THE PROBLEM OF MAINTAINING GOVERNMENTAL AUTHORITY
U N D E R C O N D I T I O N S O F NU CI.F .A R A T T A C K
12 A p r i l 1957
CONTENTS
Page
I N T R O D U C T I O N - - B r i g a d i e r G e n e r a l F . E. C a l h o u n , U S A F ,
Deputy Commandant, ICAF ...................
S P E A K E R - - D r . C h a r l e s F a i r m a n , P r o f e s s o r of L a w ,
Harvard University Law School .....................
G E N E R A L DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P u b l i c a t i o n No. L 5 7 - 1 4 6
INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE OF THE ARMED FORCES
W a s h i n g t o n , D. C.
1
17
Dr. C h a r l e s F a i r m a n , P r o f e s s o r of Law in H a r v a r d Law School,
w a s b o r n in Alton, I l l i n o i s , 27 J u l y 1897. He r e c e i v e d the f o l l o w i n g
d e g r e e s : A . B . , U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s , 1918; M. A . , 1920; P h . D . ,
H a r v a r d , 1927; g r a d u a t e w o r k U n i v e r s i t y of P a r i s , 1925-26; L L . B . ,
U n i v e r s i t y of London, 1934; S. J . D . , H a r v a r d Law School, 1938. He
h a s taught at P o m o n a C o l l e g e , H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y , W i l l i a m s C o l l e g e ,
S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y , and s i n c e 1955 h a s b e e n
in h i s p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n . Dr. F a i r m a n s e r v e d in the A r m y d u r i n g
W o r l d W a r s I and H and was a c t i v e in the R e s e r v e C o r p s b e t w e e n the
w a r s . H i s W o r l d W a r II s e r v i c e was in the Office of the Judge Advocate G e n e r a l , 1942-43; as L e g a l A d v i s e r , G-5 Section, A r m e d F o r c e s
H e a d q u a r t e r s in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n T h e a t e r , 1943-44; and as Chief,
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law D i v i s i o n , E T C , 1944-45. O t h e r p o s i t i o n s h e l d by
h i m a r e : C o n s u l t a n t , C o m m i s s i o n on O r g a n i z a t i o n of E x e c u t i v e B r a n c h
of G o v e r n m e n t , 1948; C o n s u l t a n t to P r o v o s t M a r s h a l G e n e r a l ' s Office,
1950; and C h a i r m a n , C o m m i t t e e on the L a w of O c c u p i e d A r e a s in the
A m e r i c a n B a r A s s o c i a t i o n ' s Section of I n t e r n a t i o n a l and C o m p a r a t i v e
Law. He was a d m i t t e d to the b a r in the D i s t r i c t o f C o l u m b i a and in
M i s s o u r i , and is a vice p r e s i d e n t of the A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law, and a m e m b e r of the B o a r d of E d i t o r s of the A m e r i c a n
J o u r n a l of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law. He is a u t h o r of The Law of M a r t i a l Rule,
1930; 2d Ed. 1943; Mr. J u s t i c e M i l l e r and the S u p r e m e C o u r t , 18621890, 1939; A m e r i c a n C o n s t i t u t i o n a l D e c i s i o n s , 1949; rev. ed. 19"50;
and m a n y a r t i c l e s on j u d i c i a l b i o g r a p h y and on c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and
i n t e r n a t i o n a l law i n c l u d i n g , " T h e S u p r e m e C o u r t on M i l i t a r y J u r i s d i c tion; M a r t i a l Rule in H a w a i i , and the H a m a s h i t a C a s e , " 59 H a r v a r d Law
R e v i e w 833-83, J u l y 1946; " S o m e O b s e r v a t i o n s on M i l i t a r y O c c u p a t i o n , "
32 Minn. Law Review, 319-49, M a r c h 1949; and "Some P r o b l e m s of the
C o n s t i t u t i o n F o l l o w i n g the F l a t , " Sanford Law Review, 587-645,
June 1949.
ii
THE PROBT.EM OF MAINTAINING GOVERNMENTAL AUTHORITY
UNDER CONDITIONS OF NUCT,EAR ATTACK
12 A p r i l 1957
G E N E R A L C A L H O U N : T h e s u b j e c t of o u r l e c t u r e t h i s m o r n i n g i s
" T h e P r o b l e m of M a i n t a i n i n g G o v e r n m e n t a l A u t h o r i t y U n d e r C o n d i t i o n s
of N u c l e a r A t t a c k . " We a r e f o r t u n a t e i n h a v i n g a s o u r s p e a k e r
D r . C h a r l e s F a i r m a n , P r o f e s s o r of L a w at the H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y L a w
School.
T h i s i s the t h i r d o c c a s i o n of D r . F a i r m a n ' s a p p e a r a n c e h e r e a t the
C o l l e g e to d i s c u s s t h i s o r s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s , a n d y o u w i l l s h o r t l y d i s c o v e r f o r y o u r s e l v e s w h y it i s t h a t w e i n v i t e h i m b a c k a g a i n a n d a g a i n .
H e h a s m a d e a v e r y t h o r o u g h s t u d y of t h i s p r o b l e m a n d i s c o n s i d e r e d to
be the o u t s t a n d i n g a u t h o r i t y in t h i s c o u n t r y on t h i s s u b j e c t .
H e b r i n g s to u s not o n l y a d i s t i n g u i s h e d c a r e e r a s a s t u d e n t a n d a
t e a c h e r of t h e l a w b u t a b r o a d b a c k g r o u n d of p u b l i c s e r v i c e .
D r . F a i r m a n , it i s a p r i v i l e g e to i n t r o d u c e y o u to t h i s c l a s s t o d a y
on t he 57th a n n i v e r s a r y of the S u b m a r i n e S e r v i c e , I b e l i e v e .
DR. F A I R M A N : T h a n k y o u , G e n e r a l C a l h o u n . T o m o r r o w w i l l b e
t h e a n n i v e r s a r y of m y a p p e a r a n c e h e r e l a s t t i m e , but I t h i n k t h a t i s of
less significance.
G e n e r a l H o l l i s , Staff a n d S t u d e n t O f f i c e r s , a n d G u e s t s :
T h e m a t t e r w i t h w h i c h w e a r e c o n c e r n e d t o d a y i s s e t in a n e v e r e v o l v i n g c o n t e x t . I a m s t r u c k w i t h t h i s w h e n I l o o k b a c k at the e a r l i e r
t a l k s I m a d e h e r e in M a y 1954 a n d i n A p r i l 1956. E a c h of t h o s e p a p e r s
w a s p l a c e d i n t he s e t t i n g of th e m o m e n t . N o w , t a k i n g b e a r i n g s , I
o b s e r v e t h a t the c o u n t r y h a s b e e n l e a r n i n g . T h a t i s e n c o u r a g i n g , e v e n
though our position today is still v e r y f a r f r o m s a t i s f a c t o r y .
T h e q u e s t i o n i s , how to m a i n t a i n g o v e r n m e n t a l a u t h o r i t y u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of n u c l e a r a t t a c k . I w i l l t a k e n o t e of w h e r e we a r e t o d a y , a n d
go on to w h a t , a s I s e e it, c a n m o s t u s e f u l l y be s a i d to o f f i c e r s of t h e
A r m e d F o r c e s a b o u t t h e i r r e l a t i o n to the p r o b l e m .
O u r d i s c u s s i o n m a y p r o c e e d u p o n t h i s b a s i s : T h a t it i s o u r n a t i o n a l p o l i c y , i n e v e n t of a n u c l e a r a t t a c k , to m a i n t a i n e f f e c t i v e c i v i l
g o v e r n m e n t t h r o u g h o u t the e n t i r e c o u n t r y ; that we w i l l c o n s t a n t l y
e n d e a v o r to s t r e n g t h e n the i n s t i t u t i o n s of c i v i l g o v e r n m e n t a g a i n s t the
n u c l e a r d a n g e r ; a n d t h a t if t h e y w e r e o v e r b o r n e b y a n a t t a c k it w o u l d be
o u r n a t i o n a l p u r p o s e to r e s t o r e t h e m as r a p i d l y a s p o s s i b l e .
We m u s t p r e p a r e f o r the c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of G o v e r n m e n t a f t e r
an a t t a c k . W h a t i s t h e a u t h o r i t y f o r s e t t i n g t h i s d o w n s o f l a t l y ? It
h a d b e e n o f f i c i a l d o c t r i n e all a l o n g , d o w n to O p e r a t i o n A l e r t 1955, t h a t
" m a r t i a l l a w " w a s not a p a r t of o u r p r o g r a m f o r s u r v i v a l . I d e v e l o p e d
t h i s i n the p a p e r I r e a d h e r e i n 1954. T h e n c a m e A l e r t 1955, w i t h t h e
s i m u l a t e d d e c l a r a t i o n of s o - c a l l e d " l i m i t e d m a r t i a l law. " In m y p a p e r
l a s t y e a r I c a l l e d it " a n o n - t h e - s p o t d e c i s i o n - - u n s t u d i e d , u n c o o r d i n a t e d , a n i m p r o v i s a t i o n of the m o m e n t . " D e s c r i b i n g it a s " a t e r r i b l e
m i s t a k e , " I t r a c e d h o w it c a m e to b e m a d e , w i t h c i t a t i o n to t h e d o c u m e n t s . It now s e e m s c l e a r that the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n r e c o g n i z e s t h a t it
w a s i n d e e d an e r r o r .
O p e r a t i o n A l e r t 1956 w a s r u n on an e n t i r e l y
d i f f e r e n t t h e o r y ; the e p i s o d e of 1955, so f a r a s i t i s r e f e r r e d to i n
o f f i c i a l q u a r t e r s , h a s b e e n m i n i m i z e d a n d s w e p t u n d e r the c a r p e t .
T h e M i l i t a r y O p e r a t i o n s S u b c o m m i t t e e of t h e H o u s e of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s - - t h e H o l i f i e l d s u b c o m m i t t e e - - b e g a n i t s h e a r i n g s on C i v i l D e f e n s e
f o r N a t i o n a l S u r v i v a l i n J a n u a r y 1956. I n o t e w h a t I d i d n ' t k n o w u n t i l
an h o u r ago, t h a t M r . H o l i f i e l d c a m e o v e r a n d s p o k e to you. I h a v e
s c a n n e d the p a p e r t h a t h e r e a d and, if I h a d k n o w n t h a t y o u h a d h e a r d
f r o m h i m , I would have woven that into m y paper h e r e today. V e r y soon
t h e s u b c o m m i t t e e c a m e to g r i p s w i t h t h i s b u s i n e s s of " m a r t i a l law. ,1 P e r h a p s y o u h a v e s t u d i e d the h e a r i n g s - - 3 , 1 4 5 p a g e s of e x c e e d i n g l y v a l u a b l e
t e s t i m o n y - - a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g r e p o r t - - H . R. No. 2946, 84th C o n g r e s s ,
2d s e s s i o n . S i n c e I w r o t e t h a t I h a v e l e a r n e d t h a t y o u do h a v e t h o s e
d o c u m e n t s a n d t h a t at l e a s t s o m e of y o u h a v e s t u d i e d t h e m . T h i s i s
i n f i n i t e l y the b e s t s t u d y w e h a v e h a d of t h i s g r e a t p r o b l e m of n a t i o n a l
s e c u r i t y - - f a r m o r e p e n e t r a t i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i v e t h a n a n y t h i n g that h a s
e m e r g e d f r o m t h e e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h of G o v e r n m e n t . A d m i r a l R a d f o r d , 1/
G e n e r a l Taylor, 2/ G e n e r a l Twining, 3/ and A d m i r a l B u r k e , 4 / - - e v e r y - -
1/
2/
3/
4/
P.
P.
P.
P.
341
428
373
403
et
et
et
et
seq.,
seq.,
seq.,
seq.,
esp.
esp.
esp.
esp.
351-'72.
445-56.
3'75,393.
404, 424.
m e m b e r of the J o i n t C h i e f s of S t a f f - - t e s t i f i e d : 5/ t h e y r e c o g n i z e d the
u t t e r i m p r a c t i c a b i l i t y of s h i f t i n g to a m i l i t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as the
m e t h o d of r e s t o r i n g our n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y . W h a t e v e r f a i t h a n y of
the c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s m a y h a v e h a d in r e s o r t i n g to " m a r t i a l l a w " - and I t h i n k i t w a s not g r e a t - - w a s c o m p l e t e l y d i s a b u s e d by the r e s p o n s e
of the J o i n t C h i e f s . C l e a r l y t h e y did not want the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , c l e a r l y
t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s w e r e not c o m p e t e n t to d i s c h a r g e it.
The c i v i l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a p p e a r i n g b e f o r e
the s u b c o m m i t t e e m a d e a b r a v e a t t e m p t to r e i n t e r p r e t the " m a r t i a l
law" of 1955 a s h a v i n g m e a n t n o t h i n g m o r e than " t h e m a x i m u m p o s s i b l e
m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t of the c i v i l i a n a u t h o r i t i e s . " 6/ The g i s t of t h e i r
t e s t i m o n y on t h i s point i s s u m m a r i z e d i n one s e n t e n c e t h a t I quote f r o m
Dr. F l e m m i n g , t h e n D i r e c t o r of ODM:
'Let's forget O p e r a t i o n A l e r t 1955. I'7/
m
The s u b c o m m 4 t t e e c h a i r m a n t r i e d r e p e a t e d l y to obtain the a t t e n d a n c e
of the A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l to d i s c u s s the d e c l a r a t i o n of " m a r t i a l l a w " - w h i c h h a d b e e n m a d e w h e n the A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l w a s at the P r e s i d e n t ' s
s i d e . The A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l d e c l i n e d to a p p e a r , e x p l a i n i n g that:
'~Dur s t u d y of the m a n y r a m i f i c a t i o n s of t h i s s u b j e c t h a s not
been completed. "8/
The p r e s e n t S o l i c i t o r G e n e r a l , who, as A s s i s t a n t A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l ,
w a s a l s o on the spot w h e n t h i s a c t i o n w a s taken, now as a m e m b e r of
the A m e r i c a n B a r A s s o c i a t i o n ' s S p e c i a l C o m m i t t e e on I m p a c t of A t t a c k
on L e g a l and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e P r o c e s s e s h a s j o i n e d in a S t a t e m e n t of
O b j e c t i v e s which i n p a r t r e a d s a s f o l l o w s :
The R e l a t i o n of C i v i l i a n to M i l i t a r y A u t h o r i t y .
" C i v i l i a n a u t h o r i t y s h o u l d be p r e p a r e d to g o v e r n the c o u n t r y
in the event of a t o m i c a t t a c k . It is no t a s k f o r the A r m e d F o r c e s ,
who in w a r m u s t give p r i o r i t y to t h e i r m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n s and s h o u l d
51
6/
7/
8/
T h e i r t e s t i m o n y i s s u m m a r i z e d in the s u b c o m m i t t e e r e p o r t , p. 60-72.
Dr. F l e m m i n g , H e a r i n g s , p. 1046. S i m i l a r l y G o v e r n o r P e t e r s o n ,
A d m i n i s t r a t o r of the F e d e r a l C i v i l D e f e n s e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , H e a r i n g s ,
p. 1421, 1426.
I b i d . , p. 1069.
i b i d . , p. 3139.
3
not be c o m p e l l e d to d i v e r t m a n p o w e r a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n to th e v a s t
c o m p l e x o p e r a t i o n s n e e d e d to k e e p o u r s h a t t e r e d e c o n o m y a n d
G o v e r n m e n t f u n c t i o n i n g . N o r is m a r t i a l law a s o l u t i o n . It i s , at
b e s t , a f o r m of a u t h o r i t y a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t c a n r a p i d l y be
i n v o k e d if w e as a c o u n t r y h a v e n o t a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r e d f o r c i v i l i a n
d e f e n s e but p e r m i t o u r s e l v e s to be s u r p r i s e d by w h a t , i n s t e a d , w e
c o u l d a n t i c i p a t e a n d p r e p a r e f o r . T h e c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s h o u l d be
s t a t e d not in t e r m s of m i l i t a r y v e r s u s c i v i l i a n a u t h o r i t y , o r of
m a r t i a l l a w , but r a t h e r in t e r m s of the p r o p e r s p h e r e s of a c t i v i t y
of the m i l i t a r y a n d the c i v i l i a n , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d the e f f e c t i v e
working relationship required between them ....
"9/
T h e s t a t e m e n t w a s a p p r o v e d by the H o u s e of D e l e g a t e s of th e
A m e r i c a n B a r A s s o c i a t i o n in F e b r u a r y 1957.
The Military Operations Subcommittee was emphatic that "Civil
defense is properly a civilian function, as indeed, almost every witness
before the subcommittee including the military emphasized." and yet
that :
'~Jnless a
of G o v e r n m e n t
F e d e r a l , State
increasingly a
s t r o n g c i v i l i a n e f f o r t i s m a d e at the h i g h e r l e v e l s
to p l a n f o r c i v i l d e f e n s e a n d to b u i l d up the n e c e s s a r y
a nd l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , c i v i l d e f e n s e w i l l b e c o m e
m i l i t a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . "10 /
T h a t t h e A r m e d F o r c e s be c a l l e d u p o n to a d m i n i s t e r G o v e r n m e n t in t h i s
c o u n t r y s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s n o t h i n g b e t t e r t h a n the l a s t t r a g i c e x tremity.
T h e c o u n t r y now n e e d s l e a d e r s h i p to d e v e l o p c i v i l i n s t i t u t i o n s
s t r o n g e n o u g h to s t a n d up u n d e r a n u c l e a r a t t a c k . T h i s b r i n g s m e to m y
next point.
T h e p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t f o r the n o n m i l i t a r y a s w e l l as the m i l i t a r y a s p e c t s of n a t i o n a l d e f e n s e s h o u l d be
r e c o g n i z e d and effectively d i s c h a r g e d .
T h e A c t of 12 J a n u a r y 1951, d e c l a r e d t h a t " r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c i v i l
d e f e n s e s h a l l be v e s t e d p r i m a r i l y in the s e v e r a l S t a t e s a n d t h e i r p o l i t i c a l
s u b d i v i s i o n s . " E v e r y o n e c o n v e r s a n t w i t h the r e a l i t i e s now k n o w s t h a t
t h a t w i l t not do. The H o l i f i e l d S u b c o m m i t t e e w o u l d h a v e C o n g r e s s d e clare:
'9/
10/
"
M i m e o g r a p h e d S t a t e m e n t of O b j e c t i v e s ,
R e p o r t , p. 67.
4
14 J a n 1957, p. 2.
" . . . t h a t c i v i l d e f e n s e i s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of n a t i o n a l d e f e n s e a n d a d i r e c t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n
k e e p i n g w i t h i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d u t i e s to p r o v i d e f o r t h e c o m m o n
defense ....
"1 1 /
T h a t , it s e e m s to m e , i s e x a c t l y r i g h t . It h a s th e s u p p o r t - - v i r t u a l l y
t he u n a n i m o u s s u p p o r t , I b e l i e v e - - o f a l l p e r s o n s r e s p o n s i b l y c o n c e r n e d
w i t h c i v i l d e f e n s e at the S t a t e a n d l o c a l l e v e l s .
T h e p r e s e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i l e r e c o g n i z i n g the n e e d f o r " v e s t i n g
i n the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t a l a r g e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , " w o u l d " a v o i d F e d e r a l p r e e m p t i o n of a l l c i v i l d e f e n s e p r o g r a m s w h i c h a r e s o d e p e n d e n t
upon widespread citizen participation. " "The Federal Government, des p i t e i t s i n c r e a s e d c i v i l d e f e n s e r o l e , m u s t r e m a i n in p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h
States, c i t i e s , and towns. "12/ " P a r t n e r s h i p " has a beguiling sound:
e v e r y b o d y o u g h t to p i t c h in a n d w o r k f o r th e c o m m o n good. " P a r t n e r s h i p "
" t e n d s to p r o d u c e o b s c u r i t y of t h o u g h t in a m a t t e r w h e r e r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s
is desperately needed.
L e t m e s t a t e the c a s e as i n t r u t h it s e e m s to be. Of c o u r s e the
c o m m o n d e f e n s e i s a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t ; t h a t
a l w a y s h a s b e e n t r u e a n d i s i n e s c a p a b l e . N o r m a l l y , w h e n th e F e d e r a l
G o v e r n m e n t b ~ a r s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , it a c t s t h r o u g h i t s own a g e n t s ,
i n d e p e n d e n t l y of the S t a t e s . We h a v e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o u r t s , a t t o r n e y s ,
a n d m a r s h a l s ; U n i t e d S t a t e s A r m y , N a v y , a n d A i r F o r c e ; by i t s o w n
l e t t e r c a r r i e r s the P o s t O f f i c e c o m e s to y o u r d o o r , and the B u r e a u of
I n t e r n a l R e v e n u e c r i m e s e v e n c l o s e r . So w h e n we s a y that a c e r t a i n
f u n c t i o n p e r t a i n s to the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t , it s e e m s to r e s u l t t h a t
the S t a t e s h a v e n o t h i n g to do w i t h it. With c i v i l d e f e n s e it m u s t be
o t h e r w i s e , f o r o n l y by m e a n s of the e n e r g e t i c a c t i o n of S t a t e a n d l o c a l
g o v e r n m e n t s c a n the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t d i s c h a r g e i t s p r i m a r y r e sponsibility.
T h i s i s a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d p r o b l e m : t h a t i s w h y we f i n d it s o h a r d
to t h i n k s t r a i g h t . The U n i t e d S t a t e s i s the o n l y G o v e r n m e n t t h a t c a n
d e f e n d u s a l l ; but h e r e it m u s t , by e x e r t i n g i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d i t s
m o r a l a u t h o r i t y , i n d u c e a c t i o n by the s e v e r a l S t a t e s a n d t h e i r s u b d i v i s i o n s . The p r e s e r v a t i o n i n f u l l v i g o r of the c i v i l i n s t i t u t i o n s of th e
s e v e r a l S t a t e s , a t a l l t i m e s , i s i t s e l f one of the g r e a t o b j e c t i v e s . T h e
national s y s t e m m u s t r e l y upon State and local action w h e r e v e r such
a c t i o n w o u l d be of s u p e r i o r f i t n e s s o r p r o p r i e t y . M a n y of the c o n c e r n s
11/
12/
D e c l a r a t i o n of p o l i c y i n H. R. 2125 and c o m p a n i o n b i l l s .
P r e s i d e n t E i s e n h o w e r ' s l e t t e r to A d m i n i s t r a t o r P e t e r s o n ,
1956, in p r e p a r a t i o n f o r O p e r a t i o n A l e r t 1956.
5
17 J u l y
ec i ~u~
of c i v i l d e f e n s e i n v o l v e m e r e l y th e n o r m a l f u n c t i o n s of S t a t e a n d
l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t a s c a r r i e d on at a t i m e of n a t i o n a l d i s t r e s s .
It i s
e s s e n t i a l to t h e s a f e t y of u s a l l t h a t the N a t i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t m a k e s
s u r e t h a t e v e r y S t a t e w i l l c a r r y on a n d do i t s d u ty . 1 3 / S o m e of the
c o n c e r n s of c i v i l d e f e n s e i n v o l v e the s a f e g u a r d i n g a g a i n s t e n e m y
a c t i o n of v i t a l r e c o r d s k e p t u n d e r S t a t e o r l o c a l a u t h o r i t y , a n d t h e
i n d u c i n g of S t a t e o r l o c a l a c t i o n on m a t t e r s e s s e n t i a l to n a t i o n a l s u r v i v a l . F o r e x a m p l e , b u s i n e s s c o r p o r a t i o n s a r e c r e a t u r e s of th e S t a t e ;
t he p o w e r s of m a n a g e m e n t a r e g o v e r n e d by S t a t e l a w . R e g i s t e r s of
d e e d s a n d of p r o b a t e a r e m a t t e r s of S t a t e c o n c e r n . B u t i t i s a m a t t e r
of n a t i o n a l c o n c e r n to a s s u r e t h a t , c o m e a n u c l e a r a t t a c k , th e N a t i o n ' s
b u s i n e s s w i l l c a r r y on 1 4 / - - a n d t h a t r u n s d o w n to a s s u r i n g the m a i n t e n a n c e of m a n a g e r s c o m p e t e n t to a c t f o r th e c o r p o r a t i o n , a n d to a s s u r i n g
t h a t p r o p e r t y a n d b a n k a c c o u n t s w i l l n o t be r e n d e r e d u n a v a i l a b l e b e c a u s e o w n e r s h i p c a n n o t be d e t e r m i n e d .
Civil defense m u s t in l a r g e
p a r t be c a r r i e d out t h r o u g h the a g e n c y of the g o v e r n m e n t a l m a c h i n e r y ,
p e r s o n n e l , a n d f a c i l i t i e s of t he S t a t e s a n d t h e i r s u b d i v i s i o n s . B u t th e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g the n a t i o n a l p l a n a n d f o r e x e r t i n g
l e a d e r s h i p , by w h a t e v e r m e a n s t h a t a p p e a r b e s t s u i t e d a n d to w h a t e v e r
d e g r e e t h a t m a y be f o u n d n e c e s s a r y - - t h a t p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y r e s t s
u p o n t he U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v e r n m e n t .
The Holifield bill, in adequate language s t a t e s :
• . r e c o g n i z e s t h a t the S t a t e s a n d t h e i r p o l i t i c a l s u b d i v i s i o n s
h a v e an i m p o r t a n t s u p p o r t i n g r o l e a n d s h o u l d be a s s i s t e d a n d e n c o u r a g e d to p e r f o r m a p p r o p r i a t e c i v i l d e f e n s e t a s k s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
the n a t i o n a l p l a n . . . .
"
The bill would p r o v i d e m e a n s , far m o r e effective than what we now have,
for evoking and encouraging such supporting action.
T h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t - - C o n g r e s s an d E x e c u t i v e - - h a s n e v e r p r o v i d e d a d e q u a t e n a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p in c i v i l d e f e n s e . We n e e d , of c o u r s e ,
n a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g , c o m p a r a b l e to the p l a n n i n g f o r v a r i e d e v e n t u a l i t i e s
c a r r i e d on u n d e r the J o i n t C h i e f s of Staff. W h a t is c a l l e d the N a t i o n a l
13/
14/
I d r a w a t t e n t i o n to the w o r k b e i n g d o n e i n th e C a l i f o r n i a L e g i s l a t u r e ,
in the A s s e m b l y S u b c o m m i t t e e on I m p a c t of E n e m y A t t a c k on
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t , of w h i c h M r . V e r n o n K i l p a t r i c k i s
chairman.
P e r k i n s , J a m e s W . , and L i v i n g s t o n Hall, " A g e n c y P o w e r s in T i m e
of A t o m i c A t t a c k , " M a s s a c h u s e t t s L a w Q u a r t e r l y , M a r 1957, p. 3744.
6
" i C' !"
P l a n f o r C i v i l D e f e n s e - - N S R B D o c u m e n t 128 of 8 S e p t e m b e r 1 9 5 0 - d o e s not a p p r o a c h to b e i n g s u c h a p l a n a s w o u l d e n a b l e S t a t e d i r e c t o r s
to d e d u c e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p a r t s in a g r a n d d e s i g n . It i s s i m p l y a
r e c o m m e n d e d s c h e m e of S t a t e a n d l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t ' s a s u g g e s t e d
t a b l e of o r g a n i z a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n an o p e r a t i o n a l p lan . A r e w e to d i g
s h e l t e r s , o r a r e we to p r e p a r e to e v a c u a t e ? C l e a r l y t h a t m u s t be a
n a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n : the S t a t e s do not h a v e the i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y
f o r a w i s e c o n c l u s i o n ; t h e y do n o t h a v e the m e a n s to p r o v i d e e i t h e r the
h i g h w a y s o r the s h e l t e r s . H o w m u c h w a r n i n g m a y be e x p e c t e d ? How
i m m i n e n t i s the d a n g e r of a n u c l e a r a t t a c k ?
Basic questions such as
t h e s e c a n be a n s w e r e d o n l y by the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t . If w e a r e e v e r
to h a v e a d e q u a t e c i v i l d e f e n s e , the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t , e a r n e s t l y
and purposefully, must exercise primary responsibility--by establishi n g c o u r s e s of a c t i o n a n d d i s c l o s i n g to e a c h S t a t e w h a t i s i t s p a r t in the
w h o l e ; by m a k i n g the m a t e r i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h o n l y the F e d e r a l
t a x i n g p o w e r c a n p r o v i d e ; a n d by e n l i s t i n g i n t e l l i g e n t p o p u l a r s u p p o r t
t h r o u g h t h a t e x e c u t i v e l e a d e r s h i p to w h i c h t h i s N a t i o n i s a c c u s t o m e d
i n a l l m a t t e r s t o u c h i n g t he n a t i o n a l s a f e t y . S u c h p l a n n i n g , s u c h s u p p o r t ,
such frank d i s c l o s u r e and l e a d e r s h i p have n e v e r yet been p r o v i d e d - - n o t
in a n y a d e q u a t e m e a s u r e .
T h e r e s e e m s to b e a f e a r t h a t , o n c e the U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v e r n m e n t
a c k n o w l e d g e d i t s p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , the S t a t e s a n d s u b d i v i s i o n s
w o u l d l i e d o w n on the job. I t h i n k t h i s t u r n s t h e p i c t u r e u p s i d e d o w n .
T h e b e s t w a y to i n d u c e t he S t a t e s a n d t h e i r s u b d i v i s i o n s to p e r f o r m
t h e i r e s s e n t i a l s u p p o r t i n g r o l e is to g i v e t h e m s o m e t h i n g a d e q u a t e to
support.
T h e F e d e r a l a g e n c y m u s t be r a i s e d in d i g n i t y a n d p o w e r . A l l a g r e e
to t h i s . A l l , I b e l i e v e , n o w a g r e e t h a t it s h o u l d not be m a d e a f o u r t h
department under Defense: that notion was always faulty. The Military
O p e r a t i o n s S u b c o m m i t t e e r e a c h e d th e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t c i v i l d e f e n s e s h o u l d
be m a d e a n e x e c u t i v e d e p a r t m e n t - - t h a t o n l y s o w o u l d th e f u n c t i o n h a v e
the r e q u i s i t e s t a n d i n g . I h a v e s l o w l y c o m e to the s a m e c o n c l u s i o n . I
n o t e w i t h r e g r e t t h a t the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o p p o s e s t h a t s t e p . T h e F e d e r a l
C i v i l D e f e n s e A d m i n i s t r a t o r i s i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e in C a b i n e t m e e t i n g s - but t h a t i s no m o r e t h a n a p a l l i a t i v e .
" T h e A m e r i c a n B a r A s s o c i a t i o n C o m m i t t e e r e a c h e d th e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t c i v i l i a n d e f e n s e , c o m p a r a b l e in s c a l e to the v a s t a n d
many-sided problems a ~hermonuclear attack would create, calls
f o r a n e w a nd c l e a r e r d e f i n i t i o n of c e n t r a l p l a n n i n g a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t y , a n d t h a t it is u n w i s e to c o n t i n u e to d i v i d e c e n t r a l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e t w e e n two m a j o r e x e c u t i v e a g e n c i e s of the
F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t _]-that i s , b e t w e e n F C D A a n d ODM~. N o r
do w e b e l i e v e t h a t c i v i l i a n d e f e n s e d u t i e s c a n a n y l o n g e r e f f e c t i v e l y be d e l e g a t e d a m o n g a n u m b e r of F e d e r a l a g e n c i e s , o r
s h a r e d w i t h S t a t e a nd l o c a l a g e n c i e s , u n l e s s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e ,
if e l a s t i c , p l a n i s f i r s t d e v e l o p e d i n t o w h i c h t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
e f f o r t s can c l e a r l y be fitted. "
T h e H o l i f i e l d S u b c o m m i t t e e ' s b i l l w o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e i n the n e w D e p a r t m e n t of C i v i l D e f e n s e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p l a n n i n g the n o n m i l i t a r y p a r t
of n a t i o n a l s u r v i v a l . I b e l i e v e t h a t i s r i g h t . I r e c o g n i z e t h a t i n t i m e of
w a r , w h e n the C i v i l D e f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t w a s d i r e c t i n g a c t i v e o p e r a t i o n s ,
it s h o u l d n o t p r e s i d e o v e r m a n p o w e r , i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n , o r c o n t i n u i t y of the e c o n o m y . My t h o u g h t i s t h a t the p l a n n i n g u n i t s t h a t h a d
b e e n p r e p a r i n g f o r t h o s e f u n c t i o n s w o u l d d r o p out of the C i v i l D e f e n s e
D e p a r t m e n t , l i k e p e a s t h a t h a d b e e n r i p e n i n g in a pod, a n d m o v e i n t o
p l a c e a s s e p a r a t e a g e n c i e s i n the s t r u c t u r e of w a r t i m e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
I h a v e c o m e to the v i e w t h a t , to v e s t p o w e r an d f a s t e n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r n o n m i l i t a r y d e f e n s e at s o m e d e f i n i t e p o i n t in the n a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , we s h o u l d not r e l y on a n y t r a n s i t o r y a g e n c y w i t h no c o r p o r a t e
s p i r i t or t r a d i t i o n s , identified only by s o m e u n f a m i l i a r l e t t e r s , and
p r e s e n t i n g no c l e a r i m a g e to the p u b l i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
T h e D e p a r t m e n t of D e f e n s e a n d th e A r m e d F o r c e s s h o u l d , I s u g g e s t ,
d i s p l a y a m u c h g r e a t e r c o n c e r n f o r a s s u r i n g r e a d i n e s s on the n o n m i l i t a r y s i d e of n a t i o n a l d e f e n s e . W h i l e it i s n o t f o r t h e m to a s s u m e
t h a t f u n c t i o n , t h e y s h o u l d d e c l a r e i n s i s t e n t l y t h a t it is a m a t t e r of v i t a l
importance.
W h i l e s e r v i c e c h i e f s h a v e b e e n l o o k i n g o v e r s e a s , in th e
a i r , on t he w a t e r s a n d b e n e a t h , w h e r e t h e i r o w n g u a r d m u s t be k e p t ,
t h e y h a v e s c a r c e l y r e f l e c t e d , I t h i n k , on the s i t u a t i o n in the i n t e r i o r in
e v e n t of a n u c l e a r a t t a c k . I a m too w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the m a n i f o l d
t a s k s of t he J o i n t C h i e f s of S t a f f - - t a s k s a l r e a d y too g r e a t f o r a n y m e n - to a s k t h e m to t a k e on l a r g e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
I m e a n s i m p l y that t h e y
s h o u l d p r e s s f o r a s s u r a n c e t h a t the n o n m i l i t a r y p a r t of d e f e n s e , i n the
i n t e r i o r , be g i v e n a s a d e q u a t e i n s t i t u t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n as h a s b e e n g i v e n
to m i l i t a r y d e f e n s e by the r e f o r m s s i n c e W o r l d W a r II. E v e n f r o m a
n a r r o w p r o f e s s i o n a l p o i n t of v i e w , a d i s o r g a n i z e d h o m e l a n d c o u l d n o t
long s u p p o r t an adequate m i l i t a r y offensive. C o n v e r s e l y , a c o n s p i c u o u s l y
e f f e c t i v e s h o r i n g up of d o m e s t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s s h o u l d be a d e t e r r e n t by
making a nuclear attack seem less profitable.
O f f i c e r s of the A r m e d F o r c e s m u s t , h o w e v e r , p l a n f o r e v e n t u a l i t i e s
w h e r e t h i n g s h a v e g o n e b a d l y . I t u r n , a c c o r d i n g l y , to s u p p o s e t h a t a
n u c l e a r a t t a c k h a s b e e n m a d e a n d , r e a l i s t i c a l l y , t h a t the m a c h i n e r y
of G o v e r n m e n t h a s b e e n v e r y s e r i o u s l y d a m a g e d . How s h o u l d th e
A r m e d F o r c e s r e s p o n d to t h i s s i t u a t i o n ? (I a s s u m e f o r p r e s e n t d i s cussion that some units or selected personnel have been diverted from
t he p r i m a r y m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n a n d a s s i g n e d to the t a s k of r e s t o r i n g
governmental functions. )
In so f a r as A r m e d F o r c e s a r e a s s i g n e d to d o m e s t i c g o v e r n m e n t a l
f u n c t i o n s , it i s to be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e y w i l l be d i r e c t e d to p l a y a s u p p o r t i n g r o l e ; t h e y s h o u l d so a c t as to p r o m o t e t h e i r o w n w i t h d r a w a l at
the e a r l i e s t p r a c t i c a b l e m o m e n t . ( T h e i d e a of m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t to c i v i l
governmen.t is, I know, a s o m e w h a t r e f i n e d c o n c e p t i o n - - t o which I will
c o m e in a m o m e n t . )
C e r t a i n l y c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w o u l d be in a v e r y b a d w a y on the
m o r r o w of a s u r p r i s e n u c l e a r a t t a c k . ( T h e A r m e d F o r c e s p r o b a b l y
w o u l d be in r a t h e r a b a d w a y too, so l e t ' s not be p a t r o n i z i n g w h e n w e
t h i n k of the d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n of c i v i l g o v e r n m e n t . How w e l l did the
d e n i z e n s of the P e n t a g o n e m e r g e ? How w e l l d id H e a d q u a r t e r s , F i r s t
Army extricate itself from Governor's Island--Headquarters,
Fifth
Army from East Hyde Park Boulevard, Chicago--and Headquarters,
S i x t h A r m y f r o m the P r e s i d i o of San F r a n c i s c o ?) T h e w h o l e c o u n t r y
w o u l d be in q u i t e a m e s s . I h o p e s u p r e m e l y t h a t a s t u r d y c h a n n e l of
c i v i l a u t h o r i t y w i l l h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , r u n n i n g down f r o m th e
P r e s i d e n t t h r o u g h the S t a t e G o v e r n m e n t s to the c o u n t r y - - a c h a n n e l of
l e g a l a n d m o r a l a u t h o r i t y w h e r e b y the A m e r i c a n p e o p l e c o u l d be s t e a d i e d
a n d d i r e c t e d by the P r e s i d e n t ' s f a m i l i a r a n d r e s p e c t e d v o i c e . T h a t i s
the o n l y a d e q u a t e c h a n n e l f o r n a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p , an d the m o r a l a s p e c t
of a u t h o r i t y w o u l d be f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n the l e g a l on the m o r r o w
of a n a t t a c k .
T h e f u n c t i o n of the A r m e d F o r c e s , t h e n , w o u l d b e , not to a c t a s
t he g r e a t c o n d u i t b e t w e e n t h e n a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d the c o u n t r y ,
but r a t h e r to c o m e in a t w e a k p o i n t s i n the g o v e r n m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e , a s
n e e d e d and as available. In e v e r y l o c a l i t y a f f e c t e d - - l o c a l i t i e s w h e r e
people had b e e n afflicted, l o c a l i t i e s into which people w e r e being
e v a c u a t e d - - t h e r e w o u l d be n e e d f o r l o g i s t i c a l s u p p o r t - - f o o d k i t c h e n s ,
b l a n k e t s , t e n t s , t r a n s p o r t , m e d i c i n e , a n d the l i k e . In so f a r a s s u c h
s e r v i c e c o u l d be r e n d e r e d , it s h o u l d be. It i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e
J o i n t C h i e f s a r e not p r e p a r e d to m a k e f i r m c o m m i t m e n t s : t h e y do n o t
know w h a t w o u l d be l e f t o v e r f r o m t h e i r o w n r e q u i r e m e n t s .
T
C o n s i d e r s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s . B l a n k e t s a r e n e e d e d a n d the
Q u a r t e r m a s t e r c a n s p a r e s o m e ; a t r u c k d r i v e s up, d u m p s t h e m , a n d
g o e s a w a y . T h i s is the s i m p l e s t f o r m of m i l i t a r y a i d , an d it p r o d u c e s
no s e r i o u s p r o b l e m . The S t a t e H i g h w a y P a t r o l m u s t s e t up c o n t r o l
p o i n t s f o r s o r t i n g out r e f u g e e s an d d i r e c t i n g t h e m to c o n c e n t r a t i o n
a r e a s ; a n M P c o m p a n y i s a v a i l a b l e a n d g o e s in; it c o n f o r m s to the
s c h e m e e s t a b l i s h e d by the S t a t e p a t r o l a n d m e r e l y a i d s in c a r r y i n g out
the a r r a n g e m e n t s .
A community's water, gas, and electric services
have b e e n d i s r u p t e d ; m i l i t a r y aid is r e q u e s t e d , and E n g i n e e r and Signal
u n i t s a r e d i r e c t e d to m a k e r e p a i r s a n d to r e m a i n on the job u n t i l the
c o m m u n i t y i s a b l e to t a k e c a r e of i t s e l f . A c i t y h a s b e e n h i t a n d i t s
administrative staff has suffered heavy casualties; a military governm e n t u n i t of the r e s e r v e i s c a l l e d to a c t i v e d u t y a n d d i r e c t e d to a i d t h e
m a y o r . A n o t h e r c i t y h a s b e e n so b a d l y h i t t h a t i t s g o v e r n m e n t i s
v i r t u a l l y n o n e x i s t e n t ; a n o t h e r m i l i t a r y g o v e r n m e n t u n i t i s d i r e c t e d to
go i n a n d o r g a n i z e a n e w c i t y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . You w i l l s e e t h a t i n m y
p r o g r e s s i o n of e x a m p l e s the m i l i t a r y u n i t s b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e
d e e p l y i n v o l v e d in c i v i l b u s i n e s s , u n t i l we c o m e to the c a s e w h e r e at
the m o m e n t t h e r e i s no one in c h a r g e on the s p o t a n d the u n i t f i n d s
i t s e l f on i t s own. T h e t e n d e n c y to t a k e o v e r a n d d ig in w o u l d be s t r o n g .
S o m e s t u n n e d c i t y f a t h e r s w o u l d o n l y too e a g e r l y l e a v e it to the A r m y
to do w h a t t h e y s h o u l d do t h e m s e l v e s .
M e n of p r o p e r t y w o u l d i n s i s t
t h a t the t r o o p s r c m a i n to e n f o r c e law a n d o r d e r .
( " L a w an d o r d e r " i s
a big u n a n a l y z e d c a t c h a l l c o n c e p t i o n that always c r o p s up in these disc u s s i o n s of c i v i l - m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s . ) O v e r z e a l o u s o f f i c e r s w o u l d r e s p o n d to t he f l a t t e r i n g i n v i t a t i o n to s t a y a n d h e l p ; t h e y w o u l d f e e l a
c h a l l e n g e to give the c i t i z e n s b e t t e r g o v e r n m e n t t h a n t h e y e v e r g a v e
themselves.
U n d e r z e a l o u s o f f i c e r s w o u l d find c o z y s p o t s a n d s e t t l e
d o w n f o r the d u r a t i o n . It m i g h t be a n o t h e r c a s e of T h e M a n Who C a m e
to D i n n e r .
In t e s t i m o n y b e f o r e the H o l i f i e l d S u b c o m m i t t e e , u r g i n g th e u t t e r
u n s u i t a b i l i t y of a m i l i t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a f t e r a n u c l e a r a t t a c k , I m a d e
c e r t a i n r e m a r k s , w h i c h I a m g o i n g to r e p e a t b e c a u s e of A d m i r a l
R a d f o r d ' s c o m m e n t u p o n t h e m . A c t u a l l y we w e r e not in d i s a g r e e m e n t .
I said, in part:
"I c o n c e d e , c a n d i d l y , t h a t i n the f i r s t d e s p a i r a f t e r a n u c l e a r
a t t a c k it m i g h t s o u n d r e a s s u r i n g to m a n y f o r the P r e s i d e n t to
a n n o u n c e , 'I h a v e d e c l a r e d m a r t i a l l a w ; the A r m y h a s t a k e n o v e r . '
E u t in a f e w d a y s the i n e v i t a b l e i n e l a s t i c i t y of A r m y r u l e w o u l d
surely arouse resentment.
It w i l l not do to, s a y , h a v e m a r t i a l
10
r u l e f o r the f i r s t few d a y s a n d t h e n s w i t c h b a c k to c i v i l a d m i n i s tration. Any postattack a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , civil or m i l i t a r y , would
a t o n c e b e g i n to w o r k out w a y s to e s t a b l i s h c h a n n e l s f o r g e t t i n g
t h i n g s d o n e . And o n c e t h o s e p a t t e r n s w e r e f o r m e d , it w o u l d be
e x c e e d i n g l y d i f f i c u l t to s h i f t to a d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m . O n c e m a r t i a l
r u l e h a d g o t t e n i n t o o p e r a t i o n , t h e r e w o u l d be e n o r m o u s p r a c t i c a l
d i f f i c u l t i e s in g e t t i n g i t out of b u s i n e s s . "15 /
T h i s p a s s a g e w a s r e a d to A d m i r a l R a d f o r d , w i t h a q u e s t i o n on, " h o w
t h e C h a i r m a n o f t he j o i n t C h i e f s of Staff f e e l s a b o u t th e m i l i t a r y g e t t i n g
i n t o the m a r t i a l l a w b u s i n e s s a n d h o l d i n g on to i t ? " He r e p l i e d :
"I c a n o n l y s p e a k f o r m y s e l f , I w o u l d h o p e t h a t w e did n o t
h a v e to do i t , a l t h o u g h I w o u l d i m a g i n e t h a t P r o f e s s o r F a i r m a n
w a s c o r r e c t i n h i s e s t i m a t e of the s i t u a t i o n if i t did h a p p e n . " 1 6 /
Further
q u e s t i o n to A d m i r a l R a d f o r d :
"I h o p e I a m not m i s u n d e r s t o o d i n t h i s q u e s t i o n . I s t h e r e
a d a n g e r t h a t o n c e y o u h a v e m a r t i a l law . . . the A r m y i s l i k e l y
to h a n g o n t o t h i s a n d e x t e n d i t b e y o n d the t i m e n e c e s s a r y ? "
Admiral Radford replied:
" N o ; I d o n ' t t h i n k t h e r e i s a d a n g e r that the A r m y w i l l w a n t
to h a n g onto it, I t h i n k t h e y w o u l d be v e r y a n x i o u s to g e t r i d of it
as soon as they could.
"If t he i n f e r e n c e m a d e by P r o f e s s o r F a i r m a n w a s to the e f f e c t
t h a t t he A r m y w o u l d e n j o y it, I d o n ' t t h i n k t h a t i s c o r r e c t . " 1 7 /
I qui t e a g r e e in the b e l i e f t h a t the top s i d e of the A r m y w o u l d n o t
w a n t to s t a y in the b u s i n e s s of p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h e t h e r u n d e r
" m a r t i a l l a w " o r o t h e r w i s e . I do g r e a t l y f e a r t h a t , f o r o n e m o t i v e o r
a n o t h e r , t he p e r s o n n e l a c t u a l l y c o m m i t t e d w o u l d t e n d to i n c r e a s e t h e i r
i n v o l v e m e n t ; a n d I w o u l d e m p h a s i z e the c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t , o n c e a
p a t t e r n of p o s t a t t a c k a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a d b e e n f o r m e d , it w o u l d be
e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t to b r e a k it.
15/
16/
H e a r i n g s , p. 2 9 7 - 9 8 .
I b i d . , p. 372.
iV/ ibid.
Ii
So I u r g e t h a t , w h a t e v e r the o r i g i n a l c o m m i t m e n t , f r o m d e l i v e r i n g s o m e b l a n k e t s to a t e m p o r a r y m i l i t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of a g h o s t
c i t y , on e v e n to w h a t m i g h t a m o u n t to m a r t i a l r u l e i n a n a r e a - - w h a t e v e r the c o m m i t m e n t - - I u r g e t h a t y o u a l w a y s k e e p i n v i e w t h a t t h e
m i s s i o n i s o n l y t e m p o r a r y , t h a t the o b j e c t i v e i s to r e n d e r th e s e r v i c e
i m m e d i a t e l y n e e d e d , t h a t the a c t i o n s h o u l d b e k e p t a s n e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e
w i t h i n the f a b r i c of c i v i l g o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h a t w h e n t h a t f a b r i c h a s b e e n
s h a t t e r e d the e f f o r t s h o u l d be to r e s t o r e it a s s o o n a s p o s s i b l e . R e s t r a i n
t he d o - i t - y o u r s e l f i n c l i n a t i o n ; d o n ' t s h o v e c i v i l i a n s out of t h e i r o f f i c e s ,
f i g u r a t i v e l y o r p h y s i c a l l y ; s e e k to g e t c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s b a c k i n t o
e v e r y v a c a n t job. R e s t o r e a n y b r o k e n s t r a n d s of c i v i l a u t h o r i t y ; d o n ' t
s u p p l a n t the c i v i l w i t h the A r m y ' s s y s t e m of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
Don't let
y o u r m i l i t a r y a c t i o n b e c o m e an e n d in i t s e l f .
I r e m a r k e d t h a t m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t to c i v i l g o v e r n m e n t i s a s o m e w h a t
r e f i n e d c o n c e p t i o n , at w h i c h we s h o u l d now l o o k .
M i l i t a r y units and p e r s o n n e l should r e c e i v e o r d e r s and i n s t r u c t i o n s
r e l a t i n g to c i v i l r e l i e f a n d c o n t r o l t h r o u g h the e s t a b l i s h e d c h a i n of c o m m a n d ; m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t of c i v i l a u t h o r i t i e s d o e s n o t i n v o l v e s u b j e c t i o n
to the c o m m a n d of s u c h a u t h o r i t i e s . It w a s e v i d e n t , on the o c c a s i o n of
O p e r a t i o n A l e r t 1955, t h a t s o m e c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s at the n a t i o n a l
l e v e l s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e i r d i r e c t i v e s c o u l d s i m p l y b e d u m p e d i n t o th e
m i l i t a r y c h a n n e l a n d , r u n n i n g d o w n the s p o u t , w o u l d be c a r r i e d i n t o
e x e c u t i o n by t he A r m y .
There was even some thought that Army units
c o u l d be o r d e r e d to r e p o r t to c i v i l o f f i c i a l s a n d do t h e i r b i d d i n g . S u c h
c o n c e p t i o n s a r e , of c o u r s e , a l l w r o n g .
W h e n e v e r the A r m y a c t s , it i s d i r e c t e d t h r o u g h the r e s p o n s i b l e
c h a n n e l e s t a b l i s h e d by l a w : the P r e s i d e n t , the S e c r e t a r y of D e f e n s e ,
t he S e c r e t a r y of the A r m y , the C h i e f of Staff, a n d s o on d o w n the
c h a i n of c o m m a n d .
(I s p e a k of the A r m y , s i n c e it i s the s e r v i c e m o s t
c o n c e r n e d ; of c o u r s e the s a m e p r i n c i p l e a p p l i e s to the N a v y a n d the
A i r F o r c e . ) A r m y u n i t s a r e not to be l o a n e d out l i k e p o w e r s a w s a n d
b u l l d o z e r s , put i n t o the h a n d s of an y c i v i l a u t h o r i t y that h a s s o m e s a w i n g
o r s h o v i n g to be d o n e .
T h e a p p r o p r i a t e m o d e of a c t i o n , it s e e m s c l e a r to m e , w o u l d be a s
follows.
F i r s t , we m u s t e s t a b l i s h a c h a n n e l of c i v i l a u t h o r i t y , f r o m
the P r e s i d e n t d o w n , t h r o u g h the F e d e r a l C i v i l D e f e n s e a g e n c y ( w h a t e v e r
i t s t i t l e m a y b e c o m e ) to t he g o v e r n o r s of the S t a t e s , an d so on d o wn .
T h a t c h a n n e l h a s not b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d by s t a t u t e . If a n u c l e a r a t t a c k
o c c u r r e d b e f o r e it h a d b e e n c r e a t e d , th e P r e s i d e n t s h o u l d i n i t i a t e it,
12
"'} C~
a c t i n g u p o n h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and m o r a l a u t h o r i t y as the N a t i o n ' s
C h i e f E x e c u t i v e . Down that c i v i l c h a n n e l s h o u l d be t r a n s m i t t e d t h e
i n s t r u c t i o n s to the s t r i c k e n c o u n t r y . Up that l i n e w o u l d c o m e r e q u e s t s
f o r a s s i s t a n c e . The F e d e r a l C i v i l D e f e n s e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s d i v i d e d
• the c o u n t r y i n t o c i v i l d e f e n s e r e g i o n s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to A r m y a r e a s .
T h e o f f i c e of the r e g i o n a l d i r e c t o r i s a c e n t e r of F e d e r a l a u t h o r i t y a n d
s e r v i c e . In t i m e of an A l e r t - - a n d it w o u l d be so in t i m e of w a r - - f i e l d
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the v a r i o u s F e d e r a l D e p a r t m e n t s a n d A g e n c i e s - T r e a s u r y , A g r i c u l t u r e , HEW, B u r e a u of t h e B u d g e t , F e d e r a l R e s e r v e
S y s t e m , etc. - - g a t h e r a r o u n d the F C D A r e g i o n a l o f f i c e in the f i e l d .
T h i s r e g i o n a l c o m m a n d p o s t thus b e c o m e s a s u b s t a t i o n f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g
the p o w e r and l e a d e r s h i p of the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t . T h u s we w o u l d
h a v e w h a t , in m i l i t a r y a n a l o g y , m a y b e c a l l e d the " c o m m a n d c h a n n e l "
f o r c i v i l a u t h o r i t y . In a d d i t i o n t h e r e w o u l d b e , as at p r e s e n t , the
" t e c h n i c a l c h a n n e l s " of the v a r i o u s F e d e r a l D e p a r t m e n t s , r u n n i n g d o w n
to t h e i r f i e l d o f f i c e s .
If u n i t s of the A r m y a r e to be e m p l o y e d f o r c i v i l r e l i e f and c o n t r o l ,
t h e y s h o u l d a c t i n a c c o r d w i t h d i r e c t i v e s s e n t down t h r o u g h A r m y c h a n n e l s . T h u s , if the F e d e r a l C i v i l D e f e n s e a g e n c y d e s i r e d c e r t a i n s u p p o r t i n g a c t i o n by t h e A r m y , it w o u l d a r r a n g e f o r the D e p a r t m e n t of the
A r m y to t r a n s m i t a d i r e c t i v e to l o w e r m i l i t a r y l e v e l s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g
to the d i r e c t i v e b e i n g s e n t down the c h a n n e l of c i v i l a u t h o r i t y . I i n t e r j e c t the o b s e r v a t i o n that the c o n d u c t of c i v i l r e l i e f w o u l d i n v o l v e a
t r e m e n d o u s n e w s t a f f a c t i v i t y at the s e v e r a l l e v e l s of A r m y a d m i n i s t r a tion. S u p p o s e the. g o v e r n o r of a State d e s i r e d the s u p p o r t of m i l i t a r y
u n i t s , and s u p p o s e that s u c h u n i t s w e r e m a d e a v a i l a b l e : t h e i r d i r e c t i v e
w o u l d c o m e to t h e m by the m i l i t a r y c h a n n e l , a n d w o u l d i n s u b s t a n c e t e l l
t h e m to r e n d e r s p e c i f i e d a i d to the g o v e r n o r . T h e d i r e c t i v e , d o u b t l e s s ,
w o u l d s e t ' f o r t h the o b j e c t i v e , the m e t h o d , and t h e l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t w o u l d
g o v e r n t h e c o m m a n d e r . He w o u l d not be told s i m p l y to r e p o r t to the
g o v e r n o r and do the g o v e r n o r ' s b i d d i n g . His d i r e c t i v e m i g h t b e r a t h e r
g e n e r a l in t e r m s , but it w o u l d be f o r h i m , not f o r the g o v e r n o r o r the
m a y o r he w a s s u p p o r t i n g , to d e t e r m i n e w h a t it m e a n t and w h a t h e w a s
to do u n d e r it.
To a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t , d o u b t l e s s , the D e p a r t m e n t of t h e A r m y
w o u l d a u t h o r i z e s u b o r d i n a t e h e a d q u a r t e r s to r e c e i v e and c o m p l y w i t h
State a n d l o c a l r e q u e s t s .
To a n y o n e u n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h i s s o r t of w o r k , m y d e s c r i p t i o n
m i g h t s o u n d r a t h e r s t i f f and e v e n b u r e a u c r a t i c ; one m i g h t t h i n k , t h e r e ' s
13
•
4"%
.-
no t i m e f o r t u r n i n g s q u a r e c o r n e r s w h e n b r i n g i n g a i d to the s p o t h i t
by a n u c l e a r b o m b . Of c o u r s e m i l i t a r y a i d s h o u l d not be s t r a i n e d a n d
r i g i d ; it s h o u l d flow q u i c k l y in r e s p o n s e to the c a l l f o r h e l p . I n s i s t e n c e u p o n a c l e a r a n a l y s i s of c h a n n e l s , h o w e v e r , r e a l l y s e r v e s to k e e p
t h i n g s f r o m b e c o m i n g t a n g l e d - - w h e r e a s l o o s e n o t i o n s of A r m y p e r s o n n e l •
r u n n i n g a r o u n d a l l on t h e i r o w n o r t a k i n g on w h a t e v e r a n y b o d y w a n t e d
done w o u l d a d d to t h e i n e v i t a b l e c o n f u s i o n . Y o u r o w n e x p e r i e n c e in t h e
s e r v i c e h a s t a u g h t y o u the i m p o r t a n c e of o b s e r v i n g c h a n n e l s ; s u r e l y it
h a s a l s o t a u g h t y o u the p r o p r i e t y of d e a l i n g i n f o r m a l l y , of g o i n g o u t s i d e
t h e g r o o v e s , w h e r e t h a t i s the s e n s i b l e w a y to a t t a i n s o m e s u b s t a n t i a l
good. It i s not i n the s p i r i t of o u r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e to s t i c k l e o v e r
m e r e f o r m a l i t y w h e r e s o m e t h i n g of r e a l v a l u e is i n p e r i l . O n c e th e
b a s i c c o n c e p t i o n of m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t to c i v i l a u t h o r i t y i s m a d e c l e a r ,
y o u r g o o d s e n s e a n d z e a l s h o u l d l e a d to a r e a d y a n d h e l p f u l r e s p o n s e .
In t he m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , a s i n t h e l a w , p r o c e d u r a l r e g u l a r i t y i s i m p o r t a n t , not at a l l a s an e n d in i t s e l f , but o n l y as t h e m e a n s f o r k e e p i n g
things straight.
If a t the p l a c e w h e r e y o u a r e e m p l o y e d t h e r e i s a v o i d - - a t o t a l
a b s e n c e of c i v i l g o v e r n m e n t to s u p p o r t - - t h e n , I r e p e a t , the o b j e c t i v e
s h o u l d be to r e c r e a t e the c i v i l s y s t e m a n d h a s t e n the d a y w h e n the
m i l i t a r y f o r c e c a n be w i t h d r a w n .
A p o i n t of s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e : D o n ' t r u s h i n t o th e b u s i n e s s of
a d m i n i s t e r i n g j u s t i c e . I s e e no r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t the F e d e r a l
a nd S t a t e c o u r t s w o u l d be d e s t r o y e d , a l t h o u g h d o u b t l e s s n e w j u d g e s
w o u l d h a v e to be a p p o i n t e d , by c i v i l a u t h o r i t y , to r e p l a c e c a s u a l t i e s .
I w i s h t h a t m u c h m o r e h a d b e e n done to a s s u r e c o n t i n u i t y in j u d i c i a l
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ; I a m h a p p y to s e e t h a t the A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l h a s r e c e n t l y
b r o u g h t t h i s m a t t e r to the a t t e n t i o n of the J u d i c i a l C o n f e r e n c e - - t h a t i s
the C h i e f J u s t i c e of the U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d the c h i e f j u d g e s of th e e l e v e n
c i r c u i t s . 18/ T h e r e is n e e d f o r l e g i s l a t i o n , F e d e r a l a n d S t a t e , p e n a l i z i n g
a r e f u s a l to c o m p l y w i t h c o m p e t e n t d i r e c t i o n s i n a c i v i l d e f e n s e e m e r g e n c y . A s t a r t i n g p o i n t w o u l d b e f o u n d in the a c t of 21 M a r c h 1 9 4 2 - now 18 U. S. C. $1383 ( 1 9 4 8 ) - - p r o v i d i n g f o r th e p u n i s h m e n t i n the c o u r t s
of v i o l a t i o n s of r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d o r d e r s in m i l i t a r y a r e a s .
The initiat i v e i n t h i s m a t t e r , h o w e v e r , l i e s o u t s i d e the D e p a r t m e n t of D e f e n s e .
T h e p o i n t f o r y o u in the A r m e d F o r c e s i s t h a t r e s o r t to m i l i t a r y t r i b u n a l s w i l l a l m o s t s u r e l y be a v o i d a b l e , a n d s h o u l d be a v o i d e d u n l e s s
absolutely necessary.
N o t h i n g e l s e i s so l i k e l y to l a n d y o u on the r o c k s ,
in m i l i t a r y a c t i o n to m e e t a d o m e s t i c e m e r g e n c y , a s the t r i a l of c i v i l i a n s
by m i l i t a r y c o m m i s s i o n s and p r o v o s t c o u r t s .
18/
New York Times,
15 M a r 1957, p. 23, c o l . 5.
14
P r e v e n t i v e d e t e n t i o n - - t h a t i s , d e t e n t i o n to p r e v e n t f u t u r e w r o n g d o i n g s by one as to w h o m r e a s o n a b l e a p p r e h e n s i o n s a r e e n t e r t a i n e d - b e l o n g s to the D e p a r t m e n t of J u s t i c e a n d not to th e D e p a r t m e n t of
D e f e n s e . See the E m e r g e n c y D e t e n t i o n A c t of 23 S e p t e m b e r 1950,
50 U. S . C . ~
811 et s e q .
D e t a i n i n g on s u s p i c i o n i s a t o u c h y b u s i n e s s
at b e s t ; it i s a f u n c t i o n to w h i c h m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s a r e i l l - s u i t e d ; C o n g r e s s h a s p r o v i d e d t ha t , so f a r as it is n e c e s s a r y , th e D e p a r t m e n t of
J u s t i c e w i l l a t t e n d to it. T h a t , I t h i n k , w i l l d i s p o s e of w h a t e v e r n e e d
t h e r e m i g h t o t h e r w i s e h a v e b e e n to s u s p e n d the p r i v i l e g e of th e w r i t of
h a b e a s c o r p u s . S u s p e n d i n g the w r i t i s a r e m e d y t h a t s t i m u l a t e s m e n to
the poi nt w h e r e t h e y m a y r u n a r o u n d d o i n g q u ite u n r e a s o n a b l e t h i n g s .
If in s o m e e m e r g e n c y y o u f o u n d that a m a n m u s t be d e t a i n e d , t h e n
a n d t h e r e - - f o r i n s t a n c e , to p r e v e n t h i m f r o m s p r e a d i n g d i s m a y t h r o u g h out a c a m p of r e f u g e e s - - t h e n h o l d h i m f o r th e m o m e n t , and, if p e r c h a n c e
a F e d e r a l c o u r t i s s u e s a w r i t of h a b e a s c o r p u s , c o m p l y w i t h it a n d e x plain why your action appeared necessary.
There is very adequate
a u t h o r i t y f o r s u s t a i n i n g t e m p o r a r y m e a s u r e s , c o n c e i v e d in good f a i t h ,
in the f a c e of t h e e m e r g e n c y , a n d d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to p r e v e n t i n g a s e r i o u s
p u b l i c e v i l . 19/
T h o s e a r e w o r d s f r o m an o p i n i o n of the S u p r e m e C o u r t
by C h i e f J u s t i c e H u g h e s . D o n ' t e v a d e a c h a l l e n g e in the F e d e r a l c o u r t s
to the m e a s u r e s y o u a r e t a k i n g . If y o u h a v e d o n e o n l y w h a t r e a s o n a b l y
a p p e a r e d n e c e s s a r y , y o u a r e on f i r m g r o u n d . E x p e r i e n c e s h o w s t h a t it
i s s a f e r f o r the c o m m a n d e r to h a v e t h a t s e t t l e d d u r i n g the w a r t h a n to
w a i t u n t i l the d a n g e r i s p a s t . If y o u found y o u r s e l f d e a l i n g w i t h a r a r e
s o r t of F e d e r a l j u d g e who f e l t t h a t h i s b e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n to the n a t i o n a l
s a l v a t i o n lay in f r u s t r a t i n g m i l i t a r y efforts, you might confidently count
u p o n a w i s e r v i e w b e i n g t a k e n on a p p e a l . I n the h i s t o r y of t h o s e u n s e e m l y
c l a s h e s b e t w e e n s o l d i e r s a n d j u d g e s , one f i n d s f a u l t s o m e t i m e s on o n e
19/ M o y e r v. P e a b o d y , 212 U . S . 78 (1909); S t e r l i n g v. C o n s t a n t i n ,
287 U . S . 378 (1932); H i r a b a y a s h i v. U n i t e d S t a t e s , 320 U . S . 81
(1943); K o r e m a t s u v. U n i t e d S t a t e s , 323 U . S . 214 (1944).
" N o r n e e d we h e r e c o n s i d e r the p o w e r of the m i l i t a r y s i m p l y to
a r r e s t and detain civilians i n t e r f e r i n g with a n e c e s s a r y m i l i t a r y
f u n c t i o n a t a t i m e of t u r b u l e n c e a n d d a n g e r f r o m i n s u r r e c t i o n o r
w a r , " s a i d t he C o u r t i n D u n c a n v. K a h a n a m o k u , 327 U . S . 304,
314 (1946), w h i l e h o l d i n g i n v a l i d the t r i a l s by m i l i t a r y t r i b u n a l
d u r i n g the p r o t r a c t e d m i l i t a r y g o v e r n m e n t i n H a w a i i d u r i n g
W o r l d W a r II.
15
&
s i d e a n d s o m e t i m e s on the o t h e r ; m o r e o f t e n , I t h i n k , it l i e s on th e
s i d e of s o m e o f f i c e r of i n e l a s t i c m i n d who did n o t r e a l i z e t h a t , e v e n i n
t i m e of w a r , m i l i t a r y a c t i o n a g a i n s t o u r own p e o p l e m u s t be m e a s u r e d
by the r e a s o n of the l a w .
O u r t h i n k i n g t e n d s to p l a c e too m u c h e m p h a s i s u p o n c o m p u l s i o n ,
s a n c t i o n s , l o c k i n g p e o p l e up. T h e t r a n s c e n d e n t n e e d in e v e n t of a
n u c l e a r a t t a c k w i l l be f o r l e a d e r s h i p , f o r g u i d a n c e t h a t i n s p i r e s c o n f i d e n c e , f o r w e l l d i r e c t e d m e a s u r e s t o w a r d r e d u c i n g c o n f u s i o n . It
will take c a l m skill and r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s - - n o t v i g i l a n t i s m - - t o r e s t o r e
public administration.
I w a s v e r y f a v o r a b l y i m p r e s s e d w i t h the t e s t i m o n y of the r e s p o n s i b l e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the A F L - C I O at the h e a r i n g s on the H o l i f i e l d b i l l ,
w h e r e - - r e p e a t i n g the c o n c l u s i o n of a N a t i o n a l L a b o r - M a n a g e m e n t M a n p o w e r P o l i c y C o m m i t t e e - - t h e y s t r e s s e d the v i e w t h a t :
"
the i n d i v i d u a l c i t i z e n w i l l r e s p o n d a c t i v e l y a n d c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y to p e r f o r m t he s p e c i a l t a s k s f o r w h i c h h e w i l l be
n e e d e d p r o v i d e d he i s g i v e n the p r o p e r l e a d e r s h i p a n d d i r e c t i o n .
.
.
" H e w i l l not h a v e to be m a d e s u b j e c t to m i l i t a r y c o n t r o l i n
o r d e r to o b t a i n h i s f u l l e s t c o o p e r a t i o n . "
And f u r t h e r ,
"The thing that has c o n c e r n e d us s o m e w h a t when we talked
about this p r o b l e m with s o m e G o v e r n m e n t people is that this
e m p h a s i s on u t i l i z i n g c o m p u l s i o n s e e m s to m a k e t h e m f e e l t h a t
t h i s i s an e a s y a n s w e r to e v e r y t h i n g . . . .
B u t in o u r m i n d s w h a t
y o u h a v e r e a l l y done i s to c o v e r up s o m e of the r e a l p r e p l a n n i n g
that is a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l . . . .
"20/
O u r n e e d i s , i n d e e d , f o r d e v i s i n g the w a y s w h e r e b y o u r n a t i o n a l
c o m m u n i t y c o u l d be s u s t a i n e d a n d r e s t o r e d in e v e n t this u n p r e c e d e n t e d
blow fell upon us. The c h a l l e n g e is f o r f r e s h , i m a g i n a t i v e , c o n s t r u c t i v e t h o u g h t . I v e n t u r e to u r g e t h a t , a s y o u go to y o u r n e w s t a t i o n s ,
y o u s e e k , e a c h in h i s ow n c o r n e r , in the s p o t w h e r e he f i n d s h i m s e l f ,
to w o r k out a n s w e r s to s o m e of t h e s e n e w p r o b l e m s of c i v i l - m i l i t a r y
relations.
Thank you.
20/
T e s t i m o n y on 8 F e b 1957.
I quote f r o m g a l l e y - p r o o f .
16
Q U E S T I O N : I w o n d e r if y o u w o u l d s a y a f e w w o r d s a s to t h e d i s tinction that may exist in law and practice between different kinds of
martial law. I have in mind that we have Federal troops; we have the
National Guard, which is sort of half-and-half on occasion; some
S t a t e s h a v e h a d p u r e l y S t a t e t r o o p s w h i c h n e v e r w e r e to b e f e d e r a l i z e d .
I visualize that the President might order a Federal martial law, the
governor might order a State martial law, and perhaps someone else
could do this, too.
DR. FAIRMAN: T h e f i r s t t w o of t h e s u g g e s t i o n s m i g h t h a p p e n .
I
t h i n k i t w o u l d f o l l o w t h a t w e w o u l d h a v e c o n f u s i o n c o m p o u n d e d if w e h a d
two sets of people in uniform running around in the same place at the
same time.
I can't think of a much more complete confusion than that.
This business of State martial law has a rather unhappy history.
It has been invoked for too many light and transient causes.
It i s a
pretty strong remedy that has been taken much too often.
I t h i n k t h a t , if w e h a v e a n y n u c l e a r b o m b s f a l l i n g o n t h i s c o u n t r y ,
t h e e m e r g e n c y w i l l b e f a r t o o s e r i o u s to t r e a t i t l i k e t h o s e l o c a l e p i sodes.
I t s e e m s to m e i n e v i t a b l e t h a t t h e r e m u s t be o n e c e n t r a l c h a i n
o f a u t h o r i t y to g i v e d i r e c t i o n to t h e w h o l e c o u n t r y .
And I would hope
that down at the State level it would work itself out through the regular
State civil institutions.
Q U E S T I O N : S i r , o n e of y o u r p r e m i s e s w a s t h a t o n c e w e g o t i n t o
martial law we would have a great deal of difficulty getting rid of it.
C o u l d y o u s u p p o r t t h a t by s p e c i f i c o r h i s t o r i c e x a m p l e s ?
DR. FAIRMAN: W e l l , m y m o s t s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e w o u l d b e H a w a i i
in World War II. That all happened, you remember,
on the afternoon
of t h e 7 t h of D e c e m b e r .
I thought at the moment that it was rightly
done, and said so in an article in Harvard Law Review. I was not aware
t h e n o f t h e s c o p e o f t h e M - d a y b i l l t h a t , a t t h e r e q u e s t of G e n e r a l S h o r t ,
the Hawaiian Legislature had passed.
At the time I wrote, that bill was
not available on the continent, where I was writing.
When the war was
o v e r a n d I h a d a n o p p o r t u n i t y to s e e i t , I s a w t h a t t h e H a w a i i a n L e g i s l a ture had set up a tremendous unprecedented
civil authority which the
G o v e r n o r w a s to u s e .
General Short's conception of his relations with
the Governor was that he would be fighting and that the civil governor
w o u l d w o r k i n l i a i s o n w i t h h i m a n d w o u l d do a l l t h o s e t h i n g s t h a t n e e d e d
to b e d o n e - - k e e p i n g
t h e s t r e e t s c l e a r e d of t r a f f i c , p u t t i n g o u t l i g h t s a t
night, and that kind of business.
That was the theory of the statute. The
statute was exactly in response
to what the military people wanted.
17
Then, suddenly, for some reason which I don't know, it was all
swept away that afternoon, that Sunday. From then on the thing began
building up as a bigger and bigger empire.
In the end, when it came
to grief in the Supreme Court, the conclusion seemed very clear that
i t w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n i n v a l i d a t e d if i t h a d n ' t b e e n c a r r i e d o n a n d o n .
It became an end in itself.
STUDENT:
H o w l o n g d i d i t t a k e to g e t r i d o f t h a t m a r t i a l
law?
DR. FAIRMAN: It was finally closed down after one of these
terrible impasses where the district judge, who I thought acted unwisely, had imposed a fine on General Richardson for contempt of
court--and General Richardson I may say acted with equal unwisdom-a n d G e n e r a l R i c h a r d s o n w a s p r e p a r e d to l o c k u p t h e j u d g e . F i n a l l y
i t g o t to t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s
d e s k . N o w , i t s e e m s to m e t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t ,
w h o w o u l d b e f i g h t i n g a w a r , o u g h t n e v e r to b e d i s t r a c t e d b y h a v i n g to
s e t t l e t h i s k i n d of t h i n g .
I was never over there and I never had any
operational connection with the regime, except writing an opinion or
two in the Judge Advocate General's Office early in the history of it.
I f e l t t h e n v e r y c l e a r l y t h a t i t o u g h t to h a v e b e e n c l o s e d d o w n , i n s t e a d
of w h i c h i t w a s b u i l t u p .
I m e n t i o n a n o t h e r e p i s o d e , to s h o w t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f s h i f t i n g f r o m a
m i l i t a r y to a c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
even when one is striving very hard
to b r i n g t h a t a b o u t . I n t h e u n f o l d i n g o f t h e p l a n of A l l i e d M i l i t a r y
G o v e r n m e n t i n I t a l y , o n e of o u r g u i d i n g p u r p o s e s w a s to d e v e l o p a s o u n d
I t a l i a n G o v e r n m e n t a n d to h a n d o v e r to i t , a s s o o n a s i t w a s r e a d y , r e sponsibility for administration
of t h e r e a r a r e a s .
Yet in spite of our
best endeavors,
it was months and months before the Italian ministers
w e r e s t r o n g e n o u g h f o r t h e t r a n s f e r o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to b e m a d e . O n c e
a pattern of administration
has been established,
i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t to
s h i f t to a n o t h e r .
QUESTION: Sir, we have heard some discussion about the necessity
of p u t t i n g t h e e c o n o m y b a c k i n o p e r a t i o n .
Traditionally,
of course,
this is a private function in this country.
You haven't touched on that
particularly in your discussion.
Would you comment on that phase of it?
DR. FAIRMAN: I didn't touch on it because that is not a thing in
which I specialize.
My colleague, Dean Cavers, who has been down
here, does specialize in that. His wartime experience was in that kind
of business.
18
I n i t i a t i v e s h o u l d , I t h i n k , now be t a k e n by m a n a g e m e n t i t s e l f .
N o w a n d t h e n I h a v e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h l e a d e r s in c o r p o r a t e m a n a g e m e n t w h o a r e t a k i n g m e a s u r e s to a s s u r e t h a t t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n w o u l d
b e a b l e to f u n c t i o n a f t e r a n a t t a c k - - t h a t t h e r e w o u l d be an e n d u r i n g
c h a i n of c o m m a n d l e g a l l y c o m p e t e n t to do w h a t e v e r w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y .
I t h i n k i n p a r t i c u l a r of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e a n d c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h the g e n e r a l c o u n s e l of the H e r c u l e s P o w d e r C o m p a n y of W i l m i n g t o n , D e l a w a r e .
B u t w e c a n ' t a f f o r d to l e a v e it t h e r e , to the i n i t i a t i v e of e a c h c o r p o r a t i o n . One of the m a j o r t a s k s of a F e d e r a l C i v i l D e f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t
w o u l d be to e f f e c t s u c h r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n c i v i l g o v e r n m e n t a n d c o r p o r a t e m a n a g e m e n t as would m a k e s u r e that such things w e r e taken c a r e
of.
J u s t 2 o r 3 d a y s a g o , w h i l e I w a s w r i t i n g the l a s t p a r a g r a p h , I
think, for this talk, m y c o l l e a g u e , Vice Dean Hall, c a m e into m y
o f f i c e . He w a s i n t e r e s t e d in a b i l l w h i c h i s a b o u t to be i n t r o d u c e d in
t he M a s s a c h u s e t t s L e g i s l a t u r e f o r m a i n t a i n i n g th e p o w e r s of a n a g e n t ,
n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the d e a t h o r th e p o s s i b l e d e a t h of the p r i n c i p a l . If the
p r i n c i p a l i s d e a d , t h a t e n d s th e a g e n c y . And if th e p r i n c i p a l m a y be
d e a d , t he a g e n t is not c o n f i d e n t i n g o i n g a h e a d , a n d o t h e r p a r t i e s a r e
not c o n f i d e n t i n d e a l i n g w i t h h i m . T h i s i s a b i l l w h i c h I t h i n k w i l l s o o n
be i n t r o d u c e d u p t h e r e . T h i s i s a n a g e n c y p r o b l e m . It i s to a s s u r e th e
p e r p e t u a t i o n of t h e a g e n c y f o r l a w f u l p u r p o s e s f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r i o d
a f t e r the d e a t h o r a f t e r the p o s s i b l e d e a t h of the p r i n c i p a l .
T h a t ' s the k i n d of t h i n g I h a d i n m i n d .
my paper.
I h a v e t h a t as a f o o t n o t e to
Q U E S T I O N : S i r , I t h i n k I d r a w an i n f e r e n c e f r o m y o u r d i s c u s s i o n .
I w o u l d l i k e to c h e c k a n d s e e if it is c o r r e c t .
DR. F A I R M A N : Y e s , s i r .
S T U D E N T : W i t h t he l i n e of a u t h o r i t y i n the F e d e r a l C i v i l D e f e n s e
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a s y o u p o i n t e d out, w o u l d t h i s i m p l y t h a t the s e c r e t a r y
of t h i s F e d e r a l a g e n c y w o u l d s u p p l a n t o r d i s p l a c e the S e c r e t a r y of
S t a t e i n the s u c c e s s i o n to the p r e s i d e n c y ?
D R . F A I R M A N : I d o n ' t t h i n k so. T h a t ' s a s t a t e , o r , / m a t t e r .
It is
f o r C o n g r e s s to p r o v i d e f o r s u c c e s s i o n a f t e r the P r e s i d e n t a n d V i c e
President.
W h a t y o u m e a n , I t a k e it, i s t h a t the i n f e r e n c e i s t h a t h e
w o u l d b e , f o r i n t e r n a l c i v i l m a t t e r s , so m u c h th e m a n i m m e d i a t e l y u n d e r
19
. :Q,"~
~., ~.: ~.
the President that he would succeed
think that follows at all.
after the Vice President.
I don't
S i n c e y o u h a v e r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e m a t t e r o f p r e s i d e n t i a l
succession,
let me say that, while I think that subject is important,
I a m s o r r y t h a t it is b e i n g d i s c u s s e d s o l a r g e l y i n t e r m s o f h e a r t
failure, and the like, which doesn't worry me much.
We can aiways
c a r r y o n , in t i m e o f p e a c e , s o m e h o w , e v e n i n a n u n f o r t u n a t e e v e n t
like what happened to President Garfield.
W h a t c o n c e r n s m e i s w h a t w e d o if t h e P r e s i d e n t ,
say, on his way
back from the Casablanca Conference,
gets drowned, or we don't know
w h e r e h e i s - - t h a t k i n d o f t h i n g . M a y b e h e g e t s b u r i e d in t h e r u b b l e .
I think this discussion of succession to the presidency ought to envisage
t h e r e a l , s e r i o u s p r o b l e m o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e G o v e r n m e n t in e v e n t o f
war.
Also I would like to see legislation about maintaining the Congress.
I t h i n k g o v e r n o r s s h o u l d in t i m e of w a r b e a b l e t o a p p o i n t R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
in p l a c e of t h o s e w h o h a v e b e e n k i l l e d , j u s t a s t h e y m a y f i l l a v a c a n c y i n
the Senate.
T h e r e w o u l d b e a l o t of d e a d C o n g r e s s m e n ,
a n d it i s n o t a t
all a time for having a congressional
election.
QUESTION:
The ODM orders that cover an emergency mention the
highest powers of the President.
Now, when I first became aware of
t h a t a f t e r t h e 1955 O p e r a t i o n A l e r t , I t h o u g h t t h a t w a s p e r h a p s t h e
semantics to cover martial law. I still haven't clear distinction in my
m i n d of w h a t t h e y a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t . Is it m a r t i a l l a w o r is it n o t ?
DR. FAIRMAN:
I wouldn't be the one to tell what ODM
meant
when they wrote something.
I can be somewhat
helpful, I hope.
There
is the presidential
office.
Some
of its powers
are definite, because
they have been tried; they have been sustained
in litigation.
There
are
some
that have been tried and found wanting,
as in the steel seizure
case.
But in our discussion
here today we are out in an uncharted
area.
I don't think that this is a problem
where
we need to worry
too
much
about the law being adequate.
I think it is the practice that we
need to worry
about.
That may
sound like an ill-turned sentence,
when
I say we don't need to worry
too much
about the law.
I am not saying to
forget about it--not at all. I am just saying that, in discussing
the
matter
before officers of the Armed
Forces,
the most useful aspect to
discuss
is not that of the constitutional
law involved.
We may
go on the
view that the Constitution
provides
the strength essential to national
survival.
20
I a m i m p r e s s e d w i t h th e t h o u g h t t h a t i n f a c t th e P r e s i d e n t w i l l
have such powers as he effectively exerts.
T h e c o u n t r y i s g o i n g to go
a l o n g . P e o p l e a r e n ' t g o i n g to l i t i g a t e w h e t h e r t h i s i s u l t r a o r i n t r a
v i r e s f o r t he P r e s i d e n t a f t e r th e b o m b s f a l l - - w h a t h i s p o w e r s a r e . No
P r e s i d e n t w o r t h y of the o f f i c e w o u l d h e s i t a t e , i n d o u b t a s to w h e t h e r the
C o n s t i t u t i o n a u t h o r i z e s a l l t h a t m a y be n e c e s s a r y to the p r e s e r v a t i o n of
the U n i o n . O n e of the m o s t i l l - s t a r r e d of a l l the o p i n i o n s of the A t t o r n e y
G e n e r a l is one g i v e n b y J e r e m i a h S u l l i v a n B l a c k in 1860 to P r e s i d e n t
B u c h a n a n , a f t e r S u m t e r h a d b e e n f i r e d on. H i s c o u n s e l w a s t h a t th e
S t a t e s h a v e no r i g h t to s e c e d e - - b u t t h a t if t h e y do, t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t h e
P r e s i d e n t c a n do to s t o p t h e m .
N o w , a s " i t t u r n e d out, y o u k n o w , a P r e s i d e n t d id c o m e to o f f i c e
w h o d i d n ' t doubt t h a t the P r e s i d e n t d o e s h a v e a u t h o r i t y . H e a c t e d , a n d
h i s t o r y h a s s u s t a i n e d h i m . M y f e e l i n g i s t h a t it i s a m a t t e r of th e
P r e s i d e n t ' s r i s i n g to t he r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
I kept saying, you will notice,
" c o n s t i t u t i o n a l " a n d " m o r a l , " b e c a u s e the m o r a l a u t h o r i t y in t h e s e
t h i n g s i s a s g r e a t a s t he c o n s t i t u t i o n a l . I w i s h , h o w e v e r , w e h a d e f f e c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n to s p e l l t h e s e t h i n g s o u t - - n o t so m u c h i n c r e a t i n g p o w e r
a s in i n f o r m i n g t he c o u n t r y w h a t t h e m o d e of o p e r a t i o n s h o u l d b e.
Q U E S T I O N : S i r , on t h i s c i v i l - m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p , it s e e m s to
m e , y o u r a s s u m p t i o n s a r e b a s e d on th e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s g o i n g to b e a
n u c l e a r a t t a c k . T h e n i n th e p o s t a t t a c k p e r i o d t h e r e m a y b e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y , not e x i s t i n g i n y o u r a s s u m p t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e , of a n a t t a c k on
t h i s c o u n t r y b y t r o o p s c o m i n g in , w h i c h w o u l d u p s e t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p .
Did you take that into c o n s i d e r a t i o n ?
DR. F A I R M A N : W e l l , if t h a t ' s w h a t th e s i t u a t i o n i s , it i s q u i t e a
d i f f e r e n t o n e . I c a m e d o w n h e r e on an i n v i t a t i o n to t a l k a b o u t w h a t
h a p p e n e d a f t e r a n u c l e a r attack and that's what I talked about. T h e r e
w o n ' t be a s e p a r a t e f e e f o r w h a t I a m g o i n g to s a y n o w , G e n e r a l H o l l i s ,
I ' l l j u s t go a h e a d a n d do t h i s g r a t i s .
If i n d e e d t r o o p s l a n d e d a n d m o v e d i n t o N e w E n g l a n d o r C a l i f o r n i a ,
o r i n t o s o m e o t h e r p a r t of the n a t i o n a l d o m a i n , w e w o u l d h a v e a s i t u a t i o n s u c h a s w e h a v e not h a d s i n c e the C i v i l W a r . And t h a t p r o d u c e s
v e r y d i f f e r e n t p r o b l e m s , b e c a u s e t h e r e the m i l i t a r y m u s t e f f e c t i v e l y be
i n c o n t r o l of a n a r e a of o p e r a t i o n s . T h a t b e c o m e s the g r e a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Y ou m u s t d i r e c t p e o p l e a s n e c e s s a r y to a c h i e v e t h a t m i s s i o n .
A l l t h a t i s r e q u i s i t e y o u go a h e a d a n d do. B u t d o n ' t do m o r e t h a n i s
requisite.
21
T h e old M i l l i g a n C a s e , w h i c h s t i l l i s , I t a k e it, good a u t h o r i t y - the o n l y q u e s t i o n i s w h a t it i s a u t h o r i t y f o r - - s a y s , d o n ' t do m o r e t h a n
a p p e a r s r e a l l y n e c e s s a r y ; d o n ' t t a k e o v e r the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of
j u s t i c e w h e r e t he c i v i l c o u r t s a r e a b l e to f u n c t i o n . As a m a t t e r of
f a c t , i n t h a t c a s e , it w a s the c i v i l i a n s , n o t a b l y , th e G o v e r n o r of
I n d i a n a , w h o w a n t e d M i l l i g a n to be t r i e d by m i l i t a r y c o m m i s s i o n .
G e n e r a l C a r r i n g t o n , w h o w a s out t h e r e , w a s p r e p a r e d to l e t M i l l i g a n
be t r i e d by the c i v i l a u t h o r i t i e s . As the a f f a i r t u r n e d o u t , i t w a s a
g r e a t b o o n to M i l l i g a n ; it u n d o u b t e d l y s a v e d h i m w h a t o t h e r w i s e w o u l d
have been, I s u p p o s e , a capital s e n t e n c e in a civil court. B e c a u s e in
t he e n d h e got off. I a m i n t e r e s t e d if a n y b o d y i n th e A r m e d F o r c e s
t h i n k s we n e e d n o w to c o n c e r n o u r s e l v e s a b o u t a l a n d a t t a c k u p o n t h e
c o u n t r y w i t h o u t a p r e l i m i n a r y n u c l e a r s o f t e n i n g up.
Q U E S T I O N : S i r , I a m c u r i o u s to k n o w w h a t the b i l l m i g h t s a y , o r
w h a t y o u m i g h t s a y a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p of F C D A to ODM.
DR . F A I R M A N : L e t m e i n c o n s i d e r a b l e m e a s u r e d i s q u a l i f y m y s e l f
r i g h t now. I h a v e n e v e r w o r k e d in t h a t k i n d of b u s i n e s s . I t i s off on the
p e r i p h e r y , a n d I s p e a k w i t h a good d e a l of h e s i t a t i o n .
I h a v e not b e e n f a v o r a b l y i m p r e s s e d b y w h a t we h a v e a c h i e v e d to
d a t e . I w a s not f a v o r a b l y i m p r e s s e d w h e n , s h o r t l y a f t e r O p e r a t i o n
A l e r t 1955, t he D i r e c t o r of ODM w a s e x u b e r a n t i n a p p l a u d i n g the r e s o r t
to m a r t i a l l a w a s a g r e a t a i d to s o u n d p l a n n i n g . He w a s q u o t e d a s s a y i n g t h a t it w o u l d c u t at l e a s t one a n d p o s s i b l y two y e a r s off t h e w o r k of
p r e p a r a t i o n t h a t ODM m u s t do. T a l k l i k e t h a t m a d e m e c o m p l e t e l y
m i s t r u s t f u l of w h a t w a s b e i n g d o n e in h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n .
T h e p r e d e c e s s o r of t he ODM w a s the N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y R e s o u r c e s
B o a r d , c r e a t e d by the N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y A c t of 1947. I w a s t r y i n g the
o t h e r d a y to r e c a l l who w a s the C h a i r m a n of the NSRB; I did t h i n k it
up, a f t e r a w h i l e . I d o n ' t h a v e s u c h t r o u b l e i n r e m e m b e r i n g w h o w a s a
C a b i n e t o f f i c e r at a g i v e n t i m e . My p o i n t i s , I b e l i e v e p u b l i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s n e v e r g o i n g to fix u p o n the h e a d of a n a g e n c y k n o w n o n l y by
some letters, whose duties people don't understand, which agency seems
c o n s t a n t l y to be u n d e r g o i n g s o m e g o v e r n m e n t a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
A Cabin e t o f f i c e r i s l i k e l y , I t h i n k , to l i e a w a k e at n i g h t , w o r r i e d by the
t h o u g h t t h a t , if s o m e t h i n g e v e n t u a l l y g o e s w r o n g t h a t w a s c h a r g e a b l e to
h i m , h i s c o u n t r y m e n a n d h i s t o r y w i l l h o l d h i m r e s p o n s i b l e . W i t h the
d i r e c t o r of a l i t t l e - u n d e r s t o o d a g e n c y , I b e l i e v e th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s
n o t so k e e n l y f e l t .
22
M o r e o v e r , w h e n it c o m e s to a r r a n g i n g c o m m o n a c t i o n w h e r e
s e v e r a l p a r t s of t he G o v e r n m e n t a r e i n v o l v e d , one w h o s p e a k s a s th e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a r e s p o n s i b l e p e r m a n e n t D e p a r t m e n t i s i n a m u c h
s t r o n g e r p o s i t i o n t h a n one wh o s p e a k s o n l y f o r a c o o r d i n a t i n g a g e n c y .
So m y f e e l i n g h a s c o m e a r o u n d to the i d e a t h a t w e w o u l d b e t t e r g et
the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p l a n n i n g a l l a s p e c t s of n o n m i l i t a r y d e f e n s e f i x e d
u p o n one d e p a r t m e n t . I a m e x c e e d i n g l y m i s t r u s t f u l of f a c i l e e x p l a n a t i o n s t h a t one m a t t e r h a s b e e n d e l e g a t e d to t h i s d e p a r t m e n t a n d a n o t h e r
m a t t e r h a s b e e n d e l e g a t e d to t h a t d e p a r t m e n t , a n d t h a t p r e s u m a b l y
t h e y a r e a l l p u r s u i n g t h e s e d e l e g a t e d t a s k s . I t i s a lo t e a s i e r to h a n d
out t h e s e c h i t s t h a n to m a k e c e r t a i n t h a t t h e y w i l l be h o n o r e d on d e m a n d . I f e e l v e r y f e a r f u l t h a t , on d e m a n d , t h e s e d e l e g a t i o n s m i g h t
p r o v e to be o n l y w o r t h l e s s p a p e r .
DR. H U N T E R : D r . F a i r m a n , I w a n t to e x p r e s s to y o u o u r a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r y o u r v e r y e f f e c t i v e a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h i s
m a t t e r . Y o u h a v e m a d e a n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n , n o t o n l y to o u r
c o u r s e , but to n a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g in t h i s f i e l d . T h a n k y o u a g a i n .
DR. F A I R M A N :
Thank you, Dr. Hunter.
(13 J u n e 1 9 5 7 - - 3 , 9 5 0 ) O / e n
23
e
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