Organizational
Culture,SocialEquity,andDiversity:
TeachingPublicAdministration
Education
in the Postmodern
Era
Mitcbell E Rice
TexasA&MUniuersiU
ABsrRAcr
An imponad issue clos€ly related to social
equity in public s€rvice delil'ery is the
teaching of div€rsity/diversity managemfnt
in public admirtutrrtion education. This
essayaddress€sthis obs€rwtion in two
ways. Ftst, it provides an overvi€w of the
traditional cultuial environment of public
or€anizations and offers a view of a social
equity subculture. Second,the es$y pre,
s€nl! a p€rsp€ctive on teaching diversify in
pubiic administration education rs a way of
enhancing a social equity focta in th€ clas,e
room.The premise of this essayis thar
social equity can best be achirved if public
administrators, public managers,and public
s€flice deliwry peNonnel have a clear
understanding and appreciation of dilrersify
and d rnity oanagement that is builr into
the organization's cultue. If social equity is
s€en as trivhg a cootection to diversity
within a public organizatior, it may effecr
how well th€ organization adwnces social
equity in the publc s€rvice delivery
pmcess. A concluding thought of the essay
is th the teaching of social equity and
diversity must b€ included in public administnlion €ducation cours€work ard cufricula and that a concerled €ffoft should b€
made to dilersiry-ncially
and ethnicalypublic administnrion facult].
J-PAE10 (2004):2:14J-I 54
Public administmtion operatesin a postmodem pe.iod. This is a period,
asviewed by CunninghamandIfeschler (2002), where traditional methods,processes,and teachingsare not compatible with the constructs and
realities of the time . The onhodox-bureaucratic-public
administration
in both theory and pfactice must give way to a new model for teaching
public administration education in the postmodern era (Fox and Miller,
1995).A maior featue of the postmodem era in the United Statesis
divers€ population groups led by rapidly increasingnumbers of Hispanics
and Latinos (any race),AsianAmericans,AfricanAmericans,and other racial
gfoups (see U.S.Census,2000).Somecofiununities, especiallyin the South
(for example,Georgiaand the Carolinas)and Midwest (for example,Iowa)
are experiencing tremendous population growths of Hispanicsand
Latinos,where there were very few some fifteen or twenty years ago (IJ.S.
Census,2000). Becauseof this increasingmulticulturalism of American
society,teaching public administration education in postmodem times
demandsthe inclusion of important topics such as social equity and diversify in the curicula. Thesetopics can facilitate students'knowledge and
leaming and increasetheir overall competency,better prepafing them to
both manageand work in public organizationsin a contemporary multicultural society.r
Why is the inclusion of thes€ topics important in the education and
development of future public administrators,managers,and public service
delivery personnel?If social equity involves faimess and equal treatment
in public service delivery and public policy implem€ntation, then a more
basic focus in public administration education cufficula and courseshas to
examine who works in public organizations,how well are they managed,
and who receivespublic seryicesin a multicultural society. Further,is
there a connection between a public organization'sinterest or lack of
interest in social equity in service delivery and its ability to promote and
managediversity among its workforce?
lournal of Public Afairc Educatlon 143
Ofganlzational Culture, Social EquiA and DlaersiA
Although the concept of social equity does
denote fairnessand equal treatment,this view does
not cleady and fully addressthe concept within the
practice of public administration (see Svaraand
Brunet, 2004).For public administrators,social equity can also be a value commitment that may involve
implementing targeted programsas a way of bringing about equality of results (outcomes) as opposed
to input equality-that is, treating every resident,
consumer,or client the same.Socialequity also
involves procedures or process,access,afld quality
in public service delivery (Svaraand Brunet, 2004).
Becausethe meaning of social equity is not cleady
understood,and equity measuresor standardshave
yet to be fiIly developed and accepted,the concept
has been slow to find its wav into extensivedebate
and discussionin the contemporary public adminis
tration litenture and in the profession.Vith these
shortcomingsin mind, the NationalAcademyof
Public Administration's StandingPanelon Social
Equity (2000, 2-3) offers the following definition of
social equity:
The fair,iust and equitable managementof all
institutions serving the public directly or by
contract, and the fair,just and equitable distribution of public services,and the implementation of public policy, and the commitment to
promote fairness,iustice and equity in the formation of public policy.
The connection between social €quify and diversity takes into account the fact that public organizations and public administrators,managers,and public
service delivery personnel can profoundly affect
how well they manageand deliver servicesto all
goups in society.If a public organizationhas a
socially diverse workforce that is well managedand
has proactive diversity strategiesin place,will this
contributeto a public organization's
consideration
of social equity in public service delivery?An operating assumptionbehind diversity in public organizations is that having different tl?es of employees
increasesproductivity and organizationaleffectiveness.becauseindividuals with different characteris-
144 Journal of Public Affatrs Education
tics have different work styles and cultural knowledge that makesthem valuable assetsto public organizations in a multicultural society (see Edelman,
Fuller,and Mara-Drita,
2001,1618).Miller and Katz
(1995) note that diversity gives an organization
a greater range of creativity,problem-solvingand
decision-makingskills, and a potential for seeing
360 degreesof the landscape.The point here is that
a proactive organizationaldiversity strategycan be a
vital social equity assetin public service delivery
Therefore,it would seem that an important issue,
closely related to social equity in public service
delivery is the teaching of diversity and diversity
managementin public administration education.This
essayaddressesthis obs€rvation in two ways.Fifst,
the essayprovides an overview of the traditional
cultural environrnent of public organizatioflsand
offers a view of a social equity subculture. Second,
the essaypres€ntsa perspective on teaching diversity in public administration education as a way of
enhancing a social equity focus in the classmom.
The prernise of this essayis that social equity can
best be achievedif public administrators,public
managers,and public service delivery personnel
have a clear understanding and appreciation of
diversity and diversity managementthat is built into
the organization'sculture. If social equity is seenas
having a connection to diversity within a public
organization,it may have an impact on how well the
organization advancessocial equity in the public service delivery process.A concluding thought of the
essayis that the teaching of social €quity and diversi
ty must be included in public administration education coursework and cufficula along with a concerted effort to diversify-racially and ethnically-public
administration faculty. It is expected that the discussion that follows may generateconsiderabledebate
in the teaching of public administration education
among both public administration scholarsand pub
lic professionals.
THE CULTJRATEN!'rRoNMEN.IoF Pttsuc ORGANTzA*floNs:
AN O\TRvrEw
Traditionally,the cultural environment of public
organizationshas not been positively associatedwith
Uganizational Culture, Social EquiA and Dlaersw
social equity or diversity.Promoting social equity in
public service delivery involves citDen input and
participation, neither of which a public organization
has a strong interest in pursuing or operationalizing
(seeKing et al., 1998;Peters,
1999).Perhapsone
explanation is that the bureaucratic culture of an
organization reflects thos€ who run and control it.
Generally,public organizationsin the United States
are controlled by individuals of westem European
derent who haye adopted a specific pmcess for the
way things are done.The literature has identified
this specific processas a culture of conformity
(Feldman,1985),a culture of technical rationality
(Adamsand Ingersoll, 1990),a culture of process
(Deal and Kennedy,1982),or a culture of conrol
(Ban,1995).AccordinSto Claveret al.(1999,456),
"it is possible to anallze how to improve working
habits and the results"of a public organizatior'tby
examiniflg its culture.
Culture is "a set of values,symbolsand rituals
sharedby members of an organizationi describing
the way duties and responsibilities are carried out
internally and how the organizationrelatesto its customersor clientsand the environment(Claveret al..
1999,456).Thesevalues,symbols,and rituals are
both formal and informal or written and unwritten.
Culture in public organizationstakes into account
how employeesare tr€ated and how the public service delivery processis rationalized.In other words,
the culture of a public organization detemines its
public service orientation. Traditional bureaucratic
culture is intemally centered and ofiented and has
the following features(Claver et al., 1999,459):
. The managementstyle is authoritarian, and
there is a high degreeof control.
. There is little communication, and the management is usually univocal and topdown.
. lndividuals searchfor stability,have limited
scope for initiative, and are oriented toward
obeying orders.
. The decision-makingprocessis repetitive
and centralized.
. There is reluctance to start innovative
processes.
. There are high degreesof conformity.
A citizemriented culture in a public organization
is more externally focused and has the following orientation (Stewart and Clarke, 1987,163-164):
. The tasksand activities that are caried out are
solely aimed at usefully serving the citiz€ns.
. The organization will be judged according to
the quality of the sereicegiven with the
resourcesavailable.
. The service offered will be a sharedvalue
provided that is sharedby all members of the
organization.
. A highquality service is sought.
. Quality in service requires a real approach to
the citizen.
Claveret al. (1999, 459) add to these features:
. The citizens have a primary role in the scale
of sharedvalues.
. There is frequent contact with the citizens.
. The problems that arise in public service
delivery are thoroughly xr^lyzed.
. All members of a section or department of
public administration seekprompt service,
Combining the latter featureswith those of a
citizemriented culture would seemto add some
elementsof a social equity perspective to public
service delivery in compadson to the featuresof a
public organizationwith a traditional bureaucratic
culture where intemal processes,proper hierarchical
protocol, verticality, and formality are emphasized.
Further,a citizen orientation perspective in a public
organizationwould fequire the organization to have
responsibility to all clients or customers,not iust
maioritarian preferences(Vigoda,2002).Arguably,a
responsivepublic organization'must be reactive,
s)'mpathetic,sensitiveand capableof feeling" its
clients'needsand opinions(Vigoda,2002,529).
Responsivenessalso denotes fairness,accuracy,and
speedin service delivery (igoda, 2002).Traditional
public administration has not fr ly stressedthe external responsibility of public organizationsin providing public servicesto clients or customerswith differing needs.This is especiallythe casein the teaching of public administration.
lournal of PublicAffalrs Education 145
Uganiza.tionalCulture,SocialEquiv and DlaersiA
TRADnoNAL
PrEUcADMrMsrRAnoN
EDUCATToN
Coursework in public administration education
consistsof most of the follov/ing subiects:public
personnel management/humanresourcesmanagement; public management;public budgeting and
finance;ofganizational managementtheory and
behavior;researchmethods/quantitative analysis;
policy analysis;and ethics.The NationalAssociation
of Schoolsof Public Affaifs andAdministration
(NASPM,2003,11) classifiesthesesubjectmatters
into tfuee "common cufficulum components": "The
Managementof Public ServiceServiceOrganizations,"
"The Application of
Quantitative and Qualitative
TechniquesofAnalysis,"and 'Understanding of the
Public Policy and OrganizationalEnvironment."The
overall oblective of this coursewofk is to covef a
broad range of topics such as the origin and devef
opment of public administration as a field of study
and academicinquiry;political and legal institutions
affecting public management;economic and social
institutionsand processes;howto preparea budget;
decentralization,devolution, and bureaucracy;the
public policy process;personnel/human resources
functions; distinction between public administration
and businessadrninistration;and the principles of
public management-efficiency, effectiveness,and
economy in the public sectorVhen a progffrm
presentsitself for accreditation review, NASPM
determines if the program's course offerings and
contents. aswell as other factors.meet its criteria
for delivering "a basic level of educational quality"
(Bfeaux et al.,2003,259-260).
NASPAA'scomrnon curriculum components do
not identify social equity and diversity as required
course content areas.The closest topics that can be
associatedwith social equity and diversity are the
issuesof representativebureaucracyand affirmative
action. The public administration litenture covers
these subjectsquite extensively.Yet,recognizing
contemporary demographic developmentsand
changes,NASPM does seemto be indirectly sup
portive of the teaching of social equity andlor diversity by permining public administration programs
the flexibility to use"additional cuniculum cornpo
nents' to help develop students'generalcompeten-
146 Joumal of Public Afairs Education
cies "that are consistent with the program mission"
(I{ASPM,2003,12).Although this is commendable,
the topics of social equity and diversity,if included
in a program's coursework,would se€mto be secondary to, or lessirnporuutt than, the cofirmon curriculum competency areas.Perhapstlle topics of
social equiry and diversity should be included as
part of the common curriculum components,to
make them part of NASPAA's
minimal required acadpublic
emic standardsfor
administration education.
Traditional coursework in public administration
seesthe influence of cultural differences in organizations as something that is invisible, illegitimate, and
negative(Adler, 1991) and inconsistent with the values of efficiency,effectiveness,economy,and good
management,and the practices of control, standardization, neutrality,and impersonality.If these values
and practices continue to receive primary consideration in the classroom,with little attention to social
equity and diversity,are we as teachersof public
administration teaching couffes and topics that are
necessaryand relelant?Are we preparingaspiring
studentsfor public service work in a multicnltural
and diverse sociew?If we continu€ to teach the
Weberianmodel of bureaucracyand all of the characteristicsthat have come to be associatedwith it.
are we continuing to promote a bureaucratic culture
that is rigid and does not emphasizeinnowrtion and
change?If so,we are teaching that those who work
in a bureaucratic cnlture have routines and habits
that lead to safetyand conformity, and that any modification of these routines and habits will create a
anxiefy and discomfort for the public organization's
executives,managers,and service delivery personnel. Golembiewski andVigoda (2000) maintain that
public bureaucracieshave a vertical flow of orders
and reports, accountability to highly ranfted officers,
fear of sanctionsand resrictions, and sometimes
even a lack of sufficient accountability dynamics.
Thus,it would seemthat traditional curricu.laand
coursework in public administration is well suited to
transmitting welldefined facts and theories,particulady to academicallyinclined, well-schooled audiences.But this kind of teaching and coursework may
not be particulady suited to educating a broader and
Organizational Culture, Social Equit|), and At)ersiu
more racially and ethnically diverse group of future
public administration decision-makersand service
d€liv€ry personnel.
Instead,as teachers,we shonld provide students
with the perspective that a public organization can
be transformed into one with a culture of responsibility, a culture of innovation, and a culture of cost
awareness.[n other words, public organizations
should move from a culture of conformity and status
quo, emphasizingprocedures and continuity, to
embracea culture of performance (Kest, 1992)
advancinga social equity subculture.A social equity
subculture stressesresponsibility to clients who
need public servicesmore, innovativ€ pubtc service
delivery strategiesand techniques,and greater focus
on cost awaren€ssin programs and servicesas
opposed to a focus on budgeted costs.As future
public administrators,public managers,and public
service delivery personnel,students must be taught
that a traditional bureaucratic culture can be modified or changedto reflect a citizemriented or social
equity{riented service delivery culture. Claver et al.
(1999) offer a cultural diagnosismethodology consisting of the following processi
1. Making a diagnosisof the present culture;
2. Explaining the need for modifications;
3. Defining the valuesdesired;
4. Involving managem€nt;
5. Making collaborators aware of this new need;
6. Changingthe symbols;
7. Changingtraining programsto incorporate
the new Yalues;and
8. Periodically revising the values.
This methodological approach,better known as a
cultural audit, examinesthe organization'score
assumptionsand their manifestationsas a way of
describing its cuffent state and the reasonsfor it
(thomas, 1999).
In a relatedway,Denhardr(2001,50D raisesthe
question: "Do we seek to educate our students with
respect to theory or to practice?' The question
begsdiscussion,
becaus€pre-servicestudentsand
in-servicestudents bring a different mindset to the
classroom-one shapedby their educational,professional,and,/orlife experiences.The mindset of stu-
dents from different cultures, ethnicities, and races
may also be different. Studentsfrom these backgrounds,in many instances,may be seeking a public
administration education to sincerely carry out the
adage'to make a difference in the quality of life" for
individuals within their specific cultures, €thnicities,
and races.Yetteachersof public administration prepare and teach from their own frame of reference.
Although we would [ke to not think so, teaching is
not a neutral activity. Studentsare inlluenced by our
answersto their questions,what we tell them in lectures, and the tenbooks, articles,and readingswe
assignto them.
At the risk of faising the he of many of my colleagues,the teaching of social equity and diversity
may be problematic if a teacher'sculture, background.race.and socialand life €xperiencesare very
different from those of the students they are teaching. This is not to saythat white faculty c,rnnot teach
African Arnerican students,or vice versa.It is to say
that diversity in the public administration faculty
would logically accentuateand convey the importance of diversify to our students and v/ould perhaps
increasethe likelihood that coursework taught by a
racially and ethnically diverse faculty would include
a social equity andlor diversity component.Very few
people of color are on the faculties of public adrninistration education programs(excluding programsat
historically black collegesand universities),and even
fewer are teaching in nationally recognized prG
grams.Thismay be one explanation behind why
public administration education coursework continues with a strong theoretical and functional orientation and with little or no focus on social equity and
diversity issues.As Cunningham andIfieschler (2002,
106) and Faerman(2000) note, we teach theories
and practices that maintain and perpetuate stable
organization systems.Of course,we teach what we
wefe taught in our own academicpfeparation,
which for many of us did not include the issuesof
social equity and diversify.From this perspective,
professorsseldom teach,nor do they firn y grasp,
how a focus on social equity and diversity may
induce organizationalinstability and uncertainty.In
traditional public administration education,social
equity and diversity have not been emphasizedin
Jouma.loI PublicAfairc Education 147
Organizatlonal Culture, Soctal EqutA a.nd Diaersi1)
coursework focusing on organizatioflaloperating
procedures and missions.Whilecoursework in organizational theory and organizationaldevelopment
may focus on organizationalinstability, uncertainfy,
and the impact of the enyironment on the organization, how would such coursewor* handle social
equity and diversityissuesand changein organizations?
Futher, regardlessof wheth€r w€ are t€aching
public administration students to be staff practitioners or line-managefpfactitioners, the issuesof social
€quity and diversity/diversity manag€mentare
important to the areasof responsibility of both t1pes
of public practitioners. On one hand,Cunningham
andWescNer (2002, 105) note that staffers'responsi
bilities revolve around " 1) planning and implementing researchprojects; 2) carrying out statistical
analysis;3) formulating policy options; and 4) creating and refining financial, personnel and information
systems.'Stafferswork in a multicultural enyironment and must possesssocial equity and diversity
knowledge and understanding.Stafferscan also
incorporate social equity analysisand diversity
observationsinto researchprojects and statistical
analyses.In this way,thet work can be passedon
to superiors.
practitioners'
On the other hand,line-manager
responsibiliti€s include "l) deciding among policy
options; 2) implementing policf 3) negotiating
with stakeholders;4) motivating subordinates;and
5) anticipating impending changesin the organization's enyironment" (Cunningham andlfeschler,
2002,105).Line managersare more directlyrelated
to the public organization'sservice delivery process,
and their responsibilities involve leadership of subordinates and peers and leadership with stakeholders.
Line-managerpractitioners must handle social relationships,deal with emotionally challengedsituations, supe ise multicultural personnel,and seek
win-win solutionsto complexproblems.Therefore,
line-managerpractitioners' understanding of diversity may affect theh subordinates'views of social equity and diversity in the service delivery process.ln
consideration of this line of thought, the teaching of
social equity and diversity would seemto be a
148 Jourrral of Publle Affalrs Education
necessarycompetency for students to gain from a
public administration education. Below,I describe
how I t€ach diversity as a way of eflhancing my
students'understandingof social equity.
TEacsrNcDnnngry AsAIfAy oF ENMNCTNG
A SocrArEeurrYFocus
In teaching a course on diversity and public organizations,we must fust identiry the prirnary objectives of the course.In my graduatecourse,"Diversity,
Public Policy and Public Administration,"the primary
obiectives are to prepare studentswho have career
aspirationsto be employed in the public sector to
meet the diversity and multicultural social challenges
they v/ill face asfuture public administrators,public
managers,and public service delivery personnel;to
enhance students'knowledge,understanding,and
appreciation of cultural diversity; to provide cultural
competenciesneeded to interact successftrllyin a
rapidly demographicallychanging societyi and to
emphasizethat diversity is not a four-letter word in
public administration (seeAuman and Myers, 1996).
The course emphasizesthat public administration/
public managementis a d)'namic processinvolving
the provision, allocation, manag€ment,and distribution of public servicesto diverse constituencies representing different races,ethnicities, backgmunds,
and genders.The course gives considerableattention
to distinguishing befween affirmative action, multiculnrralism,and diversity management,and uses
readings,discussions,and experiential actMties on
managingdiversity and valuing diversity paradigms,
monoculturalism,and organizationalcultufe.
My students are also required to complete two
field assignments.One assignmentrequires an interview-from a set of questions I provide-to obtain
the views of a public administration executiv€ or
administrator (such as a city manage! police chief,
fire chief, personnel administrator) on how diversity
is affecting the work environment and service delivery (seeTable l). This assignmentgives studentsthe
oppoffunity to meet and talk dir€ctly with a public
administrator,public executive,or department head.
An indirect outcome of this interview assignmentis
that students are sometimesaskedto submit a iob
Uganlzatloflal Culture, Social Equiv and. DluersiA
application to the organization.The other assignment consistsof attending a policy-making body's
public meeting to observefrst-hand intemctiofls
between policyrnakersand public administrators,the
extent of the diversity of policymakers and public
administrators,and whether and how this diversity
plays out in an interactive policy-making process.
Both of th€se field assignm€ntsprovide students
with a closer connection to their public administration education,Furthe! many students have never
met or spoken with a public adrninistrator,public
executive,or department head or have never attended a public body's policy-making meeting.These
assignmentsfill this void.
The cours€ maintains that affirmative action. multiculturalism, and diversity have different meanings
and that operationalizing them leadsto different
quantitative,quditative, and behavioral outcomes.
The different outcomes result from different imple-
mentation strategiesand approaches.Tables2 and 3
define key diversity terms and show the differences
between affrmative action, multiculturalism, and
managingdiversity; unlike afflrmative action and
multiculturalism, managingdiversity is a pragmatic,
synergistic strat€gydriving productivity,service
delivery organizationalcomp€titiveness,and social
equity (see Rice,2001).The course also discusses
the differences betw€en monocultural. affirmative
action, and multicultural organizations(seeTable 4).
Among the important understandingsconveyed
in the course are that (1) hiring diverse pemonnel is
simply not an end in its€lf, and neither is a diversity
edict from top leadership;(2)implementingpublic
policy initiatives requires an understandingof the
diverse constituencies servedby the organization;
(3) public orgaflizationsare slnergistic organizations
(Adler, 1991) that seek to maximize the advantages
of diversity while minimizing its disadvantages;
Table l. Interview Questions for PublicAdministrators
You are required to interview a high-levelpublic administrator in a ciq,,count),,or state agencyto carry
out this assignment.
This assignmentmust be prepared in a question/answerformat. The ten required questions must
be presented in numericalorder with the answers.You are required to ask at least two additional
questions not listed here with answers.Theseadditional questionsand answers must be indicatedwith
an asterisk (*).The individualthat you will interview mustbe approved in advanceby the instructor.
ls diversiry in society impactingyour organizationor agencyl lf so, howl lf nog why not?
In your opinion, what does the term diversity mean for your organizationor agencyl
Do you see employeediversity being a plus in carrying out the objectivesand mission of
your organizationor agencyl Explain.
How is your orSanizationdemonstratingits commitment to diversityl
Does your organizationuse diversity trainingl Whyl Why notl
How do your employeesrespond to diversity trainingl
Do you see diversity as a major issuein your organizationl Explain.
Haveyou noticed differencesin leadershipcommunicationsand leadershipinteractions amont
persons of different racial and ethnic backgroundsin your organizationor agencyl Explain.
How has diversity impacted your ability to carry out your lobl Explain.
Has your organizationor agencyever conducted an employeesurvey on diversity issuesf
Why? Or why not?
Joumal of PublicAfratrsEducatlon 149
Uganizational Culture,SocialEquiA and Daersity
Table2. DiversityGlossary
CultumlAudit--examines the values,symbols,rules,and routines that maintaina public organization!
purpose and existenceto uncover counterproductive activitiesand barriers that may adverselyaffect the
organization'spublic service missionand service delivery process.
Divenity-refers to a broad range of differencesamong employees,includingrace,gender,age,ethnicity,
physicalabilities,sexualorientation, education,and so on.
Diversiq/Audit-allows
the employer to uncover how selectedgroups of employeesare experiencing
the organizationand to uncover hidden perceptions or confirm perceivedbiasesbefore an incident of
harassment
or discrimination.
Diversity
Climote-refers to employee behaviorsand attitudes that are grounded in perceptions of the
organizationalcontext related to women and minorities.
process in which an organization'smaterialsand environment are
Divefsity
Recruit
nentQuotjent----a
anal;"zedfrom a minority perspectiveto determine why the organizationdoes not receive employment
applicationsfrom diverse applicants.
Manoging
Diversity-refersto the efrectiveudlization of the diversity of the workforce to accomplish
organizationalgoals.
Monocuhurolisrn-refers
to the values,customs.and dominanceof one culture over another.
MultiuhurolismlYoluing
Diversit),-refersto "the process of recognizing,understandingand appreciatinScultures other than one's own," and to a changein perspectiveon the diversiq/ of individualworkers in an
organization;the changeis from regardingdifferencesas a disadvantageto seeingthem as important
assetsin an organization.
(4) diversity strategiesare preceded by cultural
audits and/or diversity audits and what they consist
of to provide a comparative analysisfor measuring
diversity progress;and (5) severaltypes of diversity
training methodologiesare availableto draw on
basedon findings from cultural audits andlor diversity audits (Rice, 2002).These are two separateand
distinct audits seekingdifferent information. A cultural audit attempts to examine the values,syrnbols,
rules, and routines that maintain the public organization's purpose and exist€nc€ to uncover countelpfoductive activities and barriers that may adversely
affect the organization'spublic s€rvice mission and
service delivery process.A diversity audit seeksto
uncover how selectedgroups of employeesare
150 loarnal of Publtc Afairs Education
experiencing the organization and the prevailing
diversity climate in the organization (R.ice,2002).
A secondissue in teaching divefsity in public
administration education is what texts are available
for student use.This is also the casefor teaching
social equity. Only a few textbooks discusssocial
equity and diversity in a public sector context. Svara
and Brunet (2004) argue that social equity is a blind
spot in the sevenmost widely used texts in the field.
They conducted a content analysisof these work
and found that only one text defined social equity
and only two texts gave attention to the historicd
aspectsof social €quity in the field. A maiority of the
texts provided coverageon the issuesof due
process,discrimination, sexualharassment,equal
Uganizatlonal Culhne,SocialEq iA and Aaerslt!
Table 3. ComparingAffirmative Action, Multiculturalism,and ManagingDiversity
AfirmatlveAaion
(oluing Diferences)
Mult)cuhurolism
MonogngDive$ity
Focus.
Fairness
andequality.
Focus.
Learningand effectiveness
of cultural differences.
Focus.
Integratingdiversity for
organizationalproductivity and
effectiveness.
Emphasisis on achievQuontjtotive.
in8 equality of opponunity in the
work environment through the
changingof organizationaldemographics.Progressis monitored
by statisticalreports and analysis
(descriptivedata).
Emphasisis on the
Quolitotive.
appreciatingdifferencesand creating an environment in which
everyone feels valued and
accepted.Progressis monitored
by organizationalsurveysfocused
on attitudes and perceptions.
Eehovlbrol
Emphasisis on building
specificskills and creating policies
that get the best from every
employee.Efforts are monitored by
progresstoward achievinggoals and
obiectives.
Legolly
driven.Written plansand
statisticaltoals for specific
Sroups are utilized.ReporB are
mandatedby EEO laws and consent decrees,Demographiccharacteristicsare most important.
Ethicnllydriven.Moral and ethical
imperativesdrive this culture
cnanSe.
Strutegicoltl
diven. Behaviors and policies are seen as contributing to
organizationalgoals and objectives,
such as profit and productivity,and
are tied to rewards and results.
Remedrol
Specifictartet groups
benefit as past wronSs are remedied. Previouslyexcluded groups
havean advantage.
ldeolistr'c.
Everyone benefits.
Everyonefeels valued and
acceptedin an inclusiveenvironment"
Progmotic.
fhe organization benefits;
morale, profits, and productivity
Increase.
i4ssi,.nilotron
modelModel assumes
that groups brought into the
system will adapt to existint
organizationalnorms. Employees'
apparent differencesdo not
count.
Diyersity
modelModel assumes
that groups will retain their own
characteristicsand shapethe
organizationas well as be shaped
by it.
Synergy
model.Model assumesthat
diversegroups will create new ways
of working together effectivel)'in a
pluralisdcenvironment.
opensot0tudes,ninds, ond the wlture.
Efforts affect attitudes of
employees.
Opensthe sptem. Efforts affect managerialpracticesand policies.
Resistonce.
Resistanceis due to a
fear of change,discomfort with
differences,and a desire to
return to the '!ood old days."
Resistonce.
Resistanceis due to denial
of demographicrealities,of the
need for alternativeapproaches,and
of the benefitsof change.lt also
arisesfrom the difficulty of learning
new skills,altering existing systems,
and finding the time to work
toward synergeticsolutions.
Opensdoors.Efforts affect hiring
and promotion decisionsin the
organization.
Resistonce.
Resistanceis due to
perceivedlimits to autonomy in
decision-makintand perceived
fears of reverse discrimination.
SourceDerived
(2002).
fromRice(2001)ondRkcucci
Journal of PublicAfairs Educa6on 151
Uganizational Culture,SocialEquiu and Dluersitj
Table4. ContemporaD/
Organizational
Cultures
The Monoulturol0 rgonhat)on
. Domination of one group over another.
. Seek to establishand maintain superiority.
. Exclusionary
hiringand membershippractices.
TheAfirmoilve AaionOrgonizoton
' Committed to actively recruiting and hiring underrepresentedor formerly discriminatedindividuals.
. All individualsin the organizationare encouragedto behavein a nonoppressiyervay.
. All members of the organizationstill conform to norms and practicesof the dominant group,
. Targetschangeat the individuallevel.
. Focuson hiringnumbersand assimilation.
The Multjcuhu
ml 0 r gonizotion
. Reflectsthe contributions and interests of diverse cultural and social groups in mission,operations,etc.
. Diverse cultural and social groups play an influentialrole in all levelsof the organization.
. Supports efforts to expand diversity and multiculturdlism.
Sour.e:Dettued
fion MillerondKaa (1995).
employment opportunity/affimative action, and rep
resentativeness.None of the texts covered cultural
competencies,equity measures,and ethics.The literature on diversity in public administration,although
more abundant and more developed,has only a few
availabletexts.I edited a volumein 1996titled
Diuefsiv' and Public Organizations: Tbeory Issues,
and Perspectiaes,wtich is now under revision. Mofe
recentworks are thoseby Mathews(1998),
Bfoadnax(2000),Riccucci(2001),and Natr (2001).
Scholarlyarticles and other publications focusing on
diversity and diversity managementare more plentifuI, and may be assignedas complementary reading
materials.Examplesof complementary reading materials areThomas(1999),Soni(2000),U.S.Office
of PersonnelManagement(2000), and Naff and
Kelough (2001).
CoNcrrrorNc
THoucrns
In the postmodem era,it would seemthat, in
order for social equity in service delivery to be a primary concem in public administration education
and in public organizations,both must fust get their
own housesin order The teaching of social equity
and diversity must be included in curicula and
152 Journal of Public Afairs Educatlon
coursework in public administmtion education,and
a concerted effort must be made to provide students
with a racially and ethnically diverse faculty.These
effons may contribute to the culture of public organizations incorporating diversity within their mie
sions and their managementpmctices.A strong
focus on diversity inside a public organization may
posture it to move from a bureaucratic culture
toward a
citizemriented/social equity culture.This movement
requifes a sffi and adjustment to thtee new cultures:a culture of responsibilify;a culture of innovation; and a culture of cost awareness(Claver,1999).
Adopting this typology of culture leadsto v/hat
Claver (1999) calls a culture of performance with a
social equity subculture.In this cultural environment, decision-makingtakes on a certain degreeof
innovation,improvisation,and risk (Keston,1992).
Surely,social equity considemtionson the part of
public organizationswould best occur in this kind of
cultufal environment.
One way to ascertainwhether this tlpe of culture
exists in a public organization is to conduct a cultufe diagnosis,the purpose of which is to identi$
not only the particular culture that is pfesent and its
OrganizationalCult re,SocialEquitl, and DiuersiA
operating valuesbut also the extent to which it is
sharedby members.The cultural diagnosiscan
determine whether a negativebureaucratic culture
€xists and inhibits effective public service delivery
and considerationsof social equity. ln addition, a
diversity audit can be administeredto uncover hidden p€rc€ptions or confirmed biasesabout cenain
groupsof individuals.
Public administration education needsto incorpG
rate into its curricula and courses,in a very substantive way,the topics of social equity and diversity in
ordef to be more relevant to contemporary students.
Perhapsone way to achievethis is for public administration education to structure-or festructufe-its
learning developmental sequenceto include not
or y cognitive development and linguistics or
interactive dev€lopment but also a strong focus on
psychosocialdevelopment(Denhardt,2001).The
knowledge attained in the psychosocialdevelop
ment sequencefocuseson action skills of intrapersonal improvement,which would seemto lend itself
to the promotion and consideration of social equity
in public service delivery Denhardt argues(2001,
"one'sintrapersonalskillsare those
530) that
capabilities that provide psychological and moral
groundingfor our actionsl'Asa result,with the
psychosocialdevelopment sequence,future public
administratorsshould be more adept at acting morally, responsibly,effectively,independently,and equitably. Imparting these skills in public administration
education may requirc that NASPM elevatethe
topics of social equity and diversity to the level of
common curriculum comDonents.
NorEs
1
Versions of this paper were pres€nt€d at the Special Symposium on
The Social Equity Component of Public Affairs lducation iit the
Nedonal Academy of Public Administration, Waihington, D.C.,
February 14. 2003. and at the Annual Confercnce of lhe National
Association of Schools of Public Affats and Administration. Octob€r
1619,2001,Pxtsburgh.PA.Theauthor wishesto thank fwo anonymous reviewers for their corm€nts and critiques on an €arlier drift
of this manuscriDt.
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Mitch€l ! Rice is the director of fte Race and [thnic Studies Institute atTexasA&M Unir'€rsity alid is a profeiv)r in the Bush School of covernm€nr
and Public Service.He is a Fellow of the NationtlAcaderny of Public Administration. He has qrinen afld lectur€d extensively on such topics as MWBE
s€t-asidepmgtuns, culnrral diversity, alfirmative action and EBO diversity, and Public Policy and Aftican-Americrn Health Issues.His published book
i^cfude Dkprslt! anrl Puulc Oryanizatlons (Kfndall Hunt 199$6).
154 JournaloI PubltcAfiairsEducation