EVALUATING SOLAR DISINFECTION FOR POINT-OF-USE WATER
TREATMENT IN NON-TROPICAL CLIMATES
by
Julia Parsons
B.S., Environmental Engineering (2001)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
in Partial to Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Engineering in
Civil and Environmental Engineering
at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
June 2002
©2002 Julia C. Parsons
All rights reserved
The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper
and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part.
Signature of Author....................................
..
...................
. . . . .
Department o$vil and Environmental Engineering
May 10, 2002
C ertified by............................
...................... ..Daniele(Lan
ne
Lecturer in Civil and Environmental Engineering
Thesis Supervisor
td
A ccee
..............
y.......
Oral Buyukozturk
Chairman, Departmental Committee on Graduate Students
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
JUN
3 2002
LIBRARIES
BARKER
EVALUATING SOLAR DISINFECTION FOR
POINT-OF-USE WATER TREATMENT IN NON-TROPICAL CLIMATES
by
JULIA PARSONS
Submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
On May 17, 2002 in partial to fulfillment of the requirements
for the Degree of Master of Engineering in
Civil and Environmental Engineering
ABSTRACT
SOlar DISinfection (SODIS) is a simple water treatment method using natural solar
radiation to inactivate pathogens commonly found in drinking water. This technology
involves simply filling transparent PET bottles with contaminated water and exposing the
bottles to direct sunlight. SODIS inactivates microorganisms via three mechanisms: (1)
DNA alterations by UV, (2) production of photo-oxidative species and (3) thermal
inactivation. SODIS works best between 35 0 S and 35'N. Outside of these regions, SODIS
works sub-optimally because of the limited availability of solar radiation and the colder
climate.
In order to assess the applicability of SODIS to colder climates, this study investigated
two possible methods of ensuring that SODIS is effective under the conditions of lower
temperatures and sunlight intensity: 1) enhancing the heating capacity of the bottle with
black paint and 2) increasing the amount of radiation incident on the system using a solar
reflector. Additionally, a mathematical model for predicting the expected bottle water
temperature of each exposure regime, based on the ambient air temperature, wind, and
available solar radiation, was developed. Such a model will be useful in future studies for
assessing which type of exposure regime will be most effective.
Field studies were conducted in two locations in Haiti: Barasa and Dumay, and in Boston,
Massachusetts, between the months of January through March, 2002. Analysis of the data
collected showed that clear and half-painted bottles were most effective for microbial
inactivation in non-tropical climates (Barasa and Boston). In Dumay, however,
significant microbial inactivation was achieved in all bottles because the bottle water
temperatures reached were much higher. There was no statistical significance between
the amount of inactivation achieved by bottle on a reflector or without a reflector.
However, because of the limited amount of data, further studies on the use of solar
reflectors are recommended to assess their actual effectiveness.
Thesis Supervisor: Daniele Lantagne
Title: Lecturer in Civil and Environmental Engineering
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would hereby like to thank the following people for their contribution to this
work:
My teammates, Sara Elice, Micahel Borucke, Arun Varghese, and my advisor, Daniele
Lantagne for all their hard work and support.
Gift of Water representatives, Phil Warwick and Matt Cyr, for making this trip possible.
My friend, Karl Magdsick, for sharing his technical knowledge and providing emotional
support.
The Don Don family in Barasa for their hospitality, and Diefu and my little helpers for
making sure I had everything I needed in Barasa.
Peter Shanahan and Eric Adams for their help in developing the bottle water temperature
model.
Nathan and Wanda Dieudonne and the Warwick family for their hospitality while I was
in transit.
Fred Cote from the MIT Edgerton shop, for helping me design and build my solar
reflectors.
And Amy Smith, for designing and building the phase-change incubator that made this
research possible in rural Haiti.
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I
2
3
4
THE N EED FO R CLEA N W A TER ........................................................................
6
1.1 Clean W ater in H aiti............................................................................................
1.1.1 Environm ent of H aiti.....................................................................................
1.1.2 A ssessm ent of w ater resources in H aiti..........................................................
1.2 G ift of W ater, Inc. ...............................................................................................
1.3 Point-of-use w ater treatm ent options for H aiti...................................................
6
7
9
10
11
A PPLICATION O F SO D IS ...................................................................................
14
2.1 Mechanism s of D isinfection...............................................................................
2.1.1 Therm al Inactivation ...................................................................................
2.1.2 U V Induced DN A Alterations.........................................................................
2.1.3 Photo-O xidative D isinfection........................................................................
2.2 Required Conditions for SOD IS .........................................................................
2.2.1 W eather and Clim ate...................................................................................
2.2.2 Turbidity.....................................................................................................
2.2.3 Oxygen .........................................................................................................
2.2.4 Container M aterial and D esign ..................................................................
2.3 Lim itations .........................................................................................................
14
14
16
18
19
19
20
20
21
22
RESEA R C H GO A LS..............................................................................................23
3.1 U V enhancem ent ....................................................................................................
3.2 Therm al enhancem ent .......................................................................................
3.3 Bottle W ater Tem perature model.......................................................................
3.3.1 A bsorption of short-w ave radiation............................................................
3.3.2 Absorption and emission of long-w ave radiation .......................................
3.3.3 Convection ..................................................................................................
3.4 Sum mary of Research G oals ..............................................................................
23
25
26
27
29
30
31
RESEA R C H O UTLIN E .........................................................................................
32
4.1 Location, Clim ate and W ater Supply ................................................................
4.1.1 B arasa..............................................................................................................
4.1.2 D um ay .........................................................................................................
4 .1 .3 B o ston ..............................................................................................................
4.2 Exposure and M onitoring...................................................................................
4.2.1 M icrobial A nalysis .......................................................................................
32
32
35
36
38
40
3
5
RESU LTS .................................................................................................................43
5.1 Bottle W ater Tem perature ...................................................................................... 43
5 .1 .1 B ara sa .............................................................................................................. 4 3
5.1.2 D um ay ............................................................................................................. 44
5 .1 .3 B o ston .............................................................................................................. 4 5
5.1.4 Sum m ary .......................................................................................................... 46
5.2 M icrobial inactivation ............................................................................................ 47
5.2.1 Barasa .............................................................................................................. 48
5.2.2 D um ay ............................................................................................................. 51
5.2.3 Boston .............................................................................................................. 52
5.2.4 Sum m ary ......................................................................................................... 54
5.3 Evaluation of Results ............................................................................................. 55
5.3.1 Barasa .............................................................................................................. 55
5.3.2 D um ay ............................................................................................................. 55
5.3.3 Boston .............................................................................................................. 56
5.4 Statistical analysis .................................................................................................. 56
5.4.1 Evaluating the Effectiveness of Each Regim e ................................................ 57
5.4.2 Evaluating the U se of Solar Reflectors ........................................................... 60
5.4.3 Sum m ary ......................................................................................................... 61
5.5 Bottle W ater Tem perature Model ........................................................................... 62
6
CO N CLU SIO N S ......................................................................................................67
6.1 Therm al Enhancem ent ............................................................................................ 67
6.2 U V enhancem ent .................................................................................................... 68
6.3 Sum m ary ................................................................................................................ 69
REFEREN CES ................................................................................................................71
APPEN D IX 1: RESEAR CH PLAN ...............................................................................73
APPENDIX 11: DATA SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS ............................................... 88
APPENDIX III: BOTTLE WATER TEMPERATURE MODEL ........................... 113
4
FIGURES AND TABLES
7
Figure 1.1 Map of Haiti (Lonely Planet, 2001)..............................................................
11
Figure 1.2 G W I gravity filtration system ..........................................................................
13
Figure 1.3 SOlar water DISinfection system ...............................................................
14
Figure 2.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum (Modified from PSU, 2001) .............................
17
Figure 2.2 Formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA ....................................................
19
Figure 2.3 Effective area for SODIS application. ..........................................................
24
Figure 3.1 Top view of solar reflector used ..................................................................
mylar....................24
foil,
Right:
aluminum
Left:
aluminum
Solar
reflectors,
Figure 3.2
Figure 4.1 Average daily temperature and radiaiton profiles for Barasa ...................... 33
34
Figure 4.2 Pictures of Barasa community water source................................................
34
Figure 4.3 Temporary water storage for experiments in Barasa ...................................
36
Figure 4.4 Ambient air temperature profile for Dumay ................................................
Figure 4.5 Average daily temperature and radiation profiles for Boston......................37
38
Figure 4.6 Calendar of research in Barasa ....................................................................
39
Figure 4.7 Calendar of research in Boston ....................................................................
Figure 4.8 Kipp & Zonen Solar Radiation Measurement System.................................40
40
Figure 4.9 M icroanalysis equipm ent..............................................................................
44
Figure 5.1 Bottle water temperature profile for Barasa................................................
45
Figure 5.2 Bottle water temperature profile for Dumay................................................
46
Figure 5.3 Bottle water temperature profile for Boston ................................................
48
Figure 5.4 Percent bacteria kill after 5-hours exposure in Barasa................................
Figure 5.5 Percent bacteria kill after 1-day exposure in Barasa....................................49
50
Figure 5.6 Percent bacteria kill after 2-days exposure in Barasa ..................................
51
Figure 5.7 Percent bacteria kill after 5-hours exposure in Dumay................................
52
Figure 5.8 Percent bacteria kill after 5-hours exposure in Boston ...............................
53
Figure 5.9 Percent bacteria kill after 1-day exposure in Boston ...................................
54
Figure 5.10 Percent bacteria kill after 2-day exposure in Boston ..................................
Figure 5.11 Bottle water temperature and climate conditions in Barasa ...................... 55
64
Figure 5.12 Clear bottle water temperature model.......................................................
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
1.1
1.2
4.1
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
Reported cases of water-related illnesses in 1980 (USAID, 1985).................7
Groundwater potentials for selected areas in Haiti (USAID, 1985) .............. 10
35
WaterTurbidity Data for Barasa....................................................................
58
Statistically significant microbial kill after 5-hour exposure .......................
Statistically significant microbial kill after 1-day exposure ......................... 59
Statistically significant microbial kill after 2-day exposure ......................... 60
63
Beaufort Scale (Petterssen, 1969) ..................................................................
5
1
The Need for Clean Water
Access to clean drinking water is one of the world s most daunting development
challenges. The United Nations Development Program estimates that 1 billion people
today lack access to a safe, adequate water supply (Reed et al., 2000). Clean water is
essential to maintaining human health because waterborne pathogens cause diseases such
as cholera, typhoid fever, and diarrhea (Cadgil and Shown, 1995). These pathogens
usually originate from an infected host (either human or animal) and are transmitted by
contaminated water through the fecal-oral route (Maier, 2000). There are over 800
million cases of diarrhea reported each year, of which about 5 million result in death
(Wegelin, 1994). Waterborne diseases kill more than 400 developing world children
every hour (Cadgil, 1995).
Waterborne diseases can be successfully controlled through the protection and
treatment of water supplies. However, in the absence of treated water, people draw water
from contaminated sources that contain the disease-causing pathogens such as bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, and helminthes. Centralized water treatment facilities are common in
developed countries but are considered too capital-intensive to be implemented in many
developing countries (Cadgil, 1995). In addition, when such infrastructure does exist in
developing countries, it is usually limited to urban communities.
1.1 Clean Water in Haiti
Haiti is both the poorest and most densely populated country in the western
hemisphere (US Dept of State, 1998), and one of the poorest countries in the world.
Eighty percent of the population lives below the poverty line (CIA, 2002), and seventy
percent lives in rural areas (US Dept of State, 1998). Haiti has been plagued by political
unrest for most of its history, and as a result lacks the resources for adequate water and
sanitation infrastructure. Diarrhea is the leading cause of mortality in children under five
years of age, with an incidence of 47 percent in 6-11 month olds (Pan American Health
6
Org., 2002). As shown in Table 1.1, water related diseases are particularly common in
rural areas where potable water is rare (USAID, 1985).
Table 1.1 Reported cases of water-related illnesses in 1980 (USAID, 1985)
Diarrhea
Area
Port-au-Prince
Gonaives
Port-de-Paix
Hinche
St-Marc
Petit-Goave
Belladere
Jacmel
North Dept.
South Dept.
Population
6,500,000
33,000
15,000
10,000
23,000
7,000
25,000
13,000
560,000
500,000
Cases
6608
255
455
694
851
294
875
320
3145
1909
/1000
10.2
7.7
30.3
69.4
37.0
42.0
350
24.6
5.6
3.8
Intestins
Cases
4694
167
2171
738
314
1357
272
152
6819
2380
/1000
7.2
5.1
145
74
13.7
194
109
11.7
12.2
4.8
Typhoid
Cases
460
11
114
100
266
2
68
87
141
462
/1000
0.7
0.3
7.6
10.0
11.6
0.3
27.2
6.7
0.3
0.9
1.1.1 Environment of Haiti
Haiti shares the island of Hispanola with the Dominican Republic, encompassing
27,750 square kilometers on the western one-third of the island (CIA, 2002). It is located
roughly 600 miles south of Florida and 300 miles north of Venezuela, near the center of
the West Indies, at 180 to 200 N latitude and 71' to 740 W longitude. It has two large
peninsulas (Figure 1.1), called the northern and southern claws, which are separated by
the Golfe de la Gon ve.
Figure 1.1 Map of Haiti (Lonely Planet, 2001)
7
The name Haiti comes from the Arawak word for 'mountainous land'. This name
is more than fitting for Haiti, as 60 percent of all its terrain is on gradients of 20 percent
or steeper (Lonely Planet, 2001). The main mountain ranges in Haiti include the Massif
de la Hotte on the southern claw, the Massif de la Selle, running west to east just
southeast of Port-au-Prince, and the Chaine du Bonnet in the north. Haiti also boasts
astounding biodiversity, including 5,000 plant species and 25 endemic bird species.
However, only two mammals native to the island still survive in Haiti: the Hispaniolan
hutia (mole-like) and the solendon (long-nose rodent).
The climate of Haiti is generally hot and humid, with temperatures varying more
over the course of a day than from season to season. Highs are generally around 30iC,
while nighttime lows can reach 20iC. The summer in Haiti lasts from June to September,
and can be slightly hotter than the winter (February to April), though temperatures drop
markedly at higher elevations (Weil et al, 1985). Haiti also has a rainy season, which
varies with region (in the north, October to May; and in the south, May to October), and a
hurricane season, which usually lasts from June through September (Lonely Planet,
2001). Rainfall is usually from the North and East over the mountains. Thus there is more
rain in the North and highlands (Weil et al, 1985).
One of the most detrimental environmental issues facing Haiti is that of
deforestation. Ninety-eight percent of the original tropical forest in Haiti has been
deforested for export crops and fuelwood (Lonely Planet, 2001). Deforestation also has
detrimental impacts on water quality because of increased erosion of the now-barren
hillsides. Erosion has also been the major cause of loss of rich topsoil to the sea, where it
chokes the reefs and marine life. However, there are four national parks established in
Haiti to preserve what is left of the remaining virgin forest: For t des Pins, in the
southeast next to the Dominican border; Parc La Visite, with limestone caves and
rainforests 40km southwest of Port-au-Prince; Parc Macaya, at the western end of Haiti's
southern claw; and Parc Historique La Citadelle, in the center of the Massif du Nord, near
Cap-Ha tien.
8
1.1.2 Assessment of water resources in Haiti
Only four percent of the governmental budget is allocated for potable water
projects in Haiti, accounting for 15 percent of the total budget for such projects (USAID,
1985). The additional 85 percent of the funding for these projects comes from external
assistance. There are two main organizations responsible for managing water resources in
Haiti. The Centrale Metropolitaine d Eau Potable (CAMEP) is responsible for supplying
water in the metropolitan area and the Service National d Eau Potable (SNEP) is
responsible for rural water supply. Both organizations disinfect their water supply with
chlorine, but this treatment is irregular and unreliable. CAMEP supplies water to
approximately fifty percent of its potential customers and SNEP supplies approximately
39 percent (USAID, 1985). The rest of the population relies on private Haitian water
vendors, whose water is from unprotected sources and rarely disinfected, or other local
water resources such as wells and surface water.
The amount of water in Haiti, including surface water, groundwater, and springs,
is believed to be sufficient supply for the entire population (USAID, 1985). However,
these resources are limited by lack of access and proper treatment. Groundwater is
believed to be abundant, particularly in the coastal plains where it is easy to access (Table
1.2). Groundwater is generally of better quality than surface water, for as water seeps
through the soil to the water table, many microorganisms are removed (Lehr, 1980).
Additionally, water quality often improves with storage in the aquifer because conditions
are not favorable for bacterial survival. A properly constructed well (in addition to
proper collection and storage methods) can ensure that the water remains clean and is
safe for use.
9
Table 1.2 Groundwater potentials for selected areas in Haiti (USAID, 1985)
Region
Number of
Project Area
Number of
Project Aquifers
Prj__AePec
North and North
Western Region
Artibonite Region
Southeast Coastal
Region
South Coast
Region
Central Plains
Region
Total
_qu
_r
Potential No. of
Aquifers for which
Water flow
(tlsec)
flow was estimated
7
13
7
500-685
2
3
2
5
2
399-1114
5
3
2
530+
5
6
1
15-45
22
29
12
1444-1844
Springs (places where groundwater has come to the surface) and surface waters
are much more susceptible to bacteriological contamination than groundwater. Therefore,
surface water should only be used when groundwater sources are unavailable or
inadequate (Lehr, 1980). Surface water flow in Haiti is irregular, with short torrential
flows during the rainy season and long periods of dryness - very few rivers have
permanent flow (USAID, 1985). However, because groundwater in Haiti is often difficult
to access, surface water and springs are the main water source for the Haitian people.
1.2 Gift of Water, Inc.
The main religion in Haiti is Christianity, predominantly Roman Catholic (U.S.
Department of State, 1998). In Haiti the church is the foundation of the community. The
church often coordinates community infrastructure such as schools, government, and
facilities. Therefore, the Haitian people have a very high respect for the church and work
associated with them.
One U.S. based organization that works mainly through the churches in Haiti is
Gift of Water, Incorporated (GWI). In 1995, the non-profit Industry for the Poor, Inc.
(PI), (now Gift of Water, Inc.) was created by Phil Warwick to investigate clean water
options for the people of Haiti. After conducting epidemiological studies in conjunction
with the Adopt-A-Village Medical Mission, they developed an in-home gravity water
10
filtration system (Figure 1.2) intended to reduce the presence of bacteria and volatile
chemicals in the drinking water.
Figure 1.2 GWI gravity filtration system
The filter apparatus costs US$15.29, but is subsidized by the program so that each
family must only pay approximately US$1.85 or even less (Anarchy, Inc., 2000).
Operating expenses for each filter, including chlorination and granular activated carbon,
amount to approximately US$0.42 per year. Since being approved by the Haitian
Ministry of Health, filters have been placed in seven villages across Haiti (Lantagne,
2001), serving over 22,000 people (Anarchy, Inc., 2000). Because of their extensive
contacts and knowledge of Haiti, GWI representatives assisted in choosing appropriate
study locations, and making arrangements for travel and research necessary for this study.
1.3 Point-of-use water treatment options for Haiti
The estimated cost of providing worldwide water supply coverage in developing
countries is US$150 billion (Wegelin, 1994). This cost cannot possibly be met by public
funds, which are insufficient to even cover the costs of maintenance of the current
infrastructure. An alternative to public water supply for people in developing countries is
the use personal household water treatment systems, or point-of-use water treatment
systems.
11
The most effective point-of-use water treatment usually consists of two stages:
filtration and disinfection. In order to be most effective and appealing to it s users, a
point-of-use water purification system should fulfill the following criteria (Lehr et al.,
1980; Shultz et al, 1984):
*
Effective across a range of pathogens;
*
Robust to changes in water quality;
"
Effective in appropriate pH and temperature range;
*
Should not make water toxic or unpalatable;
"
Safe and easy to handle;
"
Must provide residual protection against possible recontamination;
"
Affordable;
"
Adaptable to local conditions;
*
Amenable to local production;
*
Appropriate to local culture and customs;
"
Comply with national sanitation standards;
Current household disinfection mechanisms include boiling water, filtration, and
chlorination. However, boiling water requires energy in the form of fuelwood, which can
be rare in rural areas of Haiti due to deforestation, and additionally exacerbate
deforestation. The use of chlorine is often rejected by users because of the undesirable
taste and odor associated with it, as well as because of its cost and unreliable supply and
quality. Filtration techniques are also often unaffordable and such systems are subject to
leaking and breakage. A more reliable and less expensive water disinfection technique is
Solar Disinfection.
SOlar DISinfection (SODIS) is a simple water treatment method using natural
solar radiation to inactivate pathogens commonly found in drinking water. This
technology involves simply filling transparent PET bottles with contaminated water and
exposing them to direct sunlight (Figure 1.3). SODIS utilizes the power of the sun to
12
inactivate microorganisms using UV-A radiation and increased temperature. Because this
technology is so simple, both in concept and application, it is easily applicable in the
developing world where safe water resources are scarce. However, the success of SODIS
is dependent on a number of conditions, including climate and water clarity.
Figure 1.3 SOlar water DISinfection system
The pioneer of solar disinfection technology was Professor Aftim Acra, of the
American University of Beruit (SANDEC, 2001). His work motivated the Integrated
Rural Energy Systems Association (INRESA) to investigate the application of SODIS
through a network project, which was reviewed at a workshop in 1988 organized by the
Brace Institute of Montreal. In 1991 the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental
Science and Technology s (EAWAG) Department of Water Sanitation in Developing
Countries (SANDEC) undertook extensive laboratory and field tests to analyze the
effectiveness and social acceptability of SODIS as a low-cost water treatment method.
Currently SANDEC is promoting the use of SODIS by providing information,
technical support, and advice on SODIS to institutions in developing countries worldwide
(SANDEC, 2001). To date, successful SODIS studies have been completed in Columbia,
Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Togo, Indonesia, Thailand, and China.
13
2 Application of SODIS
2.1 Mechanisms of Disinfection
The SODIS methodology utilizes both the infrared and ultraviolet spectra of
radiation to disinfect water. The infrared spectrum is absorbed to generate heat and
increase the bottle water temperature, and the ultraviolet spectrum directly inactivates
microorganisms. The infrared spectrum is usually defined as electromagenetic radiation
with wavelengths above 1 000nm (10,000 ), and the ultraviolet spectrum is radiation
with wavelengths between 4 and 400 nm (40-4000 ) (Koller, 1952), However, the
atmosphere absorbs all radiation of wavelengths less than 200 nm (Parrish et al, 1978).
Typically the remainder of the ultraviolet spectrum is divided into three portions: UV-C
(200 to 290 nm); UV-B (290-320 nm); and UV-A (320-400 nm) (Figure 2.1). Of these,
UV-A radiation is most abundant at the earth s surface.
ULTRAVIOLET
C
INFRARED
B A
VISIBLE
21
40
JO
4 %161
5(J09U
Wavcrleig0
& MY
-
7 ON4
20100
40001)
Anrtra-m Units
Figure 2.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum (Modified from PSU, 2001)
2.1.1
Thermal Inactivation
The first mechanism of disinfection utilized by SODIS is thermal inactivation of
microorganisms. Microorganisms can only function within certain temperature ranges
because of limitations of their metabolism. When these temperatures are exceeded,
proteins and other macromolecules are denatured and the microorganism loses its ability
to function properly (Madigan, 2000). It is possible to disinfect drinking water without
14
reaching boiling temperatures. This process, known as pasteurization, is different from
sterilization in that sterilization inactivates all microorganisms, including heat-resistant
spores. However, heat-resistant spores are harmless for humans to eat, and thus
pasteurized water is sufficient for drinking purposes. For E.coli, a pathogen causing
diarrhea, pasteurization occurs above 70 0 C (Wegelin et al, 1994).
Microbial inactivation is also possible at temperatures below pasteurization
temperatures. Between 20 to 40 0 C, the inactivation rate of fecal coliforms remains
constant (Wegelin et al, 1994). Above temperatures of 50 0 C, microbial inactivation is
enhanced through the synergistic effects of UV and temperature. At temperatures lower
than 20 0 C however, the thermal inactivation effects are negligible and therefore
photobiologic effects (i.e. UV and photo-oxidative) are the main modes of disinfection.
The temperature of the SODIS system is increased by the absorbance of both long
and short wave radiation by the bottle and the water, which then generates heat in the
system. Some of this heat is re-emitted as back-radiation from the bottle into the
atmosphere. Additionally, the system gains or looses heat through convective exchange
with the air. The addition of wind can enhance convective exchange, thus increasing the
rate of heating/cooling. In order to prevent rapid cooling, a wind-shield would be
desirable to protect the bottles from heat loss, provided the shield does not shade the
bottles. Additionally, uneven exposure can cause uneven heating, which causes a thermal
gradient and induces circulation in the bottle (Wegelin et al., 1994).
Because it is difficult to determine when water reaches pasteurization
temperatures without thermometers, a device known as a Temperature Sensor has been
developed for use in developing countries (SANDEC, 2001). This device contains soy
wax, which melts just below pasteurization temperatures. When the wax melts it drops to
the bottom of the indicator, so that even if the water cools again it is obvious that the
threshold temperature was reached.
15
2.1.2 UV Induced DNA Alterations
Another inactivation mechanism of solar disinfection is the direct effects of UV
induced DNA alterations. Ultraviolet radiation is more biologically active than visible
light because it is made of higher energy photons (Parrish et al, 1978). When photons are
absorbed, all of their energy is transferred to the absorbing atom or molecule, which
brings it to an excited state. While in this excited state, changes may occur in the
molecule such as rotation, vibration, or changes to the orbital shells. Ultimately,
photochemical reactions may be induced if the energy of the absorbed photon is greater
than or equal to the activation energy required for a reaction. The typical activation
energy for most biological photochemical reactions is between 40 and 100 kcal/mol,
making UV light highly effective in causing photobiologic effects because of the amount
of energy it contains (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1 Energy associated with various ultraviolet wavelengths (Parrish, et al, 1978)
UV Band
UV-C
UV-B
UV-A
Wavelength
Energy (kcal/mol)
200
250
280
300
360
143
114
102
95
79
420
72
The alteration of DNA molecules by UV radiation is the result of photochemical
reactions within the cell. The peak amount of energy that can be absorbed by many
bacteria corresponds to a wavelength of 260 nm, which is the maximum for absorbance
by aromatic amino acid residues and their proteins (Parrish et al, 1978). Therefore, it
appears that UV-C and UV-B radiation would be the most effective in the inactivation
and killing of bacteria through photochemical alteration of cellular DNA. However,
studies have shown that 104-105 times more UV-A radiation (either intensity or exposure
time) can have the same inactivation effect as the lower wavelengths.
16
Because DNA has a maximum UV absorbance of approximately 260 nm,
exposure to radiation of lower wavelengths causes mutagenesis, resulting in death of the
cell (Raven and Johnson, 1996). UV light absorbed by microbial DNA causes the
covalent bonding of adjacent bases (commonly thymine-thymine, cystosine-cystosine,
and thymine-cystosine), which form pyrimidine dimers (Figure 2.2) (Parrish et al, 1978).
DNA replication is prevented by this mutation because nucleotides either cannot properly
pair with the thymine dimers, or the dimers are replaced with faulty base pairs. If these
mutations are perpetuated they prevent protein synthesis, which blocks metabolism and
causes the organism to die.
Figure 2.2 Formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA
Additionally, hydrated pyrimidines, cross-linked DNA, DNA strand breakage,
local disruption of hydrogen bonds, and changes to RNA can occur when cells are
irradiated with UV (Parrish et al, 1978). All of these result in disrupted RNA synthesis
and cell replication, likely resulting in death. Cell protein structure; and enzyme activity
are also affected by UV irradiation, but in comparison to the effects of DNA disruption,
they are negligible.
Some microorganisms have adapted to UV exposure by the production of repair
enzymes and protective pigments. In most microbial populations the resistant fraction
comprises only 0.01 percent, though some studies suggest it can be as high as 10 percent
for certain species (Kowalski and Bahnfleth, 2000). In cases of massive exposure,
damage is too extensive for these mechanisms to repair. UV-A radiation has also been
17
shown to damage these DNA repair mechanisms (Parrish et al, 1978). For example, the
photoreactivating enzyme is both destroyed and activated by UV-A, and excision repair
and single strand break repair mechanisms may be inhibited. Additionally, UV-A of
about 365nm appears to alter active transport processes, proteins, and other enzyme
activities.
According to SANDEC News, No. 3, total solar energy of 555 W/m 2 is necessary
to induce these lethal UV effects at temperatures between 20-40C. This is equivalent to
mid-latitude, midday summer sunshine (Wegelin, 1994). At temperatures of 50'C, only
one-third as much energy is required for equivalent disinfection. Therefore, exposure to
sunlight of lower intensity for longer periods of time would provide the same amount of
total energy as higher intensity sunlight for a shorter period of time. Therefore, for the
application of SODIS, the less radiation that is available, the longer exposure time is
necessary to achieve sufficient microbial inactivation.
Solar radiation also attenuates with depth through water. Therefore, shallower
water parcels will be exposed to more intense radiation than deeper parcels. However,
circulation induced by the thermal gradient would ensure that each water parcel is
exposed to direct radiation (Wegelin et al., 1994).
2.1.3 Photo-Oxidative Disinfection
A third mechanism of disinfection that is utilized by the SODIS system is photooxidative disinfection. Highly reactive forms of oxygen, including oxygen free radicals
and hydrogen peroxides, are formed in well-oxygenated water when exposed to sunlight
(SANDEC, 2001). These species are so reactive that they can cause serious damage to
living cells if formed in significant amounts (McKee and McKee, 1999). These reactive
forms of oxygen inactivate microorganisms by oxidizing microbial cellular components,
such as nucleic acids, enzymes, and membrane lipids (Reed, 1996). This damage results
in enzyme inactivation, polysaccharide depolymerization, DNA breakage, and membrane
18
destruction. These mechanisms either prevent proper cell replication or cause mutations,
which are propagated through replication.
2.2 Required Conditions for SODIS
2.2.1 Weather and Climate
The optimal region for use of SODIS is between 150 and 35 N latitude (Figure
2.3), a region characterized by high solar radiation and limited cloud coverage (the
second most optimal region for SODIS is between the equator and 15'N latitude)
(SANDEC, 2001). It should be noted that the majority of developing countries lie within
this region. According to SANDEC, within this region and during optimal weather
conditions (less than 50 percent cloudy), the contaminated water needs to be exposed for
6 hours to achieve total disinfection. If the sky is more than 50 percent cloudy, or the
bottle water temperature does not exceed 420 C (necessary to induce synergistic effects),
the bottle should be exposed for two consecutive days.
PIME MERNDAN
a,
EQUATOR
EQUATC
Figure 2.3 Effective area for SODIS application.
For practical application of SODIS in developing countries, where there is no
accurate way of judging cloud cover or bottle water temperature, an exposure time of two
days has been recommended as the standard SODIS procedure (Oates, 2001). Outside of
the regions mentioned above, SODIS works sub-optimally because of the limited
19
availability of solar radiation and the colder climate. Often longer exposure can ensure
the effectiveness of SODIS under these conditions, as the UV and photo-oxidative effects
of the sunlight dominate the disinfection process, as opposed to thermal effects.
However, the optimal length of exposure under different conditions has not been
extensively investigated in the literature.
2.2.2
Turbidity
In order for SODIS to be effective, the water must be relatively clear (turbidity
less than 30 NTU) (SANDEC, 2001). This is because suspended particles in the water
can absorb solar radiation, thus reducing the depth to which solar radiation penetrates and
protecting some microorganisms from radiation. Therefore, water with turbidity greater
than 30 NTU would need to be filtered or bottle water temperature of 50'C must be
reached in order to achieve pasteurization.
In order to overcome the technical burden of exactly measuring turbidity,
SANDEC has developed a simple method for determining whether or not water is
suitable for SODIS. For this method, a full bottle is placed on top of the white SODIS
logo in the shade. If the logo can be seen through the bottle, then the turbidity can be
assumed to be less than 30 NTU. If the results are questionable, a higher turbidity should
be assumed and the water treated accordingly (SANDEC, 2001). Such treatment may
necessitate filtration, though usually allowing particles to settle and decanting the water
off the top is sufficient.
2.2.3 Oxygen
In order to maximize the production of photo-oxidative species in the water, it is
necessary to make sure the water is well aerated. In order to do this, one can shake the
bottle when it is only half full, and then fill it completely (SANDEC, 2001). This
technique should especially be applied to stagnant waters, such as from cisterns and
wells. Reed (1997) recommends repeating this process hourly to ensure aeration is
maintained. However, the effectiveness of this repeated agitation has been questioned by
20
Kehoe, et al. (2001). They found that repeated agitation had no effect on the amount of
inactivation achieved.
2.2.4 Container Material and Design
The most common type of container used for SODIS are PET (PolyEthylene
Terepthalate) bottles. These bottles are preferred because they are commonly available,
more lightweight and durable than glass, and are more chemically stable than other
plastics. However, glass bottles have higher transmittance than plastic bottles (75 percent
for glass versus 70 percent for plastic), so some transmittance is lost in using plastic
bottles. Plastic bags have an even higher transmittance (90 percent), but are significantly
less durable than either glass or plastic bottles and are also difficult to use.
PET bottles can easily be distinguished from other bottles because of its clear
appearance as compared to PVC, which has a bluish gleam. Additionally, PET bums
more easily than PVC and the smell is sweeter than that of PVC. However, one
significant drawback to the use of these bottles in comparison to glass is the rate at which
they age due to mechanical scratches and the production of photoproducts, which leads to
a reduction of UV transmittance (SANDEC, 2001). Because these bottles are commonly
available in the developing world, this is not considered a significant problem because
aged bottles can be easily replaced.
Another concern with the use of PET bottles is the possible formation of
photoproducts on the plastic material as a result of UV-irradiation. These photoproducts
are the result of the migration of additives out of the material, such as the UV stabilizers
that are used to increase the plastics stability (SANDEC, 2001). However, in PET these
additives are used less than in PVC (less than one percent of the PET components).
Laboratory and field test addressing this concern have shown that these products are
generated only on the outer surface of the bottles, and no migration into the water was
observed.
21
In addition to the container material, one must also consider the size and shape of
container most effective for SODIS. Because UV radiation attenuates with depth (50
percent attenuation at 10 cm with turbidity of 26 NTU), containers with a large exposed
surface area to volume ratio are recommended. PET bottles used for SODIS have a suboptimal shape because this ratio is small (SANDEC, 2001). With a water depth of 610cm, the water is not as evenly exposed to radiation as in a flatter container, such as a
bag. However, this uneven exposure can cause uneven heating, which causes a thermal
gradient and induces circulation in the bottle, which would ensure that each water parcel
is exposed to direct radiation at some time (Wegelin et al., 1994). Thus, although
containers with a larger exposed area to volume ratio would be more efficient, in the
developing world, one must learn to efficiently use whatever is available.
2.3 Limitations
Although SODIS seems to be the ideal solution for drinking water disinfection, as
it requires no chemicals or technical expertise, it does have limitations. First, SODIS does
not improve the chemical water quality, though studies are being undertaken to assess the
effectiveness of UV-radiation in arsenic abatement, nor does it change the smell or taste
of the water (SANDEC, 2001). The effectiveness of SODIS is also dependent on climate
and certain water quality parameters, such as turbidity and dissolved oxygen, as discussed
above. However, the user can easily adjust both of these parameters so that SODIS is
effective (filtering/settling to reduce turbidity, mixing to increase oxygen). Additionally,
SODIS offers only a very limited production capacity because of the limitations to bottle
size/shape available, and therefore may not be a feasible solution for generating large
quantities of clean water.
22
3 Research Goals
In order to assess the applicability of SODIS to colder climates, it is necessary to
investigate possible ways of modifying the present system so as to make most efficient
use of the available conditions. Though the area in which SODIS should be applicable
based on the amount of available sunlight is very broad, some of the locations that fall
within this region occasionally experience climate conditions not optimal for SODIS use
due to elevation and seasonal variances. For example, the winter season has higher
cloud cover associated with colder temperatures, during which SODIS may not be
effective. Additionally, at higher altitudes, although sunlight intensity may be stronger,
cloud cover is also much more common and temperatures much cooler.
Two possible methods to ensure that SODIS is effective under the conditions of
lower temperatures and sunlight intensity are: 1) to enhance the heating capacity of the
bottle or 2) to increase the amount of radiation incident on the system. The former can be
achieved by painting the bottles with black paint, which absorbs solar radiation and
converts it to heat energy. The later can be achieved through the use of solar reflectors to
gather and focus UV onto the bottle. The purpose of this thesis was to investigate the
effectiveness of both of these methods in sub-optimal climate conditions.
3.1 UV enhancement
Most metals are good reflectors for both visible and ultraviolet light (Koller,
1952). The efficiency of reflection depends on the cleanliness of the surface and absence
of impurities. Aluminum is one of the most commonly used reflective metals because it is
relatively inexpensive, easy to use, and resistant to corrosion. It is considered one of the
most suitable for UV applications (Parrish, 1978). The shape of the reflector also
influences the effectiveness of reflection. Parabolic reflectors are particularly good for
focusing light on one point. However, their round shape would not efficiently focus light
23
on the elongated SODIS bottles. Flat reflectors on the other hand, are less efficient
because they do not focus the light at all.
The reflector used in this study consists of two parallel "slings" of reflective
material supported by rope (clothesline) hung between two wooden base pieces (Figure
3.1). One reflector was built using aluminum coated mylar and another was built using
materials that would be available in a developing country (aluminum foil supported by a
plain brown paper). Each "sling" held three bottles end-to-end (for a total of six bottles
per reflector). The reflector should be oriented parallel to the path of the sun
(approximately east to west) so as to minimize shadows (Figure 3.2).
Supporting
Ropes
Figure 3.1 Top view of solar reflector used
Figure 3.2 Solar reflectors, Left: aluminum foil, Right: aluminum mylar
All reflectors use in this study were built at MIT and designed to be transportable,
and so had to be light and compact. Therefore, these reflectors consisted of numerous
24
small parts, which were easy to reassemble (see assembly instructions in the research
plan in Appendix I) The dimensions of such reflectors could be optimized based on the
size of the bottles used, however, the bottle size for each location of this study was not
known at the time the reflectors were built. Therefore they may not have been as effective
as was possible, though it is estimated that no more than 20 percent effectiveness was
lost.
3.2 Thermal enhancement
The recommended SODIS procedures call for painting bottles half black to
enhance the heat absorbance capacity of the system (SANDEC, 2001). Theoretically, this
increases the bottle water temperature by 50C by absorbing extra radiation. However,
the amount of temperature increase is dependent on the available amount of radiation to
be absorbed and the area and orientation of the surface painted black. This study
investigated the thermal enhancing effects of painting bottles both half black and fully
black to see if threshold temperatures could be reached despite low ambient air
temperatures in areas where radiation is abundant. The bottles were painted using locally
available flat black paint, following the procedure outlined in the research plan in
Appendix I.
The purpose of painting the bottles half black is allow for both thermal
enhancement as well as UV disinfection, whereas the fully painted bottle will rely on
thermal inactivation alone. Therefore the fully painted bottles must reach the threshold
temperature of 50 0C to achieve disinfection. These temperatures were not necessary in
the clear and half painted bottles because UV disinfection would be active in these
bottles.
The main mechanism of heat gain in the SODIS system is the absorbance of solar
radiation. Additionally, if the ambient air temperature is greater than the bottle water
temperature, some heat gain will be made through natural convection. However, because
the amount of convection over two bottles of the same size would be equal, the difference
25
in temperature reached in the fully painted bottle versus the half-painted bottle is mainly
dependent on the difference in the amount of radiation absorbed by the different systems.
Therefore, it is also possible that the use of a solar collector/reflector could contribute to
increased bottle water temperatures by increasing the amount of radiation incident on the
bottles.
3.3 Bottle Water Temperature model
In addition to evaluating the above techniques for enhancing the effects of
SODIS, this project also developed a mathematical model for the bottle water
temperature under various conditions. Such a model would be useful for evaluating the
suitability of SODIS in a particular locale and the techniques that should be used to
enhance its effectiveness. The model is dependent on the local weather conditions over
the appropriate period of time:
Ta(t)
ambient air temperature [K]
R(t)
total solar radiation [W/m 2]
U(t)
=
wind speed [m/s]
In order to achieve an accurate model of the exact bottle water temperature under
given conditions, these parameters must be monitored in situ. However, for the purposes
of evaluating the effectiveness of SODIS, approximate weather conditions can be
generated using a weather model or gathered from a local weather station to estimate
best- and worst-case scenarios.
The model is also dependant on characteristics of the bottle and the water,
including:
D = bottle diameter [m]
x = bottle thickness [m]
kp= thermal conductivity of plastic [W/mK]
M
=
mass of water [g]
26
CN = heat capacity of water [J/gK]
This model cannot substitute for in situ field tests to evaluate the actual
effectiveness of SODIS. These tests are still necessary to make recommendations for
factors that are more site specific, such as exposure time and necessary water pretreatment. However, the results of the model can predict whether thermal enhancement
measures would be effective or not.
There are four main heat flux components to this model: (1) heat generated by
short-wave radiation absorbed by the system (QR), (2) heat gain through absorption of
long-wave radiation (QL), (3) heat loss through long-wave radiation from the system (Qb),
and (4) heat gain/loss by convection (Qc). Therefore, at each time step the net heat
flux into the system (QT) is the sum of these quantities:
QT = QR + QL + QC - Qb
(Equation 1)
The net heat flux can then be used to find the change in bottle water temperature
over a single time step:
dT =
QT
C_-M
dt
(Equation 2)
where dt is the length of the time step used, in seconds. It should be noted that in
comparison to the mass of the water, the mass of the bottle, and thus the heat capacity of
the bottle, is negligible.
3.3.1 Absorption of short-wave radiation
The main difference in the bottle water temperature in the painted versus unpainted bottles will be the amount of short-wave solar radiation absorbed (i.e.
wavelengths shorter than 3000nm). Each regime will absorb a different amount of solar
energy based on the amount of surface area painted black (Figure 3.3).
27
Legend
Solar radiation
->
SUN
Attenuating radiation
> Reflection
Heat radiation
Clear bottle
Half-painted
Fully painted
bottle
bottle
Figure 3.3 Diagram of short-wave solar radiation absorbed by the different bottle regimes
Ideally, the fully painted bottle will absorb all available radiation, and thus the
heat flux into the bottle due to solar radiation would be equal to:
QR = R-Ax
(Equation 3)
where Ax is the cross-sectional area of the bottle, over which direct radiation is
absorbed. In part this equation will underestimate the heat flux because it does not
account for scattered radiation absorbed by the system. However, it is also an
overestimate because it assumes 100 percent efficiency.
For the half painted bottle not all radiation is absorbed because some radiation is
reflected off the unpainted surface. Therefore, for the half painted bottle, the amount of
solar radiation absorbed is determined by:
QR = (1-s)-R-Ax
(Equation 4)
where , is the percent of the total solar radiation reflected by the bottle.
28
The water in the clear bottle will also absorb some radiation, which is why the
intensity of the radiation attenuates with depth as mentioned in Section 2.1.2. For the
clear bottle, there will also be reflection off the clear surface. Therefore, the amount of
radiation absorbed by the clear bottle system is calculated by:
QR = m-(1-z)-R-Ax
(Equation 5)
where r9 is percent radiation attenuation.
3.3.2 Absorptionand emission of long-wave radiation
In addition to short-wave radiation, long-wave radiation also has the potential
affect the amount of heat in the system. The amount of radiation transmitted through the
material is dependent on the properties of the material. All the radiation that is
transmitted through the plastic will be absorbed by the water. This amount is determined
by:
QL= aaTa4 -As
(Equation 6)
where c is the percent of long-wave radiation that is transmitted by the bottle, cY is
the Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.67E-8), Ta is the ambient air temperature and A, is the
total surface area of the bottle through which radiation can be absorbed.
The amount of long-wave radiation lost by the system (often referred to as back
radiation) is determined through a similar calculation:
Qb=
s--Ts 4 -As
(Equation 7)
Where c is the bottle emissivity, and T, is the bottle surface temperature.
29
3.3.3 Convection
The direction of heat flow due to convection is dependent on the thermal gradient
across the bottle wall. If the air temperature is warmer than the bottle water temperature,
than the direction will be into the bottle, but if the air is cooler than the water, heat flow
will be out of the bottle. The rate of this heat flow is enhanced by wind flow over the
bottle, which increases the number of parcels of air that come in contact with the bottle
(Figure 3.4).
Wind*T
Figure 3.4. Diagram of convective heat exchange with wind
For an open water surface, this heat exchange would be governed by the equation
for convective heat loss. However, because the plastic bottle acts as a resistor to heat
flow, the equation for conductive heat loss is more applicable
Qcond -=
X
(Equation 7)
where Ts is the temperature on the outer surface of the bottle, Tw is the bottle
water temperature, kP is the thermal conductivity of the plastic, As is the surface area of
the bottle and x is the thickness of the plastic. Ts can be found by equating conductive
heat flow through the bottle to convective heat flow across the bottle surface (Figure 3.5):
s
T
Tw
Figure 3.5 Diagram of convection and conduction
30
Qconv
=
h-A-(Ta-Ts)
(Equation 9)
Qcond = Qconv
hA(TaTs) =
(Equation 8)
(Ts-T)-kp-A
X
(Equation 10)
where h =Nu-ka/D, Nu is the Nusselt number (as calculated in Appendix
III), and D is the bottle diameter. Therefore,
{((Nu ka/D) -Ta) + (kpT,/x)}
{ (kp/x)+ (Nu-ka/D) }
The Nusselt number is dependent on the type of convection (free versus forced)
and the shape of the surface over which convection is occurring. Convection over the end
of the bottle will be different than convection over the cylinder. Therefore, different
calculations must be made for convection over the end and convection over the cylinder,
and then summed to find the total convection.
3.4 Summary of Research Goals
The main goal of this thesis was to evaluate SOLar DISinfection for use in nontropical climates. Two methods for enhancing its effectiveness under such conditions
were investigated: 1) use of black paint to enhance the thermal effectiveness of the
system, and 2) use of solar reflectors to enhance the optical effectiveness of the system.
In addition, a simple model for predicting the bottle water temperature was developed
and evaluated to supplement in situ studies and pre-determine the type of exposure
regime that would be most effective in a given climate.
31
4 Research Outline
4.1 Location, Climate and Water Supply
Experiments for this study were carried out during the months of January,
February, and March 2002. The month of January was spent conducting studies in two
locations in Haiti: the rural community of Barasa and the more urban center of Dumay.
Follow-up studies were then conducted throughout February and March in Boston,
Massachusetts, USA. All of Haiti falls within the optimal latitudes for application for
SODIS, and so the locations in Haiti were chosen based on their disparate weather
conditions, which are due mainly to differences in elevation.
The process for collecting water from the source and transferring it into the
SODIS bottles varied with location and ease of access to the source. In some cases
samples were taken directly from the source, but in others an intermediate storage
container was used. In all cases, background samples for each run were collected at the
same time and in the same manner as the filling of the bottles. Additionally, water
turbidity measurements were taken before, during and after sample collection using a
Hacho Pocket Turbidimeter (accurate to -1 NTU) to ensure that the water was clear
enough for effective SODIS application.
4.1.1 Barasa
Barasa is located in the southeastern part of Haiti, near the border of the
Dominican Republic. The elevation in Barasa is approximately 1,400 feet. This is a
mountainous region, characterized by cooler temperatures but more intense solar
radiation than Dumay. The daily weather conditions observed usually consisted of
approximately half a day of full sunshine (though it varied between morning and
afternoon hours) and half a day of partly cloudy or fully overcast skies. The average daily
ambient air temperature peaked at about 28 0C around 1pm, and radiation peaked at
around 770 W/m 2 a 12:30pm (Figure 4.1).
32
Climate conditions in Barasa
Air temperature
m
30
s
Radiation
5
25
25
-
800
20-
-
600
15
400
0.
0
E) 101/
- 200
5
0
0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
hour
Figure 4.1 Average daily temperature and radiaiton profiles for Barasa
Barasa is located in a rural area where there is no access to running water or
electricity. Therefore the people in Barasa do not have access to treated water, except for
a few families with the Gift of Water, Inc. filtration system. Their main water supplies are
cisterns or a nearby spring, Soos San Louis (Figure 4.2). This spring is difficult to access,
not only because of its distance from the community, but also because it is located at the
bottom of a steep ravine. The spring is highly contaminated, mainly from the fecal matter
of pack animals used to transport water back to community members homes.
33
Figure 4.2 Pictures of Barasa community water source
Experiments in Barasa were carried out on the roof of the local school so as to
avoid disruption by animals or children. The water used for this study was a combination
of water from the spring and a nearby cistern. It was collected in large quantities
approximately three times throughout the study and stored in large plastic tubs in an
empty classroom of the school (Figure 4.3). The SODIS bottles were then filled using a
spigoted bucket, following the shaking procedure recommended in Section 2.2.3 to
ensure aeration. The average turbidity of the water was 5.8 NTU (Table 4.1), well below
the 30 NTU recommended for SODIS to be effective. However, the turbidity peaked at
16.6 NTU on the third day of sample collection, possibly due to agitation of the water
which resuspended settled particles, and would otherwise have been only 3.6 NTU.
Figure 4.3 Temporary water storage for experiments in Barasa
34
Table 4.1 WaterTurbidity Data for Barasa
Run
1:1/17
1/18
2: 1/20
1/21
3: 1/23
1/24
1
2
3
3.5
3.5
4.1
3.5
4.9 2.9
18.2 16.9 14.8
3.6
6.4 4.5
0.6
0.3
8.6
3.8
2.6
1.1
Average:
Average without data from 1/20:
5-hour
1-&2-day
5-hour
1-&2-day
5-hour
1-&2-day
Ave
3.7
3.8
16.6
4.8
3.2
2.5
5.8
3.6
4.1.2 Dumay
Dumay is located near the city of Port-au Prince, at the base of the southern
claw of Haiti. Living conditions in Dumay are much better than in Barasa because of its
proximity to the metropolis. Many homes have private wells or are connected to the
public water supply. Additionally, treated water is released (on average three times) daily
from public access facilities. Those who do not have access to these facilities collect
water from local wells and streams.
Weather conditions are much hotter in Dumay because it is at a lower elevation
(very near sea level) and does not benefit from the trade winds that cross the more
mountainous regions. During the 5-hour duration of this experiment the sky was clear,
there was little breeze, and sunlight was intense. The ambient air temperature peaked at
470 C at 1pm (Figure 4.2). Radiation measurements from this location are not available
due to equipment difficulties, but have been assumed to be on the same order of
magnitude of daily radiation in Barasa. Experiments were carried out on the roof of
Pastor Nathan Dieudonne s house.
35
Ambient Air Temperature in Dumay
50
454035302 25
0. 20
E
S15
10
5
010
11
12
13
14
15
hour
Figure 4.4 Ambient air temperature profile for Dumay
The water used for this study was collected directly from a local stream found
running along the streets in a more rural section of the city. Downstream from the site of
sample collection, women were found to be doing their laundry, implying that this is a
common water source for the local community. Due to the number of poultry and other
animals nearby, it can be inferred that fecal matter also contaminated the stream. The
same aeration method as used in Barasa was applied during sample collection. The
average turbidity of this source was 25.2 NTU, also below the 30 NTU threshold for
effective SODIS application.
4.1.3 Boston
Boston is located at 42"N latitude, outside the recommended region for SODIS.
Water supply and sanitation is not a problem in Boston, as it is an urban center of the
developed world. Most residents have access to a reliable treated water supply or private
wells. However, contamination is still a problem for area surface waters due to run off
from streets, sewer overflows, and point sources. The source used for this experiment was
the Charles River, which flows between the cities of Boston and Cambridge
36
Massachusetts, and past the MIT campus where the experiments were conducted.
Turbidity measurements are not available for this source because the equipment was not
available. However, all samples did pass the SODIS water clarity test, described in
Section 2.2.2.
The weather in Boston during the time of this study was typical for the winter
season in the northern hemisphere. Cold (near freezing) temperatures were observed,
peaking at 12*C around 2:30pm, and overcast skies limited available radiation to less than
400 W/m 2 . Because temperature and radiation measurements were taken less frequently
than in Barasa, however, the exact peak radiation is not known (Figure 4.3). Additionally,
because experiments were carried out on the roof of a four-story building, it was also
subject to a constant breeze, which caused additional cooling of the bottles.
Climate Conditions in Boston
14.00
-
1-
Air temrperature
+
Radiat ion
12.00
300
10.00
0
(D
250
8.00
-.-
C-
-
0
200
.2
-Z-
6.00
150
4.00
-----6.0-7.0-8.-
100
2.00
50
0.00
1 H.O0 11.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
15.00
16.00
17.00
18.00
0
19.(00
hour
Figure 4.5 Average daily temperature and radiation profiles for Boston
37
4.2 Exposure and Monitoring
Nine different SODIS regimes (outlined in Table 4.2) were tested in Barasa.
Duplicates were made of the bottles without a reflector and with the aluminum mylar
reflector for quality control. Duplicates were not made of the bottles on the aluminum foil
reflector due to lack of space. Each regime was tested over 5-hour, 1-day (7-8 hours), and
2-day (two 7-8 hour) exposure periods. Three complete sampling runs (including all
regimes and exposure times) were completed, with the first day of the two-day exposure
overlapping with the 1-day exposure (Figure 4.6).
Table 4.2 Overview of experimental SODIS regimes and their purposes
Without Reflector
Reflector 1:
Aluminum mylar
Reflector 2:
Aluminum foil
Sunday
15
Monda
16
Regime
Clear bottle
black paint
Fully painted
Clear bottle
black paint
Fully painted
Clear bottle
black paint
Fully painted
Tuesday
17
Data label
C-a
C-b
C-c
UV1-a
UV1-b
UV1-c
UV2-a
UV2-b
UV2-c
Purpose
UV
UV and enhanced temperature
Enhanced temperature
Enhanced UV
Enhanced UV and temperature
Enhanced temperature
Enhanced UV
Enhanced UV and temperature
Enhanced temperature
January 2002
Wednesday Thursday
18
19
Friday
20
5-hour
Saturday
21
1-day
2-day (1)
2-day (2)
Run 1
22
23
5-hour
24
1-day
2-day (2)
2-d
11)
Run_2
25
26
5-hour
27
1-day
28
2-day (2)
Run 3
Figure 4.6 Calendar of research in Barasa
Only the aluminum foil reflector was used in Boston and Dumay because
observations made in Barasa determined there was no significant difference between it
and the mylar reflector. Therefore, only seven exposure regimes were tested in Dumay
38
and Boston. Additionally, duplicate bottles were not used, but duplicate microbial
samples were taken instead. Only one 5-hour exposure regime was completed in Dumay.
Two complete sampling runs, plus additional 1- and 2-day exposures were completed in
Boston (Figure 4.7).
Sunday
Monda
Tuesda
March 2002
Wednesday
Thursda
Friday
1
Saturday
2
5-hour
2-day (1)
3
4
5
6
5-hour
2-day (1)
7
1-day
2-day (2)
Run
9
8
1-day
2-day (1)
Run2
1-day
2-day (2)
1
1-day
2-day (2)
Run 3
Figure 4.7 Calendar of research in Boston
Temperature data was collected from every bottle hourly in Barasa and Dumay,
and at least three times a day in Boston. A CheckTemp electronic thermometer from
Hanna Instruments, which has an accuracy of ±0.3'C between -20 to 90C, was used for
making these measurements. In order to prevent cross contamination during this process,
the thermometer was rinsed with boiled water between samples (see research plan in
Appendix I.). Ambient air temperature was also recorded each time bottle water
temperature measurements were taken.
Radiation data was collected hourly in Barasa using a Kipp & Zonen Solar
Radiation Measurement System (Figure 4.8). This device measures total solar radiation
between the wavelengths of 300 to 2800nm, which includes most UV-B, UV-A, visible,
and some infrared radiation. The instrument detects both incoming direct solar radiation
and reflected radiation. It works with a one percent accuracy between the temperatures of
-40 to 80 0 C. Radiation data was not collected in Dumay due to equipment malfunction,
and was collected with the same frequency as temperature data in Boston.
39
Figure 4.8 Kipp & Zonen Solar Radiation Measurement System
4.2.1 MicrobialAnalysis
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of each exposure regime, it is necessary to
determine the amount of microbial inactivation achieved. In order to do this, both treated
and untreated water samples were analyzed using the membrane filtration test
methodology (Figure 4.9). In this test, a measured amount of water is passed through a
membrane filter (pore size 0.45 gm), which traps the bacteria contained in the sample on
a paper filter (Maier, 2000). This filter is then placed on a thin absorbent pad in a petri
dish saturated with a culture media specific to a desired indicator organism. The samples
are then incubated at 35*C for 18-24 hours to stimulate growth of microbial colonies
present.
Figure 4.9 Microanalysis equipment
40
The indicator organisms used in this study were E.coli and Total Coliforms. These
bacteria normally occur in the intestines of warm-blooded animals and are thus a
commonly used indicator of fecal contamination (Maier, 2000). These organisms are also
generally hardier than disease causing bacteria, and therefore their absence is a reliable
indicator of the absence of other organisms of real concern. Previous extensive research
has shown that the absence of these organisms from 10OmL of drinking water ensures the
prevention of bacterial waterborne disease outbreaks. The culture media used was m-coli
blue broth from Millipore Corporation, on which E.coli colonies grow blue and Total
Coliform colonies grow red.
The exact process for the membrane filtration technique used in this study is
outlined in the research plan in Appendix I. It was necessary to dilute samples with boiled
water so that the number of colonies that grew was countable by hand. In Barasa, the first
5-hour run was uncountable because the samples were not diluted and therefore the plates
were overgrown by Total Coliforms. Because the need to dilute samples was not
anticipated, proper measuring devices were not available. Therefore, the 1 OmL dilution
used in Barasa was estimated as halfway to the 20mL mark on the filtration cup. In both
Dumay and Boston, the 20mL mark on the sample filtration cup was used, and is
therefore more accurate. However, it is not anticipated that any inaccuracies in dilution
will have a large effect on calculations because of the order of magnitude differences
between samples being compared.
Blanks were run for quality control purposes using sterile water and the boiled
water used for dilution. The plates were incubated for 24 hours in a phase change
incubator, provided by Amy Smith of the MIT Edgerton Center. This incubator does not
require electricity, but instead maintains a constant temperature by taking advantage of
the phase-change behavior of a material whose melting point is at the incubation
temperature required. Once the material is melted, it keeps a constant temperature until it
completely solidifies again (Smith, 2002). Therefore, the only energy input necessary to
use this incubator was the heat necessary to initially melt the material - which was done
by warming it in a pot of boiling water (see instructions for use in Appendix I). After 24
41
hours of incubation, the E coli and Total Coliform colonies on each plate were counted
and normalized to a 1 OOmL sample by multiplying by the dilution factor. The membrane
filtration technique gives a measure of the absolute number of bacteria present in the
sample, so that the percent kill for each regime could then be calculated.
42
5 Results
5.1 Bottle Water Temperature
The bottle water temperature for the different regimes and different locations
varied greatly because of the thermal enhancement techniques used and the local weather
conditions. However, consistent trends with the time of day were observed within the
same regime at the same location over different length exposure periods. Therefore, in
order to provide a more representative profile of the average bottle water temperature, the
data from all exposures (5-hour, 1-day, 2-day (day 1), and 2-day (day 2)) were combined.
Individual daily data and data summaries are provided in Appendix II. Following are the
resulting temperature profiles for each location in which the study was conducted.
5.1.1 Barasa
Bottle Water temperatures in Barasa did not ever exceed the threshold of 50 0 C
required for significant thermal disinfection. The temperatures of the bottles on either
reflector were not significantly different (i.e. the standard deviation was less than the
accuracy of the thermometer) from their counterparts without a reflector. Therefore, the
temperature profiles of all three regimes (and duplicate bottles) were averaged in creating
the average daily temperature profile (Figure 5.1).
43
Barasa Temperature profile
Ambient
-a Half-painted
40 -
38-
A Full Painted
36 -
*Clear
32
230
0.28
26
24
22
10
12
14
16
18
time of day (hou)
Figure 5.1 Bottle water temperature profile for Barasa
As illustrated in Figure 5.1, the temperature profile of the half-painted bottles was
very similar to that of the fully painted bottles. The bottle water temperature in the clear
bottle peaked at around 30 0 C, which is not significantly warmer than the ambient air
temperature. The bottle water temperature of both the half-painted and fully painted
bottles peaked around 38 0 C, approximately 1 OC higher than the ambient air temperature.
Therefore, a temperature increase of 8 0C was achieved by painting the bottles -
3C more
than indicated in the literature. All of the bottles reached their peak temperatures
approximately one hour later than the peak ambient air temperature and radiation.
5.1.2 Dumay
The SODIS experiments carried out in Dumay reached much higher temperatures
than those in Barasa. This can be attributed to the much warmer and calmer weather
conditions observed in Dumay. However, because only one 5-hour experiment was
carried out in Dumay, the data is much less representative than that collected in Barasa.
As in Barasa, the water temperature of bottles on the reflector were not significantly
44
different from their counterparts, and therefore these data were grouped in creating the
temperature profile for each regime (Figure 5.2).
Dumay Temperature Profile
ambent
60
=-half painted
55
A
50
0
A
A
full painted
U
40
E 35
30
25
20
10
12
14
16
time of day (hou)
Figure 5.2 Bottle water temperature profile for Dumay
Unlike in Barasa, in Dumay both the painted and half-painted bottle water
temperatures exceeded the threshold temperatures necessary for pasteurization for at least
one hour. The peak temperature in the clear bottle was 44.5'C, also high enough to
induce synergistic thermal effects. The peak temperature reached in the fully painted
bottle was 55 0C and in the half painted bottle it was 51 C. This is therefore an increase of
approximately 10*C for the fully painted bottle and 60 C for the half painted bottle.
Interestingly, the clear bottle water peak temperature was cooler than that of the ambient
air temperature of 470 C. All peak bottle water temperatures were all reached
approximately one hour later than the peak ambient air temperature.
5.1.3 Boston
Temperatures in Boston were significantly cooler than those in either Barasa or
Dumay because of its northern latitude and the time of year. Additionally, temperature
45
was not monitored as regularly as at the other sites, and thus the profile is less defined.
Again, there was no significant difference in temperature between the bottles on the
reflector and those without and so these data were combined to create a more
representative profile. The clear bottles appeared to peak at 1 I0C (Figure 5.3). As in
Barasa, the painted and half-painted bottles had very similar temperature profiles, and
both peaked at 14 0 C, three degrees warmer than the clear bottle, which is not a significant
difference given the accuracy of the equipment.
Boston Temperature profile
*
.........-
15
ambi ent
- --------........c le ar
--half-p ainted
14
A
full pa inted
13
12
IF7
0)
I--
11
10
-
12.13.14.15
-.
9
8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
time (hour)
Figure 5.3 Bottle water temperature profile for Boston
5.1.4 Summary
Overall, given sufficient climate conditions, painting the bottles was effective for
raising the bottle water temperature in this study. Additionally, the amount the
temperature was raised as compared to the clear bottles was greater than was indicated in
the literature (which is likely a conservative estimate). The results are inconclusive on the
effectiveness of painting the bottles half black versus fully black, for in Dumay the
46
temperature increase was different between the two, whereas in Barasa they were very
similar.
However, in Barasa the temperature increase in the half and fully painted bottles
was not sufficient to induce either synergistic effects or pasteurization. The main
difference in climate conditions between Barasa and Dumay was the ambient air
temperature and wind speed. It can be assumed that the amount of available solar
radiation was the same order of magnitude, though measurements for Dumay are not
available. If anything, solar radiation would have been more abundant in Barasa because
of its higher elevation. Additionally, the temperature profile for Dumay is less complete
than that for Barasa, and thus less reliable.
5.2 Microbial inactivation
Unlike the bottle water temperature, the amount of microbial inactivation
observed in each regime varied more with the amount of exposure than the location.
Thus, data from the multiple runs of each exposure length in each location were grouped
in order to provide a more representative data set. Individual data from each run, as well
as data summaries, are provided in Appendix II along with the bottle water temperature
data.
The amount of microbial kill (Nk) was calculated by subtracting the number of
colonies present in the bottle sample (N,) from the number in the background sample (Nb)
collected at the same time (Equation 8). This number was the divided by the background
number, and multiplied by 100 for the percent kill (Pk) (Equation 9).
Nk= Nb- Ns
Pk
=(Nk / Nb )*100
(Equation 8)
(Equation 9)
In some samples the plates were too overgrown to count individual colonies and
were therefore labeled Too Numerous to Count. Therefore, in calculating the percent
47
kill for these samples, the largest number of colonies that was counted for a treated water
sample during that run was used in substitution for N.
5.2.1 Barasa
The amount of microbial inactivation observed in Barasa varied not only with the
exposure regime used, but also with the length of exposure. With 5 hours of exposure 100
percent kill was observed for E.coli in the clear bottle regimes on reflectors (UV 1-a and
UV2-a) (Figure 5.4). Additionally, 96 percent kill for E.coli was observed for the clear
bottle not on a reflector (C-a). Significant kill was also observed for Total Coliforms in
all clear bottle regimes. Additionally, some kill of Total Coliforms was observed in the
half painted bottles (C-b, UVI-b and UV2-b). However, it appeared that there was
growth of E.coli in these bottles, as indicated by negative percent kill, as well as all fully
painted bottles (C-c, UV 1-c and UV2-c).
100
- ----.. ...
5-hour exposure, Barasa
....
m TotalColiforms
- E.coli
80
60
40
20
0
0
01C
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
C-a
C-b
C-c
UV1-a
UV1-b
UV1-c
UV2-a
UV2-b
UV2-c
bottle regime
Figure 5.4 Percent bacteria kill after 5-hours exposure in Barasa
48
For 1-day of exposure, approximately 100 percent kill for E. coli was observed in
all clear and half-painted bottle regimes (Figure 5.5). For Total Coliforms, almost 100
percent (approximately 96 percent) kill was observed in the clear bottles, and significant
kill was observed in the half painted bottles. No siginificant kill was observed in the fully
painted bottles, in fact E.coli growth was again apparent.
1-day exposure, Barasa
MTotal G~liforms
100
* E.coli
80
60
a,
40
(.)
Cu
.0
20
4
0
0
-20
-40
C)
T_
I
-C-a
C-b
C-c
UV1-a
UV1-b
UV1-c
UV2-a
UV2-b
UV2-c
bottle regime
Figure 5.5 Percent bacteria kill after 1-day exposure in Barasa
49
With 2-days of exposure, 100 percent kill for E.coli was observed in all clear and
half-painted bottles (Figure 5.6). Over 80 percent kill for Total Coliforms was also
observed in all these bottles. While significant kill for E.coli was apparent in the fully
painted bottles as well, it was much less significant than for Total Coliforms.
2-day exposure, Barasa
* Total O:,iforms
n E.coli
90 70 0)
C.,
4..
n
50
-
30
-
10-
0
m-r
-10
-
C-a
C-b
C-c
UV1-a
UV1-b
UV1-c
UV2-a
UV2-b
UV2-c
boltle regime
Figure 5.6 Percent bacteria kill after 2-days exposure in Barasa
50
5.2.2 Dumay
The amount of kill observed after 5-hours of exposure in Dumay was much higher
than that observed in Barasa. Greater than 90 percent kill was observed for E.coli in all
bottle regimes, reaching 100 percent in all bottles on the reflector and the half painted
bottle not on the reflector (Figure 5.7). For Total Coliforms, kill greater than 80 percent
was observed in the half painted and fully painted bottle not on the reflector and the half
painted bottle on the reflector. Total Coliform kill was also observed in the clear and half
painted bottles on the reflector. One and two day tests were not conducted in Dumay.
5-hour exposure, Dumay
100
m Total Coliforms
n E.Coli.
-
80600
U
0
4020
C,
0
-I
C-a
C-b
C-c
UV2-a
UV2-b
---I
UV/2-c
boitle regime
Figure 5.7 Percent bacteria kill after 5-hours exposure in Dumay
51
5.2.3 Boston
In Boston, 100 percent kill of E.coli was observed in all clear and half-painted
bottles after the 5-hour exposure (Figure 5.8). Over 80 percent kill for Total Coliforms
was also observed in these bottles. Significant kill was also apparent for E.coli in the
fully painted bottles, but there actually appeared to be growth of Total Coliforms, the
opposite of what was observed in Barasa.
I
_
5-hour exposure, Boston
90
-
70
-
* Total Coliforms
m E.coli
50-
a)
U
(U
.0
30-
0
10-10
-f--
-30
C-a
C-b
C-c
UV2-a
UV2-b
UV2-c
bottle regime
Figure 5.8 Percent bacteria kill after 5-hours exposure in Boston
52
After 1-day exposure, 100 percent E.coli kill was observed in both clear bottles
and over 90 percent kill was observed in the half-painted bottles (Figure 5.9). For Total
Coliforms, the percent kill in the clear bottles was 80 percent, and around 75 percent in
the half-painted bottles. Significant E.coli kill was also observed in the fully painted
bottles.
1-day exposure, Boston
95-
m E.ooli
7555
4)
3515-
C-a
C-b
C-c
UV2-a
UV2-b
UV2-c
bottle regime
Figure 5.9 Percent bacteria kill after
1-day exposure in Boston
53
For 2-days of exposure, 100 percent kill was observed for E.coli in both the clear
and half-painted bottles (Figure 5.10). Additionally, kill greater than 95 percent for Total
Coliforms was also observed in these bottles. Significant kill was observed for E.coli in
the fully painted bottle without a reflector, but growth of both E.coli and Total Coliforms
was actually apparent in the fully painted bottle on the reflector.
2-day exposure, Boston
100 -
.
.
Total Colforms
Ecoli
806040200
-20
C-a
C-b
C-c
UV2-a
UV2-b
UV2-c
botle regime
Figure 5.10 Percent bacteria kill after 2-day exposure in Boston
5.2.4 Summary
Overall, the effectiveness of each exposure regime was related to the length of the
exposure time and location. The clear bottle regimes, both with and without a reflector,
were most effective. Approximately 100 percent E.coli inactivation in all locations
regardless of the duration of the exposure was seen in this regime. Additionally, the half
painted bottle regimes consistently showed significant E.coli inactivation as well, though
the percent inactivation increased with exposure time. The fully painted bottle regimes
were generally not effective, except in Dumay.
54
5.3 Evaluation of Results
5.3.1 Barasa
The conditions observed in Barasa were sub-optimal for SODIS application
because of cool climate conditions, but abundant solar radiation was available. None of
the bottle water temperatures reached 50C necessary for thermal disinfection (Figure
5.11). However, as shown in Figure 5.11, solar radiation was abundant in Barasa, and
exceeded the necessary 500 W/m2 for effective UV-related microbial inactivation. This
would therefore account for the differences in kill observed in the clear and half-painted
bottles, which were exposed to UV radiation, versus the fully painted bottles, which were
not exposed to UV radiation.
I
Bottle Water Temperature and
Climate Condlions for Barasa
- --
40
temp
Ckear bottle
+4-Air
He if Painted
35
*R~ diatimn
30
25
600
X60
9-
a,
FuIly painted
A
+
20
-
---
0
500
400
15
300
10
200
5
100
0
0
0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
time of day (hou)
Figure 5.11 Bottle water temperature and climate conditions in Barasa
5.3.2 Dumay
The conditions in Dumay were ideal for the application of SODIS because not
only was there abundant solar radiation, but the climate was warm as well. Both the half-
55
painted and fully painted bottles exceeded the threshold temperature of 50'C for the onehour required. It is therefore not surprising that significant kill was observed in both of
these bottles. Additionally, it can be assumed that the amount of available solar radiation
was high, therefore also effecting significant kill in the clear bottle as well.
5.3.3 Boston
The conditions in both Boston were again sub-optimal for SODIS application
because of limited solar radiation and extremely cold temperatures. However, the trend in
microbial inactivation was similar to that observed in Barasa. Significant kill was
observed in the clear and half painted bottles, regardless of exposure time, implying that
solar radiation was sufficient for bacterial deactivation, whereas there was no significant
kill in the fully painted bottles.
5.4 Statistical analysis
In order to properly analyze the effectiveness of the different exposure regimes,
two different statistical tests were used to detect trends in the data. The two tests used
were the Mann-Whitney test and the 2-sample t-test. Both of these tests compute and
compare the means of two sample sets and use the sample variances to determine whether
or not they are statistically different within a given confidence interval. If the means of
the two samples are statistically different, then it is assumed the two sample sets are
statistically different within the same confidence interval.
Ideally these tests are applied to large sample sets, which are more representative
of actual conditions. Unfortunately, the amount of data collected in this study was limited
(only 2 data points for each exposure regime per run, therefore 6 total data points per
location for each exposure regime). Because the conditions in Boston and Barasa were
similar in that they did not exceed the threshold temperature, the two data sets were
analyzed individually and grouped. No statistical analysis was conducted on the data
collected in Dumay.
56
Statistical analysis was used to evaluate a number of different parameters and
determine which regimes were worthy of further investigation. Each test compares two
sample sets. The first analysis compared the background microbial concentrations to the
concentrations in the treated water of each regime. The purpose of this analysis was to
determine if the amount of bacterial kill in each regime was in fact significant, and thus
the regime could be considered effective for water treatment. The second analysis
compared the clear and half-painted bottle regimes on the two reflectors to their
counterparts without a reflector. This analysis was used to determine whether or not the
reflector was effective in enhancing microbial deactivation. Finally, the clear and half
painted bottle regimes on the two different reflectors were compared in order to
determine if there was a significant difference in their effectiveness.
5.4.1 Evaluating the Effectiveness of Each Regime
With 5-hours of exposure, only the microbial concentrations in the clear bottle
regimes (both with and without the reflector) and the half-painted bottle regime on the
aluminum foil reflector were statistically different from the background microbial
concentration within a 95 percent confidence interval. Therefore, it can be assumed that
these regimes were effective for microbial deactivation with only 5-hours of exposure.
However, all of the other half-painted bottle regimes were statistically different from the
background microbial concentrations within an 80 percent confidence interval, and thus
could also be considered effective exposure regimes, though less so than the others
mentioned. None of the fully painted bottle regimes in Boston or Barasa had statistically
significant microbial deactivation.
57
Table 5.1 Statistically significant microbial kill after 5-hour exposure
Statistically significant microbial kill?
Yes
No
95% confidence
80 % confidence
interval
interval
No reflector
Clear bottle
Half-painted bottle
V/
Painted bottle
Al mylar reflector
Clear bottle
/
Half-painted bottle
/
Painted bottle
Al foil reflector
Clear bottle
Half-paintedbottle
/
/
Paintedbottle
With 1-day of exposure, both the clear bottle regimes (with and without the
reflector) and the half-painted bottle regimes on either reflector were statistically
different from the background microbial concentration within a 95 percent confidence
interval. Thus, with 1-day of exposure these bottle regimes were effective for microbial
deactivation. The half-painted bottle regime not on a reflector was also statistically
different from the background microbial concentrations, but only within a 90 percent
confidence interval, meaning it is also effective for microbial deactivation. Again, the
fully painted bottles did not have statistically significant microbial deactivation.
58
Table 5.2 Statistically significant microbial kill after 1-day exposure
Statistically significant microbial kill?
Yes
No
(95% confidence interval)
No reflector
Clear bottle
Half-painted bottle
Painted bottle
Al mylar reflector
Clear bottle
Half-painted bottle
Painted bottle
Al foil reflector
Clearbottle
/
Half-paintedbottle
Paintedbottle
V/
For 2-days of exposure, all clear and half-painted bottle regimes had statistically
different microbial concentrations from the background samples, within a 95 percent
confidence. Therefore, all these regimes were equally effective for microbial inactivation.
The analysis determined that the microbial concentrations in the fully painted bottles
were not statistically different form the background concentrations, and thus they were
not effective for microbial inactivation.
59
Table 5.3 Statistically significant microbial kill after 2-day exposure
Statistically significant microbial kill?
Yes
No
(95% confidence interval)
No reflector
Clear bottle
Half-painted bottle
Painted bottle
Al mylar reflector
Clear bottle
V
Half-painted bottle
/
V
Painted bottle
Al foil reflector
Clearbottle
V
Half-paintedbottle
V
Paintedbottle
Overall, only the clear bottle regimes were consistently effective for microbial
inactivation, regardless of exposure time (within those investigated). However, the
effectiveness of the half painted bottle regimes seems to increase with exposure time, and
it also seems to be enhanced by use of the solar reflectors. Additionally, because the
bottle water temperatures in Boston and Barasa did not reach those necessary to either
induce synergistic effects or thermal inactivation, it is possible that the half painted bottle
regimes would be more effective in only slightly warmer climates. The fully painted
bottles were not effective in either Boston or Barasa because threshold temperature for
thermal inactivation was not reached and no UV effects could penetrate the system.
5.4.2 Evaluating the Use of Solar Reflectors
Data was collected daily in Barasa to compare the amount of radiation incident on
a bottle on and off a reflector. Calculations made from these measurements show that the
aluminum mylar reflector increased the apparent sunlight intensity an average of 20
percent. According to the above evaluation, it appears that the reflectors do in fact
enhance the effectiveness of microbial inactivation in the half painted bottles. However,
statistical analysis shows that the microbial concentrations in the clear and half painted
bottle regimes are not statistically different between the bottles on the reflector and not,
60
within a 95 percent confidence interval. This analysis was conducted for each of the 5hour, 1-day, and 2-day exposure data sets within the grouped Boston and Barasa data, as
well as the two individual location data. Additionally, no statistical difference was
detected between the microbial concentrations in the bottles on the two different
reflectors.
5.4.3 Summary
The validity of this statistical analysis is questionable because the sample set is
small and may not be truly representative of the effectiveness of the bottle regimes.
Additionally, the data that was collected contained many samples that had 100 percent
kill. The presence of these zeros and the lack of a normal distribution of the data
greatly skew the mean of the data set. Additional research is necessary to supplement
this data for proper statistical analysis.
While few conclusions can be drawn from the data available about the
effectiveness of the different exposure regimes, it is fairly clear which ones are worthy of
further research. Because the bottle water temperatures of the fully painted bottles was
not significantly different from that of the half painted bottles, and because there was no
significant microbial inactivation in the fully painted bottles, they are not worth further
research. The same temperature gains can be achieved in the half painted bottles, while
still allowing for UV effects.
The clear and half-painted bottle regimes are worthy of further investigation
specifically on their effectiveness in non-tropical climates. In particular, because the clear
bottle regimes were consistently effective with only 5-hours of exposure, their
effectiveness with shorter exposure times and/or less intense radiation should be
investigated. Additionally, the same variable seemed to affect the effectiveness of the
half-painted bottle regimes. However, because there is an abundance of data on the
effectiveness of these two regimes in other locations already, more worthy of further
study is the use of solar reflectors to enhance their effectiveness. In investigating the use
61
of these reflectors, not only should the conditions of this study be repeated, but also
additional exposure times and sunlight intensities.
5.5 Bottle Water Temperature Model
The bottle water temperature model developed as a part of this study was created
using a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (presented in Appendix III). The average air
temperature and radiation data collected in Barasa were used as the climatic inputs to the
model, and so the outputs were compared to the actual bottle water temperature
monitored in Barasa. However, the one-hour time step at which measurements were taken
was found to be too large to achieve accurate calculations with the model, and so the data
was interpolated at 10 minute time steps. Because the wind speed and direction was not
monitored in Barasa, the speed was estimated to be approximately 3.8m/s from
observations using the Beaufort scale (Table 5.1). It was assumed that the wind direction
was perpendicular to the bottles, which would thus overestimate the amount of
convection occurring.
62
Table 5.4 Beaufort Scale (Petterssen, 1969)
Beaufort #
0
1
2
General
description
Calm
Light air
8
Slight
breeze
Gentle
Breeze
Moderate
Breeze
Fresh
breeze
Strong
breeze
Moderate
gale
Fresh gale
9
Strong gale
10
Whole gale
11
12
Storm
Hurricane
3
4
5
6
7
Specifications
Wind speed (m/s)
Smoke rises vertically
Wind direction shown by smoke
drift but not by vanes
Wind felt on face; leaves rustle;
ordinary vane moved by wind
Leaves and twigs in constant
motion; wind extends light flag
Dust, loose paper, and small
branches are moved
Small trees in leaf begin to sway
Under 0.6
0.6-1.7
Large branches in motion;
whistling in telephone wires
Whole trees in motion
9.9-12.4
Twigs broken off trees; progress
generally impeded
Slight structural damage occurs;
chimney pots removed
Trees uprooted; considerable
structural damage
Widespread damage
15.3-18.2
1.8-3.3
3.4-5.2
5.3-7.4
7.5-9.8
12.5-15.2
18.3-21.5
21.6-25.4
25.5-29.0
Above 29.0
The short-wave transmissivity of the plastic was calculated from measurements
taken in Barasa by placing the end of a plastic bottle around the pyranometer. The meter
therefore gave a measure of the percent of radiation that was not reflected or absorbed by
the bottle. The painted plastic was completely opaque, but the clear plastic transmitted
approximately 90 percent of the radiation. Additionally, measurements were taken to
calculate the percent attenuation of radiation through the bottle, which was found to be 80
percent of the total radiation (i.e. only 20 percent of the radiation was transmitted through
the full bottle of water). The plastic s transmissivity/emissivity of long-wave radiation
could not be calculated because there was no way to measure this radiation. The thermal
conductivity of the plastic was found to be 0.2 W/mK (Matweb, 2002).
In general, convection was the limiting term to heat transfer in this model.
Because convection is small, the surface temperature built up so that it was very close to
the bottle water temperature, therefore limiting the rate of conduction, and creating an
insulating effect. Additionally, because the long-wave properties of the plastic are
63
unknown, the model was run both with and without these components (Figures 5.12-14).
Neglecting long-wave radiation creates a better fit for the clear bottle model, but has little
effect on the fit of the half-painted and fully-painted bottle models.
a. Clir Battle Water Temperature (K)
330 -
Actual
320-
Model
310
300
E 290
280
2700
2
4
6
8
Time (hours)
b. CIr Bottle Water Temperature (K)
330 -
Actual
320
-
310
Model
-
T 300
E
290
4) 280
2700
2
4
6
8
Time (hours)
Figure 5. 12 Clear bottle water temperature model,
a) with long-wave radiation, b) without radiation
64
a. Half Painted Bottle Water Temperature (K)
330
-
Actual
e 320
Model
310
300
290280
270
0
2
4
6
8
Time (hours)
b. Half Painted Bottle Water Temperature (K)
e
330-
Actual
320-
Model
2310S300
290
1
280
2700
2
4
6
8
Time (hours)
Figure 5.13 Half-painted bottle water temperature model,
a) with long-wave radiation, b) without long-wave radiation
65
a. Painted Bdttle Water Temperature (K)
330
33-+-
Actual
320
--
_
e
C 310IE300-
E
290
2802700
2
4
Time (hour)
6
8
b. Painted Bdttle Water Temperature (K)
330
320
C
+
Actual
---
Model
310
300
E 290
280
270
0
2
4
Time (hour)
6
8
Figure 5.14 Painted bottle water temperature model,
a) with long-wave radiation, b) without long-wave radiation
As illustrated in Figures 5.12, the model consistently overestimates the
temperature. However, an underestimate of the bottle water temperature would be more
acceptable for SODIS application. Modifying the transmissivity factors for the clear
bottle can greatly improve the fit, but it is consistently too high, even when all short-wave
radiation is ignored. Additionally, there is no logical basis for this change. It is believed
that theses discrepancies are more likely caused by inaccuracies of the material properties
than by oversight of additional heat components. Therefore, more research is needed to
assess the actual reflective, transmissive, and emissive properties of the plastic in order to
make the model more accurate.
66
6 Conclusions
6.1 Thermal Enhancement
In order for thermal inactivation alone to be effective for microbial deactivation in
the SODIS system, a bottle water temperature of 50 0C must be exceeded for at least one
hour. Additionally, reaching this temperature also causes synergistic effects between UV
and temperature to be enabled. It has been shown that painting the bottom half of the
bottles black can raise the water temperature 5C, depending on the amount of radiation
available. In order to test this technique under sub-optimal SODIS conditions, bottles in
this study were painted half black so that UV inactivation of bacteria could also take
place within the bottle. Additional bottles were fully painted in hopes of absorbing more
radiation than the half painted bottles and thus raising the temperature more.
Under sub-optimal conditions, there was no significant difference in the amount
the bottle water temperature was raised in the half-painted or fully painted bottles. The
bottle water temperature of the clear bottles was the same as that of the ambient air
temperature. In Barasa, the peak temperature difference between the clear and painted
bottles was 80 C - greater than that expected from the literature. However, this only
achieved a peak bottle water temperature of 38C, well below the thresholds mentioned
above. In Dumay however, which has similar amounts of available solar radiation, a
temperature difference of almost 1 00 C was achieved, and the threshold temperature of
50 0C was exceeded in both painted bottles. The difference in the peak temperature
achieved can be mainly attributed to the difference in weather conditions, which were
cooler and breezier in Barasa, which would cause cooler bottle water temperatures.
In order to assess whether or not a thermal enhancement technique would be
effective in a specific region, the local weather conditions (air temperature, wind,
available solar radiation) must be known. In general, if the ambient air temperature does
not reach 45 0C, it can be assumed that the painted bottle water temperature will not reach
50 0C. Additionally, because there was little difference in temperature between the half-
67
painted and fully painted bottle, bottles should only be half painted in order to also allow
for synergistic effects with UV.
6.2 UV enhancement
The second active disinfection mechanism of SODIS is UV induced DNA
alterations, which inhibits proper cellular replication. According to SANDEC News, No.
3, a total sunlight intensity of 555 W/m 2 is necessary to induce these lethal UV effects. In
order to increase the sunlight intensity in the system, a reflector was built to gather
sunlight from a wider area and focused it on the SODIS bottles. This would not only
enhance the UV intensity in the system, but also had the potential to additionally increase
the bottle water temperature through increased radiation absorption. Two different
reflective materials were used: aluminum mylar and aluminum foil. Aluminum mylar is
sturdy and highly reflective, but aluminum foil has similar properties, and is also more
commonly available in the developing world. The aluminum mylar reflector increased the
apparent sunlight intensity an average of 20 percent. However, the amount of microbial
kill observed in bottles on either reflector was not statistically different from that of their
counterparts not on a reflector, nor was there a significant difference in bottle water
temperature.
There are many reasons why the reflector may not have had a significant impact
on microbial kill. First of all, the dimensions of the reflector were not optimized to the
bottle size because the bottle size to be used in different locations was not known.
Additionally, because of material lightness, it was easily misshapen by the wind, often
causing partial shading of the bottles. Finally, the amount of ambient solar radiation may
have been abundant enough that a 20 percent increase (i.e. 1100 W/m 2 versus 900 W/m 2)
did not have significant effect. These results are not consistent with the findings of
Kehoe, et al (2001), who observed a significant increase in solar intensities and water
temperature, resulting in an increased inactivation rate. However, the efficiency of
reflective backing may be higher than that of the reflectors used in this study, thus
accounting for the difference in results. Additionally, the Kehoe, et al study was
68
conducted using laboratory simulated solar radiation, which would thus be more evenly
distributed than natural sunlight.
Further studies are needed in order to properly evaluate the effective use of solar
reflectors/reflective bottle backing. Possibly such enhancement techniques would be
more obviously effective with shorter exposure times or lesser amounts of ambient solar
radiation. In any case, the reflectors did not seem to inhibit microbial deactivation and
when used properly can be used without concern of negative impacts on the system.
6.3 Summary
Proper assessment of the possible application of SODIS to a region is dependent
on a number of factors. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that proper field studies be
completed before SODIS is introduced as the primary point-of-use water treatment
system in that area. However, in order to make most efficient use of field study time, the
following should be noted about thermal enhancement using black paint:
1)
There was no significant difference in the bottle water temperatures on the
fully painted bottles versus the half painted bottles. Therefore, bottles should
only be half painted (if at all) so as to allow for synergistic effects with UV as
well.
2) In order for bottle water temperatures in a half painted bottles to reach
temperatures of 50 0C necessary to activate synergistic effects, ambient air
temperatures need to reach at least 45 0C.
If condition (2) is met, than only one hour of exposure is necessary. However, if
(2) cannot be achieved, then the bottles should not be painted. In this case, a reflective
surface (such as a reflector or reflective bottle backing) may be more effective in
achieving increased deactivation by increasing sunlight intensity focused on the bottles.
69
This study evaluated a number of different exposure regimes in non-tropical
climates in order to determine which were most effective and worthy of further research.
In general, the fully painted bottle regimes were not significantly more effective for
reaching the required temperatures than the half painted bottles. Additionally, there have
been numerous studies already conducted on the use of the clear and half painted bottle
regimes without a reflector. Therefore, it is recommended that the primary focus of future
studies focus on the use of such reflectors with the clear and half painted bottle regimes
in non-tropical climates.
70
REFERENCES
Anarchy, Inc. 2001. Water Projects in Haiti. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
M.Eng. Project Report
Cadgil, A.J. and L.J. Shown. 1995. To Drink Without Risk: The Use of Ultraviolet Light
to Disinfect Drinking Water in Developing Countries. The Solar Cooking
Archive. http://solarcooking.org/ultravioletl.htm. Accessed October 31, 2001.
CIA. 2002. The World Factbook - Haiti.
http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ha.html.
Accessed April 14, 2002.
Koller, Lewis R. 1952. UltravioletRadiation. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY.
Kowalski, W.J. and W.P. Bahnfleth. 2000. UVGI Design Basics for Air and Surface
Disinfection. Department of Architectural Engineering, Pennsylvania State
University. University Park, PA.
Lantagne, Daniele. 2001. Personal Communication. September-December 2001.
Lehr, J.H., T.E. Gass, W.A. Pettyjohn, and J.DeMarre. 1980. Domestic Water Treatment.
McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York.
Lonely Planet. 2001. Worldguide, Destination: Haiti.
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/caribbean/haiti/
Accessed November 11, 2001.
Madigan, M.T, J.M Martinko, J. Parker. 2000. Brock Biology ofMicroorganisms,9th
Edition. Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Maier, R.M., I.L. Pepper, and C.P. Gerba. 2000. EnvironmentalMicrobiology.Academic
Press. San Diego, California.
Matweb. 2001. Overview: PET, Unreinforced.
http://www.matweb.com/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassum=03300.
Accessed April 14, 2002.
McKee, T and J.R McKee. 1999. Biochemistry: An Introduction.McGraw-Hill.Boston.
Pan American Health Organization. 2002. Regional Core Health Data System - Country
Health Profile 2001:Haiti. http://www.paho.org/English/SHA/prflhai.htm.
Accessed April 14, 2002.
71
Parrish, J.A., R.R. Anderson, F. Urbach, and D. Pitts. 1978. UV-A. Plenum Press. New
York, NY.
Petterssen, S. 1969. Introduction to Meteorology. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York. pp. 305.
PSU (Pennsylvania State University). 2001. AerobiologicalEngineering.Graduate
School of Architectural Engineering and Department of Biology.
http://www.engr.psu.edu/www/dept/arc/server/WJKAEROB.HTML
Reed, R.H. 1996. Sol-Air Water Treatment.
New Dehli, India. Pp 295-296.
2 2 "d
WEDC Conference: Discussion Paper.
Reed, R.H., S.K. Mani, and V. Meyer. 2000. Solar photo-oxidative disinfection of
drinking water: preliminary field observations. Letters in Applied Microbiology
30(6), pp. 432-436.
SANDEC. 2001. SODIS: Solar Water Disinfection. http://www.sodis.ch. Swiss Federal
Institute for Environmental Science and Technology. Dtbendorf, Switzerland.
Accessed November 11, 2001.
Shultz, C.R., Okun, D.A., 1984, Surface Water Treatmentfor Communities in Developing
Countries, John Wiley, N.Y.
Smith, A. 2002. Personal communication in January 2002.
USAID. 1985. Haiti: Country EnvironmentalProfile,A FieldStudy.
U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Inter-American Affairs. 1998. Background Notes:
Haiti,March 1998.
Wegelin, M., S. Canonica, K. Mechsner, F. Persaro, and A. Metzler. 1994. Solar Water
Disinfection: Scope of the process and analysis of radiation experiments. Journal
of Water Science Research and Technology 43(3): pp. 154-169.
Weil, T.E. et al. 1985. Haiti: a country study. US Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
72
APPENDIX I: Research plan
SODIS Research Plan for Haiti, January 2002
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Researcher: Julia Parsons
Advisor: Daniele Lantagne
Overview
One entire experiment should take 4 days, from initial sample collection to final
microbial analysis. It will consist of 3 complete sample runs consisting of 17 bottles, 2
background samples and 2 blanks (21 samples total). The experiment will be run at least
3 times throughout our 15-day stay in Barasa.
Bottle Regimes:
Regime
No reflector
Al Mylar reflector:
Al foil reflector
Label
clear (2)
1/2 black (2)
all black (2)
clear (2)
black (2)
all black (2)
clear (1)
black (1)
all black (1)
C-al and C-a2
C-b2 and C-b2
C-c l and C-c2
UVI-al and UVI-a2
UVi-bi and UVl-b2
UVI-ci and UVI-c2
UV2-a
UV2-b
UV2-c
All supplies will be brought to Haiti from Boston, with the exception of bottles and paint.
A detailed schedule, instructions for sample collection, exposure and membrane filtration
follow.
The same procedures will be used for sampling done in Dumay and Boston as well.
73
Schedule
Day 1: Site selection, Bottle selection and preparation, Equipment preparation
Run #1
Day 2: SCIa
EXPla (5 hours)
MF Ia*, begin Il a*
Day 3: SClb&c
EXPIb&c (1 day, 2 day - dayl)
MF1b*, begin Ilb*
continue Ila, CCla*
Day 4: continue EXPIc (day 2)
MFlc*, begin Ilc
continue Ilb, CC1b*
Day 5: continue 1Ic, CClc*
Run #3
Day 8: SC3a,
EXP3a (5 hours)
MF3a*, begin 13a*
Day9:SC3b&c
EXP3b&c (1 day, 2 day - dayl)
MF3b*, begin 13b*
continue 13a, CC3a*
Day 10: continue EXP3c (day 2),
MF3c*, begin 13c
continue 13b, CC3b*
Day 11: continue 13c, CC3c*
Run #2
Day 5: SC2a,
EXP2a (5 hours)
MF2a*, begin 12a*
Day 6: SC2b&c
EXP2b&c (1 day, 2 day - dayl)
MF2b*, begin 12b*
continue 12a, CC2a*
Day 7: continue EXP2c (day 2)
MF2c*, begin I2c
continue J2b, CC2b*
Day 8: continue 12c, CC2c*
(SC = sample collection, EXP = exposure, MF = membrane filtration, I= incubation,
CC = colony counting, a = 5 hr exposure, b = 1 day exposure, c = 2 day exposure)
*
in evening
74
Bottle Selection and Preparation
Equipment:
Towel
Wash basin
Black paint
Labeling marker
Drying rack
Newspaper
Soap
Turpentine
Paintbrush
Aluminum foil and tape
Bottle Condition data sheet
Sponge and Bottlebrush
Preparation:
1)
Collect Bottles that meet the following specifications:
- 1 liter w/ lid, minimal scratches, dents and deformations
2) Make note of original condition on data sheet (ie. clear, minimal scratches,
excessive scratches, deformation, discoloration). Expand on condition in "Notes"
section at bottom of page if necessary.
3) Wash bottles using boiled water and non-disinfectant soap. Clean inside by
vigorous shaking (use bottlebrush only if necessary - it scratches) and outside
using soft sponge. Be careful not to scratch bottle or remove paint.
NOTE: if new, unopened bottles are bought from a store, there is no need to wash
them because them have been sterilized by the packaging process.
** DO NOT use chemically treated (ie. chlorinated) water or other kind of
disinfectant on the bottles at ANY TIME. Using alcohol will increase kill and
cause lower apparent microbial concentrations**
4) Dry outside with towel/paper towels and place on end in drying rack
5) Prepare bottles as follows:
- 6 fully painted black, 6
black, 6 clear
6) Paint:Line edges of surface to be painted with tape. Paint with paintbrush, being
careful not to drip paint on surface that should not be painted. Allow paint to dry
by placing on end in drying rack, over newspaper. Coat with additionally layers
until opaque (test opaqueness by holding up to light).
7) Label lids as shown above.
75
SODIS Bottle Condition - Haiti, January 2002
Run#:
Dates:
original condition
Bottle
Day
5 hr
1 day
2_day_-1_2_day_-2
2 day -1
2 day -2
C-al
C-a2
C-b1
C-b2
C-cl
C-c2
C-dl
C-d2
I I\/1 -91
4
1
I
UV1-a2
UJV1-b1l
UV1-b2
UV1-cl
__________________________________
UV1-c2
UV2-al
UV2-a2
UV2-bl
UV2-b2
UV2-c1
UV2-c2
-I
L
_________________________________-
Collecting Water samples
Equipment:
Whirlpack bags
Labeling Marker
Thermometer
Turbidimeter
Bottles
Turbidity/Radiation data sheet
Bottle Condition data sheet
Bottle Temperature data sheet
Procedure:
1) Note condition of each bottle for appropriate day on data sheet (ie. clear, minimal
scratches, excessive scratches, deformation, discoloration). Expand on condition
in "Notes" section at bottom of page if necessary.
2) Take all bottles (plus extra) and 4 whirlpack bags to source as early in the day as
possible so as to maximize exposure time.
3) Take initial turbidity reading using turbidimeter. Record on Turbidity/Radiation
data sheet.
4) Collect first background sample in a whirlpack bag: Label sample bag. Rip off
top, open using tabs and be sure bottom is open. Fill to line and whirl closed.
Wipe down outer surface and set aside.
5) Rinse inside of bottle with sample water by partially filling & shaking vigorously.
6) Fill first bottle 2/3 full, cap and shake vigorously to aerate. Fill completely
(minimizing air space) and record temperature. Cap tightly and set aside.
7) Repeat (6) for rest of bottles. Be careful not to mix up lids.
8) Repeat (4) through (6) for second turbidity reading, background sample, and
remaining bottles.
NOTE: There is no need to be "sterile" during this procedure because all
samples are coming from the same source and will therefore have the same initial
microbial concentrations. However, it is necessary to take precautions not to
contaminate samples with outside sources. **
**
77
Reflector Assembly
The reflector consists of two parallel "slings" of material (Aluminum coated Mylar or
brown paper with Aluminum Foil) hung on rope. Both reflectors are constructed exactly
the same way, but using different materials. Each "sling" holds three bottles end-to-end
(total = 6 bottles). The reflector should be oriented parallel to the path of the sun (approx
East - West) so as to minimize shadows. Samples not utilizing the reflector should be
placed at a sufficient distance and orientation away from the reflector so as not to be
affected by potential reflection.
Materials:
Al Mylar: 2' x 3'
Wooden bases (2)
Wooden "Arms" (6)
Duct Tape
Brown paper (same as Mylar)
Nuts, Bolts, Washers
7' Rope (3)
Sand paper (to smooth rough edges)
Supporting
Ropes
Bottles
Figure 1. Top view
Mylar
Bolts
Arms
Bottles
Supporting
Ropes
Figure 2. End view
Arms
Supporting
Rois
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------...
.....
...
...
Figure 3. Side View
Base
78
Assembly Instructions:
1)
Choose a location free of shade (that will remain free of shade) and shielded from
wind. If a wind shielded location is not available, you may have to rig up a wind
block, as the wind affects bottle temperature and may also adversely affect the
reflector.
2) Bolt arms to the inner side of the longer base piece with bolt heads facing
outwards. This will allow the Mylar to rest on the ground without interference
from the base or bolts. Three arms attach to each base.
3) Tape (using duct tape) one piece of rope to underside of Mylar down middle seam
4) Place the two bases approximately 3 feet apart. Flip over Mylar and position
between the two bases.
5) Thread rope through middle arm on each side and through the back rope holes of
the base and tie off. Be sure to pull the rope tight, but do not wrinkle Mylar.
6) Thread remaining two rope pieces through the side arms and attach to tie off on
both sides as done above.
7) Tape outsides of Mylar to side ropes using duct tape.
8) Readjust ropes and Mylar to get rid of any slack or wrinkles.
9) If necessary, weight down the base with rocks to keep from flipping over.
79
Temperature Monitoring
Equipment:
Checktemp electronic thermometer
Sterile or boiled water (for rinsing thermometers)
Squirt bottle
Bottle Temperature data sheet
** In order to keep thermometers sterile and avoid contaminating samples, they should be
left in the sun during the day and rinsed well with boiled water between samples**
Procedure:
1) Take temperature in every bottle every hour (or as often as possible) as long as
you are awake, starting at t=0 being when the bottles are first set in the sun.
2) Take ambient air temperature and note weather condition (ie. approximate wind
speed) on temperature data sheet.
3) Take reading in first bottle and record on data sheet.
** Only open bottle when ready to take measurement and close immediately after.
BE CAREFUL not to shade other bottles while taking temperature readings **
4) Rinse thermometer with sterile or boiled water. DO NOT wipe dry.
5) Repeat (2) and (3) for remaining bottles.
6) Make any necessary notes on data sheet.
80
SODIS Bottle Temperature - Haiti, January 2002
Date:
Exposure Regime:
Temperature (oC)
Bottle
Time
sourcef
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
11
Time
Radiation data
C-al
C-a2
C-b1
C-b2
C-c 1
C-c2
UV1-al
UV1 -a2
UV1-b1
UV1-b2
UV1 -cl
UV1 -c2
UV2-al
UV2-b1
UV2-cl
Ambient
Notes:
81
Microbial Analysis
** Remember to complete a blank with sterile water at the beginning and end of each
sampling round. **
Equipment:
Filtration apparatus
Petri dishes
Filters
Sterile Water
Candle and matches
Paper towels
Labeling marker
Funnels
Media packets
Tweezers
Alcohol
Incubator
Plastic trash bag
Microbial Analysis data sheet
Procedure:
1)
Pull back hair, don glasses, use gloves or wipe hands with alcohol
2) Prepare work surface: open plastic bag and wipe down with an alcohol soaked
paper towel
3) Wash hands with alcohol
4) Set up filtration apparatus, set out equipment, wipe down outside of samples with
alcohol, set out and light candle
5) ** BE CAREFUL not to get alcohol on the LIDS of the bottles but only wipe
down the sides to avoid cross contamination **
6) Prepare media: snap open packet, pour entire packet into petri dish and cover
immediately
7) ** PREPARE ALL petri dishes at once in order to minimize time filter is exposed
to open air later. **
8) Sterilize tweezers in candle, pick up and sterilize carbon filter in candle using
tweezers, replace in filtration apparatus and wet with sterile water
9) Wash hands with alcohol, sterilize tweezers.
10) Carefully open new filter package, pulling away package and paper, DO NOT
touch filter with hands (if so, discard filter)
11) Pick up filter with tweezers and carefully center on filtration apparatus, place new
funnel on top of filter. If filter rips - discard filter.
82
12) Carefully pour sample directly from bottle or whirl pack into the funnel, filling to
the 100ml (or other appropriate) mark. DO NOT touch container to filter funnel.
Close and set rest of sample aside in case it is needed later
13) Pull sample through filter, expelling wastewater into waste bucket or onto ground.
14) Sterilize tweezers
15) Remove filter funnel and pick up filter by edge with tweezers and place in petri
dish (held in hand). Avoid air bubbles. Close petri dish immediately and label
with sample, exposure and date.
16) Repeat from step 6 until all samples are completed.
17) Incubate samples for 24 hours, along with background and blanks.
18) When done, discard all used funnels, the garbage bag, paper towels and other
trash. Empty bottles, wash with soap and boiled water and store under plastic
sheet overnight (can also wash the next morning).
After 24 hours:
Count colonies formed (red = Total and blue = E.Coli) and record on data sheet.
Make note of any necessary details (from filtration or counting - e.g. spilled sample?) on
data sheet.
83
SODIS Microbial Analysis - Haiti, January 2002
Run #:
Dates:
5 hr exposure
Sample Total
E.Cob.
1-day exposure
Sample Total
E.Coli.
2-day exposure
Sample Total
BL1
BL
BL1
BG1
BG1
BG1
BG2
BG2
BG2
BG3
BG3
BG3
BL2
BL2
BL2
BL3
BL3
BL3
C-al
C-al
C-al
C-a2
C-a2
C-a2
C-bl
C-bl
C-bl
C-b2
C-b2
C-b2
C-cl
C-cl
C-cl
C-c2
C-c2
C-c2
C-d1
C-dl
C-d1
C-d2
C-d2
UV1-al
UV-al
UV-al
UV1-a2
UV-a2
UV-a2
BL4
BL4
BL4
UV1-b1
UV-bl
UV-bl
UV1-b2
UV-b2
UV-b2
UV1 -c1
UV-cl
UV-c1
UV1-c2
UV-c2
UV-c2
UV2-al
UV2-a1
UV2-al
UV2-a2
UV2-a2
UV2-a2
UV2-bl
UV2-bl
UV2-bl
UV2-b2
UV2-b2
UV2-b2
UV2-c1
UV2-cl
UV2-c1
UV2-c2
UV2-c2
UV2-c2
BL5
BL5
BL5
C-d2
__
E.Coli.
Notes:
84
Incubator Directions
Insulation
Petri Dish
Wells
Thermomete
Well
Oe
Hole for
thermometer
Lid
Pressure
release
Petri dish
brace
Handle
Figure 1. Top view of phase-change incubator
To heat:
1) Place incubator in pot, ensuring space between the incubator and the pot with
rocks or other objects so that plastic does not melt.
2) Fill with water up to brim of incubator
3) Boil 15 - 20 minutes, or until contents of incubator has liquefied
* NOTE: occasionally lift and "swish" incubator to ensure even distribution of heat *
4) When ready, allow incubator to super cool and start crystallization before filling.
* Note: you can "jump start crystallization by touching the side of the incubator *
5) To release pressure from heating open valve and close again.
Alternative: Place incubator in direct sun to heat.
To use:
1) Place petri dishes inside brace and lower into wells (5 or 6 into each well). If not
brace is available use string.
2) Place lid on top. If lid does not sit tightly, cover with a piece of cloth or stuff with
extra insulation
3) Insert thermometer through lid and into the thermometer well.
4) Allow samples to incubate for 24 hours. Check temperature occasionally, when it
drops below 35 degrees C, reheat.
85
Solar Energy Readings
Equipment:
Pyranometer
Radiation data sheet
Bottle Temperature data sheet
Pencil
Black cloth cloak
Procedure:
1) Take normal radiation reading every hour and record on Bottle Temperature data
sheet.
2) At peak time (approx. noon) each day take the following measurements:
- on reflector
- through plastic piece
- through full bottle (cloaked in black cloth)
- through full painted black bottle (cloaked in black cloth - should be 0)
- through full foil wrapped bottle (cloaked in black cloth - should be 0)
3) Cover sides of bottle with black cloth.
4) Place full bottle covered in cloth over pyranometer, record reading on Radiation
data sheet.
86
Turbidity & Radiation - Haiti, January 2002
Dates:
Day Date
Turbidity (NTU)
2
1
3 plain
Radiaticn Transmissivity
bottle
reflector
plastic
palnted
foil
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
Notes:
87
APPENDIX II: Data Summary and Analysis
Barasa.RunI
5-hour: 1117,02
Weather:
breezy and sunny in
1
i
. Ad
Tme
111 35351
5
1n
210
242
237
257
262
250
25.0
MO
230
186
220
245
236
.
995
_ 247
1117102
---
t0
---- -
2
?5
-
0i5
a
--
CiAab
--
2
5
31.7
29.4
226
293
292
31.0
315
290
258
297
278
314
30.2
295
226
299
290
321
72.2
24 1
21
29 .9
314
295
27.7
292
------ --- --
2000
--
5
--
attle
-+-
-
--
-t-iPe 2 (dtoin
c
1000 E
______a____or__
---
--
0
263
305
265
324
30.7
303
24.3
30.3
29-2
31.0
eA0llel
12
-
-
--
-
--
----------
-a, - - -- E0
__----_---
--
--
----
23 5
32.0
308
343
345
31.1
22.1
30.4
29.6
322
32.1
294
23 5
27.7
28 1
290
28 5
273
25.6
30.0
309
327
31.5
29.7
5-r. Radiation and Temperature data
--
--
253
299
280
309
31 8
29.3
249
29.6
26 0
31 0
320
29.7
21.0
24.6
24-0
26.0
25.8
24.0
21 2
25.2
252
269
266
24.0
205
24 3
246
25.9
25 5
242
212
24.3
245
256
249
240
207
253
252
26 4
26.0
25.0
21 3
244
237
256
258
---
300
Cb
V-lIV-i U--lU2a
a
w
Ambin
231 0
970
7350
33.0
1335
14 35
135
16 35
2
3
A
sunny and calm ahemoon
mming,
h
4
4
time (ho-ur?
Evaluao
on
reacred
lbeslold radiation
Acer I il
Run 1-1
Runl-2
Total
E.Col
Total
I
BG
5
2500
109
2500
UV0-c
2505
2500
2500
2500
2500
256
2500
25 0
IUV2-
2500
250
2
42
2500
2500
2500
2500
2500
UVI-a
UV1-b
UV2-sJ
Barasa, Run
2500
2
2500
did not
52
exceed
'%
kill
rag
Ave__
250130
2500
292
2 2
C-a
C-b
Ic-c
1 1'2 hour.
EColi Total
05
0
0
0
2500
1
L
for approxmately
2500
2500
96
2500
2500
2
2500
2500
V1
2500
2505
2500
2500
2500
274
2500
25
1514
1025
2500
2500
2
2500
2500
21
2500
2500
1 20
0
5-hr.
1jr7002
0
25M
2500
250
temp
E.Col
Total
E.Col
threshold
-
-
-
-
Bacterial Kilt
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
- -
- --
-
959
0
0
0
C
8904
9992
0
0
3944
0
0
0
9919
0
I
--
00
_
---
------
-_
T.
9
7
...
7
0
7
2
5-hour: 1/2003
Weather:
Sunniy and calm
Temperature data
RadiatIon
Time
9140
1200
0
8240
.00
n
7515
250
2
526.
300
3
294.0
4.00
4
125_0
5
5
UV1-1
1: 2
259
209
30.0
28
274
183
261
294
30.4
296
276
275
301
300
203
277
226
0
C-A2
C-al
Ambient
UV1-2
UV2-a
273
298
284
265
235
289
279
25.0
22.0
1/201/02 5-hr.Temperature
C-bI
18.8
195
270
19
102
203
318
31.0
2
26.0
C-63
1-V2
UV-
216
364
410
400
36.1
30.3
199
312
360
37.6
353
32.7
188
308
363
393
37 3
34.1
2.9
29.7
29.5
27.9
25.5
5000
-
0
-
200
Bacterial till
I
Sample
BL
aG
C-a
C-b
C-c
UV1-A
UV1-b
UV1-c
UV2-a
U
uV2c
__
~
Total
temperature
200
20
Total
0
385
0
2500
2500
0
0
400
0
0
240
2
threshold radiatin was exceeded
~
63
120
20.7
34.2
40.3
30.7
35.7
30.9
batte
tedbottle
o---Pa
-a-
adiaion
5
6
Kil1,
0
2500
2500
2500
2500
330
2500
2500
145
0
42.5
364
28.7
5
0
hours
ela
E Cob
Total
E Col
E.Coll Total
0
0
0
391
2500
396
10,40 1002
0
2040
0
000 -5402
2500
2500
2500
0.00 -5402
2500
2500
2500
0 9700 100.0
325
0
5
000 987
2500
10
0.00 -281.5
1490
2500
2500
0 76.90 100.0
578
0
0 46,70 1000O
1333
0
165
2.80
24M0
13601
%
469
21.7
30.7
34.1
36.2
32 7
273
900
---
A
3
221
423
Half-painted
400 0
----
--
- -----
1
not met. but
fang
nSI
E.Coll
a
2500
1580
2500
2500
320
2500
2500
1010
-
-
50 ---50
0
Evaluation Threshold
_--
UV1-c2 UV-o
-W-Ambient
Clear BOttle
-
-------
---
E
C-ct C-c2 091-01
092-b 0
215
20.1 008 196
21 4
274
335 32.2
33.3
34.5
416
374 37 7 373
36 9
39 1
41 0 394
37,3
353
330
396 370
34.0
31 4
27.8
36.2 34
29.9
269
and Radiation data
0
250
214
336
369
343
301
256
1/2&W0
12000
60 OD
000
21100
-
-
60 0
-
-
- - - --
2
5-hr. Bactoria! Kill
--
-
--
- --
-
----
=-
WE Coll
-
69_2
88
22 4
320
303
34
35
319
24.0
30.0
25.1
22.3
30.3
20.6
Barasa. Run 3
5-hour 1f23t2002
Weather: Mostly sunny.0rzy
0
1I
2~
[
in
the
altarnOO50
_m__Rad__t__
5500
10001
112O
8370
5620
1200
100
6500
7400
200
300
2500
T
3
4
51
204
28.5
193
181
235
1d3
235
250
26
265
273
310
092
287
298
250
301
281
099
292
272
32
313
29.0
4
192
275
200
282
32.4
347
33.6
313
338
329
30.5
123502 5-hr
1
19.0
26.0
l'-
29.8
17
31.4
29.0
30L5
. .. - "Y'1- '
C
212
20.8
214
32.6
346
358
408
43.7
41.0
425
464
40.8
403
468
40.3
355
I IC"C2 I,--I-'*
20.0
1MM 19.0
322
293 295
35.
358 34.6
394
392 382
373
397 393
34' 357
33
w'
189
29.3
2)5
280
336
330
373
384
34 5
382
36.3
336
22.1
358
40.7
428
414
362
-V
3.4
3.0
-
202
32.4
407
453
442
3.1
210
326
41.2
455
443
381
189
29.91
39.2
38.
37.2
Temperature and Radiation data
000 0
-3102.-
~
O
--
. __-__-_
_--
----
-1
clear
a.
.I
--
_ -
Battles
- Half-Painted
00
Bottles
-PaintedBatles
Radiation
10 -- +00
5
I
3
22
0
exceeded
Ealua0on.
Univ (bows)
r
Bacterial Kill
Run3-2
Run3-
jTotal
Sample
IL
BG
II
0
0
340
25W
0
0
60
400
270
2500
2500
3
2500
1u1-
30
2500
C-3
30
UV
Saraoa. Run
I-day: 1/1V2
0
240
0
110
2"0
2500
120
0
78
2500
135
135
1480
0
0
0
and
oartly
2500
1360
10
946
100
926
100
0
O
0 ;-e 11i0IX1-[43u6nmo.
65.00
T
2 01
11"0
2 00
3 00
4 00
1
2
3
4
S
00!
6o
'
2
m
C-al
23
2851
2938
900 00
92000
770,10
4537 W
28100
8400
C-a2
10 3
246
279
316
31 2
315
280
270
18s
SQ
Cl
ieC
;4
-.--
---
--
.-----..--
20
1
8
55
19.5
256
29 1
33 0
31 5
265
248
18.8
1.
1
19.1
298
34 7
398
396
390
339
25.1
21L0
31.3
30.5
29.2
26.0
52
19's
275
31 8
371
369
35 3
306
1
21 S
355
382
427
400
354
294
2
20 2
288
340
38.7
367
314
268
.
.
1.
19.8
295
360
412
40.5
402
34 9
2
20.2
30.4
34.7
39.6
38.95
35.3
302
00
reached
0
_t_!
20
threshold radiation or 4 hours, did
Bacter ial Kill
rot
2
25
3
timfe (hour)
Total
Total
E.Co
Average
Total
E.Cod
%
E.Col
0
1
0
05
0
2500
C-d
2500
2500
0
20
2500
2525
0
1
2500
2500
C-C
2500
0
0
2500
2500
0
0
2500
2500
0
10
2500
2500
0
05
2500
UVI-b
UVI-C
150
240
2500
47
2500
2500
2500
47
2500
61
2500
2500
2500
988
1370
2500
ki
38.2
40.5
38.9
35.7
30.8
.
17.9
220
251
278
28.1
2193
270
- 1
18'o
215
243
25.5
263
262
248
8.
19.0
d1
21.8
24.7
27.2
27.2
27.3
25.9
tattle
45
Half-pain
a
-a
0:
-- +- Radiation
battle
ed
I
Ono0
5
ata
9-day
Bacterial Kill
dy
ll
Tlat
0
UV1-
4
1/2
RunI-2
20-5
32.8
exceed threshold tem__
2500
75
2500
2500
C-b
35
olo~ot16111510
Ruin-1
0
22
35 0
3850
41 0
378
316
28.8
-0o0
--
_
-
t5
1
21.7
380
384
41 9
406
355
295
C~l,11
-080~Ambient
.-
Te _--_-Painted
..
as
1
1&.6
279
323
379
368
353
31 2
~~100000
-
-----
0
C-a
---
--
-
20
194
EClear
SL
BG
----
4--------
00
1-day Radiation and Temperature data
____
....
o
153
19 3
264
284
308
29.7
27.0
24.0
U
18 2
237
2617
298
297
296
272
1/18102
0
Sample
---
-------
19
-1387
cloudy
Temperature data
Evaluathon
Kill
-
100
0 866
335
-
-
-
I
620
1
Oeezy
Wealtr:
0
Bacte"
9/23002 54hr
E.Coll
0
0
2500
550
460
0
0
2500
_-
K_
Total
ME.II
Total
0
9M
C-c
0Uv1-a
Ca
%
Av80996
Total
E.Coli
0
25 x
1040
E.CT
I
1al
______
9756
100
0
0
0
96.06
45 29
996
0
Eco
T
-
0
2a
-
0
100
99 9a ,
_
89
Barasa Run
2
1-day: 1121/02
Weather:
&c"y.aftemoon
momningovercast and
sunny and
:aim
Temperaltro data
Tim.
Radiation AmbanI C-al
C-a2
UV1-I
0
10 :G
5300
217
1
1486
194
1
01/
0
2501
8 565 1a
117
196
2
1200
380.00
222
197
196
715
3
' 00
850200
280
241
247
271
4
270
74100
237
278
272
285
O
300
55700
278
29 1
28.1
284
6
400
277 00
257
2881
27 4
286
15300
26.0
2741
254
24 3
UV1-2
UV2-&
195
21 1
268
287
283
258
23-5
I
a
C-b1
19 2
19 8
21 6
26
27 1
27 9
26 0
238
190
UV1-b2
C-b2 UVI-b
201
2/5
202
222
219
252
30.3
350
357
393
376
394
354
354
32.0
3.5
19 7
204
220
303
362
38 1
369
342
18.
193
20.7
25.8
27.9
2&4
26.9
24.9
21 4
222
249
338
365
352
301
26 5
UV2-b I
21 7
225
257
339
372
361
31 6
273
C-cl
C-c2 UVI-cl UV1-c2
200 198
204
209
205 200
21.5
21 a
22.4 210
244
246
311 232
372
354
370 374
397
388
388 383
39.1
398
380 364
301
338
360 32.9
304
287
20.9
21.5
239
32.7
37.0
37.3
33.9
30-1
UV2-c
205
223
254
334
360
366
325
285
c
20-3
21.2
23.7
32-1
37-8
38.3
352
31.3,
C-dl
C-d2
179
180
182
184
191
192
22.5
224
252
251
267
266
270
267
272
263
C-d
17.9
18.3
19.2
22.5
252
26.7
272
26.8
1/21/02 1-day Temperature and Radiation date
3s0
-mo--
2'0
___
-
.
--
.
o00
110
-- 1
Run2-1
Total
BL
3
2
lRun2-2
0
tle
Radiation
E.Coll
0
Total
1680
2500
E-Cofi
|Tota1l
1
0
0
0
E.C01
25,41
_G
TO
2500
160
290
2070
1580
2500
430
2500
0
2500
155
0
710
a
1605
0
430
2500
60
0
0
2500
250
2500
1965
UV2-b
50
200
2570
UV2-c
2
07o
2500
290
1640
1400
UV7-b
UV2-a
Baraba, Run
1280
2500
0
UVI8
UV-c
1
%Kill
EColl
Total
1
113546,
0 88.40 1000(l
65 17.20 94 51
000
1340 0oc0 43GS
0
A~vrage
0
5I
2500
C-a
C-b
C c
C-d
5
1
it- (htouris
temperature not met. but hreshold radiation was exceeded for 3 hours
Bacterlal kill
Sample
ClearBettie
AE
Halt-pamnted bottle
-1-Patmed bot
..
1
0
Evalual-i Thfestiold
--w- Amnbent
---
-
-
110
1505
Q 00
j500
som
1000016
000
90100
-W52
0
1070
---
00
200
1
1
-5:T
-
--
-2700
9380
35.
112IM2 I-oay Bacterial KIM
-- ~ -.-- --
-
10 I
--
-
00
"
1 009380
100.00
970
000
000
3
1-day: 1/242002
Morning sunny and breezy. aftemocin overcast
A r- R di
weathw
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
i
i
a050.00
atn
Tmre_
1070
1100
120)
n
95000
90100
05000
221.00
145 00
5000
/ 00
100
2.00
3 0
470
500
30d
bi 21 t C-4
221
254
174
222
258
28 1
287
274
257
230
276
204
228
17
240
33 5
322
2? 4
252
210
1.
4
281
windy
203
261
303
307
298
274
247
22 0
5206
270
306
318
309
28.5
257
22.8
208
204
26.6
330
32.1
32 0
292
2 3
23 3
183
262
313
354
362
336
298
257
196
255
31
35.6
385
33.9
320
259
19.3
24.8
28.4
30-2
30.0
28.0
25.6
2e
8
22.7
324
390
378
349
309
275
239
231
345
399
41 0
383
336
295
252
231
321
37,0
387
375
335
292
255
C-d1
UV2-c ic
-,I 180 C-r218 !UV1-cilUV1-c2
7
22.4 20.4
215
216
214
30.3
3S.8
37.7
36.7
33.1
29-2
25-2
203
34,3
367
333
30,0
274
237
250250
327 32.5
365 365
37.4 365
34 7 336
308 29 7
261 25.9
310
37.2
330
350
303
268
233
322
292
380
37.0
37
38 1
319
283
248
34.9
35.7
32.
28.
24.9
C-d2
1-
:10_
Z' 0
--
----------
---
S0---
---
283
277
26.7
27.5
272
25.9
24.1
280
270
259
24.4
27,8
27.0
25.9
24.3
14
time (hours)
valuat/n
exceeed
diI,on iav0S
t/reSnold
/1
BL
BG
C-a
C-b
C-c
C-d
UV1-a
UVI-b
UV1-c
UV2-a
UV2-b
UV2-c
Total
3
Total
ECoOI
1
2500
30
250
2500
2500
4C
7
25/3/
5C
56C
250C
0
870
0
0
110
170
0
0
250
0
0
2500
E.Coll
0
2500
tO
160
2500
2500
0
20
2500
Tott
%
05
0
25M0
500
0
0
205
20
0
l155
1305
2500
2500
_
14C To__250C E.C]
20
0
16C
7
a
% KIM
Col
Total
0
130
C
5
Pained
1/2 oursl,did 11ot xceed thre5hold texnperature
eaow
Rut3-2
iRu3-1
Samp t
for
Bottles
Radiation
---
.-
___
-_
00
Bacterial Kill
Bottles
Cleat
lelct
- Half-Paited1Bodies
--
-
E
10
S2500
,
50
560
250C
0
0
1330
0
0
25DO
1123)02 5-hr Bacterial
LCKII
Kil
120
100% O918 to
Sao
8 .161
._C02
______
0 69 ITI
4
100
99 2
2W
996 100
0 -466
98 100
77 6 100
0 .4w
992
-
---
in
-
.
>
72
172
20.8 20.7
247 24.2
Ambient
00000
-
C-d
171
205
23.7
1/24/02 1-day Tenperature and Radiation data
1150..
7
172
Y
90
6-rsa. Run I
2-dy-
905s-0832
da.U
T.r,p.rt
Tim.
AoIC-1oi
Rd.I-3An3
i
C-al
C-bl
0UVI-52 1s
0005.1
0,-2
U0.
iC-b2
C-ic
9
UV-03
220
205
|-41
UV9-4
uv1-t
C-2
25
7
22
22.
2 9M67
2
30.5
4
3 37-2
|21
s2
5
d
232 238
UC-2 cC21 5
28
2131
21 9
29.5
304 31 5
29 '
283
325
24.8 07 280
233
239
243
24 5
34.0
352 36S
3210
324
900 0
310 33290 9 361
S 220
239Q 230
008 220 2539'
2 25 7 230207'
26 3
25 1,
38 3 3.13
39
37 9
704
2716
29
23
31 2 20
2".40
28.3
9
33
35
36.)
365
256
35
329
303555
11
210
27
296
294
297
40
40 120
324
31
7
294
3
3|3
3
325
28
33
345
33
27.a
273
2107
2' 289
3 20080 0
299
21
r
246
21
29.0
16
2.
A..
2
247
26 3
25 7
19
200
24
2z0
240
243
239
247
253
293
7
235
96 0 204 20 7 20 6 2310 21 0 21.3 23
7
'00
094
19
2.0
238 233
225
2
2.5
242
250
22 5 225
215
a! 000 00 0 212 20 2 203 2 21
19 7
202
22.3
28.7 207
239
239
215
261
25
23 23
21.6
222
20 a 232
21 70 20
30. 0
91 1200
221
225
342
383 35.8
31 4
388
324
33 5
30 5 30 5 349
205
26 A 27 3
249
24
0 10 7500
231
399
L2 9 35
35 0
378
359
38 0
33 8 34 S 401
25.
30.2
255
014 275
345
2000 002 0
1
23'
28.4
351
33'
394
2
34
360
38.3
357
36
7
U2
3434
27
292
2723
2 3
10
00 170 22 3 279
334.
332 358 302
354
32.4
314
31 0
2 5 331 329
250 1 20
26
3
271
13
230
26 1
302
2.4
300
308
335
1.7
32 5 30 250 20
25.1
239
0 235
3 25
____ c _ 2a 4 2,
215 521.
32Z7
313
34
2421
2.1
2
14 5
Temperature
I 09-19102 2-day
and
251,
25,0
27.3
252
19 I
20.2
22.5
2451
29.1
255
25.2
2
&.4
243
Radiation Data
- -Hall PIr4
-
__
3
20
'I
a
253
270
283
21
05
99
227
A-
F
$acteri%
Kill
C.
C-
rG.25.4
S
0
:B.
250o
2
255M
C-d
5
"35
.L5
2500
U07-
____
1.3
_
2
25
2500
2
T
_
_l
2
25W
23--
25
95
AurM
U.s
Vaa.050.95,9
93
05
a
0
2975
2500
280
25030
-
4-
3 9935
0
0
8
255
25035
-
c275
4
2500
.-- ..-5- ----
-
0
C
0470
30
0
5
2
20
-c
T
E.V
2500
___
..
___.-
_
._-_-__
2
3 .A - 220
0
0
50
1000
M 00
120c0
4
000
200
3
5
7
S
1O
R0d09
250,0
3f0 0
8500
741 0
557 0
C0
6'0127
53 0
500
& 0030 450 0
8503
11 00
0 070 97
l000 '52 0
0
0200
2300
083
0!
3
4
00
5
0
0
940
500
22 5
22 5
290
26 5
292
259
29
264
285
261
-----
25200
C
00-4
UV-
1000.0
Iv:+
UV2.s
3D
355
530J
and
31
310
39.
328
j a
35
28
3.
2500
30
3
890
0
3500
01205
3.
0 39940
06208
2500
2
030
2300
780
2200
370
2500
470
2900
325
00884.94
2500
530
2508
0
2500
0
50
5
700
2500
0
200
905
039
00
389
55
4000
0 00 0000 000
50
32.8
-
-
--
10000
05.036ui
098.--0,i
_
0375207E0000
745
22.9
-2 -----
__ -
720
500
7
0
2500
0
32.
29.2
d
-4
2500
090
22.8
0
0
70004
0
0
850
328
37 8 371
285
293
c-0
_______________Pa
... -
2500
0
900
35.0
33 2323
27
data
Radiaion
. 8-9_0
0540
0
'C
3.2
Temparature
-
sm52103-9
60.
C
2
26.6
297
259
-s
jso~~.
--
719
19.7'
1.
1/21-22/02
6G
i
jc C-02 Uv505 0v-2 UV2-- c
b
UV2-b
C-2
0145UV1-bl UV-b2
C-b9
l
C-2 [U91. 0111 2 02-.
25.2
29.5
209e
00
20.3 09
28.4
099
2094
95 05999188
193
89091
0
217
212
209
200 19 9
9.0 19 7 98 212 292 217 20.1
5
1931
083
084
0
185
12
5 233 23 25.5
21 6 20
230
21.0
236
234
04 21521 21
2082.86
200
19 4 1!,
2
22
35.2
307 3 2
356
399 5.9
32.0
354
38
32.5
276
25.7
298 298
238
235
Z5 7
27 9
280
49.3 34.7.
44
35
302300
49.7 275
420
330
25.634348
30.2
3268
26 7
259
269
23 7
3.8.
48.8
429
340
37 1 364
33
42.0
422
339
364
372
21.3
21.8
67
20 11
27 5 273
.34.
37.7
37 1
29 8
333 342
34.
37.5
365
298
343
34
27.
20'S
292
251
285
2' 218
2951
322
7
0
28
25
301
308
2P.2
322
29
258
292
242 305
242 225 250 24.
24
282
0 9 195 19.0
1
57 186
I.3
to.
1985
197
14
is
.3
I .4
18A
183
7 9
7 9
24
39.1
327
330
253
309
30
327
33
312
350
293
298
270 21.0 2.
263
240
24 3
27
32 396
33
31
3 9 31
384
40.8
359
4079
34 8 349
2.7
30.4
305
302
274
278
31 0
402
40
40 9
300
Al 9 A, 0
40.8
44.7
391
4 2
3.f 39 7 3a 0
3.2
331
31 9
1 296
258 30
48.2
42.2
31
365
42 9 42 1
42.0
35. 7
39
43 8
5 3 3 390
337 3.4
3122
30.
309
267
AmbAN- C-SO
20 71
000 9508
I
_0
---
------
-
00
_
_
_
_
-
.
5
-
91
223
23.7
K)
88
88
~88
I
8
~8
8
d
88
8
I
8
fHi
I
I
ia
2
I.
Jo
opa
U
"N ti
U u
-~
~
418
j
8
8
8
18
.fr
~A8H88U8
888888881
1
Barasa
- Miaroibal
let TNTCo
data
summary
2500
S-how
___
BG
C-a
ic-a
2500
C-c
2500
250C
C-d
UVI-b
292
25-X
2500
1580
2500
2500
2500
320
2500
316
96
2500
2500
2500
2
2500
25M
2500
256
UV2-c
WV2-.
UV2-b
25001
2dlution.
radiation:
0
2500
2500
200
25001
2500
250
49C
2500
330
2500
2500
48,
2500
1010
2500
250C
'CIE
0
385
0
0
2500 2500
25kC 2500 2500 2500
250C 42 S28
250c 2500 25M0 250C
UV1-a
eak
2500
2500
2500
2500
109
2500
2500
2500
2
2500
CC-c
C-d
UV1-a
UV1-b
UV1-c
UV2-a
UV2-b
UV2-c
diluon:o
peak
~o
7J101rn1
aE .
96
-107
-I68
.124
-11-
--
0
0
1430
0
0
1070
100m
b l40l
battle re am
-551
-711
100
3: 862
1-day
exposure, Barasa
E.Coll
40
--
i 20
0
0
15.
0
-
100-
C-b
.
C
-4 0 UV0 Uv
bottle regime
0
A
Runl-i
Sample
Total
BG
C-a
C-b
C-c
C-d
2500
5
50
2500
2500
UV1-b
6.35
UV1-c
UV2-3
2500
Run2-1
Total
lRual-2
E.ColiTotal
0
L
0
2500
0
0
135
2500
C
250
E.Co1
0
2500
0
0
2500
120
0
2500
2500
2500
195
95
0
101
250
25
2500
2500
0
2500
2500
910
2500
0
I Aver
Run3.2
Run3.1
Aun2-2
Total E.Coll Total E.Col Total E.Cofl Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
690 2500 070 2500 130 2500
1690 2500
0
466
0
130
10
0
0
30
575
0
0
0
0
0
900
0
611 2500 2500 2370
730 1720
790 2500
310 2500 2500 2637
3320
470
380 2500
0
530
0
0
UV2-c
2500
50
peak r
0
700
110
0
505
2500
0
:01-
110
2500
114
10
1: 790
3 575
% Kill
St.Dev,
Total EColl Total EColi
0
0
0
2-day
a1
77
5
-5
100
100
41
25
0
400
347
0
0
239
84
0
0
0
21
0
0
2500
______
1275
99
10
0
100
71
1
408
2500
Radiation Ambient C-a
21.38
348.33
23.66
631.14
1.00
26.50
765.50
2.00
28.00
762.13
3.00
26.90
589.00
4.00
26.03
453.86
5.00
25.08
202.29
6.00
22.86
7.00
93.86
0.00
998
100
0
1732
3
C-d
C-c
C-b
19.41
24.14
27.69
33.22
35.99
35.58
34.02
30.28
18.3
21.0
23.3
26.7
28.5
28.4
27.8
25.6
19.5
24.5
28.5
34.1
37.4
36.0
34.9
31.2
-
S 60 --
U--
40
-.
100
--
UVl-a
19.3
23.2
25.6
29.1
30.2
28.8
26.7
24.2
17.96
20.06
21.85
24.63
26.35
26-52
26.58
25.47
UV2-b
UV2-a
UV1-c
UV1-b
21.1
19.2
20.5
21.36
30.8
24.5
26.4
27.53
32.5
25.7
30.8
31.38
38.7
29.4
37.0
36.52
40.0
29.8
38.2
37.90
37.3
28.4
35.5
35.34
34.2
26.6
31.6
31.60
29.5
24.2
27.1
27.31
---
C-d
-
00060000
700.00
5500
@3
40
0.00
-400.00
300.00
25.00
-
-
15.00
5,00
0.00
0.00
200.00
0.000
2.00
c
A
-UV1a
--- UV1
UV2-a
UV2-a
UV 2-C
-Radiation
-00-00
1.00
Ambient
C-a
900.00
45.00
3.00
4.00
A.5.00
I.
6.00
7.00
-A
C-b C, CAd UVI. u b UV- UV2-.
battle regime
9
Temperature & Radiation
I-
-,c
exposure, Barass
Barasa - temperature data summary
Time
-oU1421
9M0
0
0
964
1136
0
2500
0
1395
0
0
827
1043
318
335
0
90
0
0
250_
:0m0
10m0
20m0
adiation;
590
2500
00
U02-b
dilotiov: 20m11
E.Coli
E.Co(1
Uv2-
___
-595
2-day
-
0-
100
-121
99
C
2500
290
70 2500
1580 2500
1400 2500
0
1680
1: 920
radiation:
305!
S280
5-hour exposure, Harass
- TNTC -2500=77
% Kill
SL.ev.
IAvee
Runl3-2
Ro3-1
Total E.Coll Total ECollTotal F-Can Total E.Coll Total E.Coll
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
90
0
130 2500 1395
870 2500
690 2500
100
0
96
114
90
0
0
10
30
0
0
98
36
32
25 1125
0 1592
0 10
S0
250
27
0
949
0
110 2500 2500 2500 1770
2500
140
0
0
0 1049
140 2500 1332
170 2500
1290 2500
100
0
96
0
76
91
0
0
0
40
0
110
0
60 100
0 1193
0
995
20
0
0
0
710
0
-39
1932
0 960
2500
150 500
00
25
2500. 25
100
94
141
50
100
39
0
0 1372
a1530
560
0
-28
1011
0
2500 1795
2500 250
_____
10
111m
14
m
3: 950
2: 950
Total
E.Coli
0
BG
96
I
Run22
Run2-1
Runi-2
E.Coll Total E.Coll Total
0
0
1
0
2500 2500 2500 2500
25N9
0
0
47
75
20
1640
2500
0
2500
2500 2500 2500 2500 2500
2500
2500 2500 2500 2550
0 200
47
0
1501
1 250
0 2500
240
2500
2500 2500 2500 2500
250
2500
2500
Total
9L
20
2: 9t4
1: 735
% Kll
2500
472C
24C
St.DeO.
lAvrge
I
0 0oa
0 0
01 0 0 S.Co
W06 0 858
3401 25sf 900 2500
34
169-7
1006
53
0 60
29
01 1778 1667
1291
40C 0 270
833 c
2500 2300 2500 460 2500 2150
0 1075
c
1807
2500 360
2500
25W0
1 9c
1 1196
G 245
0 30
0 240
1290 31
035
172a
10
1110
0
c
1113
2500 2500 220 25001 2500 25M0 1783
290
51
0
1082
11 0 21 Z2
1954
120
33C :0
1390
-22
0
2500
0
396
5
2500
21
RunlSample
n3-2
IOun2-2
-1
I i.CoTlTOW I
0
0
-1
2500
1L
0.00
8.00
hour
93
Mvb
UV2
Boston, Rlun I
5-houc:
3/1102
TemrPeratur data
.
0
Rad alon
9:30
TIm
5
UV-a
a
AMbento
3 12
-40
2.30
475
1a
;12
186
184
175
80
C-b
75
73
182
18
246
232
3/1/02 5-hr. Radiation and
25
.4
~
~
Eavauon
the1stok
raactid
0
BL
600
115
09-8
Boston, Run
5
E.Cod
0
1000
0
40
100
35
35
1200
UV-41
K
2
15
1
:5
bottle
Radia-on
5
1 5
1
Painted
10 0-2
Total
E.C.i
C-C
Uv-5
23.7
not e xceea thfishold lemp
d4l
Runt-2
Sampl/ Total
C-.
C-b
5s
apparoxknately.
22.7
247
Clear bo.ft
OIme (hour)
4ata4nor4or
Bacterlali K/il
Run1-1
BG
1
217
F- i len-.-.-t.
-t-
05
5
.
237
226
---
D
c
UV-c
9
24.9
24.1
251
Temperature data
.-~
e~- ~
1---
iC-
Ib
UV-b
~1
178
182
0
8o
50
1300
1600
55
0
0
20
0
95
0
0
175
8
35
ECnI
20
275
-51
97
96
00
90
0
-83
98
1
_
isFC_
2.1
52.5
a
425
128
Ka
0
0
82.5
0
50
1370
Total
0
75
35
125
44.8rdad
%kill
Avera,
E.Co
Total
--
-
-
45
100
95
106
71
6
(
$
2
5-hioor: 3/5/02
Ternperalure data
TIn.
51
Ambieni
512
69
56
560
21
Uv-*
1C-a
1Radilatlo
915
0
3/5/02
52
.
90
10-0
IUV-b
C-b
80
!
54
109
6.1
14.
48
53
151
158
edbWile
Hall /an-Paledbo
--
=2 -R---- -a--i-on
s
o 2
Ev4h4a171
ThrlsholdradlataIon
was
1
as
lirn (hours)
12
exceedd
kill
Run2-2
Run2Samnp I
SL
5.9
85.5
5-hr.Temperaturs and Radiation data
a
8aceral
I-4
C-o
54
,3
'4.7
Total
BG
0
c
16c0
C-C
40
UV-
144
79
0
Aoo.
0
7T1.1
85
0
0
40
7Q 1201)
Coco
UVI-a
uivi.tl
c
0
100
C-d
E.Co
0
1400
35
110
1400
55
14001
20
C-a
C-b
Total
E.Coll
s
20
72s
0
Total
0
70
0
0
110
5
ECob
000
214Q
3
5
0
9804
9036
35
300
140
KA
age
.Coh
1400
28
135
1400
97"1
135
1.00!
hr.Bacterial
4&S2
0
1M0
Wal
10000
5000
1786
""-
10000
Ion
0
50.
Kim
I
1
EC
o 3 o 93 00
a
94
Boston, Run 1
1-day: 32/02
Weather: hazy. treezy
Temperature data
Time
9:30
397
10.6
7.5
7.9
7.7
4
1 30
5.30
178
20
9.9
8.1
14,3
9.3
143
92
14.3
9.3
8
8.31
IC-c
lb
IUV-b
IC-b
a
UV-a
C-al
Radiation Ambient
0
170
8.5
175
10.1
10 5
8.4
IUV-c
C-d
[c
8.5
16.8
18.8
75
162
9.9
10.7
10.3
12.0
9.6
91
17.3
10.3
16.5
3/2102 1-day Radiation and Temperature data
20
0
--
-
18o
-
-
-600
Ambient
--
-
--
Clear bottle
'4
0
-
--
C3
440
0
.
-
-
0
-
2
1
Painted bottle
--
Radiation
5
4
3
-*-
oo
-a
-----
--- ---
-
Halt-painted
bottle
___
__-----
----
-
---
--
-
------
_------
-------------------
time (hour)
Evaluation did no exceed threshold temp or radiation
3/2/02 1-day Bacterial Kill
Bacterial Kill
Run1-1
Sample
BG
C-a
C-b
C-c
C-d
UV1-a
1200
35
55
1200
UV1-b
UV1-c
E.Coli
Total
E.Coli
0
750
875
70
1275
1210
37.5
92.5
1300
0
160
0
10
25
80
5
0
70
0
750
115
80
1350
1220
40
130
1400
0
75
0
0
55
80
0
0
35
0
750
60
60
1200
E.Colt Total
Total
E.Coli
Total
BIL
120
kill
1%
Average
Runl-2
0
117.5
0
5
40
80
25
88
91
-70
-61
95
0
88
52.5
-73
100
96
66
60-
32
98
100
55
_
(L-.
_
4-
Boston, Run 2
1-day: 3/6/02
Weather: hazy, breezy
Temperature data
Time
Radiation Ambient IC-a
UV-a
[a
9:00
115
0
54
5.6
0
4
12:30
250
8.4
8.3
82
IC-b
lb
IUV-b
5.5
8.3
5.7
5.5
9.8
IC-c
5.6
10.2
10.5
55
IUV-c Ic
IC-d
5.6
5.6
5.4
10.4
10.7
10.6
7.0
3/6/02 1-day Temperature and Radiation data
400
120
100
-
-
--
-
-
e
--.
..
Ambient
aClear Bottle
Half-painted bottle
so
--
----
4
S2000
M-
-
--
05
Painted bottle
n________Radiation
_____________
-_________.
3
--
200
--
1
15
25
2
3
35
4
45
time (hours)
Evaluation did not exceed threshold temp or radiation
Bacterial kill
Sample
BL
BG
C-a
C-b
C-c
C-d
UV1-a
UV1-b
UV1-c
Total
E.Coll
0
1400
20
170
650
1600
15
125
1000
Average
Run2-2
Run2-1
Total
0
60
0
0
20
110
0
0
60
E.Colt
0
1200
45
130
850
1600
25
85
1600
Total
5
70
0
0
5
100
0
% Kilt
E.Coli
0
0
1300
33
150
750
1600
20
105
45
1300
Total
E.Coli
3
65
0 97.50 100.00
0 88.46 100.00
13
42.31 80.77
105 -23.08 -61.54
0
98.46 100.00
0
91 92 100.00
53
0.00 19.23
3/6/02
1-day Bacterial Kill
120042
10.00
___
--
40.00
40.00
2
---
-CL>
20-_
00.00
DO2~__
_
95
Boston. extra 1-day
1-day: 3/7102
Run3-1
Total
Sample
BL
BG
Run3-2
_
E.Coli
Average
Total
E.Coli Total
% Kill
Total
E.Coli
0
0
0
0
0
C-a
C-b
C-c
C-d
UV-a
UV-b
1300
0
100
800
1100
20
40
10
0
0
10
30
0
0
1100
30
75
1050
1000
15
30
30
0
5
5
15
1200
15
0
925
1050
18
35
20
0
3
8
23
0
0
99
93
23
13
99
97
100
88
63
-13
100
100
UV-c
1250
15
1200
5
1225
10
-2
50
88
0
3/7/02 1-day Bacterial Kill
E.Coli
0
-00
I0
C-a
C-E
C-n
OTata
Cd
UV-a
dye
v
Boston. extra 1-day
1-day: 3/8/2002
Weather: overcast and windy
Time
0
9 15
12:15
2:15
5
6:15
9
Radiation Ambient C-a
UV-a
a
70
7.10
6.60
6.60
123
7.30
8.50
8.60
85
6.3
7.8
8.3
0
6.7
6.7
6.3
C-b
6.6
UV-b
b
6.60
8.60
8.3
6.60
920
8.7
6.4
6.6
8.1
6.5
6.6
8.9
5.5
6.4
6.3
C-c
UV-c c
6.60 6.60
9.10
9.60
8.4
9 1
6.4
6S4
C-d
6.6
9.4
8.8
6.4
6.60
7.50
7.2
6.3
3/8/02 1-day Temperature and Radiation data
B00 --------7
00
----
500
-
4.00
---
3700
100
-
-
--
-
--
--
-
-
-
-
--------
- ----
------
_
---- _--__-__-_-__---
---
-
__-_
-----
-
Ambient
Clear Bottles
Half-Painted Bottles
--- Painted Bottles
--Radiation
--
-
--
-
000
1
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
9
Evaluation. did not exceed threshold temp or radiation
Bacterial Kill
Run4-1
Sample
B
Total
Run4-2
_
EColi
Total
IAverage
Total
E.Coll
BG
C-a
C-b
0
2000
800
1000
0
70
5
0
0
1400
1000
1000
45
0
10
C-c
C-d
1000
1000
60
55
1400
1600
45
65
UV1-a
UV1-b
UV1-c
1000
0
0
1700
900
1000
0
800
1000
5
1000
10
1200
1300
900
1000
800
35
1600
55
1200
0
% Kill
Total
E.ColI
0
57.5
2.5 47.059 95.652
5 41.176 91.304
3/8/02 5-hr Bacterial Kill
E.Coli
52.5
60
7.5
41,176 86.957
45
29412 21.739
0
29.412 8,6957
23.529 -4.348
47.059
100
120
__
_
-L
_
60
--
-
a
-
40.
20
0
.
0
-
-
>
--M0-1
>
n
96
Boston. Run 1
2-day: 1,1-2/02
Weather:
and Partly cloudy
breezy
Temperature data
C-cl
UVI-ul c
Cd1
UV1-b b
UVI-al a
L
Time _ Radiation Ambient IC-al
1
930
112
74
691
6.8
89
7.0
8.0
93
8 1
2
12 3C
640
17 5
178
174
17.4
233 266
25.0
236
27 5
24.1
224
283
179
17.9
23 1 250
475
180
18.1
3
130
4
530
4
59
81
89
8.9
93 11 0
10.2
a5
123
3
19 2
19 5 19
11 2
192
930
397
6
170
179
17 5
144
15.2
14.8
166 186
17.6
16 1
169
7
53X
20
180
95
93
9.4,
10.1
10.5
10.3
100
104
5 19.5
19.2
19.1
5
300
E
00
al Panted Paind
time
Evaluat-on barely reached theshold
radiation.
6
4
2
0
(hr)
di not exceed
temp
threshold
Run-2
Run-I
0
115
0
0
15
100
6(70
25
60
60o
1400
UV1-b
[UV1-c
12-Col
Total
E.Coil
0
C-a
C-b
C-c
C-d
uV1-a
11-2/02 2-day Bacterial Kill
[
Kill
BL
BG
98
bent
n ons
--
100
Total
10.2
19.3
19
40
so
Sample
16.3
1451
921
18 7
12 7
800
50
200
Bac taraia
62
138
Temperature and RadIation data
3/1-2/02
-
C-d
8.7
25.6
25.4
10.4
15
65
0
0
FAXI
7D
-0
1000
45
40
1000
1400
35
45
0
75
0
-
0 100
100
5 60526
0
0
60
37
110
0
---
-
-
-
-
o-
0
95
-
-
-
-
i2
-
-
-1053
100
0
79
0 100
105
0
u
653157
60
SIX
ioO
E.Coll
E.Coll
Boston, Run 2
2-dayl 3/5-/02
Weather:
moring
overcast
and windy, attemoon 5unny and calm
data
Radiation Ambient C-al
Time
69
5 2
512
910
0'
I60
56 107
09
0
17
6 s
2
6.9
18.
115
90
3
4
1-230
250
j
92
Temperature
UV1-1
a
58
11.3
1
1 .3
100
C-b2
UV1-b b
5.5
6.8 68
11-0
145 183
25
14
.0
18.5 187 182
.6
109 126
C-cl
UV1-cl c
6.8
6.2
16.4
136
1.2
52
206
36
188
18.2
9.8
12.5
2.0
18.5
88-8
6.2
Cd
93
7 7
25
17.1
2.4
18.5
11.2
188'
95
3/5-6/02 Temperature and Radiation data
'M
0
-1--Ambient
34
Clear Bottles
Mta
400
-
20
Evalualon- Theshokl lemplrature
Bacterial kill
Run2-1
Sample Total
BL
BG
not met,
but threshold
4
3
2
time (hr)
1
0
radiation was
exceeded
/50-02 2-day Bacterial Kii
Run2-2
Total
E.Coli
0
1_00
0
E.Coli
E.Coli
E.Coi
0
70
1400
0
65
15
0
0 10001
0
30
1200
1200
5
0
35
35
0
0
30
0 10000
50 2857
113 -60.71
6 10000
0100 00
148 -110.71
0
55
C-a
C-b
1470I
25
25
C-c
1400
C-d
UVI-a
2500
65
190
9
UV1-b
UV1-c
455
2500
0
40
265
1000
0
65
-
no
-
----
-xll
-
-
o
a.400
2 00-
-
D0
D
97
Boston, Run 3
2-day: 1124-2512002
overcast and windy
Weather: Morning surny and oreezy. alernmot
0
1
2
3
4
TMne
a
Radiation Ambient C-al IUVI-1
R6
78
144
870
186
184
71
70
102
90
73
122
87
810
63
85
8.3
83
67
0
6.15
15
9 5
2 15
2 5
3/7,1102
20 0
-
C-b2
16.5
9.6
8.4
6.3
92
191
98
8
6.4
C-cl
UV1-b b
RB
93
182
95
84
9.0
18.9
10.4
9.1
6.4
186
109
94
64
UV<leC
87
64
18.3
106
92
84
Cd
9.0
1.3
10.a;
74
1851
9
.8
75
6.4
83
2-day Temperature and Radiation data
-- - - - - - -
-
9.3
- -
---- - -- .30,
xcii
AM
4
93
EVa3lraton ercoeded hiesnhold radiation. did
not
exceed threshold
BG
C-a
C-b
C-c
C-d
UV1-a
UVI-b
UV1-c
temoerature
__-1_n_-2
jRun3-2
E.Coli
E.Coll E.ColI
Total
E.Coll
0
0
0
0
D
20
30
1100
10
13C0
10
0
0
75
1
30
10C
0
0
75
0
95
625
7 5
10
1250
5
1250
-2E
25
20
1400
30
12N)
0j 102
0
75
0
HS;
10C
U
75
215
-7
3785
20
1300
55
1300i
Bacterial Killu
Rurt3-l
Sample Total
8L
0
5
tme (t)
0
3rr-& 02 2-day ftCle lal Kil
12 0
--
- -
-
-
- -
- - -
-
a N -
W
2o
u
-Y
u
-a
-
98
Boston - Microbial
5-hour
1 n1-1
Sample
BL
Data sumninary
Rus-I
i
BG
C-a
C-0
C-c
115
5
F101
o
40
C-d
1
35
1UV2-a
35
UV2-b
UV2-c
1200
peak radiation:
-
0
50
ISO
1400
95
1000
-9
200
2
0
Runt-I
0
1370
Total
0
75C
75 750
C-a
C-0
!C-c
60
50
0 115
0
80
55 1350
60 1220
.)
40
1200
120.
UV2-a
35
55
1200
UV2-b
UV2<
144
35
110
301400
7012DC
20
110
45 14001
14001
0
130
35
1400
A___ e
%Klt
Total ECo Total
10
5
0
S3
1
0 244
99
0
0 90
0
11DO
109
0
44
74
25 134-3
31
45
0
0
24
f58
-23
c
a
98
a
5-hour exposure, Boston
E.Collj
0
1350
1100
40
0
0
75
3
Tota!LE.Col
0
0
-40
94
-22
"TNTC
Run2-1
jToral
0
E.Coll
0
1 0
0
1400
20
10
25
170
73
1000
l
_=
901
:2 7
98
100
47
11
100
100
621
4Q-0..
650
0 1600
5 15
0 125
% KIll
jPutt4-~JAsera
LRun4-t
JRtmO-2
Averg
Kill
IRun3-1
!21741RnE.Coll Total E.Colt Total E.Coll To01 E.Col ITotal E.Coli Total E.Coll Total
0
0
5
0
0
45
70 1400
1C 1100
30 2000
7C 1300
1 79
0 259
5 1000
0 800
0
0
0 30
74
3
10 327
0 1000
0 75
5 1000
0 100
16
28
45 I038
Ic 1050
1000
60 1400
5 000
-4
65 1290
15 1000
55 1600
100 1100
C 1000
0 244
c 00
1000
C 15
so
0
20
75
2
1000
10 308
C 30
40
0
1! 1200
3-- 16001 55 125
45 1250
401
-2
Run2-2
EColl1 Total
0
0
60 1200
45
0
0 130
20 850
110 1600
25
0
0
85
60 1600
,
________
- 250027'
2:
RunT-2
0
BG
Cd4
C
C
50
0 0
55 0
1:
Sample Total 4E.ColI
SL
0
1600
0
Run2-2
E.Coll iTotaliE.Coll
c0
75 1400
1000
C
35,
20
0125
50
45
0
1000
Ru2-1
-2
Total
TOIaL E.Coil
0.
0
5
0
0 1I
8001
1238
1-day
E.Col
0a
65
99 2
95
571
-i
991
971
67
1
5
04
552-
1v2-b
UV2-c
1
1%
Run41
0
C-b
exposure, Boston
T
5
30
-
-
0 20
-
0
2-
v2+
v
bottle regirne
2-day
Run3-2
Avera
Run3-1
Run2-2
Run1-2
Run2-1
Run1-1
Sample Total IECol Total EColl Total IEColI Total E.Coli Total E.Coll Total E.Coll Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
01 0
0
L
10 1100
30 1133
55 1400
85 1300
600 115 1000
75 1400
BG
0
36
30
0
75
15
0
25
0
0
45
25
C-a
0
25
0
30
0
95
0
75
0 54
C-S
00
0 40
5 1250
10 1117
65 1200 35 1250
60 1400
500
15 1000
C-c
30 1400
20 1517
1400
100 1400 110 2500 190 1200 35 1200
C c
41
0
75
0
5
c
a5
1
0
55
C
I5
UV2-a
75
0 149
0 215!
0
0 40
0 455
3
0 45
UV2-b 20 1250
55 1300
30 1300
255 1000
60 2500
70
400
00
UV2-c
E-Coll
0
0
-
all 20
mA
dilution
% KHi
Total
0
62
0
0
32
81
0
0
875
2-day exposure, Boston
E.Coll
95
1
100
100
49
-34
0,
07
I00
-10
-35
97
c
100
40
-31
-
20
100
i
C.M
6-
C.
LN2 a LPv2-b
bottle rogirne
"
Boston - temperature data summary
Time
Radiation Ambient C-a
9.00
313
8.48
350
3.00
11.90
280
5.00
10.93
8
8.00
0.00
10.62
13.55
12.78
11.08
10.7
13.3
12.4
10.8
UV1-b
UV1-a
C-d
C-c
C-b
10.0
11.1
10.5
9.8
10.41
14.66
13.47
11.84
10.1
11.1
10.5
9.8
9.70
9.34
9.32
9.32
UV1-c
10.3
14.9
13.7
12.1
-1-Ambient
Temperature & Radiation
C-a
4001
100
30--*--C-d
14.00
3o-+- UV-a
12.00
2501
1.00
200
Et
-C-b
UV-b
1 5 -UV-C
-
Radialton
6.00
F100
50
0 -
'50
2 00
0.00 0.00
1.00
,0-
-
--
2.00
3.00
5.00
4.00
Time (hr)
6.00
7.00
8.00
99
ulvz
Dumay
5-hour: 1/26/02
Tamperature data
00
1
2
3
4
5
C-b
a
253
349
409
447
46.0
45.4
24.8
337
38.4
41 5
430
43.1
28.3
42.3
44.2
471
448
340
10:00
11
12:00
100
2.00
3:00
UV-a
C-a
Ambient
Time
0
1/26/02
25.3
34.9
40.9
44.7
253
39.4
465
50,9
46.0
524
45.4
51.7
UV-b
26.2
38.9
45.4
49.5
b
IUV-c
C-c
26.4
41.8
50.2
267
436
51 7
561
498
51.1
53.3
56.8
55.1
48.0
49.9
55.2
53.1
51. 0
-
53.8
bien
-- Ax
Clear botle
.
--- -
E 200 - -
50.0
5-hr. Radiation and Temperature data
-
oa
C
26.0
399
48.3
51.5
25.8
39.2
46.0
H
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27.2
28 8
30 3
31.9
33 5
33 3
33 1
32.9
32.6
32.4
322
31 4
30.6
29 8
29 0
28.2
274
27.0
26 7
26.3
25.9
25.6
252
24 5
23 8
23 1
22 4
21.7
21.0
21.1
21.1
21.2
21.3
21 3
21 4
R [J/s-
I U [nvsJ Q
3 80
23.56
29 1. 15 650 00
3 80
23.7
291 78
60.0
3 80
23.96
292.42 650 0
3 80
24 17
293 05 6500
293 68
3.80 24.38
650.0
3 80 24.59
294. 32
650.0
3 80
2481
294 95 650 00
3 80
24 93
700 0
29S 32
3.80 2505
7500
295 68
3 80 25.18
296.05 800.0
296 42
3.80 2530
850.0
3 80
2543
296 78 900.0
25.55
3.80
297.15 95000
26.10
3.80
298.73 941.8
26 66
3 80
300.32 933 7
3 80
27.23
301.90 925 5
27 80
3 80
303 48 9173
2839
3 80
305.07 909 2
28,98
3 80
30665 901 00
3.80 28.90
306.43
892.5
306 22
884 0 3 80 2882
3.80 2874
30600 875 5
28.66
3 80
305.78
867.0
3 80 28 57
305.57
858.5
3.80 2849
305.35 850 00
28.20
3 80
745 2
304 55
2790
3
80
640.3
303 75
27.61
3 80
302 95
535 5
3 80 27.32
302 15
430.7
3 80 27.03
301.35 325.8
2674
3 80
300 55 221 00
2661
3 80
2083
300 18
26.48
195.7
3 80
299 82
3 80 26.35
183,0
299.45
2623
3 80
299 08
170 3
26.10
3 80
298.72
1577
25.97
3.80
298 35 14500
3 80
25.73
297.65
130.8
25.48
3 80
296 95
1167
25.25
3 80
29625
102.5
25.01
88.3
3.80
295.55
2477
3.80
74 2
294.85
3.80 24.54
294.15
60.00
52.7
3.80 24.56
294 22
45 3
3.80 2458
294 28
24.60
3.80
38 0
294 35
3.80 2463
30 7
294 42
380 2465
23 3
294 48
3 801 2467
294.551 1600
1Qa,o
Q.(P
Qk-P
3.70 21 22
-17 51 21 82
-2 70 21.71
-13.08 22 11
-589 22.16
-1091 22 45
-902 2256
-13 22 2276
-11.73! 2284
-14 16
2301
-13.90 23 12
-15 '18 2326
-8771 2343
-6.51 2388
-791 24.42
-684 24 92
-742 25.45
-6,92 25.98
-17:31 26.45
-19.98 26.44
-1799 26.32
-19 05 26.27
-18 11 26.17
-18,49 26.11
-21 32 26.00
-19.72 2569
-17 88 25.38
-16 19 25.08
-1440 24 77
-12.68 24.47
-842 24 19
-854 2408
-8.09 23.95
-8 02 2383
-7,70 23.71
-7.55 2359
-920 23.46
-9.49 2324
-887 2301
-886 22.79
-8.44 22 57
-8.30 22 36
-351 22 16
-236 22 16
0.64 -2 95 2219
0.52 -2 34 22 20
0 39 -2561
-2211 22.24
0.27
10.92,
10.92
10 92
10 92
1092
1092
11.76
1260
13 44
14.28
15.12
1596
15 82
1569
1555
1541
15.27
15 14
1499
1485
14.71
14 57
14 42
1428
12,52
10 76
9 00
7 24
5 47
3.71
3.50
3.29
3 07
2.86
2 65
244
2.20
1 96
1.72
1 48
1 25
1 01
0 88
0 76
kltar
1,
dT, [K] Tr,,
1 ]KJ T
291.15
2 45 293.60
17.16
-445
-0 64 292.9/
1 53 294 49
10,68
0.12
0.02 294.51
7 47
1 07 295 57
0 '34 295.91
2 37
5 11 0.73 296.64
0 24 296 88
1.68
404
0 58 297 46
2.42
0 35 29780
3 63
0 50 298 31
2 77
0 40 298 70
1 39 300 09
9 73
1 71 301 80
11 95
1 49 303.29
10. 45
11 45
1 64 30493
1 54 306,47
1079
1 60 308 07
11 2J
0 13 0. 02 308 09
-2,75
-039 30 / 70
307 58
-087
-0 12
-2.10
-0,30 307 28
-1 29
-018 307.09
-026 306 83
-1.82
-661 -094 305 89
-676
-097 304 92
-665 -095 303.97
-6 72
-096 303 01
-6.67
-0.95 302.06
-669 -0,96 301 10
-0.36 300 75
-2.50
-0.41 300 34
-284
-0.37 299 97
-2.61
-2.77
-0.40 299.57
-038 29919
-2 66
-2 73
-039 298 80
-4.74
-068 298 12
-076 297 37
-5.29
-070 296.67
-4 91
-0.74 295 93
-5 17
-499 -0.71 295 22
-5 11
-073 294 49
-003 294.45
-0.23
0.12 294.57
0 82
001 294.59
010
009 294 67
0.60
004 294 711
0 26
0.07 294 78
0 49
20.45
1982
21 34
21 36
22 42
22.76
2349
23 73
24.31
2465
25. 16
25 55
16 94
2865
3014
31 78
33.32
34.92
34 94
34.55
34.43
34 13
33.94
3368
3274
31 77
3082
2986
2891
27 95
27.60
27.19
26.82
26.42
2604
2565
2497
24.22
23.52
22.78
22.07
21.34
21.30
21.42
21 441
21 52
21 56
21 63
9 83
9 83
9 83
9 8:3
9 83
9
8-i
10 58
11 34
12 10
12.85
1361
14 36
1424
14 12
13.99
13 87
13 75
13 62
13 49
13 24
13 11
12.98
12 8b
11 27
9 68
8 10
6 51
4 93
3 34
3 15
2 96
2 77
2 58
2 38
2 19
I 98
1 76
1 55
1.34
1 12
091
0 80
0 69
0.57
0 46
0 35
024
0 52
-261
-496
-6 68
-794
-8 86
-9 77
-10 84
-11.80
-1268
-1351
-1430
-1398
-12 73
-11 84
-11 21
-1077
-104,)
-11 76
49
17 05
17 1
1 /.90
18 23
1851
18 76
19 0 1
1924
1946
19.68
1989
20 11
20 35
20 6r6
2099
21 36
21 76
22. 17
22 50
-14 14
12
-15 84'
- I/ 02A
825
;2 92
- 17 86
-18 42
-19 30
-2003 2283
21,61
-20 16
-19 86 2:1 32
-19.24 "1 99
-18.40 21 62
-17.01 21.24
-15.59 20.92
-14.51 20.66
20 43
-13.68
-13 021 20 23
-12 51 2005
- 12 37 19 89
-12 49 19 72
-12 50 19.64
-1245 19 34
-12.35 1915
-1221 1894
-11.36 1874
-1007 18.58
16
2295
-1.03
-1 21
-1 38
-1 F4
d f, JK] T.,,. [K] T f ["CI
29115
2062
2 52 292 67'
17 61
22 54
2 02 295 69
14 13
24 18
297.33
1 66
11 53
298
71
25 56
9 63
:38
2674
8 21
1 18 299.89
27 77
1.04 300 92
7 26
1 00
301 92
28 //
6.98
29.71
6 F55
0 94 302 86
0 89 30 75
3060
6 23
31.45
0 86 304 60
601
32 29
0 83 305 44
5 84
33 11
0 82 306.26
5 73
0 89 307 15
34 00
6 25
35 10
1 10 308.25
7 70
3635
1.25 :309 0
8 73
3770
9 47
1 35 310.85
312
28
1001
39 13
1 43
6z
77
40
313
10 39
1 .48
41 82
1 21 314 97
8 46
42 62
0.79 :315 77
5.64
43 10
3 42
049 316.26
4337
1 88
0 2/1 316 52
4348
316 63
0 77,
4348
0 00 316 6:1
-0 0:3
43 08
-278
-0.40 316 21
4233
-527
-0.75 :315 48
41 32
-1.01
314 47
-706
-1.19
313 28
4013
-8 35
38.80
-1
32
311
95
-9 27
37 38
310
53
-994
-1.42
36.17
-849
-1 21 309 32
35 16
-1 01
308.31
-7.06
3430
-604 -086 307 45
33 F4
-0,76 306 69
-5 31
3286
-068 306,01
-4 78
305
38
3223
-440
-0 63
31 98
-065 34(73
-4.5S
3087
-071 304 02
-4 96
30 12
-075 303 27
-5.24
2934
-545 -078 302 49
28 54
-560
-080 301.69
27.73
-082 300 88
-571
2705
300
20
-4 7'6
-068
2656
-048 299 /1
2737
0.81 300 52
5.64
0 74 301 26
28.11
6 17
28 78
068 301 93
4 73
29 40
4 31
0 62 :302 ss
1r,
0ah
[C]
18
51
18 71
18 89
19
oG6
(J,(1
ttle
Q,
4 37
4.37
4 37
437
4 37
4 37
4 70
5 04
538
S71
605
6 33
6 31
6.27
622
6.16
6 11
6,0r
6 00
5 94
5 88
5
83
5 77
5 71
5,01
4 30
3.60
289
2.19
119
140
1 31
1.23
1.14
1 06
097
0,88
078
069
059
0.50
0,40
0.35
0 30
0 26
0 21
016
0 11
Qof
dT.]KJ
OTI
0 52 1649 12 1 5
-iI 9, 16.88 10 16
2 66 1721 8 67
7 57
-3 68 17 4
17 75 I6 78
-4 4
-499 17 06
6 20
5 80;
-i604 18.19
-6 42 1839 5 29
491
-7.07 18 67
4 64
-7.63 18 74
-8 13 18.91 4 44
4 30
-857 190/
-7 93 19 22 " 28
4
-6 j 19 42 7 02
-548 1969 8.28
-4 79 20 00 9 18
-4 32 2035 9 83
-400 20 72 10 31
-5 28 21 12 8 50
5 CA
-764 21.44
3,63
-934 21 65
S12
-10 57 21 79
1 03
-1144 21.87
0 24
-1206 21.91
-1299 21 91 -1 69
-13,96 21 84 -359
-1448 21.>9 -4.96
-1467 21 49 -5 95
-1462 21.26 -667
-1441 -21 00 -7 18
-1368 2073 -640
-12.77 2049 -! 46
-12.08 20.29 -4 78
-11 56 2011 -4,30
-11 15 1995 -3 95
-10 83 1980 -j 69
-1086 19 67 -3 92
-11 13 1952 -4 38
-11 29 1936 -4 71
-11 36 1919 -495
-11.38 19 01 -f" 12
- 11 35 18 8A -5 24
-10.62 1864 -4 35
-943 1849 -3 04
647
--096 18 43
-1 13 1862 !)08
-1 29 1880 4 71
- 1 45 1897 4 36
T,,,
[K] T JoC]
.J1 IS
1 74
291 891
1.45
1 24
1 08
0 97
0 89
0 83
294 34
0 76
0 70
0 66
300 10
0 63
0.61
0 75
1.00
118
302
295 58
296 66
297 63
298 51
299 34
300 80
301 46
302
10
71
19 74
21 19
22 4L
23 51
24 48
2 ) 36
2(
26 Tj
27 6*
28 11
28 9v
29 6
31 1,
32 ',0
1 21
1 40
1 47
309 84
36 69
311
05
311 87
312 38
303 93
30 7H
11141
31056
-0 95
-1 01
-0.91
-078
-0.68
-0.61
-056
309 60
308 58
:107.66
302
64
301.93
301.20
300 45
299 83
299 39
1.00. 18
300.90
301.27
:302.20i
-OW
90
306 88
306.20
305.59
305 02
304 50
312 69
3 1? 84
312 87
312"63
-0,8t
0 53
3/
38 70"
39 13
39 54
39.C,9
39 72
3948
3896
3826
37 41
36 45
35 43
34 51
33 73
3305
3244
31 8,1
31 35
-0.61
-0 71
-056
-0.63
0 67
-0 71
-0 73
-0.75
-062
-043
0 78
0 73
0 67
0 62
r PM
lWli 46
304 47
305 65
306 96
30&37
0 81
0 52
0 301
0 15
0 03
-024
m
19
30 16
29 49
28 78
28 05
27.30
2668
26 24
27003
27 75
28 42
2905
~C
M 0CD
B
ga 0 0.
0
3D
W/
Definition of terms
Constant Inputs:
dt = time step interval (hours]
T, = initial water temperature [K]
D = bottle diameter [m]
x = bottle thickness [m]
As, = 2r(D/2)L = total surface area of bottle cylinder [mi]
2
Ase = -(D/2) 2 = total surface area of bottle end [M ]
A= D*L = cross sectional area of bottle [M 2]
M mass of water [g]
kr= thermal conductivity of plastic [W/mK]
Measured Inputs:
Ta =
ambient air temperature at each time step [K]
2
R = net radiation measurements at surface for each time step [W/m ]
U = wind speed at each time step [m/s]
Calculated:
Q_
amount of long-wave radiation going into th e system
QL = EaTs (Ase+Asc)
where a = Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.67-10-)
T3 = ambient air temperature
,= amount of heat generated by radiation absorbed by bottle
Q, = ERA,
where Eis the percent of radiation absorbed by the system
(clear = 80%, half painted = 90%, painted = 100%)
0,
amount of heat lost by back radiation
QU = EcOTs 4(Ase+Asc)
where
TSa
OT =
=
a = Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.67-10-)
surface temperature (calculated in attached spreadsheets)
net heat flux into bottle
Or = Q,+Q+QL ~ b
dT = change in temperature for each time step for either painted or clear bottles)
dT = (QT/CM)*dt
Tn = final temperature for each time step (for either painted or clear bottles)
T, = T,
+ dT
114
Painted bottles: conduction/convection
Constants
k, jW/mKj
D Iml
x[m)
A.
A
=
02
0 08
x 0 0005
= 0 005
= 0,0528
-
(thermal conduclivity
(bottle diameter)
(bOttle thickness)
ul the plaslic)
L mi -.
2 (rool
imnension(
caffiationi;
(free
fime
sic T.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
[K]
291.15
29360
29297
29449
294 51
295.57
295.91
296 64
296.88
297.46
29780
298 31
29870
300.09
15! 301.80
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
303.29
304 93
306.47
308.07
308 09
30770
307 58
307 28
307.09
30683
305 89
304.92
303.97
30301
302 06
301.10
300 75
300 34
299 97
299.57
299 19
29880
298 12
297.37
296 67
29593
29522
294 49
294.45
294,57
294.59
294.67
294.71
294.78
T, [K] Tt [K j
291 47 291 31
292.1 292 85
292 73 292,85
293 37 293 93
294 294 25
294 63 295.1
295 13 295 52
295.5 296 07
295 87 296.37
296 23 296.85
296 6 2972
2969/ 29764
291 94 298 32
299 53 299 81
301 11 301 45
302 69 302 99
30428 304.6
30586 306 16
306.4
307.31
306 33 307 21
306 11
306,9
305 89 306 73
30568 30648
30546 306 27
304.95 305 89
304 15 305.02
303 35 304.14
302 55 303.26
301 75 30238
300 95
301 5
300 37 300 73
300 300 37
299 63 299 99
299.27 299 62
2989 29924
298.53 298 86
298 298.4
297.3 297.71
2966 296 98
295.9 29628
295.2 29556
294.5 29486
294 18 294.33
294.25 29435
294.32 29444
294.38 294.48
294.45 294 56
294.52 294.61
14728 221 03
v [m'/s]
a [(m'/sjk [W/M;
1E-05
1E-05
3E-05 0 0247
3E-05 0 0248
3E-05 0 0248
3E-05 0 0249
3E-05 0 0249
0,025
3E-05
3E-05 0 025
0 025
3E-05
3E-05 0 025
3E-05 00251
3E-05 0. 0251
3E-05 0.0251
3E-05 0 0252
3E-05 0 0253
3E-05 0 0254
3E-05 0 0255
3E-05 0.0256
3E-05 0.0257
3E-05 0 0258
3E-05 0,0258
3E-05 0.0258
3E-05 0 0258
3E-05 0 0258
3E-05 0 0257
3E-05 0 0257
3E-05 0.0257
3E-05 0.0256
1E-05
3E-05
9E-06
9E-06
9E-06
9E-06
9E-06
1 E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E.05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
0.0255
3E-05 00255
1E-05
3E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
1E-06
1E-05
1E-05
1E-05
3E-05
1E-05
3E-05
9E-06
9E-06
9E-06
9E-06
9E-06
3E-05
3E-05
9E-06
9E-06
2E-06
3E-05
3E-05
3E-05
3E-05
3E-05
3E-05
3E-05
3E-05
3E-05
0 0254
0.0254
0 0253
0 02 53
0. 0253
0.0252
0 0252
0 0252
00251
00251
0 025
0.025
0 0249
0 0249
0 0249
0 0249
0 0249
0 0249
0 0034
0.0034
0 0034
0 0034
0 0034
0 0034
0 0034
0 0034
0.0034
0 0033
0.0033
0 0033
0 0033
0 0033
0 0033
0.0033
0 0033
0 0033
0.0033
0 0033
00033
0 0033
0 0033
00033
0 0033
0 0033
0 0033
0.0033
0 0033
0.0033
0 0033
0,0033
0 0034
0.0034
0 0034
0.0034
0.0034
0.0034
0 0034
0.0034
0.0034
0 0034
0 0034
3E-05
3E-05 0.0249 0 0034
00198
0 0045
1E-05
3E-05
3E-05
3E-05
convection over end)
lover cy
(forced convechon over end)
in1er)
a
Nu .
T,.,,
o,
10,,, 1 jU[m/s Ret
i [K"} jPr
Ra, jNu,. IT.,,. 10.
INU,,
832345 199 1I 11066
0 0034 0.3231 21137 5 8649 291 15 0.0029 4 /419 291 15 0,0244 00301
1094
0 0034 0 325 96930 8319 293 59 -00 19 6 94 1 293 59 -0 17, -0 208
818521 198.27
1094
818529 198.:'7
0 0034 0.325 15009 5 4471 292 96 -0 002 4.372 292 96 -0 0 17 -0 02
1085
4
800123
197
4:3
-0.014
6
4132
294
49
-0
118
145
-0
48
0 0034 0.3263 70995 7 7331 294
0. 3267
0 :3277
0.3282
0.3289
0.3292
0 3298
0.3302
0.3307
03314
0:3331
0 3:43
0 3366
0 3383
0.3399
0 3411
0.341
0 3407
0 3405
0 3402
0 :34
0 3396
0 3387
03378
0 3369
0.3359
0 335
03341
0,3337
0 3333
0 3329
0 :3325
0 3321
03315
0.3308
0 3299
0 3291
0 3283
03274
0 3268
0,3268
0 3269
0 327
0.3271
0-3271
0.148
31841
57987
47590
68962
60907
72840
71041
78490
43988
31837
37513
'31628
33351
30262
74127
85644
77549
82340
78643
805J3
93443
87748
80774
74299
67114
60024
40451
41260
39390
39323
37998
37508
46085
48109
45551
46125
44485
44348
18949
12754
15914
12632
13787
11892
1E 408
6 4332
7.3806
7.0528
7.6885
7 4698
7 7905
7 7462
1 9315
6 9353
6 4487
6 6969
6.4475
6 5291
6 3916
7.8571
8.1293
7.9398
8 0525
7 9648
8 0089
8 2949
8.1691
8.0077
7.8488
7.6609
7.4612
6 8108
6.8413
6 7675
6 7638
6.7102
6 6894
7.01
7.0774
6.9869
7.0048
6.9446
6.9374
5.7341
5.2642
5 5209
5 2538
5. 3532
5 1869
48 763
294 51
295 57
29591
296.64
296 88
297 45
297.8
298.3
298 7
300 09
301.8
303 29
304 93
30647
308.06
308.08
307.69
307.56
307 27
307.08
306.82
305 88
30491
303 96
303
302.05
301.1
300.74
300 34
299.96
299 57
299 19
298 8
298 12
297.36
296 66
295 93
29521
294 48
294.45
294.57
294.58
294.67
294 71
290.46
-0 005 52481 294 51
-0011 6 0954 295 57
-0 009 5 8024 295.91
-0014 6 3732 296 64
-0.0 12 6.
1767 296.88
-0 015 6 4651 297 -5
-0 015 6 4253 297.8
-0.017 6 5922 298.3
-0 008 5 6974 298.7
-0.006 5 2624 300 09
-0 007 5 4843 301 8
-0.006 5 2616 303 29
-0007 5.3346 304 93
-0 006 52119 306.47
-0019 6.5261 308.07
-0 023 6 7713 308.08
-002 6 6005 307 69
-0 022 6.702 :307 57
-002 6 623 307 27
-0,021 6 6627 307.08
-0.025 6 9206 306 82
-0 023 6.807 3.05 88
-0.02 66614 :304 91
-0018 6 5182 303 96
-0015 6 3491 303.01
-0.013 6 1694 :302 os
301 1
-0 008 5.5861
-0 008 5 6134 300 74
-0.008 5 5473 300 34
5,544 299 96
-0 007
-0 007 5.496 299 57
-0 007 5 4774 299.19
-0.009 5 7643 298 8
-0 009 58246 298.12
-0 008 5.7435 297.37
-0 008 5 7594 296.66
-0 008 5. 7055 295 93
-0.006 5.699 29521
-0.003 4 626 294 48
-0 002 4.2098 294 45
-0 002 4 4369 294.57
-0 002 4 2006 294 59
-0 002 4 2885 29467
-0 002 4 1416 294 71
44 5 290 83
-8.674
-0 044 -0 054
-0 091 -0 116
-0 074 -0091
-0 12
0
103
-0
13
.() 12!
U 14/
-0 127
-0 16
-0
157
806333 197 17
799125 196.51
795620 196 19
791081 195. 7
788593 195 54
784750 195 19
781876 194 92
*0 179
778:387
194 b9
-0 089
-0061
0078
-0 03
-0 065
-0 059 -0 072
-0 054 -0 067
-o 169 -0 208
-0 203 -0 249
-0 1/8 -0218
-0.191 -0 23f.
772962
761451
19408
.0 146
-0 072
-0 05
-0 0
-0 179
-0184
-0.22
-0.226
-022 -027
-0.199 -0 244
-0 176 -0216
-0 155 -0.191
-0 134 -0.165
-0 114
-014
-0 068 -0 084
-007 -0 086
-0 065
-008
-0 064 -0.079
-0 061 .0075
-0,06 -0,074
.0076 -0.094
-0 079 -0 098
-0 073
-0.09
-0 073 -0 089
-0.068 -0.084
-0067 -0 082
-0.023 -0 028
-0014 -0017
-0019 -0 023
-0014 -0017
-0016 -0019
0.013
-0016
-83 33 -100 7
749103
737917
726561
715870
708241
708897
710918
712052
713781
715128
717724
723683
729816
736001
742325
748734
754456
757176
760103
762925
765854
768747
772356
777796
783632
789335
795274
801197
805642
805495
804709
804364
803717
803279
4E+06
192 99
191 8
190 71
18959
188 52
187 75
18782
18802
188 14
18831
18845
18871
1893
18991
190 52
191 14
191.77
192 32
192.58
192 86
193 13
19341
193.68
194.02
19454
195.08
19561
196 16
196 7
197.11
197 1
197,02
196.99
196 93
196.89
309,66
(over
cylinder)
T .
INu,.
,
Nu,
T
IQ,, Uu
291 3 0 2933 160 39 291.3 3 0792 3 6657
292 91 -14. 4
-17 31
292 91 -1 :384
-2.68
292 86 -0.2 14 1t9 41 292.86
1.035 158 74 293 98 -10 8b -12 93
293 98
-5 835
1082 8 294 28 -0467 158 53 294 28 -4 !Xj
10762 295 15
-0 864 15801 295.15 -9.068
-108
-7 5 -8.928
-0.714 1t7 76 295.56
1073 295.56
1
045
157 42 296, 12 -1098 -13.07
1068 8 296 12
10665 296.42 -0.928 V])7.24 296 42 -9 749 -11 61
-14
-1.12
156 96 296 9 -11 /6
10629
296.9
-1 099 1!J 74 297 25b -11 54 -1374
1060.2 297 26
-15 3
297 7 -12 83
1057
297 7 -1 224 1'6 48
-0 695 156 06 298 36 7 2q3 -8 681
1051 9 298.36
-6 453
1041.1 299 84 -0 516 15 21 299 54
1029 4 301 49 -0 626 154 26 301.49 -6 575 -76428
10188 :303.02 -0542 153 39 303 02 -5.695 -6 779
-7 35
1007 9 304 64 -0 588 152 5 304 64 -6 144
0 548 151 65 306 2 -5 754
-685
997.62 3062
990 23 307 39 -1 368 151 04 307 39 -14.37 -1711
990 87 307.31 -1 578 151.09 307 .31 -1. 57 -19'_1"1
-14 441
91 -1777
992 83 306 99 -1 422 151 25 306 99 .1:
993 92 :306 83 -1 505 151 34 306 83 -1, 81 -1882
15 03 -17 89
9956 306.56 -1 432 151 48 306 56
996.9 :306 36 -1 461 151 59 306.36 -15.34 -18.26
151 8 305 99 -17 68 -2 10f
999 41 305.99 -1 684
1005 1 30511 -1. 558 152 27 :05 11 -16.36 -1948
-1 413 152 76 :304 22 -14 BA -17 66
1011 304 22
-16
-1 28 153.25 303 33 -13 44
1017 303 33
-1 139 153.74 302 45
11 96 -14 2:3
1023 302 45
1029 1 301.56 -1.003 154 23 301 56 -10 53 -12 54
1034 5 300 77
-0.667 154.67 300 77 -7.00 1 -8 335
1037.1 300.41 -0 6/6 15488 30041 -7 099 -8.451
10:398 300 02 -0.641 155 11 300 02 -6 728 -8 009
10425 299 65 -0.635 155 32 2996) -6 672 -7 943
-0.61 155.54 299 27
-6 404 -7 624
1045,2 299 27
1047 9 298 89 -0 598 155 76 298 89 -6 279 -7 4751
1051.31 298.44 -0729 156 03 298 44 -7 652 -9 109
-7 89 -9 392
10564 297 75 -0751 156.44 297 75
1061.9 297.02 -0.702 15687 297 02 -7 372 -8 777
10672 296 32 -0 702 157,29 296 32 -7 371 -8 775
1072.7 295,6 -0 668 157. 73 295 6 -7 016 -8 352
10/8 1 294.89 -0 658 158.16 294.89 -6.904 -8219
1082 2 294 35 -0.278 15848 294 35 -2 921 -3.478
1082.1 294.36 -0 187 15847 294.36 -1,967 -2 342
1081.4 294 46 -0.2,34 15842 294 46 -2 409 -2 927
1081 294 49 -0 186 15839 294 49 -1 953 -2 325
10804 294.57 -0 203 15835 294 57 -2 13j -2 541
1080 294 62 -0.176 158.31 294 62 -1.843 -2.194
-1963
-23371
-187 247 43 201 78
2761 8 201 78
IT..
jor _
291
22 3.6958
293 25 -17 51
292 91
-2 Z
294 23 -1:3 08
9439
-5 889
29536 .1091
-9 02
'295 73
296 38 -13 22
296 65 -11 73
'97 18
-14 16
297 53 -139
298 -15.48
298 53 -8771
299 96 -6 515
301 64 -7906
:303 16
-6845
:304 78 -7 423
30 33 -6916
30
7:3
-17
31
307 69 -1998
307 34 -17 99
307,2 -1905
306.91 -18 11
306 72 -1849
306 41 -21 32
305.49 -1972
304 57 -17.88
303 65 -16 19
-144
302 13
301 81 -12.68
300.94 -8,419
300.58 -8.537
-8.09
300 18
299.81 -8 023
299.42 -7.699
299 04 -7.549
298.62 -9203
297.94
-949
297 19 -8 866
296 49 -8 864
29576 -8.436
295 05 -8.301
294.42 -3.506
294.41 -2 359
294.51 -2.95
294 54 -2.342
294.62
-2.56
294 66 -221
246 21 -24381
Half-painted bottles: conduction/convection
C onstants
k,
[WrriK = 0.2
D 1m] = 0.08
x(m] = 5E-04
A_ = 0.005
A=0 053
(thermal conductivity or the plastic)
(bottle diameter)
(bottle thickness)
Calculat an5
(tree
time step T [K] T. [KJ T4K] v [m/s a [ljts
1 291 15 291.5 291.3 9E-06 3E-05
2 293.67 292.1 292.9 9E-06 3E-05
3 29569 292.7 294.2 9E-06 3E-05
4 29733 293.4 295 3 1E-05 3E-05
294 296.4 1E-05 3E-05
5 298,71
6 29989 2946 2973 1E-05 3E-05
298 1E-05 3E-05
7 300.92 295. 1
8 301.92 295.5 298 7 1E-05 3E-05
1E-05 3E-05
299.4
9 30286 2959
300 1E-05 3E-05
10 303.75 296.2
11 304.60 2966 3006 1E-05 3E-05
297 301.2 1E-05 3E-05
12 30544
13 30626 297.9 3021 IE-05 3E-05
303.3 1E-05 3E-05
299.5
15
14 307
15 30825 301 1 304 7 1E-05 3E-05
16 309.50 3027 3061 1E-05 3E-05
17 310.85 304.3 307 6 1E-05 3E-05
18 31228 3059 3091 1E-05 3E-05
19 313.77 306 5 310.2 1E-05 3E-05
20 31497 3063 3106 1E-05 3E-05
21 31577 306.1 3109 1E-05 3E-05
22 31625 305.9 311 1 1E-05 3E-05
23 31652 3057 311 1 1E-05 3E-05
311 1E-05 3E-05
24 316 63 3055
305 3108 1E-05 3E-05
25 316 63
26 31623 304.2 310.2 1E-05 3E-05
27 315.48 3034 309.4 1E-05 3E-05
28 314.47 302.6 3085 1E-05 3E-05
29 313,28 301 8 307.5 1E-05 3E-05
301 3065 1E-05 3E-05
30 311 95
31 31053 300.4 3054 1E-05 3E-05
300 304 7 1E-05 3E-05
32 309 32
304 1E-05 3E-05
33 308.31 2996
34 30745 299.3 303.4 1E-05 3E-05
35 306.69 298,9 3028 1E-05 3E-05
36 306.01 2985 302,3 1E-05 3E-05
298 301 7 1E-05 3E-05
37 30538
301 1E-05 3E-05
38 304.73 2973
39 304.02 2966 3003 1E-05 3E-05
40 30327 2959 2996 1E-05 3E-05
41 302.49 295.2 2988 1E-05 3E-05
42 301.69 294.5 298.1 1E-05 3E-05
43 300.88 294.2 297.5 1E-05 3E-05
44 300.20 2943 2972 1E-05 3E-05
297 1E-05 3E-05
45 299.71 294 3
46 30052 294 4 297.5 1E-05 3E-05
47 301.26 2945 2979 1E-05 3E-05
48 301.93 2945 298.2 1E-05 3E-05
49 30255 147.3 2249 2E-06 1E-05
(Wirmli
0025
0.025
0 025
0025
0 025
0025
0.025
0.025
0025
0 025
0025
0.025
0025
0026
0.026
0.026
0026
0.026
0026
0,026
0026
0.026
0,026
0026
0026
0026
0.026
0.026
0.026
0026
0026
0.026
0.026
0.026
0.025
0025
0025
0.025
0,025
0.025
0.025
0025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0025
0.025
0.025
002
co i ection)
0,,1
Q.t
T,,.
Nu,,
a,,.
Nut.
T~..
Ra
[K'] Pr
0 01
0 003 0.323 2113/ 5.865 291 2 0003 4 742 291 2 0.024
-0.22
-0.179
293
7
-0.02 7.017
0003 0 325 1E+05 8 403 293.7
-0485
-0.396
295.7
8
224
-0045
2957
9,735
2E
t05
0.327
0 003
0.003 0.328 2EA 5 10 42 2973 -0 064 8842 297 3 -0 574 0702
0003 0329 3E+05 1082 2987 -0079 9 21 2987 0711 -0 87
0:33 3E4OF 11 07 299,8 -0091 9 442 2998 -0.816 -0.998
0003
0 003 0331 3E #05 11 31 3009 -0. 1Oi 9655 300 9 -0 921 -1.126
0 003 0332 4E+05 11 57 301 9 -0 117 9895 301.9 -1 049 -1 282
0003 0333 4E+05 11 78 302,8 -0 13 1009 3028 -1 166 -1.425
0.003 0.333 4E+05 11 97 3037 -0.142 1026 3037 -1 276 -1 559
0.003 0.3:34 4E+05 12.13 304 5 -0 153 1041 304.5 -1 381 -1 688
0.003 0,335 5E+05 12.27 30F.4 -0.164 1054 305 4 -1 483 -1 811
0003 0.336 4E+05 12.16 306.2 -0 16 1044 3062 -1 445 -1.766
0003 0.33/ 4E+05 11 83 307 1 -0 143 10 14 307 1 -1.292 -1 578
0.003 0.338 4E+05 11 57 308.2 -0 132 9894 30872 -1 185 -1 449
0003 0.34 3E+05 11.36 3094 -0 124 9.702 309.4 -1 112 -1.36
0.003 0341 3E+05 11 19 310.8 -0.118 9 547 3108 -1 062 -1.298
0003 0 343 3E05 11.05 3122 -0 115 9.421 312 2 -1 027 -1 257
0.003 0344 3E+05 11.33 313.7 -0,132 9.675 3137 -1 19 -1 455
0.003 0344 4E+05 11.83 3149 -0 166 1013 314 9 -1.494 -1 825
0003 0 345 4E+05 12.15 315 7 -019 10.43 3157 -1 71/ -2.098
0003 0345 5E05 12.36 316.2 -0.208 10 2 316 2 -1.877 -2.293
-1 99 -2.43
-0.22 10 75 3164
0.003 0.345 5E+05 12 51 3164
126 3165 -0 228 1084 316.5 -2 066 -2.523
0 003 0:345 5E+05
-267
0003 0345 5E+05 1276 316,5 -0242 10.99 3165 -2 187
0003 0.344 6E+05 1291 316 1 -0.252 11.12 3161 +2.285 -2.79
-23 -2808
0.003 0343 6E+05 1296 315.4 -0 254 11 17 3154
0.003 0.342 6E+05 1296 314.3 -0249 11 17 3144 -2254 -27b1
164 -2.642
2
313.2
11
12
12.9 3132 -0239
0003 0.341 6E+05
034 5E+05 12.81 311 8 -0.226 11.03 311 9 -2044 -2495
0.003
0.003 0.339 5E+05 12.61 3104 -0 205 1085 3104 -1852 -2 282
0.003 0 338 5Ei05 12,38 3092 -0 184 1063 309.2 -1662 -2029
0.003 0,338 4E+05 12.19 3082 -0168 1046 3082 -1.52 -1 856
0,003 0.337 4E+05 12.04 3074 -0.157 10.33 3074 -1.412 -1 725
0003 0.336 4E+05 11 92 306 6 -0 147 10 22 306,61 -1328 -1 623
0003 0336 4E+05 11.83 3059 -014 10 13 3059 -1262 -1.542
0003 0 335 4E+05 11 82 305.3 -0138 10.12 305.3 -1 243 -1.519
0.003 0 334 4E+05 11.88 304.7 -0139 1018 304.7 -1 255 -1.534
304 -1.255 -1.534
0.003 0.334 4E+05 11.91 3039 -0 139 10.21
0003 0333 4E+05 11.93 3032 -0.138 1023 3032 -1 246 -1 523
4 -1232 -1 505
302
1023
-0137
3024
11.94
4E+05
0332
0003
0003 0.331 4E+05 11.94 301 6 -0 134 1023 301 6 -1.212 -1.481
0003 0331 4E+05 11.76 300.8 -0123 1006 3008 -1 108 -1 354
033 4E+05 11 43 300.1 -0,106 9.764 3002 -0954 .1 167
0,003
0.33 3E+05 11 16 299.7 -0.094 9 522 2997 -0844 -1 033
0.003
11.5 300.5 -0.11 9.835 3005 -0.993 -1213
0.33 4E+05
0.003
10 1 301 2 -1.131 -1 383
-0.126
0.003 0331 4E+05 11 79 301.
-0.14 10.31 301 9 -1.26 -1 54
0.003 0.331 4E+05 1203 301.9
-104
0004 0 166 9E+07 47 18 298 1 -8,961 4303 2985 -8603
(forced
rOnvectiont
O.,
01c
T..
Nu,.
Of.
Nu,.. T..
Nu,.
U [m/s Re 0
3 80 33294 39.9 84.26 291 2 0 039 31 34 291.2 0408 0486
380 32729 3965 83.28 293 6 -0 191 31. 15 293.6 -2.005 -2 387
31 2955 -3 7.8 -4474
380 32269 3944 82 48 295 5 -0 358
81 8 297 1 -0478 3087 297 1 -5024 -5981
3.80 31883 39.27
3,80 31550 39 11 81.22 2984 -0.566 3075 2984 -5 94 -7,071
807 2996 -0629 3065 299.6 -6 604 -7862
3.80 31256 38 97
-864
0 26 300 6 -0,691 3057 3006 -7257
dO
3 80 31011 38 8
380 30797 3876 7988 301.5 -0764 30.49 301 5 -8026 -9 555
3.80 30595 3866 79.52 3024 -083 3042 302 4 -8714 -1037
380 :10403 3857 79.18 303 3 -089 30 15 3033 -9344 -11 12
-11 82
380 30218 3848 7884 304.1 -0.946 30129 304 1 -9 93
38 4 7852 304 9 -0999 30 22 3049 -1049 -1249
380 30039
380 29775 38 2 ? 7804 3058 -0977 30 13 305 8 -1026 -12.21
30 306 7 -9365 -11 15
3 80 29418 3809 774 3067 -0892
3.80 29041 37,91 76,71 307.8 -0.831 29 86 307 8 -8728 -1039
309 1 -8 274 -9 851
2972
-0788
309
1
76
37.71
28654
380
3,80 28262 37.52 75.28 310 .5 -0 757 29.57 310.5 -7953 -9468
380 27872 37.32 74,55 311 9 -0 736 29.42 311 9 -7 72 -9 198
380 27598 3717 74 04 3134 -0.824 2931 313.4 -8657 -1031
3.80 27474 37 11 73.81 3145 -0 986 2927 314.5 -1 3 -122
3.80 2/403 3707 73 68 3152 -1 099 29.24 315 2 -11 54 -13.74
380 27389 3706 73 62 3157 -1 179 2922 315 7 -12 38 -1474
736 315.9 -1.234 29 22 315 9 -12.96 -1543
380 27363 37.05
316 -13 35 -159
316 -1 272 29.23
3.80 27176 3706 7363
316 -13 97 -16.63
316 -1,33 29 25
3.80 2/439 3709 7375
3 80 27588 37.17 7403 3155 1 379 2931 315.5 -14.48 .1724
3.80 27784 37.27 74.39 3148 -1.388 2939 314.8 -145/ -17.35
3.80 28016 3739 74.82 3138 -1368 2947 '113.8 -14.37 -171
-166
753 312.6 -1 328 2957 3126 -13.94
3.80 28275 3752
-159
3.80 28558 37.67 75.82 311 3 -1.272 2968 311 3 -13 3
37.8 76.32 309.9 -1 18 29 78 309 9 -12.39 -14 75
380 28829
3 80 29046 3791 7672 3088 -1 085 2986 308 8 -11 39 -13.56
o80 29239 3801 77.07 307.8 -1.012 29.93 3078 -1063 -1266
307 -10 05 -11 96
30
307 -0957
3,80 29413 38,09 7739
380 29574 38 17 7768 3062 -0913 3005 306.2 -9.584 -11.41
3 80 29725 3824 7795 305 6 -0877 3011 305.6 -9,213 1097
30 17 304.9 -9 116 -10,85
380 29895 3833 7826 3049 -0.868
380 30095 3842 7862 3043 -0.876 3024 3043 -9201 -10.95
3032 3036 -9.216 -1097
83/
-0
303.6
79
51
38
30306
3.80
304 3028 -9 18 -10 93
79.4 3028 -0874
380 30527 38 63
380 30755 3874 7981 :302 1 -0.867 3048 302.1 -9.108 -1084
3.80 30990 38 85 80 2:1 301 3 -0 858 30.56 301 3 -901 -1073
-10
-08 3062 300.5 -8404
380 31170 38 93 80 55 300.5
380 31268 3898 80.72 299.8 -0712 30.66 299.8 -7478 -8.902
0
0
0.3 299.7
0
0 299 7
0
0
0.00
0
0
03 300.
0
0 3005
0
0
0.00
0
0
03 301 3
0
0 301 3
0
0
0.00
0
0
03 101 9
0
0 301 9
0
0
0 00
0
0
5
302
0,3
0
3025
0
0
0
000
T....
291 2
2936
2956
2972
298 5
299.7
3007
301 7
302 6
1035
2043
3052
306
306 9
308
3093
310.6
312 1
3135
314 7
3154
315 9
3162
316 1
3162
3158
315 1
3141
3129
311 6
3102
309
308
3072
3064
305 8
305 1
304.5
3038
303
302.2
301 4
3006
300
299 7
300
3012
301.9
300-4
Q14
05t1
-2 606
-4 959
-6 683
-7 941
-8 859
-9 766
-10.84
-11 8
-12 68
- 1
14 3
-1398
-12 /3
11 84
-10 77
-10 45
-1 76
-14 14
-15.84
17.03
-1786
-18 42
-19J
-20 0+
-201I
-19.8t
-19 24
-184
-1701
-15 59
-14 51
-13 68
-130
-12 51
-12 37
-12.49
-12 5
-12 45
-12 35
-1221
-11 :36
-1007
1 033
-1 .313
.1.383
-1.54
-104
Clear bottles: conduction/convection
Constants
(thermal conduCtIvy of the plastic)
k, [W/tK} = 0.2
(bottle diameter)
D [ml = 0.08
0 0005 (bottle thickness)
xn]
0.005
A,
A_
0.0528
Calculations
I
Nu,
OTa
IRao
Q_
jNuge
T.-,h lQt,
IsI F [WIm I [K-] Pr
T. [KI T. [K] T,[K] I[m is a
291.15 291.47 291 31 9E-06 3E-05 0 0247 0 0034 0.3231 21137 5 8649 291 15 00029 4 7439 291 15 0 0244 0 030
29289 292 1 292.49 9E-06 3E-05 0.0248 0 0034 0 3246 5115S 7 1609 292.88 -0009 5 899 292 88 -0 075 -0 0931
29434 292.73 29354 9E-06 3E-05 0.0248 0 0034 0.3258 102148 8.4264 294 33 -0021 7.038 294 33 -0184 -0226
29558 29337 294,47 9E-06 3E-05 0.0249 0 0034 0 327 137927 90611 295 56 -0031 7 6121 295 56 -0 275 -0.337
294 29533 1E-05 3E-05 0.025 0 0(134 0.328 162991 9 4402 296 64 -0 039 7 9558 296.64 -0 346 -0.424
296.66
297.63 294.63 29613 1 E-05 3E-05 0.025 0 0034 0.3289 180515 9 6826 297.6 -0 045 8.1759 29761 0 402 -0 492
29851 295 1:3 296.82 1E-05 3E-05 0.0251 0. 0034 0 3297 20092C 9 9439 298.49 -0 053 84133 298 49 0 467 -C 572
299 34 295.5 297.42 1E-05 3E-05 0.0251 0 0034 0.3304 225637 10 236 299 31 -0.062 8 6787 299 32 -0 549 -0 672
30010 29587 297.98 1E-05 3E-05 0 0252 0 0034 0.3311 24562E 10.45G5 300.06 -0 069 8 8794 300 07 -0619 -0 '84
1063 300 76 -0.076 9 0379 300 7/ -0681 -0 833
300 8029623 29852 1E-05 3E-05 0.0252 0 0033 0 3317 262214
301.46 296.6 29903 1E-05 3E-05 0.0252 0 0033 0.3322 276332 10772 301 42 -0082 9 1678 301 43 -0737 -0 901
30210 296.97 29953 1E-05 3E-05 0.0253 0 0033 0 3328 288645 10 897 302.05 -0 088 9 2778 302 061 -0 787 -0 9G3
302 71 297.94 300.33 1E-05 3E-05 0,0253 0 0033 0.333/ 264125 10 658 302.67 -008 9 06:J9 302681 0717 -087/
' -0 688
0 335 2131921 10 1 12 303 43 -0 063 8 5669 03 44 -0 52
14 30346 299.53 301,49 1 E-05 3E-05 0 0254 0 0033
15 30447 301.11 302.79 1E-05 3E-05 0 0255 0 0033 0 3364 177248 96687 304.44 -0.052 8 1641 30445 -0458 -0 562
0
389
-0.477
8456
305.63'
7
-0044
16 30565 30269 304.17 1E-05 3E-05 0.0256 0 0033 0.3378 151941 9 3174 305 63
17 306 96 304.28 305.62 1E-05 3E-05 0.0257 0. 0033 0 3394 134175 9.046 306 94 -0.039 7 5998 306.95 -0 344 -0422
18 30837 30586 307.11 1 E-05 3E-05 0.0258 0 0033 0 3409 12174E 8 8415 308 35 -0036 7 .4148 308 35 031fi -0 38F,
19 309.84 306.54 308.19 1E-05 3E-05 0.0259 0 0032 0 342116846 9.4051 309 81 -0 05 7 9255 309 82 -0 443 -0543
20 311 05 30633 30869 1E-05 3E-05 0.0259 0 0032 0.3425 222827 10254 311.01 -0078 8 6969 311 02 -0 698 -0 855
-0.1 9 1528 311 82 0 895 -1 09')
21 311.87 30611 308.99 1E-05 3E-05 0 0259 0.0032 0 3428, 26980S 10 755 311.82
22 312.38 30589 309.14 1E-05 3E-05 0 0259 0.0032 0 34291303377 11 075 312 33 -0116 94454 312 33 ..1 041 -1 274
-0.128
9.641 312.63 -1 148 -1 404
23 31269 305,68 309 18 1E-05 3E-05 0 0259 0.0032 0 34291327411 11.29 312.62
24 31284 30546 309.15 1E-05 3E-05 00259 0.0032 0 3429 344638 11 436 312.77 -0 136 9 7748 312 78 -1 224 -1 497
-1 .4 -1.6)8
25 31287 304.95 30891 1E-05 3E-05 0 0259 0.0032 0.3427 371634 11 655 312.8 -0 149 9 9746 312.81
26 312.63 304.15 308.39 1E-05 3E-05 0.0259 0 0032 0 3422 40173C 11 884 312 55 -0 162 10.184 312 56 1 403 .1 78/
27 31211 30335 307.73 1E-05 3E-05 0 0258 0.0032 0.3415 420490S 12.02 312 03 -0.169 10 308 312 04 .1 528 -1 866
-1.535 -1 894
28 311.41 302.55 30698 1E-05 KE-05 0.0258 0 0033 0.3407 430981 12 091 311 32 -0. 172 10.374 311 33
29 310.56 301.75 306 15 1E-05 3E-05 0 0257 0.0033 0 3399 435318 12 118 310.47 -0 171 10398 31048 -1 5411 - 86'1
- 1 r1
-1 845
309
51
10
392
-0
167
52
12
111
309
30 309 60 300.95 305.28 1E-05 3E-05 0 0257 0.0033 0.339 435035
31 308,58 300.37 304.47 1E-05 3E-05 0.0256 0.0033 0.3382 419256 11.994 308.5 -0157 10,284 30b 51 -1 415 -1 729
300 303.83 1 E-05 3E-05 0 0256 0 0033 0. 3375 396196 11.82 307.59 -0144 10 125 307.6 .1.298 1 587
32 307.66
33 306.88 299.63 30326 1E-05 3E-05 0 0255 0.0033 0 3369 379034 11 685 306.82 -0135 10 002 306 83 -1212 -1 481
34 30620 29927 302.73 1 E-05 3E-05 0 0255 0.0033 0 3363 36621 C 11.581 306.14 -0.127 9 9065 306. 15 -1.146 -1 401
35 305.59 298.9 302.24 1E-05 3E-05 0.0255 0.0033 0 3358 356563 11 501 305 53 -0122 98331 305 53 -1 096 -1 339
36 305.02 298.53 301.78 1E-05 3E-05 0 0254 0 0033 0. 3353 349236 11.438 30496 -0118 9 7759 304.97 -1 056 -1 291
298 301.25 1E-05 3E-05 0.0254 0.0033 0 3347 353228 11 469 30444 -0 118 9 8033 30444 -1058 -1 294
37 304.50
38 303.93 297.3 30062 1E-05 3E-05 0.0253 0 0033 0 334 365348 11 563 303 87 -0121 9.8897 303 88 -1.089 -1 :311
1 105 -1 351
39 303.31 296.6 29995 1E-05 3E-05 0 0253 0.0033 0.3333 37435 11.631 303.25 -0 123 9 9515 303 26
-1 136
40 302 64 295 9 299 27 1E-05 3E-05 0 0252 0.0033 0 3325 381076 11.68 302 57 -0 124 9.9959 :302 58 -1 113
-1.36
41 301.93 295.2 298.56 1E-05 3E-05 0 0252 0. 0033 0.3317 386135 11.715 301.87 -0124 10028 301 88 -1.113
42 301.20 294.5 297.85 1E-05 3E-05 0.0251 0.0034 0.3309 389971 11.74 301 14 -0 123 10.051 301 15 -1108 -1 354
43 300.45 294 18 297.32 1E-05 3E-05 00251 0 0034 0 3303 368807 11.573 300 39 -0.113 9.8978 300 4 -1 02 -1.246
0.33 330167 11.253 299.78 -0 098 9 6057 299.79 -088 -1 077
44 299.83 294,25 297.04 1E-05 3E-05 0 0251 0 0034
11 299.35 -0087 9 3747 299 36 -0 782 -0.956
45 299.39 294.32 296.86 1E-05 3E-05 00251 0 0034 0.3298 301650
46 300.18 294.38 297.28 1E-05 3E-05 00251 0 0034 0 3303 341179 11.347 300 12 -0.103 96921 300 13 -0 923. -1129
47 300.90 294.45 297.68 1E-05 3E-05 00251 0 0034 0.33071 376959 11.639 300.84 -0.118 9.9513 300 85 -1.057 -1 292
48 301.57 294.52 298.05 1E-05 3E-05 0.0252 0 0034 033111 409302 11.886 301.51 -0.131 10 184 301 52 -1 184 -1.44/
002 00044 0 1655 9E+07 47244 297.75 -8947 43 092 298 13 -85 91 -103.8
49 30220 14728 224.74 2E-06 1E-05
time st
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
U
IT.
JQT1
T,
01,
INu,,
Q,,
Nu,, 1JT,.,.
80' 332941 39901 84 263 291 17 0 0389131.337 291 17 0.4081 0 48 5
29284
008
31.197
-1
3180 32867 39712 83 525 292 84 -0 0961
3 80 32501 39,547 82 887 294.24 -0 195 31 075 294 24 -2 048 -2 43E
3 80 32179 39401 82 325 29544 -0 268 :0 967 29544 -2681 -3 345
-4.01
-:3368
296.5 .0 321 iC) 869 196
3 80 31890 39268 81 816
-4 !,
-378
-036 '30 779 291 45
3 80 31624 39 146 8 1 349 297.45
3 80 31398 39 041 80 948 298 31 -0 40t) 31 701 29d 31 -4 256 -06C
827
74
11
-4
'99
46
634
-0
30
3 80 31205 38 961 80.607 299. 11
3 80 31026 38 867 8029 299 85 -0 505 30 72 299 85 - 5 303
79 99 300 53 -0 3)44 30 513 300 '3
- 5 /1
3 80 30858 38 788
-6 066i
3 80 30698 38 712 79.704 301 1 / -0578 30 457 301 1-/
:3 80 30543 38.638 79 428 301 79 -0 60 30 403 30t 79 -6:34 -7 60~i
3 80 30301 38523 78 994 302 4:1 -0564 30 J17 302 43 -5 923 -7 051
3 80 29952 38 354 78.365 301 23 -0 464 30 19' 3W3 23 -4 871 -5 799
29575 38.171 77 683 304 27 -01 394 30 055 3(42/ -4 134 -4 921
380 2918 37 978 76 969 305 48 0.345 29 912 30548 -3622 -4 312
3 80 28783 37 778 76 237 306811 0 312 '9763 30681 -3 272 -3 895
.580 28381 37 576 75 498 308 22 -0289 29613 308 '2 -3 0:18 -' 617
3.80 28099 37 432 74.975 309 65 -0 379 29 505 309 65 -3 9791 -4 77
380 27970 37 366 74 735 :00 78 -0 542 29456 '10 78 -5 6961 -678
-066 2942/ 311 54 -6 928 -8 248
3 80 27893 37.327 74.593 311 54
380 27855 37.3071 74 522 31201 0 74.1 29412 312 01 -7808 .9 296
380 27844 37 301 74.501 312.29 -0 803 29408 312 29 -8 43:3 -1004
3 80 27852 37.3061 74 518 31241 -0845 29.411 312 41 -8.871 -10 56
7913 37:i37 74 63 312 42 -0.908 'N 4'3' 312 42 -9 532 .11 35
380
0 974 29 486 312 14 -10 22 -12 17
-8047 37.406- 74 8/9 ,312 14
3 80
3 80 28218 37 49N4 75 196 311 61 -1 009 29.551 311 61 -10 59 -1261
28417 37 594 /5 564 310.9 - 1 022 29626 3109 -10.73 -1) 78
3 80
380 28638 37706 75 97 310 05 -1 019 29.709 310 05 -107 -12 74
12 "it)
3.80 28876 7 825 76 408 309 1 -1.005 29.798 309 1 -10.55
308 1 -0 956 29881 308 1 -10 04 - 11 95
3.80 29099 37936 76815
3.80 29278 38025 77 142 30722 -0 895 29947 307.22 -9 394 -11 18
-10 6
3.80 29441 38 10', Y7 438 306.46 -0 848 30 006 306.46 -8 906
.0e 13 30061 3058 -8 534 -10 16
380 29591 38 179 77 712 :305.8
380 29733 38.248 77 969 3015 2 -0 7bl, 30 113 305.2 -8 244 -9815
380 29869 38314 78215 304 64 -0 763 30 162 30464 -8015 -9 542
380 30025 38 39 78497 304.11 -0766 30218 30411 -8.039 -957
3.80 30214 38481 78.836 303 54 -0784 :30.286 303.54 -8231 -9 799
3,80 30414 38.577 79.196 30291 -0 795 30,357 30291 -8 '344 -9 934
-10
-08 30.431 302 24 -8 401
3.80 30624 38 677 79 573 302 24
30843 38.78 19 963 301.53 -0801 30508 301.53 -8415 -10.02
3.80
-10
-8.4
-0 8 30 5W7 300 8
31068 38 887 80 365 300 8
380 31238 38966 80 666 300.08 -075 30.646 300 08 -7875 -9 376
380 31328 39 008 80.825 299 5 -0.668 30677 299.5 - 7 018 -8 355
0
0
0
0 3 299 39
0 299 39
0
0
0
0
0 3 30018
0
0 300 18
01
0
000
00
0
0
0
0
300.9
0
3
1) 300 9
01
C'
0 00
0 00
0
0
0 3 301 57
0 301 57
0
0
0
0 00
0.3 302.21
01
0 302. 2
01
0
01
1m/s1
3
294.28
129:1
2 661
"96 5/
3 682
-4 434
292 86
297 3
P931 4
,199 "1
0418
299 9t,
/ ,
300 6
301,.
-8
/
125
301192 -8 5 1
7 928
33 -6 48/
304 3O ' 48'
305 5; -4 789
303
88 4 117
308 29 -4
'109 73
:310 9 7 6,36
311 6 9 343
312 17 10 17
:312 461 - 11 -4
312 59 -12 06
31261 - 12 99
:112 35 -1395S
1448
:111 82
:111 II
-14 67
310 26 -14 62
309 31 -1441
308 3 -113 68
307 41 -1; 77
:306 64 -12 08
305 9/ -11 56
:305 :36 -11
:304 81 - 10 8:3
304 28 1086
303.71
303 08
302 41 I 1 36
301 7 11 38
30. 97 -I11 35
300 24 -10 62
299 64 -9 4 32
299.31 - 0 956
-129
:300 15
300 87
301 54 1 447
300 071 103 8,
306
m
U El
--
Definition of terrms
T! average of water
ai
and
temperatures
V (T.
T = (T.-T,2
where T. is the water temperature at
and TA!s ma average a;r teriperatura
1E-07x - 2E-05
y
Ott
ar viscosity dependart on ten-perature
v
300 2E-05
350 2E-05
400 3E-05
450 3E-05
(15-7)T. - 2E -5
0
V
t - air thermal dffusivity dependant on temperai
(misl
T,
30C 2E-05
350 3E-05
400 4--05
450 SE-CS
ic= (2E-7)T, - 3E-5
4
000
500
thermal conductivity (dependant on emper_
TK
[W'mK7
30 0 0263
350
003
0038
4
45C 00373
(7E-5)T,+ 0043
volume expansion coefficient
s~
~-
-
-
y= 2E
07
- 3E-05
000003
0
OC'2
tO
0
= air
200
_
200
o300 OW
500
400
500
(Tr)
0 04
y
003
7E-05x +
0.0043
-
02
0
0
tCC
20
300
Pr = Prandtl number
Pr = V"
Fa, = Rayteigh number
where g Is acceleration due to gravity
and D ;s the characrerstic length of the
geometry
(bottle diameter)
= Nusselt number for free onvection over ine end of tne bottle
Nu,,
825
Nu, =,
Q17C
N1.
Nu, = Nusseit number for
Nu = 6 + CL
492; P0))
free convection over the cyinder
17
559zPr
+(0.W
"]
l~
Re 0 = Reynold's number
Reo = (UD)/v
where U
is the average
wind speed over the
Nu. = Nusselt nuter for forced convection
Nu,= 03387R&"'Pra
(1 +-(0 0468&Pr)n "
time step
rrvsl
end
Nusseft numDer for forced convection over the cylinder
Nu = t .3 + 062Re PrO 1
45
[1+(0. 4/Pr)
820
Nu,
=
T,
surface temperature
T, =atuKTJl,(s'L-)j
L L
=
over the
}
Sa+Ny,,
x
0
L
rate of heat transfer
0=
(T.-TAkh
x
where A, is the total surface area (of end or cylinder)
kq is the thermal conductivity of the plastic
and x is the thickness of the bottle
= average
T,.
Or
=
surface temperature
total rate of heat transfer (sum of forcedifree convection over ends
cylinder)
Or= 0. +0
Source for Pr, Re. Ra. and Nu: Incropera, F.P. and D.P DeWitt
1996
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. Fourth Edition. John Wtey & Sons, New York, NY
118
-~
-~
-~--.
plots of model v. real data for data collected in Barasa
Painted
Model
Time Actual
295.91
293.9
0
298.70
302.8
1
308.07
308.6
2
306.83
310.9
31
301.10
308.9
4
298.80
305.2
5
294 49
301.7
6
294.78
298
7
1diffStDevl
2.01
-4.10
-0.53
-4.07
-7.80
-6.40
-7.21
-3.22
Painted Bottle Water Temperature (K)
1
3
0
3
6
5
2
3
Clear
StDev1
diff1
IModel
Time Actual
4
5.91
298.51
292.61
0
3
4.41
302.71
298.3
1
6
8.04
309.84
301.8
2
7
9.27
312.87
303.6
3
4
5.08
308.58
303 5
4
2
3.10
304.50
301.4
5
1
1.65
300.45
298,8
6
4
6.20
302 20
296
71
4
Half
StDev1
diff1
Model
Time Actual
4
6.12
300.92
294.8
0
2
2.46
306.26
303.8
1
3
4.57
313.77
2
309.2
4
5.63
316.63
311
3
0.53
0
310
310.53
4
1
-0 92
306.3
305.38
5
1
-1 52
300.88
302.4
6
7
298.4
302.55
4.15
31
1 2
0
Actal
-
32(,
310
E
_
290
6
4
2
0
Time (hour)
Clear Bottle Water Temperature (K)
-
330
-
S 320
--
-
--
310
Actua
Model
-
4) 300
0.
-
E 290
-
280
.
-----
270
0
2
4
Time (hours)
8
6
Half Painted Bottle Water Temperature (K)
330
---
dtua
-
.320
Mdei
3 10
C 3CC
S 290
280
270
0
4
6
8
Time (hours)
119