Obama's stimulus package. The main goal of the legislation was to stimulate the U.S.
economy; however, the law also provided tax cuts for businesses and homes that became
more energy efficient. It also promoted wind and solar industries.
Each of these pieces of legislation designates the problems of producing energy
and, at the same time, denotes serious deficiencies in overcoming the problem. The final
technology and the only one which offers any degree of hope to serve as a cost effective
replacement for fossil fuels is Nuclear Fusion Technology.
III. The Science and Politics of Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion Technology relies on plasma physics. In a fusion reaction, atoms
of a hydrogen isotope known as deuterium are placed in conditions of extreme heat and
pressure. In these highly specialized environments, the hydrogen atoms are forced close
enough together that the electrostatic force that usually repels them (because of their
charges) is overcome by the strong nuclear force. This forces the atoms to collide with
one another, releasing a neutron, and a helium atom. It also puts off incredible amounts of
thermal energy that can then be harnessed to heat water and to turn steam turbines, much
in the way fission reactors generate electricity.
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This process has finally achieved a level of success. The government of the
United States has funded two major fusion projects.
The first facility is ITER, which uses a Tokamak style fusion reactor which
utilizes a magnetic field to manage the reaction plasma. It also uses liquid lithium as a
coolant. The lithium also recycles the expelled electrons to form tritium or hydrogen-3.
Tritium is one of the two forms of hydrogen used as fuel for these reactors; the other is
deuterium or hydrogen-2. These fuels are heated to a temperature of 150 million degrees
Celsius to produce hot plasma which will produce the thermal energy needed to heat
water into steam that then turns turbines. It is projected to produce ten times the energy it
takes to make the reaction, and it is safer than fission generators. The ITER reactor is far
behind schedule since some countries have failed to construct their components correctly,
resulting in deficient components being supplied to the construction team building ITER.
Difficulties also arise from the lack of enforcement of the international agreement that
funds ITER. It thus failed to develop fusion energy at this time.
A diagram showing the core ITER reactor
The other government funded facility currently attempting to achieve ignition is
the National Ignition Facility (NIF) in Livermore California. This facility does not use the
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Tokamak design used in ITER but instead uses inertial confinement fusion. This process
make uses of a closed cylinder called a hohlraum which houses a fuel cell made of
deuterium and tritium. This fuel cell is then subjected to 192 high powered lasers which
have a total energy output of 500 trillion watts and creates a temperature inside the
hohlraum of around 277,777,760 degrees Celsius. This direct drive approach with the
laser driver causes the energy cell to implode causing a fusion reaction. The work being
done at the National Ignition facility is especially important in light of a major
breakthrough that occurred on September 28,2013. For the first time in fusion research
history, the "yield (of the shot) was significantly greater than the energy deposited in the
hot spot by the implosion." While this achievement is still a years away from sustainable
ignition, it did mark the first time a net gain in energy had been achieved in a fusion
reaction, thereby demonstrating the validity of the scientific practicalities of fusion
energy. Like its Tokamak cousin in Europe, the fusion energy created by NIF is safe,
clean and renewable and farther, thanks to a lack of any potential for meltdowns, and to
its lack of production of dangerous waste products, these reactions are much safer that the
nuclear fission reactions that have been used since the late 40s. They also do not produce
nuclear waste that creates storage problems. At the same time, these generators, if
commercialized, could easily meet America's energy needs. Unfortunately, this
technology has been pushed to the side by larger more prominent wind and solar
companies, as well as oil companies that are able to spend capital resources on lobbyists
in Washington to get the attention and support of Congress. A lack of financial incentive
to abandon current energy investments in the government has led fusion energy to be
deprived of needed government funding.
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The National Ignition Facility Reactor
This lack of goverrunental funding is hardly unprecedented. The failed efforts in
utilizing funding were compounded by the success of the private industry in developing
fusion based energy. Military developer Lockheed Martin is developing commercial
fusion energy. The company has revolutionized the design of fusion reactors by inventing
a third style of ignition reactor that engineers have dubbed "the magnetic bottle." It is
revolutionary because it is much smaller than both ITER and the NIF. Whereas these
reactors are the size of buildings and produce very little if any energy output at this time,
the "magnetic bottle" reactor is the size of a semi-trailer and can produce enough energy
to power a large city. The official prototype of this reactor will be completed in four
years, with military use coming in nine years and full commercial use available in
nineteen. The Lockheed Martin Plan will also be utilized in planes and other military
vehicles, giving them, unlimited range. If public policy and politics fail, then the
commercialization integral to capitalism completes the task. The development of a
successful reactor is therefore another example of the importance of allowing the private
market to develop new technologies rather than attempting to do so through the
inefficient goverrunent. Private industry has triumphed again and proves the necessity of
a strong free market economy.
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The Lockheed Martin Magnetic Bottle Reactor
IV. Epilogue: Congressional (In)action vs. Commercial Enterprise
This history of this legislation shows that America's policy has been streamlined
into two main paths. From the political left, there is the promotion to develop wind, solar,
and geothermal energy. On the political right, there is the idea and policy of fully
depending on fossil fuels and nuclear fission generation. Beyond the heated debate, the
real question is:: Do either of these approaches provide a full replacement to the current
fossil fuel system? Some critics believe that it does, such as Kathey Smith, Cory
Cleveland, Sasha Miller, Norman, Stevan Running, and Steven W In their article
"Bioenergy Potential of the United States Constrained by Satellite Observations of
Existing Productivity." These authors establish that the existing technology being
advocated will be able to evolve to a point that will sustain American energy needs.
Others such as Tsvi Bisk disagree. In his article "The Energy Project:
INDEPENDENCE BY 2020", Bisk argues that current legislation is setting the West up
for failure in the energy market. Bisk advocates that the West needs to reduce oil
dependency significantly and to invest in expansive green energy projects. Bisk and
others who agree with him make the more convincing argument. The current
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technologies of wind and solar power cannot replace American fossil fuel energy
production at any cost feasible way. Nuclear Fission Reactors, moreover, are extremely
dangerous, creating serious problems with the storage of waste from these reactors.
Therefore the only sensible future policy of the United States must feature research and
investment to develop and commercialize a different power source that can replace the
fossil fuel system currently used. The only technology that is currently in a place to take
on this role is nuclear fusion technology.
America is currently wasting its alternative energy spending on methods which
will not be able to sustain its energy infrastructure when the world runs out of fossil fuels.
These large wind, solar, and oil companies are dwarfing the NIF facility in campaign
contributions and thus receive preferential treatment. America has failed to take the
opportunity to divert its vast resources into the NIF and to build upon its landmark
achievement in September of 20 13 by giving it the full funding it needs to develop a
system capable of ignition. Commercial enterprise, though, seems to defeat
Congressional deficiencies. Lockheed Martin has developed commercial energy,
nonetheless America still needs to help commercialize and implement the use of fusion
energy through legislation that aids in the transfer from fossil fuels to fusion reactors. It is
time to invest in and develop the only current technology that will sustain our energy
industry in the years to come. If funds are now directed to these promising efforts, the
United States will have 50 or more years to perfect this technology and then to market it
commercially to the American public. This is a matter of upmost importance, for by
securing America's energy industry, America is becoming self-sustaining and procuring
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the freedom that it has represented for the last two centuries. When fossil fuels run out,
will America be ready? Or will Americans fail to act?
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