ANTI - NCLEAR
THE
CONFLICT
ENERG Y
BETWEEN
IN
NUCLEAR
WEST GERMANYs
PROPONENTS
OPPONENTS
AND
by
HEINRICH
UEGMANN
Vordiplom In formatik, Urivers it aet Stut tgart
( i973)
of Co orado
M.fS., University
(19
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
SUJdMITTED
OF
6)
REQUIREMENTS
THE
FOR THE
DEGRE E OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE
at the
MASSACHUSETTS
INSIiUITE OF TECHNOLOGY
(MAY 1 978)
(C
Heinrich
S iegmann
1978
Siyndture of Authore
.*. .- Sciences
. .0**
DeC rtment .. of
of Poti-...t*
iticdl
Certif
ied
:byw
*.--.*r *
-s..
?"dt~~
:Thesi
* *.
*.
..
I
t
.........
.
......
May 15,1978
s Supervisor
-...
, ,Sv.Y,-.*.*
Acceptedby ...se.. .a........ ... r......
Chairman,Departrsnt Colittee/
Archives
JJN 5 1978
*
,,,
e'/l~i
*
*
I
ANTI - NUCLEAR ENERGY IN WEST GERMANYZ
THE CONFLICT
BETWEEN
NUCLLA a
AND
PROPONENTS
OPPONENTS
by
HEINRICH
SIEGNANN
Submitted to the Department of Political Science
on Nay 15, 1978 in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the Degree of Master of Science.
A BSTR ACT
In the last
citizens
nuclear
few years,
initiatives
power has ecomea major target
by
in the Federal Republic of Germany. After
an introduction into the Germanenergy situation and the overall
political
context in which the rise of the citizens
three theses are
movement has taken place in the second chapter,
The first
thesis
III maintains
that
presented.
Chapter
making have become increasingly
substantiated
of
authoritiess
nadequate.
part i.aments
This
contention
on nuclear
the nuclear
is
power
industry,
and experts focusing on the latest events
initiatives
warnings and correctives
Changing policies
in
forces of decision
the traditional
1975* In the second thesis dealt with in Chapter I
argued that citizens
as
forward and elucidated
put
an assessment of the policies
governments, part ies,
licensing
after
by
initiatives
cans at the very least,
to
the
failures
of the governments parties,
it
be
is
seen
of the system.
and bureaucracies,
and the assumption, of a prominent role by the courts can largely
be attributed
to the nuclear opposition.
chapter attempts to place the citizens
The fif th and final
initiatives
into a broader
2
perspective.
thesis,
The citizens
initiatives,
may not only be correctives
to the
as stated In the third
existing
question someof the basic premises of industrial
held
that
system but
society.
It is
economic and energy growth do not need to be the only
prerequisites for the years to come,rather, broad decentralized
public participation maybecomefeasible replacing conventional
forms of technical, social, and political reality.
Nameand Title of Thesis Supervisorl iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to thank Professors Berger,
Committee
and
Professor
RathJies,
Greenwood
for
and Winner
their support.
cooperation, advises and constructive criticism
issues of
helped to
substance as well as technicallties.
thank those people in Germanywho provided me with
and materials
on the Buergerinitiativen.
on my
Their
master
I also want to
informations
4
CONTE NTS
I.
Introduction
II.
The Background of the GermanNuclear Oebate
7
1. Energy in the Federal Republic of Germany
11
2. Nuclear Power in the FRG
16
S. The Rise of the Anti-Nuclear
Movement
24
III.Thesis 1t The traditional
forces of democratic
decision making have become ncreasingly inadequate.
j. Governmental
Politics
2o The Bundestag
33
Debate and the
aJor Parties
45
3. Industry Involvement
4. Licensing and Siting
in Theory and Practice
5. Expert Opinion
69
IV. Thesis 2t At the very least, citizens
can be seen as correctives
to fail
institutions
and processes.
movements
ing democratic
1- The Buergerinitiativen
80
2. The Response by the Traditional
Actors
3. The Courts
Political
are Cal led Upon
Thesis 3
MNoreover,citizens
movements are
developing perspectives that seriously challenge
traditional
assumptions of society about
economic growth, the need for more energy,
and the compatibility
of nuclear
democratic part icipat ion.
93
102
4. Regulatory Practices - Revisited
V.
59
power and
108
5
1.
Long Term Perspectives
2. Explanations
and Understanding
118
129
3. Conclusions and Outlook
152
BIBL IOGRAPHt
159
APPENDIX
6
List
of Tab les and Figures
All Tables and Figures are in the Appendix.
Table
S
Tab le 2:
Primary
Energy Sources and Consumption 1960 - 1985
Share of Netto Imports
of Consumption of Primary Energy
Sources
Table 3
Development of Energy Consumption According to End-Use
Tab le 43 Fuel Sources for Electricity Generation 1975 and 1985
Tab le 53
Shares
fab le 63
Electricity
Tab le 73
Federal
of
Conventiona
I
and
Generating Capacity 1970 - 1980
Consumption
Nuc I ear
Power
P I ant
1970 - 1985
Nuclear and Nonnuclear Energy Research
1972Z
1980
Tab le 8t
Forecasts for
Tab le 91
4 Projections
uclear Power Growth until
2O0o
for Primary Energy Consumption in
1980
and 1985
Tab le 103 Employment and Automation of Bituminous Coal Production
in the FRG1957 - 1971
Figure i
Figure
Entangled Nuclear Power Industry
23 Nuclear Licensing
Procedure
7
I.Introduction
Wyhl and Brokdorf
are
two small
southwestern
and northeastern
Germany with
opulations of
ago, the
years
average
existence of either
paradigmatic
nuclear
of
a
2500
the
gradu ally.
ng
to
the
In
force
ar ch
the
governmentsuti
It :es
the
site
groups opposing
demonstrat ion,had
centra I
and has prevented construction
The court
for
energy
power debate involves
The main actors
citizen
as
977,an Administrative
s ignal
Germ an nuclear
The nuclear
on
Court
ruling
of construction until very stringent
be ginning
widely consideredt
a
In
safety provisions were ful filled.
ambitious
debate
30 citizen groups(luergerinitiativen)
some
powerful
a
the present.
postponed
puDI lc
Within two years,the protest
partici pants
and drawing 28 000
developed
the
and have reached a
Wyhl was selected
power plant,
We nuc I ear
movement, includi
issues.
widespread
in
n Germany.
ion formed
construct
until
In
Five
names appear
German press
ecame known in 1973 that
Whee it
the
have known about the
not
Today,t heir
the
importance
energy
2800 and 700 respectively.
German would
of
in
corners of the Federal Republic of
of them.
headlines
front-page
rwural communities
on
and
the
c
the
Progra
decision
virtual
has been
halt
of the
me
many voices speaking about many
scene are
itizen
state
and federal
groups
act ion
-the
8uergerinit iativen * But less vis ib Iy invo lved are moreover, t he
courts
local
gow ernments
and
offici
groupsostudent organizations, di fferent
3 s
loca l
f actions
of
unorganized
t he
h I gh I
8
'radical* spectrumchurches trade unionsscientists9
diversified
parliamentsgthe major parties -in
federal and state
least, nuclear power is a national issue.
on
siting of facilities
future
c ycle,at
the national
between the risks
of nuclear
power and the
In a less focused
way, however,
energy needs.
the issue involves
desirabi lity
on questions around the
of the nuclear fuel
level on the trade-off
country's
The discussion focuses
at the locallevel
two main topicse
a much broader range of social concerns.
and
pace
of
dangers for employment are concelved;
the
and interest
major parties
energy
to
planning
trying
to
the
with
the parl iamentary system and the
the
the
intricacies
of
comprehensive
are accused of
Buergerni t at iven-Hovement
goals;possible
constitutional
at
doubts about
have een voiced;'radical'groups
exploit
revolutionary
for
cope
of
The
ecoaoic growth is
future
issue;serious
ability
scopevat
mrlications
system
and
for
of a nuclear economy
civil
I iberties
are
addressed;the problem of nuclear prol feration espec ally with
respect to the German unresolved;the
Brazilian
autharity and objectivity
and the val idity
expert opinion
of
concerning the responsibility
future
ones are raised; secret
continued
trickle
nuclear
s tr ong
compl iance
of
of scientific
are
remain
testimony
disputed;questions
the present generation for
fears
with
cooperation,
about the ef fects of
techno I og Ical
Imperatives
to the surface.
To represent all those currents of interestsopinlons
in a rather
and l-ssues
orderly manner is almost self-contradictory -there
probably is more entropy
than order.
The antagonism
between
9
ratloral
instrumenta
ity
-entirely
perceptions of
different
at stake? are
what s really
the events and their
an account of
Nevertheless,
involved.
not just a
maturity of the contestants
of style and intellectual
difference
anomie is
and emotional
ramifications is attempted in this paper.
German energy
After an introduction
to the
overall
cot ext
political
movement has taken
Buererinitiativen
three
chapter,
which
in
forward and elucidated
the
place
are presented.
hypotheses
of
rise
the
in
The first
the
second
thesis put
the
that
Chapter III maintains
in
and the
situation
decision making have becomeincreasingly
traditional
forces
inadequate.
This contention is substantiated by an assessment of
the
of
on nuclear
policies
the
par liaments,
of
power
nuclear
events after
can, at the very
correctives
to the failures
the governent,
parties,
least,
be seen as
opposition.
place the
be correctives
basic
The fifth
years
to
be attributed
to
the
and final chapter attempts to
nto
a
broader
industrial
system but
society.
and energy growth do not need to be the
the
warnings and
perspective.
The
as stated in the third thesis, maynot only
to the existing
premises of
second
and the assumption of
and bureaucracies,
uergerinitiativen
Buergerinitiativen.
In the
of the system. Changing policies of
a prominent role by the courts can largely
nuclear
975.
and
it is argued that citizens
thesis dealt with in Chapter IV,
initiatives
parties,
licensing authorities,
indus try,
experts focusing on the latest
governments,
comes rather,
uestion
some of
the
They hold that economic
an
prerequisites
for
a society consuming energy derived
from renewable
decentra I zed
sources
public
more
ef fectiveli
par t ic ipat ion
and
based
sho u I d replace
forms of techmical social, and political
reality.
on
broad
the present
ii
II.
The Background of the German Nuclear Debate
Energy n the Federal Republic of Germany
II.1.
the federal government is responsible for assuring
of
availability
energy
the adequate
for the Federal Republic of Germanyand
has beengiving focal attention to energy matters in its
policies.
A comprehensive
federal
energy program was initiated
in September 1973 and was successively
situation
1974 and 977.
In
overall
adapted to
The energy concept
the
existing
s based on the
following premises , outlined by the federal government in
June
of 197tS
i) Increases of energy consumption need to be limited to levels
as
ow as possible
strategies
energy
savings
and
2) The policy of achieving reduced dependence on
needs to be continued
imported
oil
rational
usage
by
of
w special importance
should be given to domestic sources. Bituminous coal as the
most abundant domestic source s especially supported by a
3) In order to assure energy supplies
variety of subsidies.
and
growth
4) Due to energy requirements necessary for
employment · and the limited
availability
of other energy
sources , nuclear enersy capacities must be expanded at a
rate sufficient
to guaranteethe supply of electricity.
uses of energy and the utmost
5) Despite of the rational
reliance on domestic sources , the FRGwill remain dependen
on energy imports
JTherisks associated with these supplies
must
be
minimized
international
6) Additionally
renewable
utilized.
incentives
by
diversify
ing the
sources
agreements and cooperation.
to the limited
fossil
sources ·
emergywhich are geographically
The necessary research
must be initiated.
7) Energy usage must be in accordance with
the environment and the population.
all
available
and
by
kinds
of
must be
efforts
and
the
protection
other
of
12
view
8) In
importance
of
the
of
FRG's
dependency
energy for
on
any country
and
the
imports
, international
cooperation must be given the utmost attention.
In the following
paragraphs ,
data
government
production
order to elucidate
some of the premises above.
The only significant
are presented in
to 24 8 tons SKE (Bituminous
tons of
which are available
Coal Equivalent)
at
of bituminous
natural
6
,
present cost
respective figures for lignite coal are 95
of
Current
domestic source of energy is coal.
estimates put the technically exploitable reserves
coal
and
on primary
ana consumption
secondary energy
(1)
-
12
levels.
and 3 8.
gas are estimated to amount to .3 B tons SK£ and oil
2)
pit-mines while lignite
coal is produced by surface mining.
Bituminous
coal
is
extracted
At the energy consumption level of 1974,the domestic reserves
primary energy sources would be suf ficIent
the energy needed for almost a century.
Important
component of
geological
conditions
hal f
of
product ion
The
Supplies
supplies to .1 B tons.
fossil
B
from
of
to provide all
They are
therefore
securing energy supplies.
and the high share of wages of
an
Unfavorable
more than
the total production costs,howewertmakebituminous coal
very
Nevertheless,unti Ithe
expensive
and
hardl y
mid j960sbituminous
competit ive.
coal remained the
main source of primary energy in the countryaas shown in Table 1.
(3)
(1)
8/510 t P.3
(2) 8/570 , p.9
(3) in the appendix
.13
In the following years
coal
oil
was increasingly substituted
peaking in 1913 with supp lying 55. of the primary energy.
,
In the wake of the oil shortage
a
few percentage
points
bituminous
the
has fallen
mid-70s
Lignite
major
coal
tapering
off
in
the
-virtually
nonexistent
denseIy
in
highly
X in 1960 to about 20/.
now at Just below 201%.
operations
populated
the
country.
to
however
are
Natural
gas
1977 and
as a whole ,
the
oil t
1985. the contribution
primary
energy
of hydropower ,
used in
the
As able 2 shows about 60X of the natural
and al
imports
1970s was
gas
exported.
-amounting to roughly 250
(1)
While
the
tons SKE/a- remained
at a constant level from1973 to 1976 in absolute figures
costs
95 of
the uranium need to be imported whereas a net
of 12.5 N tons of bituminous coal is
energy
to
is negligible.
More than half of the
imported.
is
Increase slight Iy in the next decade.
Nuclear energy accounted to about 3X in 1977 and is predicted
quadruple its share until
,
German energy market before the
1960s- provided about 15. of the primary energy In
expected to continue
subsidized
supplied about 10% of the demand
the strip-minimg
impossibl e
by
accounts for almost hal f on
rapidl y from 6
coal has consistently
of
consumption was reduced
The share of the
and is
expansion
oil
but still
primaryenergy consumption.
in
for
,
the
of the imports increased from OM17.8 B in 1973 to ON 41.8
B in 1976.
Energy consumption figures accord ing to end-use for the 1970s and
(1) 8/570
p.8
14
prolections
for 1980 and 1985 are listed
and non-industridl
commercial
users
in Table 3.
account
Households
for about 45X of
consumption industry for 35Z, and transportation
24OX
been
together
, the household and transportation
ncreasing
industrial
for almost
their
shares since 1970 by
sectors have
about
3X
whereas
usage percentagemise declined by the same rate.
was best capable in
industry
adoptinj
energy
Thus
eff c lent
measures.
Let us now turn to electrical
public
energy.
In the past
system has been very capable of satisfying
electric
nat ion s
demand ,even
industrial
development
electricity
consumption was 8.5X in the years
sloring
97f(cf.
electrical
in
a
period
Table
6).
The respective
4
9
nuclear
energy
1973,
In
970s.
will
i1)
974 to
usage of
1985.
proposed
to
198
,
nuclear
power will
still
although its share
to be larger since
predominantely be used to fulfill
1/2 97 , p.3
and nuclear
generating capacity s shownin
only about 14X of the capacity
plants
Is
power plants
to actually producedelectricity is likely
ifo
950 to
of
ill be of less importance than in 1975.
shares of conventional
Table 5 for the
and
from 1X to about 35X. Percentagerise , all
plants to the total electricity
(i
economic
increase by about 8X from 1915 until
share
its
the
The average annual growth rate
rable
other fuel sources
nuclear
rapid
According to governmemt figures
power will
account for
of
however , to an average of about 3X/a from
down
As can be seen in
increase
25 yearsthe
base load
15
demands.
Cross-bar electricity
I isted
in
production
Table
6.
Approximately
generated reaches the consumer
production , conversion
transportation
electricity
and
only
about
electricity
equal ly
of
spl it
the
between
It is apparent
commercial usage.
share has been constantl y decreas ing s ince
the
same rate.
With
have had growing
annual
of
Increases
consumption of 4X in 1974, -2% in 1975g, 6*8% in 1976
, and 3X in 1977
government
reached.
end-use ,
the rest
1970 , whereas households/small commercial users
of
electricity
In terms of
3.5Z ,
about
is
household/smal
t hat the industrial
shares
the
are
the remaindar is used for energy
accounts for
non
consumption
801. of
and transport.
consumption
industry
and end-use
It
prediction
seems doubtful
of
356
however
,
8 kwh for 1960 will
that
the
actually
be
Annual growth rates of about 8.5X 4Could be necessary.
The federal
government has stated
conservation
efforts.
It
a
majlor
interest
in
energy
has adopted or proposed a variety
of
legal and regulatory means, investment credits , tax measures ,
and research
programs to achieve
policy is designed to result in ( i
demand without
outputs
(ii)
losses
of
efficient
energy usage.
a reduction of end-useenergy
the Quality
of
total
(1)
life
or production
meeting remaining energy demandsby a well-adapted
, low-loss secondaryenergy systems and (ili)
effectivity
Such a
utmost possible
in primary to secondary energy conversion.
{1)
The
federal expenaitures for energy-related research amounts to
BMFT , p.37
16
ODM
6.5 B for the 4-year period 1977-1980.
of
it
is
earmarked for
About
()
non-nuclear projects.
include (1) the developmentof cogeneration
would
allow
electricity
to
district
simultaneously
one fourth
These projects
technologies
produce
proce ss
which
heat
and
(2) new transport technologies for electricity
heating
, and other carriers
storage methods for gases and district
transportation
of secondary energy , (3)
heat
and storage technologies
secondary energy like
monoxidemixtures.
hydrogen
ethanol
(2) Despite of
the
energy matters virtually
·
and () production,
for
new carriers
of
and hydrogen - carbon
deep concern
given
to
by every group in the country , however
a comprehensivenational
rogram for energy conservation
-
"Energleeinsparungsgesetz'
-the
was defeated In Parliaaent for what
many observers viewed as purely party politics.
II.2.
Nuclear Power in the Federal Republic of Germany
Because of the special
situation
Germany after
World Wdr I
start
Ily
of fcia
before
of
the nuclear
1955 ,
the
Federal
nuclear
when the ban on dealing with
when
(1)
The FRG renounced any intent ion
weapons on its
it
was
BIFT , p.91
(2) BMFT , p.39
founded
territory.
in
1956.
of
power development did not
nuclear power and technology imposed by the allied
I i f ted.
Republic
of
countries
ever
was
produc ing
She became a member of EURATOM
E£tRATO provided
the rules
and
17
institutional
the
framework for the transfer of nuclear material
safeguard
framework for
In 1955/5o , the Federal Ministry
arrangemen
ts.
was founded in order to promote and coordinate
for Atomic Affairs
the devel opment
of
the
industry.
domestic nuclear
a
national
*Atomgesetz*
by
the
i9159 the
the
German Bundestag.
Bundestag
FRG acceded to
the
finally
Paris
legal
the passing of
ratified
Convention
liabilitymaximum coverage for nuclear liability
the
rhe government
signed the NPTin Noeeber 1969 which became legal ly
May 1975 after
The
of the peaceful uses of
development
nuclear powerwas established in 1959 with
first
and
binding
in
it.
Also in
on
nuclear
is now DM 1 B.
(i)
Several
obserwations
governmental
on
nuclear
pol icies
see
m
appropriate and will be discussed in the followingz
1. As early as in the mid-1950s , nuclear development was
stressed to be essential for any industrial country and
that it must be considered as a major future energy source.
For the years since
nuclear R&D programs have received an
eminent share of federal R&D funding.
power , nuclear
growth projections were successively reduced since 1974.
2. In wiew of mounting opposition to nuclear
3.' The-nuclear fuel cycle shoult be developed in ts entirety.
Reprocessing of spent fue I is considered Indispensable.
The back-end of
the
fuel
cycle
will
be catered
metal
fast
breeder
by an
integrated center including reprocessimg fuel fabrication
and final waste disposal
Entsorgung' center).
Newnuclear
plant licensing is contingent upon concrete plans for the
Entsorgung center.
4. The FRG develops
(2)
I iuiad
temperature gas reactors
(1)
NNMid February 1976,p.48
(2) 8/569 , p.6
and participates
and
high
in the European
18
fusion program.
i. Nuclear power was decisively
development
programs.
widely and officially
promoted by federal
research
When the Atomgesetz was passed,it
accepted premise that the
and
was a
German industry
should receive sufficient support to compensate for its nuclear
backwardness compared to the other
internationally
competitive
created as quickly
Art icle
as
I
means.
first
its
government
(1)
spent
actually
5 alternative
constructed.
effective
for
research ,
The
development
projects
reactor
(1) Atomgesetz, p.3054
The First
construction
nuclear
of
lines
,
ON 3881
It
was
combined
of
as subdivided
The short-range
the German research
feasible
which
and operation
plants.
the
hich 2 were
Program
industry withthe existing non-military
was technologically
federal
from 1956 to
lasted
Second Atomic
. (21 to support German research and nitial
which
the
It consisted basically of
and long-range programs.
was geared (1 ) to familiarize
nuclear
,
by
HN17.5 B for nuclear
the years 1963 to 1967 and cost
experimental and prototype
into short-
figures
purposes"
amounts for 4 atomic programs.
i962 and was funded by N 1452 .
in
enhance nuclear
economic use for peaceful
from 1956 to 1976 about
An
industry should be
purpose "to
Program and some predecessor
development of
nations.
The Atomgesetz states
According to BFT
R&iDin ever increasing
Atomic
German nuclear
as possible .
researchdevelopmentgand
al
industrialized
subprogram
groups and
nuclear know-how
reactor
development
and economical ly competitive
19
in the short term, and (J) to
techniques
to
develop the
mdster the fuel cycle and radiation
long-term subprogram provided for the
breeder
, the
technological
gap to
Federal subsidies
research
and the
development of
training
of
commercially viable
price
1972.
costs
industry
the
and
demonstration facilities.
of
fact
At omini sterium'.
olicy
accounted still
for
the mid 1973s. (2)
Atomic
of the OPEC
expansion
of
support
construc ti on of
signi ficant
today's
Even
provided
increasingly
receiving
,
A total of DM
nuc lear
for
the
HTGR and LMFBR
Ilb
Nuclear power was the first
matter
the
The Fourth
generating capacity , guaranteeing substantial
nuc lear
in 1968
of Ot 6b27M- was influenced
a major
for
fast
to
staff
facilities.
hike and the unified
It provided
countries.
the
was pract ical ly
sc ient ift ic
a
The
from the support of basic
shi fted
from 1973 to 19T6 -at
by the oil
development of
countries
other
was spent in the 4 years until
Program
control.
Wher the Third Atomic Program was started
line.
closed.
6154
necessary auxil iary
for
EFT
after
federal RD effort
is
an outgrowth of
R&D funding
federal
other major industries
ore than 30X of the total
In the energy sector
about 75% of
share has become increasingly
-as
the
was
nuclear R&DO
feaeral efforts
nuclear
a
research
in
is
federal funding , although the nuclear
smaller in relative
terms.
As the
government likes to point cut the ratio nuclear/nonnuclear energy
({) rororo - WA, pp.163 ff ; expendituresi
(2) Spiegel
, 10 January 1977 , p.69
BMFT. p.24
20
research decreased from about 80 t I
in 1972 to 31 in the late
1970s. ]able 7 provides the federal energy research funding for
1912 to 1980.
2.
Governmental pro ec tiens
t
At least in
power has
plans of the
nuclear
official
governmental planning
the preeminent role
lost
960s and early
projects
construction
for
site
1970s.
which merely
More details
,
nuclear
In June 191t , 6400
( that
has been built)
by court order., (
ncludes
of
The German nuclear
power
by definition
is
cooperation.
international
on the changes of
a lmost
Total
amount to only a few thousand tons
2550 tons
have been
8/569
p.9
(2) SZ , 21/22 January 1978
p.1
for
governmental
the
*
development
At the front-end
ent irel y
dependent
, the
upon
domestic uranium reserves
in the Black
found recoverable
another 4300 tons are liktely to exist.
(1)
.
of which 2700 NWe are stopped
power program provides
program
of
a fence around the envisaged
all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle.
nuc lear
We
An additional 14
predictions for nuclear developmentare discussed in III.1
3.
and
that it played in the energy
generatiag capacity were in operation.
300 MWeare under construction
those
growth
power
consumptien were gradually reduced in the past five
electricity
years.
on nucl ear
(2)
at about
Forest region
80.- /kg and
1lowever until
1980
,
a cumulative
demand of 13 000 tons
alone
must be expected.
The FRG does not yet possess any enrichnment capacities
and has mainly relied
Soviet
Union.
from Canadaand is
The enrichment
own
efforts
enriched
URENCOstarted
operation
n 197
in
are focused on the
URENCO
venture which applies the
British-iutch-German
technique,
of its
on imports of low enriched U from the US.
Also,natural U is being inported
the
(i)
centrifuge
and has currently
a
capacity of 60 t SWU/year. (2) The rate of epansion is not clear
but estimates
made. (3)
as high as 10 000 t
Oecisions on the rate
depend on projected
SWU/year by
of
expansion
demand f igures,
1985
,of
have
been
course,wi I
The fact that centrifuge
technology is used will allow for the necessary
flexibility
to
adjust for changing demand.
At the back-end of the nuclear fuel cycle
provide
for
an integrated
disposal
Entsorgung) facilityto
and industry until
within
the
federal
recycl ing,eprocessing
be set up ointly
the mid 1980s. The center should
Germanygs
i nce ,according
Economcs, Friderichs,only
reliable
,
to
the
plans
and waste
by government
be
located
formar Minister
the national solution would assure
Entsorgung in the long term. (4)
of
a
The concept includes:
(1) reprocessingrecycl ing of fissile materialqaste treatment
and disposal within a locally ntegrated system
(1) fotp.9
(2) ibid.
(3) NngItJuly
1974.op.582
(4) Spiegelt17 January 1977,p.31
22
(2) low and
medium radioactive
waste
will
disposed at the site of reprocessing
(j3 higly radioactive
be
permanently
waste comes into intermediary storage in
deliquefied form. There is no fixed time period between
the time of reprocessing and the time of deliquefication
of the liquid reprocessed waste. Highly radioactive waste
in ntermediary storage will be retrievable
even after
decades
(4) final disposal
of highly radioactive
waste will be
accomplished in salt
domes which have been geological Ily
stable for hundreds of mitlions of years.
Before final
disposal will
actually occur,extensive testing
il I have
been performed in the test disposal site Asse.
(5) the decommissioning of nuclear power plants
conc ept
(6) the concept can later be
breeder fuel cycles (1)
explicitly
The government states
is not considered.
expanded
Even intermediary
by reprocessingj
subsequent recycling
medium level
it
into LWs.
storage of
the
late
mixed
Pu
Pu can
oxide
for
longer
est be disposed
fuel
The disposal
of Plutonium
of
el ements
the
and
low and
active wastes is planned in the form of coating it
with bitumen and concrete.
glass which will
into
HTGR and
service
that f inal disposal
time periods does not appear reasonable.
of
to
is part of the
t igh level wastes wi ll be melted into
be stored n saltdomes for testing purposes
1970s.
The advantages of opting
for
in
a local ly
integrated Entsorgung center are seen in the minimization of
transports
of highly active material and more effective
safeguards.
The waste disposal testing site Asse II near Wolfenbuettel is
a 1000 meters deep salt
(1) 8 7i,p.18
in
formation and has been used for years for
intermediate storage. (1)
gained
at
Experience with reprocessing has
a pi lot facility
been processed annually.
park will
(2)
in Karlsruhe.
The total
Since 1970,40 t have
for the
costs
Entsorgung
be in the range of O 10 B (3) ,capable of reprocessing
1000-500 t of material
per year.
Entsorgung
on a commercial scale and still
facilities
France ana Great Britain
technology
Germany does not
for such services.
4. Programs for research
and
are under the way , involving
the
small town
near
the
8el glum participate
project
of
post-LWR
nuclear
fast breeder technology
predicted
to
power
German fast breeder efforts
of a demonstration LFMBR in Kalkar ,
Diutch-German border.
financially
The Netherlands
with about one third
at
which is estimated to cost about D 3 . (5)
have a generating
have
rel ies on
and research on fusion
European JET project.
focus on the construction
yet
(4)
development
, a high temperature gas reactor
within
been
capacity
of 346 MWe. (6)
the
has
been
The breeder
will
be operating by 1981 but is presently politically
controversial
is
the HTGR demonstration fHTR-300 plant
(I) ifo,p*8
(2) Spiegel,29 March 196,p.67
(3) NEngItFebruary
1977p.
9
(4) 3871,p.18
(6) ifo
and
It
highly disputed, as will be discussed in section IlI.1. .
£5) Spiegel
a
17 January 1377 , p.3
13 January
77
p.9
Less
in
24
It has a generating capacity
Uentrop-Schmehausen.
may be operating within
hazardous
than breeder
abundant thorium
proliferation
the
Since (a) it
a year. ()
reactors
weapons
and (di could be coupled to coal gasification
Finally
planners.
,
attent ion from the
the European fusion program is going
,
After years of debate on the siting of
the JET
European consensus has been reached to locate the
a
project
on the more
to nuclear
(c) poses a smaller threat
s
to get started.
much less
is
(b) could rely
,
TGRtechnology is receiving increasinj
energy
cf 310 MWeand
project in GreatBritain.
he Rise of the Anti-Nuclear
II.3.
ovement
into
The beginning of the nuclear developmentin the FRG fel
largely friendly
as
depicted
political
climate.
Once the public
cheap energy supply in the future.
from atomic
different
Nuclear power technology was
mature to provime a reliab le and
being sufficiently
that nuclear power as an
a
energy
source
bomostnuclear
was convinced
was something
quite
seemed to be -at the very
another technology found suitable for the continuation of
leastrapid
Industrial
More
adequately
feasible
peaceful
nuclear
in an era of positive
showed an
almost
religious
bel ief
of
the
atomic fire
({1) ifo , 13 January 77 , p.9
WW II.
power became technological
feelings
speechthis time was recalled
harnessing
development since
growth and economic
about
technology
in the atom.
as the period
ty
which
In a Bundestag
"in
which the
inspired again and again awe and
enthusiasm in the publ ic".
(1) Of course , the general political
climate in Germany in the first
one of cooperation
following
only
the
war and overall
be successful
forces
of
rather
t o decades afterWW II had been
than confl ict.
The reconstruction
rapid economic development could
in an atmosphere of harmony among the major
society.
Reciprocatl y ,
the
process
recovery and the quick rise into relative
captured and was reverberated
of
abundancyhad
material
by the prevailing
economic
of
mentality
the
popu I at ion.
this idyllic
economic
situation extendedwell into the 1960s. However ,
growth
considerably.
partly
induced
by
reconstruction
slowed down
The labor force faced faced less favorable working
conditions, thus increasins its readiness for strikes
preparedness
for
pol itical
radical-democratic
political
Concurrently
After
same time , a
oriented
cooperat ion,
the
country' s
harmony was suddenly disturbed
.
opposi t ion {(APO)
of
the student
parts of the trade u.nlions developed socialist
alternat ives to capitalist
economy.
The state reacted with the stick,-and-carrots
First
the state
(1) 215,p.149i7
by an
t the FRGslumpedinto the biggest recession of its
postulating radical
,
student
two decades of conflict-
Parts of the Social Democracy parts
movement
,
the
extr a-par i aemt ary
unconvent ional
history.
existence.
parl iamentary
pseudo-democratic
In
, more and more socialist
movement came into
avoiding
struggle.
and its
concepts
society and
method.
was promising far-reaching reforms for the
26
I.abor egislation , and social
educational sector
the idea of the 'social
state'
But
the carrots
soon becametoo expensive
got
the sticks
ready.
the
protests,
1968
the
to
state
handle
The federal governmentwas
opposition in times of crises.
forces in cases where civilian
the military
authorized to call
massive popular
was changed in order to accomodate a
Constitution
set of emergency laws which would enable
public
instead , the state
ajainst
,
,
was widely promoted.
(Sozialstaat)
In
services
objects needed protection or wheremilitant rebels neededto be
sanctioned.
Expensesfor the police
were
services
In
mult pli ed.
governments agreed on the
and the
internal
services
were
secret
and state
decree
imposing
order for applicants for
A new program to
was passed , the restrictions
were weakened
-a
Radikalenerlass
service positions
security'
f ederal
1912
of
immunity
Constitution
compliance with the existing political
public
the
the
by
as guaranteed
human rights
basic
of
exceptions
For the same reasons,
fought,
improve
controlling
the laws concerning
the
'internal
the secret
activities
of
foreign citizens
in the FRGweresevered , special police units
were established.
In the following
years, more democratic rights
and freedoms were gradually reduced or abolished.
as
reforms
or
designated
the universi t
act ivities,
the
relevant
'glorification
democratic
rules
measures to
fight
to the university;
of
for
the
the
terrorist
system was reorganized, prohibiting
to speak up on general political
student organizations
directly
as
Either labeled
use of
relation
issues not
a law was passed which made
force'
il legal;
between a
basic
lawyer and his
27
clients
were curtai
The most recent
led.
and passed within
drafted
a
-the
law
was
week under the impression of the
Schleyer kidnapping- was the so-called
which allows authorities
reform'
contact
prevention
law'
to prohibit contacts betweenalleged
terrorists and their lawyers.
the curtailment of democratic opportunities affected the nuclear
debate directly.
within
As will
traditional
the
which
discouraged
be discussed later, dissenting views
channels of
favored
outside these channels.
the rise
democratic society
of
a
were
nuclear opposition
In the same time as university
protests
quieted downt dissatisfaction of parts of the mlidle class with
the educational
democracy within
systemt the social
the
major
parties,
environmental conditions evolved.
which emerged as the first
servicest
inner
party
and about deteriorating
It was nuclear power, finallyt
focal point of dissent on a
national
sca Ie.
Substantial public opposition arose first
controversy
had its
newspaper reports
in
the
upper
that
in Wyhl.
roots in 1971 when it
Rhine
As
Valley
an
them two natural scientists,
the
Fessenhei a
planned
France) .
plants in
What would
by
member
of
a
Environmenta I stsamong
were the first
nuc lear
early
plants
in the area had never
had many thoughts about nuclear power.
aga inst
becameknown through
Germany and France planned nuclear
remembersothe population
Buergerinitiative
There,the
to raise
Breisach
present
objections
and nearby
stancards
be
considered modest protests led to the abandonmentof the Breisach
site
in
1972.
One year
later,
the people of the Wyhl region
28
through the mass medid- that their
learned
-again
chosen
instead.
Ccnsequentlylcal
and from
France and Swltzerlandtgrew steadily
substantially
more than regional
55% to 43% majority
had been
oppositiontaoineo by groups
from the nearby Freiburg University
in
area
attention.
border
communities
but
without drawing
In
January
19759a
of the Wyhl population voted in a referendum
in favor of selling
the envisaged site to the utility
opponents caiming
company,the
the vote had been. illegitimately
by vague promises for better employmenta public
influenced
that
swimming pool,new
expropriation.
roadsa
sewage
Suosequent I y the
issued the permit
for
the
plant
state
first
and
of
part
threats
of
Baden-Wurttemberg
of
construction.
Preparations for construction ere initiated in Februarytyielding
spontaneous
occupation
of
the police gained control
to keep the site clear
weekend drew
28
-and permanently.
decision
Court,declaring
pressure
the
vessel
construction until
provide4.
demonstrators
9177 by
March
in
another
The latest
(1)
by a few hundred opponents.
once more over the events
for
000
the site
safety
insufficient
3 days.
But
who occupied
development
for the
the
coming
the site
about
the Freiburg
prov sions
and succeeded
Wyhl
again
is
a
Administrative
reactor
core
and postponing execution of
plans for a second containment structure
are
2)
the anti-nuclear
I(1)Wyhl,pp.8f
protests
in northern Germany have focused on the
f
(2) SZ15 Harch 1977p.i
StZv 15 arch 1977,p.1
29
siting plans for the GermanEntsorgung center
in
the state
of
Lower Saxony and the planned development of the region along the
river
Elbe
Hamburg and the
industrial
between
in
order to
inaustrial
along a 10Q0kiloeter
provide
a
possible
stretch of the
the energy needed
for
ambitious
years later
in
1971.
plant
site
by
the
state
A poll
the citizens showedthat 75% were opposed to the plant.
public
hearings2
ermission for the site
concluded.
'Buergerinitiative
Umweltschutz Unterelbe'
group for environmental protection
of
From the 20 salt
consideration.
(il
the history
began in
(1)
The
forming the
(BUU)- the citizen
of the Lower Elbe region.
Across the Elbe River in Lower Saxonyin
the site
The
involved decided in early 1976 to achieve a
higher degree of unity, and thus effectivenessby
for
At the
0080O
complaints were received.
without ever being officially
Buergerinitiativen
among
In early
declared a newreactor site.
hearings for granting official
November 94
of
The plans leaked to the public two
and caused immediate public protests.
1974SBrokdorf was officially
At
trokdorf wasenvisaged
mostly rural.
nuclear
Schleswig-Holstein
official
major
expansion -compared by some with the Ruhr Valley.
presentthe region is still
as a
Sea to
Figures of up to 40 nuclear reactors were
complex.
mentioned to be constructed
river
North
the meantime the
the integrated Entsorgung center
(2)
search
had started.
domes in the state½4 had been taken into closer
Local opposition
arose at
of Brokdorf is extracted
1976
(2)Spiegel,5 April
976,p.92
all four
envisaged
from Spiegel,8
November
JO3
sitesand
the state governmentf inall y picked Gorleben in Spring
1977,the site widely considered the most unlikely
of
the
four.
(1)
The issuance of the construction permit for
1976 turned out to trigger
-a
chain reaction
attempt to avoid a
of
rokdorf
ln
a seemingly self-contradictory
anti-nuc lear protests.
second Wyhl ,the
October
process
Apparently
n an
permit
was
construction
accompanied by a so-called 'immediate execution order" -an order
to begin construction
immediately. In the night
order police forces and private
to
deter
smaller
any
i I lega I
protests
November 13
includingj
brought nuclear
declared
the immediate
construct ion stop.
presence.
heavy clashes with
The Administrative
attention.
their
n a huge demonstration
power aain
into
the
of 3
limelight
groups announced their
protection.
violent
illegal
-Under wide
for
press
February
the
si te
even
and
public
ruled
a
far beyond
a
coverage
a
19,
aga inst strong
Militant
March 1976,p.68
1977
phys ica I
therefore, decided to avoid
and picked the nearby city
Spiegel,14.February
They
ntention - swimming in a wave of public
Many uergerinitiativen.
clashes
(1) Spiegel,9
(2}
occupy
of
on
This ruling was extended in early February
demonstration was prepared
to
000
Court in Schleswig on December17
execution order as
temporary construction stop.
sympathy-
Severa I
the pol ice.
1977. (2) The goals of the protestershoweverwent
central
the
guards occupied the site in order
occupati on by
culminated
following
of
; Spiegel,1i.Harch
tzehoe to voice
197.,p.35
31
their
protests while the militants
demonstration
in
itself.
Brokdorf
that weekendin Itzehoeand
20 km march to Brokdorf
cal led
for
a
counter
A crowd of 40 00
athered
one fourth of then set apart
and back.
No
violence
for
a
eruptedthowever.
(i)
Shortly
after
center*15
Intsorgung
demonstration
in
was announced as the
Gorleben
on 12
000 protesters
1971.
arch
for
the
oined there for a peaceful
One week later,18
Grohndevan envisaged nuclear
site
plant
000
convened
site in southern Lower
Saxonynear lNamein.This time,the peaceful protests turned Into
a
serious battle
involvin9
4000 police
officers
demonstrators.
he sitethoweverweas not occupied
300 people got
njured.
and 5000
but
(2) Consequentlytthe city
more
than
of Hameln went
to court to achieve a construction stop order for Grohndeo.3)
For
the Easter Weekendethe BuergerlaI t atven
nationwide protests
are in the tradition
then in
opposition
participants
to
foll owed the
without
(1) DiOle
Zeit,25
(2) SZ.21
the
nuclear
weapons.
callamong
ln Kalkar.
February 197,pp.i-4
1977,p.2
countries.
Such
Several
thousand
them was a demonstration
v iolencet newspaper reports
arch 1917pp.l-3
(3) SZ912 April
in
of the peace movement in the 1950s,
against the German breeder project
place
for
against nuclear power in form of peaceful
marches to various nuclear facilities
rallyes
called
The marches
took
described them as
'happenings* (i)
A more
dramatic
showdown between
opponents was the massive
project
in late
demonstration
militant
The
demonstration
September 1977 In Kalkar.
nine European countries
forces
police
the construction
disrespecting
site,
but
occured at
the
height of
public hysteria
As
some
assert - the police used the opportunity of conducting a
manoeuvre appropriate
termed the Kalkar
for a civil
region
000 people
war situation:
as being under martial
were searched
or
performed raids on suspected KaIkar
buses,
a
avoiding
against terrorism following the Schleyer kidnapping.
150
from
40000 protesters
clashes with 7500 police troops stationed on the site.
demonstration
critics
nuclear
the breeder
against
staged a peaceful rally
ban at
and
and private
like Berlin,
law.
questioned,
(2)
pol ice
demonstrators In
About
units
trains,
cars, even hundreds of miles away in cities
Hamburg, and unich.
(1) SZ,12 April
one newspaper
19177p.2
(2) HStZ26.September 1977
p.3
Thesis I t The traditional
III
forces of democratic decision
inadequate.
making have become increasingly
Policies
III.1. Governmental
nuclear
role
on energy in the FRGand the
Governmental policies
power is to play in these policies have faced growing opposition
revisions.
The
for the adoption of a comprehensive national
energy
and have been exposed to an unceasing stream of
difficulties
for inexpensive
competition
and secure
energy
the federal energy planners on three different
Since the fall
Parliament.
slim
parliamentary
chamber.
In the
One level
the government of
Helmut Schmidt is based
of about 10 votes
majority
levels.
197b elections,
of Chance lor
the SPDand FOP parties
the
More
sources.
however, is the internal opposition which confronted
substantial,
is
international
be explained by the stiffening
policy can partiaily
on
in the Bundestag, the main
second chamber -the
Bundesrat-
which is composedof representat ives of the Laender governments,
Since any major piece
the CU opposition party has a majority,
requires ratification
of energy legislation
by the Bundesrat, the
government is dependent upon the cooperation of the parliamentary
opposition
As it
party.
programs as such are in
stronger
essence
than by representatives
government does not
legislation
turned
by
the
nave to
COU on
out, the governmental energy
supported
by
the
of SPO and FOP. Therefore,
fear
reject ion
account of
of
concrete
themselves, but rather for other tact ical reasons or
politics.
CDU, often
its
the
energy
proposals
mere party
The second level of opposition comes from inside the
34
two ruling
parties.
SPD and
In both,
the
no
is
general
expect that it
not be able to muster a malority
ill
The dissent
SPO/FOP coalition.
movement against
nuc lear
opposition facing the
the
SPO and FDP. as a matter
extraparliamentary
nationwide
power which Is
federal
within
the third
source of
Any new piece
government.
of
or any plans for new powerplant construction
nuclear legislation
translate
within
the
has been spanned by
Due
the government ust always
Bundestag major ity.
narrow
of fact,
There
for their
consensus on energy goals, meansand priorities.
inner-party
to
power.
on nucl ear
reliance
and
outspoken
governmentalpolicies
informed minority has criticized
strong
FOP, an
into a potential
loss at the bal lots,
and, even worse,
into a further loss of confidence in the efficacy of governmental
and parliamentary decision making.
Wbat are the issues of concern?
four
areas
in
cast ing
doubts
fudamental
about
on
of
the
of comprehensive pol icy making by government' in the
feasibility
sectors
and electricity;
energy;
elaborate
which the government was forced to a strategy
*muddling through',
energy
This section will
(1) projections
(2) projections of
(3) the provisions
and (4)
facilities;
of the demand for primary energy
the
the necessity
for
nuclear
for adequate and safe waste disposal
policies
around
the
development of
breeder technology.
1. Since
973, governmental
projections
for
energy planning
was based
primary energy and electricity
needed to be revised downwards. table
depicts
on
growth
which repeatedly
4
projections
for
primary energy consumption for 1980 and 1985.
projections
were made in
government before
the
energy
and after
of
program
the oil
crisis
The first
the
two
federal
The 19'76
in 1973.
prognosis is the result of an analysis by the 'Deutsches Institut
Fuer
Wr tschafts f orsc huni
sponsored
the
by
Mnistery
of
Economics.Thepredictions for oil consumptionas well as for the
total of the four sources listed were revised
and 1976.
the
shock of
the oil crisis'
downward in
was apparently very
favorable for the ailing domestic coal industrytbut
still
nucl ear
energy.
The
projections
government in June 1977. (1)
awailable,
rather
would
With 1917 consumption estimates
for 1980 and 1985
The 1977 total
questionable.
1
amounted
consumption
of
389
to
325
given by the linistry
now
appear
of the 4 listed sources
tons
SKE.
therefore,
a
t tons SKE by 1981 would mean an average
annual growth rate for primary energy consumptlon
1985 projections
expected for
in row 4 were adoptea by the
even the reduced projections
Table
the
oil
account for roughly half of the energy consumed. The most
drastic reduction in percentage points,howeer is
(c.f.
197
of 4.1X.
of
Taking into
6.2X,
and
account the f igures
Economics that
corresponds to .6 to *7X growth of energy
of
X growth
consumption
of
GNP
(2) the
country
could expect an annual economic growth rate of more than
9 until
1980 and of still
considering
(1)
8/570
(2) SZ
the
6 until 19851 figures
rate
1977
p.6
24 Harch 1977
,
pl
of
3
to
3.5X.
very unlikely
Primary
ener y
36
decrease of
consumption estimates for 1977 state even a sl Ight
c.f.
1976 levels
.3;C as compared to
courses annual consumption rates
Forecasts for
ither.
increases
do not expect any substantial
greatly
for the growth of electricity
nf lated.
of
a
medium
of
6X.
of 6X -
or
for
power stations
were in
favor
had the
most
seemingly
tiny
oliticians
(2)
against
about
of
ndustry
This
on the projected capacity for
1;( -extrapolated
1985- means a decision
nuclear
the
energy researchers
va luesand
conservative estimate of around
difference
consumption seem to be
where the electricity
claimed the upperbound as likely,
1978
Simil
arl y,
(i)
Annual Increases of consumptionrates
were projected
1985
7X until
cl imatic
according to
vary
zero energy demandgrowth rates is apparent.
predictions
Although of
),
the trend to reduced and almost
and other factors,
fluctuations
Table
the
equivalent
of
6
1200 We generating capacity
eah.
The 6-7X range seems to
be
In
doubtfulhowever.
April
Spiegel
magazine disclosed a report by the Association
Electric
Utillties(VDEO)
since 1915.
According to
consumption of
prolected
rates
are
12% annual
likely.
report
the
households will
As a
of German
been ept secret
expected
electricity
be much lower than the
resultselectricity
198 ,and of 1.5X from 1988 till
growth
1985
That corresponds to a rate of Z.7Z from now to the
23 January
ifo,p.5
the
growth.
of 3.6X from 1975 till
(i1 SZ
(2)
private
which had deliberately
1977,
1976 , p.15
37
mid 1980s, reducing the nations demandfor electricity
compared to 6-X growth ratesby
capacity,
Table 6 depicts the consumption totals
projections
for
generating
at least 20 GWe.(1)
from 1970 until
1977 and
1980 and 1985. In -the past few years, average
annual growth rates of about X4 occured, giving some credibility
to
the
3.6X figure given
the government's figures
2. In recent years,
decreasing
the above mentioned report.
Again,
appear to be too high.
energy pJanning has been a process of
nuclear
from t he po.int of
expectations
view of nuc lear
pro ponents.
"German nuclear
ndustry has the prospect of a very high rate
of nuclear poner growtheven in the near future'
was the opinion of a pronuclear magazine in early
have been true to someextent for the export
domestically.
same time that
15Z of
The then
primary
energy
range
were
19 April
in Table
declared at the
and
electricity
capacity.
In
a
. (3)
of German Electrical
Spiegel,4 April 19g.pp.81/82
(3) Spiegel
50Z of the
not
forecasts oy the OECDNuclear Agency in the
A study by the Association
(2) NEngI,AprlI/May
prospectstbut
e generating
years 1970,x913tand 1i975as listed
(1)
That may
would be produced y nuclear reactors.
This is equivalent to about 50
silmilar
976.
BNFT, Hans atthoefer,
by 1985 approximately
(2)
916,p.102
1976
p.30
Utilities
from
January
977 yielded
13 plants operating with a capacity of i.6 GWe
12
and 9
The study forecasts
GWeby 1985. ()
of
an Installed
in
When the government reviewed its
capacity
of
33-37
1916
forecast
revised
of 35 GWe.
energy program after
the
Wyhl
in Narch 1977. it refrained from gving specific
order
figures
generating
that figure is consistent with then Minister's
EconomicstFriderichs,
court
13.i Ge
1l.5 Ge .
plants under constructiov
planned
expected nuclear
for
growth.
stressed,
Friderichs
a nuclear generating capacity .of less than 30 GWe
however. that
by 1985 would yield
serious problems for future economic growth.
Somecabinet
embers, however, did not consider this figure
(2)
to
be feasible.
Fol low-up interviews
revealed
officials
with
ranking
that the government's realistic
energy
expectations
for any nuclear power plant construction in addition to the ones
presently being built
(3) After
stated
util
1985 or 1990 are extraordinarily
the governmental predict ion,
statement that not even al
be certain
(ji NNlJanuary
of being completed.
197,p.
81
(2) SZ,24 larch 1977*,p.1
SZ
5 April
(4) Sz,2O April
(4)
197?
19779p.2
p 21
It was implicit
in the same
projects witha construction
Wyhl decision came to s i ilr
(3)
Natthoefer
that probably a nuclear generating capacity of only 15-25
GWe should be considered likely.
can
linister
lot.
permit
Newspaper comments after
conclusi ons
only
the
the
plants
39
operating
and under construction with a total capacity of 20 GWe
seem reasonably
certain
of producing
The government made it very clear,
low rate
country's
of
nucl ear pooer
the
hoNeverr that it
f uture,
Instal rlment as detrimental
expanded only as slowly as possible,
perceived indispensable.
should
be
some uclear power growth is
the accelerated
fired plants- an electricity
0XOmust be expected
for the
With a nuclear generating capacity of
only 2 Ge by 1990 -despite
coal
(1)
viewed such a
Al though nuclear power generation
economy.
oll,gastand
in
power
construction
of
shortage of about
with the consequences of
reduced economic
growth of ji5X annually and an unemploymentrate of more than 8%
If not even the plants
(which is about twice the current rate.
currently
under construction could
would be an electricity
,iXto
3.
shortage of
13Z unemployment.
The provisions
nuclear
fuel
internationally.
be coepleted,the situation
20X,
zero
economic growth
2)
of the German program for the beck-end of
cycle
play a pivotal role
For the German situation
the
oth domestically and
of ficials
consider
the reprocessing of spent fuel an integral part of nuclear waste
disposal, thus taking a view diametrically
criticized
by the US Carter administration.
opposed to and heavily
Domestically, on the
contrary, the reprocessing plans as such have not
target
of nuclear critics.
(L) StZ,15.March 1977,p.12
(2) SZ,24March 1977,p.i
been a maor
Antl-nuclear groups have rather
40
focused on the uncertainties
cycle as a whole.
surr cunding the back-end of
the nuclear planners have
been
neg I
developing comprehensivewaste disposal policies until
and the nuclear opposition
a nationa I issue.
icensing,
both for
plants,
nuclear
disposal
recently,
government
was
forced
to
future
make
upon sufficiemt
a point reiterated
and safe
waste
by the Chancellor
as an
policy in his reelection speech In the fal Ilof 1976. (1)
operation,
nuclear
presently
sufficient
under construction
Entsorgung will
or
already
have to be proven.
in
Further
expansions therefores dependedupon the provision of an
adequate Entsorgung
The
facility.
i mplementation
seemingly comprehensie Entsorgung concept is
substantial difficultliessitingt
the current international
The search for
a
site
for
the
integrated
regions with
the required
site
Cellte
process decided in
CL---···--···-···II··-·ILI
__
(1) SPO Leitfaden
center
no alternative
The tentatively
near Wippingen ( Ems nd) was abandoned, after
Bremen and
designated site
are
formatios .
salt
for the
wo other
responsibl e
-
--
-
for
in
the
the
anuary 1977 to make Gorleben the
G(ermtan Entsor gung center.
p.. 10 1
sites
were under discussionsuntil
government of Lower Saxony which is
selection
three
meeting
Entsorgung
there
popular protest movementsgrew to o strong.
near
the
discussion of reprocessing.
on Lower Saxonys ince
selected
of
he commercial arrangementsand
concentrated
state
in
succeeaed in makimg these shortcomings
contingent
facAlities
Verden
gent
the construction and the operation of new
faciiitiese
official
For
The
the fue I
-C
·LI---·IL-
It
--
seemed
--
41
dubious
that
Gorleben
would actually
be the final
choice,since
very strong protests were instant ly voiced in the community. The
governor of the state himself
wastes
radioactive
store
construction
once
declared it
densely populated
in
a Entsorgung facility
of
to
the
FRGt ca I Ing
the
ou tside
preferable
Furthermore, Gerleben is
central Europe hlghly questionable. ()
only a few miles away from the border to
the
German Democratic
Republicand such a location is boundto lead to international
The East Berlin government - as a matter
disputes.
voiced its
population.
opposition, citing
Many observers
(2)
chosen mainly for reasons of internal
around
uncertainties
that
Gor leben
Lower Saxony politics.
construction at least for two years,time enoughto get
impending
state
elections
next
ts
was
The
Ger eben would del ay
of
choice
the
dangers for
the possile
suspected
has
of fact,
year.
government should have opted for a different
If
the
site
through
federa
than
SPO
Gorleben,
then the CDUgovernment of Lower Saxony would not be blamed alone
for
its
choice.
Oespite some second thoughts,
government accepted Gorleben as the site
(3) A construction
permit,
the federal
in the summer of
1977.
however, should not be expected until
after the state elections in the summerof 1978.
The commercial arrangements around the Entsorgung concept include
three
main actorst
the
federal
(1) SZ
6 June 1977 , p.6
(2) SZ
4/5 February 1978 · P.2
{3) SZ ,
8 July
1977
P.4
government,the
chemical
42
industry, and the
electrical
Interior, Herner
Maihoferinsists
utilities,
the
-
'Verursac
herprinzp
The
on
principle
Minister
so
called
whoever
causes
the
that
ervironmental damagehas to bear the costs for
of the
eliminating
the
damage-,reinding the utilities
that it is their responsibility
to resolve
issue.
the waste disposal
permits for
(i)
further nuclear power plants could not
Years
agoseverai
chemical
subsidiary,(KEWAto construct
,designed after
from
the pilot
the
subsidiary
companies had formed a Joint
facility
in Karlsruhe.
caused the
pro ject
A consortium of
uti lities
costs
with
PWK envisaged to introduce the licensing
plant
Stringent
estimate of Bti600 l ,therefore
original
was abandoned. (2)
be issued.
a commercial reprocessing
envir anmental standardsthowever,
slyrock
Otherwiseconstruc t on
to
KEWA
their
proceedings
for their l400 t/year plant in the spring of 1971.(3)
the
move by the USA of
exerting
strong
banning
pressure international
complicated the Germanposition.
be part of the
reprocessing
Entsorgung
(i)
(4)
fop.8
(2) Spiegel,29
March 1976,p.67
(3) NEngIgFebruary 1977p.9
(4) Spiegel,7
March 1?77,p.i58
suite had
whole back-end concept
It strengthened expectations that
Entsorgung would not becomeavailable -if
1980s.
y to follow
and
If reprocessing of Pu would not
package the
appears to be Jeopardized.
domestically
at all-
before the late
43
Despite the di f ficul ties surround ing the establishment of the
Entsorgiung center, the government is anticipating a positive
outcome.
In what can only be seen
interpretation
Its
of
licenses before
-at
a
very
lose
no new reactor
can be guaranteed,
waste disposal
the
it was not aware of any
in December t977 that
government declared
as
of granting
commitment
safe
best-
more constraints to further nuclear growth W1eto safety reasons.
optimistic
(1) Its
safety
view was based on a
by
health
with
4. 'The Geran government has been oscillating
with
Gorleben a certif icate
the
reactor
protection commission giving
commissionand the radiation
of
report
good
regard
to
technolog ical aspects.
For a ong time,it
plans.
program despite
of
Only
relations.
the
for
dangers
London
explicitly
announced its
route.
The two month
(2)
had insisted on pursuing its breeder
in
Hay
determination
think
breeder
was the
The qual lfied
development.
1 December
(2) SZ.26 April
1977,
US-German
97
197,p.j15
, p.
of the
government
the
to proceedon the breeder
of good will. The next
announcement of a qualified
reconsideration of
(1) SZ
crucial
pause' agreed upon in London did
not appear to be more than a declaration
actshowevert
the
weeks beftaore the summit conference
two
powers in
industrialized
breeder
its
freeze
freeze'
would
for
require
44
- the effects of stopping cons truction
reactor
of the
in Ka ar
- the feasibility of such a construction stop
- what are the open uestions concerning the
operating licerse for the Kalkar breeder
- what are
the security risks
breeder
issuance
of an
with
breeder
associated
and what are the problems
technology
fast
of a Pu economy ?
- howeconomical are breeders ?
employment possilbiities
- what are alternative
for
the
personnel working at the breeder?
- what other kinds of energy projects could be supported with
the money freed by a cancellation
of the breeder
projlect
(1)
At first
glancesuch a freeze looked like
German nuclear
policies.
compromise between the
a major reversal
As it turned outt however, it was a
8MFT and
several
Bundestag in order to achieve parliamentary
budget.
Appropriations
of
SPO members
of
the
agreement on the BFT
for the breeder prowram are not intended
to be cancelled.
[en days after
the
the *qualif leo freeze' agreement was reached
BNFT budget
was accepteo,
the
government
to continue breeder development,
determination
declared
and
its
the Bf T based
its decision on four arguments:
demand is
electricity
- Since
especial Iy
ever vthing
in developing
necessary to
reserves by breeder reactors
- Fast breeder technology is
economically advatageous.
- the availability
has
develeped
entirely
worldwide
SZ
(2) SZ
1t
May
21/22
977
May
9
977
(2)
P,.
p-1
-but
the FRG must do
dwindI ing
uranium
feasible
and
weapons production
from
the
usage of
10 to 15 years from now since
the uranium necessary for LWRtechnology will
and more expensive.
(1)
independent
the FRG needs breeder reactors
,
technically
of fissile material for
peaceful nuclear energy,
-
increasing
coumtriessubsti tute
becomescarcer
45
A new round in the breeder dispute began whenthe
of
Supreme
Const itut ional
Court
decide on a project
Rather, matters
legislative
to get the
decided
lnvol ved.
Court
It
may
be
the Judges arguedt that licensing agencies have
unconstitutional
to
Court i:n uenster
the Administrative
Appeals
as consequential as breeder reactors.
of such importance
branch. ()
may have to be referred
As far
as
the
concerned, the new 8HFt YVolker aufft
branch
Executive
seems to be
to the
is
ore sceptical
about breeder reactors than his predecessor. Although he plans
to continue breeder developmernt he has doubts whether a decision
to introduce it commercially ill
expects the operating
III.2,
be made before the
The Bundestag Debate and the Major Parties
have successfully
Usually
more
n federal electionsaking
appear
to
divergent
be suf ficient
interests.
considered liberal
(CDU,in
Bavaria
(1)
Spiegel
(2)
SZ
believed
to
represented and reflected public opinlon n the
25 years.
voted
He
date in Kalkar to be n 1943. (2)
The young parliamentary system of the FRGis widely
past
l990s.
rhe
than 80Z of the electorate
the three parliamentary parties
means
f or
SociAa
le ft-centert the
accomodating
Democratic
Christ
ian
CSU) is favored by conservative
29 August 1977* p29
17 February
1978 , p.o1
have
Party
soc lety
s
(SPO) is
Democratic
Uni on
voters,
and the
46
Liberal Democratic Party (FOP) with usually less than 10Y.of the
votes poses as a balance between the two major parties without
having a ell-defineQ constituency.
German electoral
partiessince
process
It should be noted that
provides
only about half of
a special
he seats
role
the
for
the
in the Bundestag
will
be taken by those candidates directly carrying their districts.
The other half
parties in
s filled by the
percentage share they received
Bundestag a comprehensive floor
held
in
1976.
January
government's energy
discussed
before
It
otbate
the
evening
without
the
energy
was
section
not
was
Only about 50 of the 500
took
membersof the Bundestag were present,and the debate
v irtuall y
In
of the debate about the
nuclear
hours.
.
on nuclear
was part
programand
the
the election
In
to the
proportion
place
media coverage and public participation.
One
of the few observers noted about the discussions
was apparentlyonly
'[There]
representat
litt le
interest
One would have been pleased
ves.
with
the
to see one or
the other familiarface from oe's
own or a neighboring
district,honest ly concerned about arriving at an opinion in
such complex an
issue.
Of
course, the
about
50
enmbers
present were all expertsbut they were ndeed specialists
energy ,whereas the topic -just becauseof its variety
effects
required
and future
on present
the
and
judgement
representatives."
two
parties.
would
nuclear
questions.
It
shows
a
deep
and
honest
powerteach speaker presenting a list
Hentioned were sitingfinal
(1) ibid. p.1Z2
have
al
nly limitedcleavages between
concern
representatives of each party about the uncertainties
with
of
Ii)
The parliamentary record reveals
any
generations-
common sense
in
of
waste
by
involved
of unresolved
disposal gemergency
47
of
and recycl ing, the decommissioning
systemsreprocessing
cooling
of
rel iability
plants, the
and
fusion
resourcesnamel y
energy
importance of
Speakers pointed to the
supplies,ete.
human
vessel *the
opposit ion, defense aspectsuranium
waste publ ic
factorthermal
press ur e
the
alternate
then Minister
solar;
NHatthoeferstressed intentions to enhance the use of cogeneration
heat.
cogenerated
for
support
and to provide
The
networks
Bundestag was aware of
of intents
statements
between parliamentary
and anxieties
publ ic distrust
1t000g
square
must be
Bundestag
declared the will
information".
the
therefore-
The
postulated
Matthoefer
forum
for
then governmental outline
by t985.
capacity
,
the
SPD/FOP
that
the
and complete
While all
three
energy
for
indispensable
more
had
government
federal
of the SPD/FOPcoalition
The CDUopposition
of
strongly
the
nuclear
supported the
for a 45 to 50 GWe nuclear
generating
concluded with the government that
after
nuclear technology can be safely applied.
government was criticized
(1) 215,p.14927
dozens or
It considered the objections raised as valid
nsuperableand
years
and the
nuclear discussion and
the
economic growth,tembers
program than the CU.
3
envisaged
much more censtrai ned expansion
advocated a
but not
and good will
gap
in a country with an area of less
considered nuclear energy as
parties
the widening
of the government for "oolectivity
(I)
of
distribution
from the CU than from its own members.
support
-and
miles.
the
about
hundreds of nuclear facilities
than
for
for delaying its
own program by
The
not
48
introducing
the
opposition.
necessary
A COU speaker reminded
expressed
intention
Constitutionwhich
meddling
lega I means for
into
alleged that
of
the
of
Art.20
interest
groups
single
the
groups from
The CDU
have
assumed
assigned to
which are constitutionally
responsibilities
its
of
general public interest.
or
individuals
government of
mplea
ernt ing
wouldprevent private
decisions
overcoming public
the
stateS
that the long
must be made in time,assuring
"Urgent decisions
periods for planning and construction cannot be further
extended by the complaints of smalloverwhelmingly emotional
and without sufficient factual knowledgearguing groups of
nuclear opponets." (i)
A CDUrepresentative traced the
opposition
to
origin
expert
of fear among the populace.
the argument
health
for
clear
cut
opinion
nuclear
nuc ear
plans.
opinion
created a
What was therefore
scientific
were
For
of
to persuade the
critical
more
needed ,
certificate
power which would allow
FOPand SPO members
government's
solutions
ent, was a
nuclear
opposition.
the public
the absenceof an acknowledgedscientific
about nuclear power: Contradictory
climate
of
the variety
of
of
their
problems
have been proposed but nobody could be sure that
those
solutions were adequateand that all possible problems are known.
The
dec line
of
energy consumption
projections should be used as a 'think
should
be
filled
German 'Rasmussen'
()
ibid. p.14924
as compared to
pause,
the
time
earlier
gained
by doing some more scienti fic hoiework (e.g
Study).
The nuclear
program
should
a
be
49
extended only as rapidly
least
as immediate economic aemands exist.
At
and FDP showed more concern for the public
verbally,SPO
The construction of nuclear plants can not be forced
opposition.
against the declared will of the publicand the state should not
its
use
power for
blamed the
its
remarks
*
of
Wyhi
on the factual
place
But
lobbyists.
the other as *industrial
the
of
the ome side as
was no use disqualifying
cooperative
Buergerinitiativen"
hamdling
must take
(i) The discussion
levelthere
the
A SPD member
government of Baden-"buerttemberg
CDO state
having "tampered with porcelain" in
case.
its programs.
of
"welcoied the activities
explicitly
and
pushing trough
nuts'
their
despite
SPO and FODPwere comm
itted
and
to nuclear
powers"WeSocial Democrats consider the uest ion pro or contra
nuclear power as decided."
coming fallthe
(2)
Facing federal
elections
the
debate was dispersed with subtle attacks against
the opposite party but parliamentary harmonywas reconstituted
agreeing not to make the nuclear question to an election
A
common
resolution
was
f inal ly
approved
by
by
issue.
al I
three
parties;'Zeit'
magazinecalled it a "resolution madeof cotton".
The
commented
magazine
postponedgthe politicians
of the election
reality."
(2)
bid.,p.
laterS
God the
nuisance
was
could devote themselves to the delirium
campaign and to their
(3)
14936
(3) Die Zeit.25
"Thank
February 1977-p.i
slogans
removed
from
any
50
A study
conducted
by
Buergerin it iat ivan
attitudes
the
and
Batte I Ie
nuclear
power pl ants
explored the
and Suer erinitiatlven
towards parties
concerning
Insti tute
of citizens
livingin the rural Wyhlarea, in the nearby city of Freiburg,
and in the city of Ludwigshafen. In all these regions, nuclear
power plants
were planned
consequently were formed.
whether a consistent
and opposing citizens'
initiatives
An opinion survey hoped to
find
dissatisfaction
with the classical
out
framework
of elections and parties existed and whether the participation
Buergerinitiativen
in
was perceived as a possible alternative.
opinion survey revealed that in all 3 regions,
favorably towards
uergerinitiativen
(Ji)
The
a majority felt
In the Wyhl area
147.
of
the
res pondents
were
pro-part ies,
pro-Buerger.i t iati vn,and 16% undecided; in Freiburg,
respective
figures
survey did
were 9, 72%, and I4X; in Ludigshafens
were don't know" - answers) (2)
47%. 32X. (rest
not
consider a sample statistically
the whole country,
substantial
decision
63X
the
it
certainly
citizens
16X,
Although
that
significant
for
shows that in those regions
with
opposition the traditlonal I carriers of
making have lost their credibility
with a
majority
of
the population.
Why have the parties
ceased in manyinstances to provide the link
(1)
The question
I istening.
was asked 'Governments
There f ore,
Buergerinia t i ve. "
Battelle
P.239
(2) Battelle , p.240
and
we must pursue
part ies
our interests
are
in
not
a
51
answers come immediately to
this
shares
democracy in their
mind.
the
Either
or
opposition,
parties are
because none of
the nuclear opposition
incapable of representing
thee
Two possible
policies?
betweenregional concerns and national
and par liamentary
parties
present form are the fundamentally wrong tools
to handle nuclear power.
has not received
Until quite recentlythe nuclear poNerissue
much attention in the parliamentary and inner-party debates. It
was apparently a non-issue in the last
of
establishment
nuclear
within
between nuclear proponents and opponents
growth of
A case can
the Buergrlnitliativen
that
of the fact
consequence
On the other handit
resolution.
sufficient
group
structured
degree of
compete for
as
organization
parliamentary
be
therefore
ovement is a
confli ct
organized
for
would be difficult
for
vote.
a
to reach a
the Buergeriitiativen
would allow
representation.
such
A party
them to
is
represented in the Bundestagif it can muster at least 5X of
national
the
parties no longer
traditional
which
that
made
nuclear protest
accustomed channels
the
that
of nuclear doves and
federal governmenttwo factions
hawks had developed.)
loosely
within the parties
cuts
there were even ndications
(And for some time,
the
provide
but
lines
party
follow
themselves.
favorable towards
all three part is is overal
powerothe split
does not
The
election.
federal
only
the
So far, besides CDU SPDad FOP n the past 20
years no other party was able to ake it over the 5X hurdle.
The complexity of nuclear
are
technology and of
its
implementation
considered by the former Bundestag member Frank flaenschke as
52
the main reason why the
very unsatisfactorily.
specialists.
of
He depicts
The par iamentary
committeestand the
passing
undestag has been dealing with the issue
participating
as a
forum of
divided up in expert
work is
rmaking process resulting
decision
is basically
laws
parl lawnt
of bargaining
a process
expert groups. Sucha parliamentary
in
the
among the
division
of
labor entails, however,
that "the sense for interdependenciesis
commonlylost" and that "there is hardly any space left
fundamental reassessment of topics of historical
IHaenschkeclaims that the parliamentary
limits
importance"
system has reached
for
a
()
the
of its capabilities if its membersare required to decide
on the "most complicated scientif ic and technological
As
for
energy
nuclear
aggravated by the
administrations,
fact
,the cause of the Bundestag was further
that
proponents
in
in the economic and scientific
been drawing
an
matters".
oversimplified
pol itcsgthe
communities have
and one-sided picture
long, thus making the public believe
for too
that nuclear power is
the
ideal answerto all future energy problems. Thusthe traditional
opinion
makers becamesuspects In their nuclear partisanshipand
the antinuclear
Buergerinitiatven
arose
as an
public distrust
III.3.
(1) Spiegel,7
March
Industry Ino lvement
1977,p.S56
expression
of
53
Fhe development of nuclear power in
on its
insistence
closely
indispensabi lity
FRG and the
two industrial
present
far future energy needs are
linked to a powerful industrial
Especially
interest
the
pro-nuclear lobby.
groupings have shown their active
n nuclear powers (i) the companies inwolved in reactor
manufacturing and the nuclear fuel cycle, and (i)
utilities.
As It
mutual holdings,
turns
out
the
both groups are
shared ownership, and
electric
by
intertwined
directly
or
indirectly
Interlocked directorships
After
WWII,nuclear power development was pursued
state,
the FRG6 n 1955 was officially
research
and to
develop
became the director
groups
in
were involved
of the Max-Planck-Institut
Astrophysics;
ln
1952,
he was
'Commisslon for Atomic Physics'
founding
technology,
for a national nuclear program. In
foundations
and
all owed to conduct nuclear
nucl ear
Professor Werner Heisenberg
member of
the
(CERN)
In 1954 at the
Reactor
Physics'
*
A year later,
European Center
PI in Goettingen, a
this
Hoechst,
study
Physics
chairman of the
the
FRG was a
for Nuclear Research
' orking
was formed which was findncially
BC,
government,
group
includea
Babcock
meanwhilJe,
(1) Verf lechtungen
companies like
W Ilcox, or Krupp.
was trying
, p.3
to
()
have
the
946, Heisenberg
(14PI)
for
appointed
around
laying
Group in
supported
'Study Group in Physics* established In the same year.
of
the
Even before
groups, and nuclear scientists.
Industrial
by
ointly
by a
Members
AEG, Slemens,
The German federal
the
ban
on
German
54
nuclear development lifted
conduct
by the allies
the negot at ions
signatory state to
permitted
and had Prof. Heisenberg
in the US. In 1955, the FRGbecame a
the treaties
of
Paris and was therefore
to pursue its ownnational peaceful nuclear program.
The Federal
linistry
for Atomic Affairs'
the same year with the mandate to
as
founded still
in
deal with "all questions
concerning the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes". (1)
Conseuently,
f ormed.
two influential
The
'German
promotiona I organi zat ions
Atomic
Commission'
(DAtK)
became
were
the
advisory panel for the Atomic Minister, the record shows that the
comission' s recommenati-ens were usua ly
inister.
accepted
by
The sessions are non-public and confidential;
the
they are
chaired by the Minister for Research and Technology (his Ministry
grew out
of
commission
Include(d)
Hoechst,
Siemens,
Bank,
the
and
the
Ministry
some
for Atomic Affairs),
70
(2)
(among
Group)
Insurance
Allanz
scien tists
The second organization
Forum (OAtF), often
I ike
is
the
considered the strongest
the FRG. the by-lam of the Forum defines as its
promote all
nuclear
(1)
them
AEG,
Bdyer,Krupp, Mannesmann RWE, Esso, Deutsche
representat ives, and eminent
Heisenberg.
corporations
members of the
those endeavors related
energy" and that
quotedJ in Verflechtungen
(2) Verflechtungen , p.5
p
union
Profs. Hahn and
German Atomic
obbying group in
objectives
"to
to the use and development of
the general
,
tracle
public good must always be
55
Its oard of directors, however, reads like a 'who's
served. (1)
are
top executives
iDemag,
Prof.
Ban ),
lDresdner
representatives,
cechst,
in the nuclear
Alkem,
KWU,Preag,
t here
sever I
are
-3 serve also in the
RHE,
Bundestag
DAtK. The chairman is
Handel who is also memberon the board of directors
H
RWE. Amongthe members of the DAtF are
the
(IRS) of
the
of
Minister,
Foreign
for Reactor
Hans-Dietrich Genscher, the director of the Institute
Safety
members
board
with leading corporations
(in 1975 from Dejussa,
industry
half of the 15
At least
who in German industry'.
TUVs, the Federation of TUVs(mandated to
check reactor safety and conducting studies for nuclear plant
licensing -see Figure 2),the Battelle Institut (under contract
with
the
BMFT to
the
deve Iopment) ,
publ lc
assess
Federal
opinion
KarIsruhe the BMFT,a ll but one of the
economics,
the
125private
utilities
cities
mini stries
Figure
(2)
for
and about
They include about 30 electrical
and companies
of mutual holdings.
state
In
Research
of Munich Hamburg. and Berlin,
corporations.
nuclear fuel cycle.
Nuclear
for
Center
power
on nuclear
involved
in the
arious
stages of the
summarizes the widespread network
Undoubtedly,
the
entanglement
of
the
major corporations, banks, and politicians in the nuclear sector
can not be overlooked as a driving
force
behind
power
nuclear
development.
(1) Verflechtungen
(Z)
for
more details,
p.6
see:
Westeuropa, in Technologie
4121, April 1977
Lutz
Hez,
und Politik,
Die
Atomindustrie
Band 7, rororo
in
aktuel I
56
The second industrial
groupin§ that
Powerroute was the utility
favored going
industry.
Electric
utilities.
by private and puollic
the nuclear
poweris produced
electricity
The private
generating capacity is serving parts of the needs of
industries Such as winingtchemicalsteelppaper
It accounts only for
railroad.
consumedand is declining.
public electricity
of
(1)
about 15% of
the
electricity
About 1100 utilities
comprise the
the
the country and is part of the Europeanelectricity
power output
Their respective
are 3X68&Xand 29.
the electrical
of
output
Thustmore
derives
mixed-owned companiespwhich is an indication
concentration
in
largest utilities
the electricity
sell
hierarchical
to
it
the
companies that
companies'
order.
consumer.
are
further
on the national
supplies its
strictly
figures
from
than
two
degree
Moreoverthe 3
30X of
system is
the
power
structured in a
produce electricity
and
are organized in 38 regional
central ized
level .
(3)
into
Each
8
'compound
compound company
defined geographicalarea in which it is
(1i foP.-- 0
(2) all
rhey
shares of
for the high
sector.
the utilities
the
from the 13Z of
(RWEVYESBAYEN)
account for
output. 2) The public electricity
strict
network.
owned, 13% are mixed private-publictand
rest is entirely ownedby the public.
thirds
supply
belonging to the nationul public electricity
network are priwately
electrical
or the
industries
system which assures about 85X of
25%of the utilities
of
the major
foop.10
(3) Spiegel,14 March 1977,p.92
57
Within each
the sole public producer and seller of electricity.
compound,the regional and local utilities maintain a fine grid of
regional
and
local monopolies.
In no district
can a competitor
That is sanctioned by the
to the respective utility exist.
Energy Industry Bill,according to which it is in the interest of
the "common good
pre rent
to
t he
e ff ec ts
macroeconomica
of
competition". (i
The monopolistic situation -even
extent
has lead to doubts about whether the public
monopolies-
dccuse
state
interest
served by the current ndustry structure.
is really sufficiently
Critics
to a large
if
the
industry
of having conducted a policy that
consumptionwhilerepressing
encouragedelectricity
Three areas can be identif ieds
First,
competition.
can exercise
the utilities
what amounts to lrvestment controls for powerplant investments
oof potential
non-utility
planning to
establish
electric
uti lity
producers.
electricity
their
of their
electricity
Companies
ow power sources must notify
respective district.
produced by the utility
the
Often, the
user to rely exclusively
can convince the industrial
utility
(2)
by offerring
extremely
on
cheap
rates if the user foregoes any electricity
production of his on.
Seconds the right
is sold exclusively
the
by
utilities
electricity
of way for power lines
producer
the
ccmmunities.
who does not entirely
generates depends upon his
regional
I1) bid. ,p.94
(2)
Spiegel
Thus,
, 14 March 1917
p.94
u tlity
any
to
non-utility
use up the power he
s cooperation
for
58
se ling
his
excess
offered to sellers
s tructure
power.
Usual Iy,
only very low prices are
of surplus electricity.
encourages large
usage.
Third,
Those users are offered
special cheap rates who abstain from producing their
Small
users
are
charged
would not be able
cf
comparatively
relying
on their
own power production
electricity
than IOQX sel f-sufficient
discouraged.
and additional
electricity,
tariffs
currently
The utilities'
of
production that is less
privately
a 17X surcharge
is
imposed. (1)
against small usage and
production in 1950 and 960# decreased to
charged
the
utility
industry
discrimination"
(3) ,citing
a study by
alleged
industrial
electricity
that
"macroeconomically significant
reported
that industrial
scale'
some corrections
(i)
SZ
(2)
Siegel
(3)
Spiegel
(4) Spiegel
,
arch 1977 m p.60
14 March 1977 t pO-9
, 28
Petroleum
which
generating capacity of
remains idle.
nuclear
capacity
appear to be imminent
8 December 9t7 , P.22
, 28
A Spiegel
"'de iberate
with
British
32X
It
was
process heat alone could provide for .1
GWe, about the amount of projected
Although
decline
Its share amounted to 39Z of
in 190, and since then has shrunk to 18Z in 1976. (2)
article
rates'
generation is reflected by a drastic
produced electricity.
total electricity
*Prohibitive
are assessed to customers bying reserve
policies of discriminating
private electricity
own power.
higher rates since they
anyhow. Moreover, private
s
the rate
arch 1977 9 p.54
by 1985.
(4)
cf. IV.Z.),
the
59
with
described seem consistent
po itics
industry s
str ive
electricity
to ard growth, expressed by the president of
in the country, as "a standstill
RWE,the biggest utility
setback".
the
is
a
(1)
Licensing and Siting in Theory and Practice
III.4.
One focal point of the nuclear power opposition is
procedures that
and siting
construction,
section
this
apply
to
the licensing
nuclear
p Iant
power
wi lt present the formal procedures
and subsequently discuss the major lines of criticism.
and Siting
1. The Formal Procedures for Licensing
Atomgesetz' of 1959 and amended four times
The
basis
stated
for
the
in
peaceful
ilit
Art icle
lifehealth
serves the purposes
and
is
contingent
legal
promoting
of
energy, ana of
property from nuclear dangers.
Atomgesetzrequires that installation
facility
the
nuclear power n Germany. As
and usage of peaceful ruclear
researchdevelopment
protecting
use of
sets
The
and operation of a nuclear
upon an official
Such a permit
permit.
may only be granted,if
1) the reliability
and qualif ication of the construction
operating personnel is assured
(2) according to the present state
sufficient
power are taklen
(3) sufficient
required
(1) ibid. , p.60
of science
precautions against
technology
the dangers of nuclear
guarantees for the fulfillment
damage compensation
and
and
can be given
of
the
legal ly
60
and
against disruptions
protection
(4)sufficient
actions by third parties s assured
(5)no genuine public
interestsespecially
airwater and ground pollutiontare
with
volated
decision ()
other
regard
to
by the siting
In charge of the licensinga and siting
procedure
s the government
of the state in which the plant will
be located*
But the federal
government
represented
by
(BMI)},maintains an overall
the
government is
of
responsibility
technical safety of a facility
federal
Ministery
Interi or
with respect to the
and radiation
explicitly
the
protection.
The
mandated by the Constitution
iArt.85 and Art.8?c) and the Atomesetz to perform a supervisory
role
by
setting
common
safety standards, maintaining
permanent
controls,and initiating
corrective actions with regard to the
enforcement
requirements as well as the usefulness of
of
legal
these requirements.
Changesof the awof coursecan only be
2)
made by the Bundestag.
rhe BHI gets expert advice from
Commission
panelss
Radiation
(RSK),the
the Commission for Nuclear Fuel
Protection
and
Reactor
scienti fic
(SSB) .
eneral
noveIt es,
Nuclear
Technology
(Kerntechnischer
responsible to develop the criteria
more
explicitly
what
is
31gp.32
; Battelle
The Panel
Ausschuss -
KA) is
which would allow to specify
meant
p.45ff
3
Their advice is
by
'state
of
science
(i) Atomgesetz,1959Article 7(2)
(2)
All
importance and
incorporated into general guidelines and regulations.
for
Safety
Commission (SSKI, and
Cycle Security
commissions usually deal with questions of
tec haolg caJ
the
; Atomgesetz
p.3057
and
61
tectnology
in
in article
section
7 of the Atomgesetz. (1)
As will
be
seen
di fferent int erpretations of that phrase have
IV.3.,
Actual
leaa to two diverging rulings by Administrative Courts.
on-site inspection and supervision is done by the Technical
Inspection
Association
laboratories
(TUY) which
and expertise
backed
of its Institute
up
by
the
for Reactor Safety
(2)
(IRS).
The main actors and their roles in
summarized in Figure
for
is
public
2
the
I icensing process are
(3) The Atomgesetz
involvement in
explicitly
the licensing and siting
provides
procedure.
All federalstatelocal
agencies and other regional entities
to be included if
area of competence is affected
their
whatsoever.
Proceedings for
established
which
application
include
as wel I as further
descriptions.
Additional ly,
participation
public
the disclosure
pans
and the
safety
in any way
have been
of the
,explamationstdrawings
official
and
the safety impact report must be
displayed containing all the foreseeable potential
facility
have
precautions
to
dangers of the
be taken.
Public
involvement is to be accomplished by publications in the official
records of the licensing
agency in the federal register and in a
major daily newspaperof the envisaged site.
Everybody can file
complaints
within
disclosed.
The complaints must be considered at public
(1)Battelle
(2) 66,pD136
(3) 66p. 133
p.52
4 weeksagainst any provision in the material
hearings
b2
arranged
The decision by tne licensing
agency,
by the licensing
The licensing
agercy must be made public again. (11
issue a plant construction
the
license and an operating license.
permit
is
to
subject
extended
The
between
compliance
measures prescribed and their actual implementation.
The first
stage of a permit includes the approval of the chosen sitelof
whole concept of the plantand
issuance
can
- I cence is usual ly issued in subsequent stagesesuch
construction
that
agercy
of
an
starting
construction.
measures againstcatastrophic
storage
facilities
Entsorgung provisions.
The
on the existence of
operating licence depends
Il) adequate protection
intermediate
of
the
events, (2)
the plant compoundand (3)
on
he operating
I cence can
be revoked
r plant
power
exceedsof
whenever that seems necessary.
the licensing and siting of
a nuclear
coursemere nuclear feasibi lity
are required
builders of a plant
possible
regional
impacts
related
on air
to
foresee and state
and water
and urban development plans
considerations.
quality
All
The
the
and the existing
those impacts are open
to scrutiny in the licensing procedure. (2)
2. Critique of the Implementation of
the
Licensing
and Siting
Procedures
(i) 66.p.136
(2)
For a much more detailed
see Battelle.
pp45-68
discussion of the licensisng
procedures,
63
Although the structure
process appears to
the nuclear
of
licensing
and siting
provide widespread protection against the
inherent dangers of nuclear powerits
been strongly attacked.
outcome of the licensing
actual
the distrust
and siting
implementation has
of nuclear opponentsin the
process
s
based
on
and
partly explained by the following four pointst
t. There is an inherent conflict of interest
on the state level,
2. tacit
for regulations
leading to
co laboration
between nuclear
oper at or s
power
licensing authorities, and states.
3. The objectivity
4. The advising
experts
of testifying
scientific
s questionable.
and commissions are not
institutes
neutral .
The first
major criticism
regulators
deals
and regulated.
purposes
Articlet,ere
of
than regulatory
second.
It
in
reversed.
Berlin
(i)
electric
(I)
66,p.134
in
as
The
its
f irst
promotion
the Supreme Administrative
1972 that the priorities
But nuclear critics
utilities
nvolved were
took several years of litigation
decided in
independence of the licensing
between
activities.
misinterpreted
against the plant in Wuergassenuntil
Court
agencies
the Atomgesetz, as stated
allegedly
f irstprotection
the relationship
The different
charged with promotional rather
two
with
are still
bodies.
who apply
for
must be
not convinced of the
Since most of the regional
a
reactor
licence
are
64
semi-public
on their
or
puolic,members of a state government are usually
board of directors.
The state
will be
governmentas
rememberedcarriesalso the overall responsibility
for the siting
and licensing proceedings. Thustthere is an inherent conflict of
interests.
Usuallya ministry s put in charge for administering
the licensing routine. In Baden-Wuerttemberg
it is the Mlnistery
of
Economics, in
Environmentin
Bavaria
inistry
the
Lower Saxony the
of State
inistery of Social Affairs.
the conditions for the licensing personnel for
duties
with the
appropriate
had
a
combined
total
departments, as opposed to
of 5
the
per f oreing
employees
n the licensing
number
dec is ions wilt
of
case indeed, the governor of the state
licensing decision
board
and was replaced
more crucial
role
later
by his Hinister
played
the
(1)
directors
Minister
of
was
whenthe
resigned
of Finance).
a
In the Wyhl
of Baden-Wuerttember g
board of
as to be made (he
98.
be made if
superior is suspected of having partisan nterests.
the utility's
their
Two years agoall
required
Againit is doubtful that ndependent
the chairman of
But
ai i gencecarev independence and
neutral itycan not be presupposed to exist.
states
evelopment and
from
the
But an even
Economics
Rudolf
Eberle. His ministry is in charge of the licensing routine,he is
the
acting vice-chairman of the utility's
board of directorstand
his ministry has the authority to expropriate if
citizens
unwlling to sell their property for a plant site.
(2)
In the
on legal
grounds.
17
(2)
are
215,p.14943
Wyhlp.i4 and p.50
This is
also doubtful
65
early stage of the siting
pub1 ic
reportedl y said on a
controversy,Eberle
cne." (1)
we will also succeed in managing this
hearingsand
From the
perspect ive of
nuclear
independence of the regulators
a few such
quite
"We have been pul I ing through
hearing:
the
opponents,
lac k
collaboration
has lead to a tacit
between licensing agencies and nuclear plant operators.
case of
negotiations
I Icencevsecret
had taken place for more than a yea.
of
none
the
announcement of
Hamburg
major
Spiegel
tranquilized
casethe
official
by
hearing
expert opinion
being
of
semi-truths'.
projects
(3)
an
to
attitudes
was widely done
council were hooked with tax
communal
for
money
1
carried
the
a
allege
as restricted
magazine summa zes
in secrecy, members of the city
ever
In the case of
newspapers
for Brokdorf"planning
surrounding the licensing
a
the nuclear
with
Such information
plans,
the
local papers. (2)
industria
the
for
application
the official
in Geesthacht10 kmoutside of Hamburgi the critics
plant
that
to
prior
acknowledged that
industry
In
in Esensham(Lower Saxony),regional officials
a plant
construct ion
of
opponents
In the
and
were
Brokdorf
public complaints was scheduled before all
was available and had to be interrupted
completed.
In
the nonpublic licensing
without
proceedings
of
the
Constitution
of
53 (2)
Art.
to
According
government member is allowed to be on the
8aden-Wuerttembergtno
board of directors of a profit mahing company.
(1)
Wyhl,p. 37
(2) both examples in 66,p.136
(3) Spiegelv8
November 1976
also the following
events described
66
about the effects
s steaqpecple
on the water
boardtthe other had to wait outside.
law by putting
take
the
aterial
photocopies
of
mentioned earlierthe
on displaybut
documents
the
complied with the
refused
amounting
'mm ediate
As
Brokdorf was issued
Schleswig-Holstein
execution order.
opponents to
to many volumes.
constructioe permit fr
by the state government of
with
before the
Moreover,during the 4 weeks
access to the plansthe authorities
public
complaints
ttorneys:when one testified
were separated from their
of
fil ing
conjunction
In
That legally deprived
opponents of going to a judge n order to invoke the provision of
a
temporary
construction.
to
order
which
would suspend
the
beginning
of
The temporary order' is a legal provision, geared
make a complaint effective
before an official
court decision
(which takes often a long time after a complaint has been filed)
can be reached
released
to
Before
.
the
the
pub ic, the
coordinating efforts
decision
had been
government was
carefull y
licensing
state
with the util ity company and law enforcement
agencies to keep control of the envisaged construction site.
The third ajor objection raised against the licensing
concerns
the
I icensing
processdecisiens
assessment of
nature
of
various
I censing authority
Atomgesetz requirespas
expert opinion.
itself
not
capable
mentione0 before,that
operating Personnel is sufficiently
(1) see atelle for an analysis
hear Ing
are
and technical
is
process
In every stage of the
ust be made that
natural
It)
based
on
an
factors which the
to
perform.
The
the construction
and
qualifledbut
does not assume
of the conduction of a
icensing
61
the
same for
officials
the
in
licensing
the
outside expert testimony is
essential.
impliesthowever,that 'real'
scientists
Thus,
boards.
The utility
industry
can not have objections
against nuclear powerI
sclentists
"Serious
have not
oined
the nuclear
opponents.
It is necessary that a person struggling for an opinion does
not
ignore
the findings
of
the natural sci ences,
physicstchemistry medicine and biology but rather applies
them."
(1)
There was ndeedountil recently a shortage of nuclear
and engineers
position
in
non-experts
among the
the
critics
licensing
which weakened the opponents'
process.
Quite
have been treated arrogantly
they challenged
in
a
few
some hearings the nom-critical
lack of expert criticism
this
experience with
As will
Most opponents do
is
whole structure of the scientific
with
not
laterotheir
enterprise and ts objectivity
people have had
A wine-grower
expertst
accept
causing doubts about the
And ome ordinary
acquaintances
experts'.
the apparent
be discussed in mere detail
expert opinion'
and infallibility.
when
is another proof for the controllability
of nuclear power.
argument.
critical
and superficially
Nuclear proponents are quick to arguetof coursethat
and feasibility
scientists
in
their
own
the wine area
around Wyhlnwhois told by an 'expert" that potatoes will require
more sun than grapesthas
nothing
better
energy"*
(2)
reason to believe
than "scientific
For people
(I)66Spiegel,ebruary
having
'
.l
(2) Spiegel,7 February 1977,p.34
that such experts are
propagandists
such
an
for
experiencetthe
a15
Wyhlpp.39 and p.j40
nuclear
whole
68
character and legitimacy of scientific expertise is being called
into uestion.
The fourth objection questions the neutrality of the various
institutions consulted on licensing regulat ions and actuallyI
supervising nuclear plant operations. The di fferent commissions
providing
the bulk
identified.
by
the
of expert opinion have alreadybeen briefly
As Figure 2 shows,the state s tIJV
will be consulted
licensing
board;and
opinion is non-partisan.
past century
Over tie,
it
s widely believed
the TUVwas f ored by iAdustry
state
gave up
its
own testing
of technical facilit les.
is a very well-known institution
a very
good
The
dependability.
opinionabout
nuclear
licensing
the
as
ts members.
testing
average
the
for
its
and
citizentsince
TUV's neutrality
has also
with regard
with
to
controlled
association
malor private
been affiliated
and
have a less
Jtheyclaim that the TUV s still
(VdTUV) has also several
It
accuracy
criticshowever,
by industry and point out that the national
TUV's
and
One must note that the TUV
reputat ion
nuclear
favorable
regional
the
the compulsory car inspection nation-wide and
TUV performs
enjoys
for
facilities
for
designated the TUVas the major organization
the
in
originally to check steamvessels for their safety.
the
inspecting
that the TUV
of
the
companies
the
German
Atomic Forum. Considering the entanglement of capital amongthe
major industriessthe
critics
independence
TUV consulted
Institute
of a
in
a
l icensing
of
true
case.
The
(IRS) *moreover, which is also
licensing rout ine is equally suspicious in the
for Reactor
involved in the
the possibility
question
Safety
69
eyes of nuclear opponents.
inistry
It was founded by the VdTUV and the
Research and
of
echnology,
arnd its
president
is a
memberof the board of directors of the Association of Electrical
Utilities
in Hamburg. (1! How can ojd ective
assumedtnuclear
critics
argue, if the head of an organization
ultimately makes decisions in matters
interests
in
the
inspection
facilities
to
of personnel
be inspected ?
will
who
has vested
And since IRS
experts are involved in several stages of a licensing
which expert
be
processt
admit in the fourth hearing that he may have
been wrong n tne three
previous
ones ?
III5. Expert Opinion
and
Both sides in the nuclear debate bring the results
development of science and technology into the discussion in
order to counter their opponents and to strengthen their own
arguments.
confidence into
the state
In their opinin,the
be under control
unresolved.
*
They
technology can basically considered to
do not
will
stem
be
still
various
from fundamental
found
in
time
if
problems
difficulties,
only
enough
is made. Power from nuclear fission is just another step
on mankind's path through
been inclined
i)
deep
of nuclear technology developed so
Of course, there are
however, but solutions
effort
to the overwhelming
of the nuclear experts and their
affirmative attitude
far.
proponents point
The nuclear
66,p. 153
to
the technical
age where man has
always
take some risks in order to harvest greater
10
benef its.
Former Minister
those which
we are
technologies"*
any
ot her
accept
by rel y ing
ght water
technology
willing to
(L) The present
more extensively
the
risks
of
holds '"that these risks are not greater than
power but
nuclear
Matthoefer knows about
ar ge- sca e
modern
has
been
improved than hardly
and continuously
tested
on other
tchnical
ventur e.
ThereforeHMatthoefer is further convinced that "the fast breeder
will
as a light water reactor".
be equally controllable
Pro-nuclear scientists and poli tcians
as mostly ignorant of the facts at stake.
the
opposition
(2f
depict their antagonists
Thevast
tas been misled to attack nwclearpower only for
narrow personal interests or for emotional reasons.
people
would comprehend the true scientific
the acceptabi ity
resistance
would
of
majority
and attractiveness
wither
away.
If
those
arguments, showing
of nuclear
A pro-nuc lear
powertheir
speaker
a
in
8undestag debate welcomed the recent endorsementof nuclear power
by 650 scientists
nuclear
virtue
business
of
their
they do not
-his
have vested
argument went-
exportise.
Who else
co mmunity could have mere familiarity
nature?
Thus these
signatures
nuclear power by the rational
signatures
are againtof
(2) ibid.p.33
the
than the
scientific
knowledge with
symbolize the acceptance of
coursethree
(1) Spiegel,19 April 976p.30
in
but offer an opinion by
and intimate
elements of
physicists, engineerstphysicians
interests
society.
"Among the
Nobel Prize winnersmany
ad biologists.
Howeover among
71
them
aren't
any
sociologists
Fortunately,he realizes
presently
not
and
theologists."
(t1
that such an enlistment of authorities
very helpful but rather
leads to a "religious
is
war
around the nuclear issue".
the nuclear opponents ,of course,
polarizing
are not
innocent
the debate. Their argumentation was partly
appealingto basic humanfears and Inst incts
basic strategy.
their
the
be exposed
to as much relevant
and provoking
are
about the future effects
They are
aware that
in
the
in
involved.
Host
known dangers
of the established
and hearings as well
universitiesehave
Buer gern ltiativen
as possible
dependent on nuclear
the ma ority
in courts
public
but the missing knowledge
for a society
nuclear expertsttestifying
teaching
is not
the
information
not the presently
-which they view as quite considerable-
energy.
geared at
that
anybody and demand that
about the issues and the range of uncertainties
disturbing
Bt
in
they admit that an Irrational approach to
ssue would not help
should
ei ther
a
Wyhl admitted
pro-nuclear stance.
that
they
had
as
The
real
difficulties
to name well-knownscientists for their cause. Out
of 51 experts
testifying
in
considered nuclear critics.
the
(2)
1977
Wyh
case,onl
y 9
But they would not consider this
imbalance as a proof far nuclear safety and acceptability.
former chairman of
BBU did not
oppose nuclear developeenti
(1)
The
expect nuclear physicists to
"They won t cut the branch on which
215,P.14935
(2) Spiegel,i4
were
February 19779p.9
72
they sit'"
()
And other
Wyhl opponents
entanglement of public and industrial
might have been a shortage of
case,the
Buergerinitiativen
whole. Counting on the public-s
the
about
But while there
research.
testifying
experts
find
complain
in
the
Wyhl
muchsupport in academiaas a
faith
in scientific
wisdom,
several thousand scientists publicly expressedtheir scepticism
to nuclear power in demanding a moratorium for new power plants
and reprocessing facilities
unless stringent conditions are met.
They
seri ous
1ist as
areas
of
concerns
safety, health and environmental protection
nuclear
p lant
reprocessing and waste
disposalocost-benef it ana lyses for nuclear energy-better legal
protection for the citizens involvedtand better use of existing
energy supplies.
[o some extent
profit from the secretiveness
the Buergerinitiativen
of the nuclear
planners.
also
Instead
of keeping the population permanently informed about the possible
dangers
and levwes
of risk with nuclear powergovernments
industries usually depict the energy source in
colors.
the
and
brightest
No wonder that the purely hypothetical study of the IRS
-mentioned in the next section of this paper- on the effects of a
loss of cooling accident in a reprocessing plant
densely
populated
area resulted
in
findings
of the study were leaked to the
a public outcry
press.
for
(1)
f ied all
in
a
when some
Without
aware of the assumptions underly ing the studythe
M deaths in a newspaper headline null
located
being
estimate of 30
official
pledges
opennessan informed publicand the esirabi I ity of nuclear
ibid.,p.91
73
power
Let us now turn to what the nuclear opponents consider as central
for the relation
of expert opinion and the public
does one arrive
at a fundamental scientific
the independence of scientific
the widely
believed
work.
The first
The critics
notion that
in
of methods
app led ,and
determined by scientific
essentially
not
their
search for the truth and that the selection
be studied,
still
do
concerns
share
the sciences, especially the
natural sciencescan always developaccording to
laws
how
opinion ?
of arguments have been suggested.
Three lines
debates
of
results
objectiwes.
internal
of areas to
published
is
This notion may
be partially valid for basicresearchbut it definitely
does not hold if strong economic
as outlined
earlier,
are at stakje.
nterests
there exist
strong
ties
Indeed,
between
the
universitytadministrative and industrial scientific communities.
Host of the universities
are public; a substantial
research
is sponsored by non-university
priority
often is
expenditures
mNere the
became monetarily recoverable
and
separated'".
Between the experts
I obbyilng
industrial
the
research
iauickly.The chairman
Bonn made the
sci enti fic
of
sources;and research
given to projects
of the Science Committee in
part
observation
cannot
be
and in
the
presumab Ily
in actual research
"that
applying industry existed "a kind of academiccompaeionship". (1)
The times are
considered the
gone when the voice of an
incarnation
of objectivity.
(i) both quotes from Spiegel21
university
expert
was
On the contrarythe
Hnarch 1977,p.4*
74
current atmosphere in the state
include
al I universities-
exchangeof controversial
introduced
in
controlled
opinions.
972 requires al
bureaucrac es
political
toward
behavior
to
The
'Extremistenbeschluss'
publicemployees to serve with
s constitutional
decade, was reversed.
reestablish
'Ordinarienuniers i tae t
or not.
private sector.
to the
left
Furthert
members, which
servants
the trend
went
on
for
the
A new law governing higher education
some
well-known
of
features
the
or at least of a erstor watereddown
by a strong dose of bureaucratic influence.
*'xtreaistenbeschluss
is
decision making and more participation
more decentralized
seems to
It
decide whether a public
for students and oung faculty
last
-which
is not very encouraging for the free
loyalty to the state and the constitution.
state
institutions
even
The state
mandated
seems to have a counterpart
Allegations have surfaced,
in the
accarding to
which
companies of the nuclear industry Instructed their employeesnot
to take any stance in publ ic discussions
upconthe company'sinterests.
which
might
infringe
Internal regulations, originally
drafted to protect technological nformation n patent matters,
were cited to contain dissenting technical opinions
"Every employee is advised that he has to get permission from
the management for any professional statement of his given
verbally or in writing whenever business interests are
affected
and the
Permission
business interests."
(1)
remark
is
made
to
a
larger
audience.
ll be granted if the statement is not violating
quoted in Jungk ,
(1)
.120
One companyclaims that internal regulations preclude -at
partially-
the constitutional
of
regulations
those
go as far
as
right of free speech. Disobedience
may force the company to sue the offender
the governmental measures did not
Although
for indemnification.
prescribing
results they
were
dissenting
political
least
research
applied
by
the
topics
and
authorities
expected
to curbing
opinion,
After
the
rise
of
ant i-authoritarianism in the late 1960sethe Extremistenbeschluss,
the new university
law, and private
the
to
contributed
exist
actions and thinking.
hich
do not
thought and research that
towards
and secretiveness in an
Thus, the
would encourage to
definitely
trend
growing
conservatismsopportunismgmutual distrust
individual's
regulations
climate
does not
explore and express lines of
accord with
the
prevailing
scienti fic paradigms.
Secondly,a more psychological
The entire
peaceful
nuclear
tramscendental argument is made.
-
power development was based
on
the
premise that nuclear reactors will ultimately becomeavailable as
sources of energy.
For a whole
generation of physicistsnuclear
energy was a subject justifying and motivating their often rather
abstract
basic research.
been
means for
a
development
public
For a fen scientists
relieving
Atomic energy
a sense of
on energy.
Physicists
guilt
about
atom bomb
development was presented
,and probabl y similarly
community,as the ultimate
it might even have
absorbed in
answer to man's
the
historical
to
the
scient if ic
dependence
and engineers invested more than their
brains into the tapping of that resource, manycontributed
hearts
76
and minds.
(Beiny a son of a physicist
messian ic
pride
of peaceful
unacceptability
third
hold
ould
argument
of
tkind
career.
for
any
modern
area
assumptions made by his
argumenttfor pol itical-economic
only hesitantly
are
findings
advanced.
the
with
a
exist,degrading
in the first
not used to
A scientist
,
may base his
of
overlap
pro f essiona I
between
in
one
two
f ields
discipline
interested amateur in anotherthe findings of which he is
inputs
to
his
complex as, eg.
of scientific
knowledge
the ecological
and technicad
comprehensive entity.
an
of his knowledge on the wrong premises.
best
degree
smal I
than
reasons 'unfaorable'
of research
such practices in his own field
opinion
on
rely
may be based
better
hardly
Even worse then if ,as indicated
guess.
educated
a
testimony
groundsoften
on very shaky scientific
to
In
coilegues in the relevant neighboring
Under such conditions,expert
disciplines.
line of
will have
expert
u dgementtany
to make a
of
power make a
nuclear
of experts along their different fields inevitable.
split
as
the
question
The vast
problem.
technological
uncertainties and potential ef fects with
Only
y
actual
which such psychological considerations affect
to
mul tidisciplinary
order
themthe
testimony is hard to assesstbut nevertheless relevant.
scientific
rhe
of
academic and professional
essence and value of an entire
The extent
many
nuclear power would not only mean the
technol ogy9out
of a particular
rejection
Thus, for
hope·)
and
mysel f,I could sense this
module.
effects
knowledge
may
to
an
using
In a subject matter as
of nuclear power, the body
can hardly
be seen
as
a
It is better descrited as a concatenation
77
or
network of
consisting
of
quantifiaole.
separate
di sci pl inary
the few parameters
modulesthe
considered
relevant
In the eyes of the critics,therefore,
knowledge on which
licensing
Iinkages
the
and
current
and courts base their
agencies
decisions is a promulgation of assumptions ad uncertainties,
immatore to rest the future of a whole society upon.
Elbe who swam n
protest
Indeedold
shermen looking at the Rhine river or the
farmers,wine-growers,f
river
now against
these
Wyhl
streams
in
their
and Brokdorfmay
childhood
very well
tradition.
The implications of the general erosion of expert opinion
perception
are quite speculative.
danger of overinterpreting
seem to point to
nourish
exactly
age.
High
they
seems
those forces and sentiments which may result
As briefly
of
wall,
technol ogy ironically
Someparallels
seen in the last major preceeding political
collaboration
the
Although there is the
some thin symbols on the
in the great refusal of high technology.
1960s.
n
increasing scepticism by the public at large
about our technological
to
and
have some
doubts about the adequacy and wisdom of the scientific
public
too
introduced before,
the traditional
can be
movement in the late
the atmosphere of apparent
political
forces
in
the
country,the lack of parliamentary opposition led to a rise of the
extra-parliamentary
opposition
the anti-authoritariananti-war
the
universities
in
brought it into being.
fol lowing years.
(APO).
It as characterized
movementsthe radicalization
by
of
summary the negation of those forces which
Howeverit gradually withered away in the
Is that
the same prospect
for
the nuclear
78
cr i tics?
79
IV. Thesis 2 At the very least,
correctives
to failing
citizens
movements can be seen as
emocratic institutions
and processes.
It was argued in the previous chapter that the traditional
forces
of decision making proved largely inadequate in dealing with the
nuclear
The reasons for the inadequacy may be seen
power issue.
in the general complexity of the present
the vastness of risks
technology,
thereof.
and benefits
in a more aware and critical
industrialized
associated with nuclear
puolic,
or a combination
Whatever the reasons weresnuclear power becameexactly
an issue because an increasingly
answers for
aroused
public
demanded clear
its questions from the conventional decision makers
and because the answers received were not suf tficiently
convincing.
The dissatisfied
merely
there was not
available
knowledge of
and
entanglement of
two deeper reasonst
science
second,
nuclear
government,
Concerned individuals
and
technology
that
the
First,
the
was
sti ll
I
power was being pushed by an
sci encer and industry
interests.
to form interest
groups since the
state and the parties had hardly responded to
popular probing
-nuclear
oined
and
questioners soon suspected that
vague for
remained
clear
communication problem but
a
reactions
rudimentary,
worlds
power was not
the only instance.
Grass-root popular
movementshad operated in other areas of publ c policy
before and
had proven successful catalysts to translate popular demandsinto
off cial action.
Two fundamentally
initiatives
evolved.
i ffferent
The first
causes
for
the
anti-nuclear
attempts to correct past failures
80
of
the
system
by determining
more
requires
e f fective
representation
by
def ects and
governmraen
ta I
the
parties,
enforcement concerning plant
fixing
planning,
stricter
safety,
them.
It
be tter
regulations and
waste
disposal,
more
equitable energy rates, more objective scientific research,
improvedchannels for citizen participation, etc. but accepts the
implicit premises of the existing social, political,
economic,
and
structure.
technical
chapter
This
shortcomings touched upon by the Buergerinitiativen
be repairable
and
by a combination of fixes.
par liaments
have reacted to
proposals for changing the licensing
suggested,
and
the courts
I ibertarian,
plural
fulfilling
their
malfunctioning.
stic
pressure,
various
of
actors.
From a
the movements
view,
purpose as correctives
to
are
societal
One cannot overlook, however, that many of their
perspectives seemhardly reconcilable with the existing
societal
hat will be addressed in Chapter 5.
order.
IV.i.
movement.
political
The 'Buergerinitiativen'
are the main actors
The uergerinitiativen
the
parties,
process have been made or
have become essential
point
and which may
Governments*
public
the
introduces
in
They are in general not affiliated
the
anti-nuclear
with any existing
parties or interest groups in the country .
formation
of
a new Buergerinitiative
Usually,
was the reaction
citizens
to the feeling of not being represented sufficiently
any of
the traditional
political
forces for a variety
of
by
of issues
81
at
stake.
Indeed, the
allow
uergerinitiativen
speculations
to
about the
perspectives
socia
and
so
or
technological
not
restricted
and came up
environmental protection
and play grounds 162,traffic
to
976 attempted to
of a sample of Buergerinitlativen
urban development 8X. (1)
many
be discussed later.
A study conducted in
with the following resultsl
7%,nursery
concerns UlZtyschooling 8X
The nuclear question is currently
leading edge drawing most of the attention
have existed
of
far reaching conclusions
movement is
concerns.
the goals
schools
draw
of a country as will
envircnmental
out
ex istence
poltitcal
Buerger nit iat iven
The
find
very
for a long time before.
the
but BuerSerinitiativen
Other polls show that 2 M
people have participated in Buergerinitiativen
in recent years
-that is more than there are registered membersin the political
parties.
to
Whereas 12/. of the population were willing in principle
work
in
a
party 347.
duerger in it iat ive, under
Persons most favorably
middle-class
generally
citizens
spec ial
would
participate
circums tarnces even
in the ages 25 to
are more reluctant
to Join.
40 whereas workers
Quite frequentltylabor
perceived as posing in the short term a threat
&i)
21
60X.
a
(2)
inclined towards uergerinitl ativen are
rather opposed to some of the Buergerinit lativen
Spiegel
Institut
in
arch 1977,p 38
fuer Urbanist ik.
since
they
In
is
are
to employment.
The study was conducted by the
Fur ther items were disadvantaged
groups 7%, cultural heritage 6youth questions and holiday camps
5X%,commun-al
institutions 4Xurban preservation ,Z5X
(2)
ibid.p.35
pol I by INFAS
82
Most of the anti-nuclear
Buergerinitiativen
initiatives
Ueltschutz
founded in
-tne
(U)
for
of Buergerinitiativen
belong to the 'Bundesverband
Federal
Environmental Protection.
972 and includes some900 si ngle
with 300 BO0 organized
Association
was
Buergerinitiativen
members who can reach some 15 M citizens.
(i) Theassociation is very loosely structuredtits
I le
It
on coordination rather
capabilities
than organization.
Its
former
chairmanHans-Helmuth Wuestenhagen, was one of only two full-time
workers of
8BU.
Most
the group is
volunteers
of
the
everyday
decentratized
business
is done by
and does not
want to
create d more centralized organization.
Wuestenhagen
is
an active
partYV4FP)the
smallest
indicates
member of
of the
constitutional
democratic system.
denominator
envronaenta I threa ts.
neutralization
of
a
of
the
to
of the capitalist
process
which
smallest
groups
of
Those threats
stemming from the nature
3 consequence
rather
variety
the
whatsoever
uestion
premises of the present parliamentary
88U is
for
democratic
liberal
parl iamentary parties,which
that the 88U has no intention
the basic
the
has
common
about
concerned
are not
perceived
as
system but rather
as
been
leading
to
the
democratic agencies by a technocratic state.
Wuestenhajgen
advocates"the
escalation of civil
against
is not doing anything for the better
the state
usage and conservation
"which
of energy". (2) Besides the
(i) Die Zeit (International
(2)
ibid .,p.2
disobedience"
edition) ,25.February
coordination
917, P.2
83
of
demonstrationsBBU
cdl Is
from companies profiting
st r iKe;altogether,
recommended.
necessity
of
for consumer boycotts of products
from nuc lear develoDment or
more
Some forces
than
one hundred single
within
tax
see
the
to becomea more effectively
But presentlytthe association is
and spontaneous to allow
diversified
a
measures are
the Buergerinitiativen
more centralization
operating force.
for
probably too
for the formation of an
independent party or even a strong lobbying group.
What are the objections
against nuclear power?
88Us opposition is based on the physical risks
nuclear reactors
and the nuclear fuel cycle as
record of the established
A brief
look at
on
*Informations
Nuclear
(1)
The first
two brochures are
interest
scientists
original
by
BBU publications
may acquaint
onl y
ones not
-label led
us with their
containing
an
nformation and seem ntended to awake public
suggestion.
The first
spreads the call
of
2,000
for a nuclear moratorium and the second introduces the
plans for nuclear development in the FRG of
598 nuclear reactors until
of
of
Energ y-
the
ll as the past
actors in handling the issue.
olitical
one series
concerns.
analysis of factual
associated with
250. pictorially
allegedly
forming a dense grid
nuclear sites all over the country, dramatically accumulating
around the industrial
centers.
The third pamphlet deals with radioactivity
and health.
It
states as the "central problea of nuclear energy" that nuclear
() 88U , Inf ormationen zum Ue ltschutz , 75 Karlsruhe
Schliffkopfweg
31a
84
and
poisons which cannot
produces radioactive
fission
a
pose
threat
and future
for present
uncertain
and scienti fica II y
est imations have reli
ed on three conceptst
threshold
of radiation
any heal th
damages, ( i)
ion
radiation
than
extent
disputed.
Damage
and (iii)
damagesare higher for
public
be
must
The brochure claims that the nuclear
(ii.
establishment has adhered to the first concept in the past;
currently,
a
re lationships
for which 1.- 20 times worse effects
for
of
there is
(i)
linear dose-ef fect
more damagesthan (i),
expected
the
which, if not exceed-ed,does not entail
implying
level
Cancer,
generations.
genetic damages, and deformed babies may results
which remains
be destroyed
that
the linear theory s cited, and that only a critical
can force a close and n-depth damagereexamination under
the third hypothesis
Otherwise, the protagonists
energy in industry, politics,
to deny the potential
and administration
of nuclear
ould continue
of such high damage rates.
The risks of radioactivity
for the environmentare introduced
the
heavily criticizing
fourth publicatioen
in
the procedures for
estimation andmeasurementsof radiation levels in the vicinity
of
nuclear plants.
The criticism
focuses on the officially
and widely publicized notion that radiation
installations
is only ncreased by
of background levels.
were based
on a
exposure near nuclear
mrem/ag ie
by less than LX
Calculations yielding the ± arem figure
set
of allegedly
overoptimistic,
assumptions concerning the fraction of iodine 129 in
absorbed by
influencing
the
the
held
thyroid
dispersicn
glands, the meteorological
of
ionizing
radiation,
unrealistic
the
iodine
conditions
and
the
85
accumulation
of
nucleides
expect that the validity
in the human food chain.
of the calculations could
One should
be partial ly
checked oy measuring the radiation
levels near nuclear plants,
and the outcome of the measurements
could
confirm or dispel the computedpredictions.
control
agencies
have been monitoring
used
be
either
to
As a matter of fact,
radiation
levels,
but the
agencies and their superior state ministries refused to disclose
the
findings.
The only
reports
made available
to a team of
scientists at the University of Heidelberg -possibly by accidenton man-made
radiat ion levels in the environment of the reactor in
Obrigheim and near
Karlsruhe
the
Federal
shed some light
results
from the monitoring
levels
of man-maderadiation
from
Nuclear
Research Center
on the reluctance to publicize
agencies.
Near brigheim,
in the years
1971 to
(1) The group
the
the annual
1975 ranged
50 mremto 250 remr exceeding the permissible
30 mrem/a each year substantially.
in
of
standard of
scientists
in Heidelberg summarizedi
"We showed in numerous cases that the control agency does not
work objectively
and careful ly. In several severe cases,
deliberate and conscious manipulation must be suspected. We
that
showed
the
control
agency
stated
wrong maximum
by
were increased
limits
that
permissib tle imits;
ministerial decret if the limits had beenexceeded; that in
cases
where too
high
radiation
levels
monitoring programs were changed in
were measured,
order
to
avoid
detection of excessive radiation levels in the future;
monitoring results
were represented in
the
the
that
such a way that
severe ncreases of radioactivity
became unrecognizablei
that even in the case of exceeding standards by a factor of
100UO00,hazards for the environment were denied.' (2)
(i)
AG Umwelt
p.6
(2)
AG Umwelt
p.52
86
Another point of concern -summarized in the
of
the risk
findings
countst
not
of
the
the combined risks of the entire
of
of sabotage is
powerplant
the
(c) the risk
estimates about the
long-term
effects of serious reactor accidents are too optimistic;
(el the
tZmely
evacuation
of
presupposed (cof.
(dl
but
demonstrating
the emergency core cooling system;
excluded;
on seven
fuel cycle are taken into
b) there are no actual experiments
functioning
based on
are criticized
Rasmussenreport,
is
The safety
which are largely
a)only the risk posea by the individual
account;
pamphlet-
from nuclear install ations.
accidents
assumptions of the nuclear planners,
the
f f th
the
population
brochure tii;
(f)
assessment has not been verified
(nonnuclearl
actually
froe an accident area is
the methodology
by the likelihood
occured in the past
rupture of the reactor pressure vessel
(9g) the
risk
of accidents
risk
of
a
has been neglected-
The question of waste heat from power plants
sixth
of
is
raised
in
the
pamphlet. Cooling water for the projected plants can only
be supplied by
the
estimated that
64X to J3X of the water at average flow for each
of the larger
rivers
Iarger
of
rivers
the country,
would have to go through power plants.
utilization
would
permissible
temperature level of the water.
that the permissible
levels
lead
levels
to
the
legally
Critics
have been set too
were based on unpolluted
up as
prescribed
planned,
water.
they
high
It
was
That
maximum
-even argued
since
these
If the rivers
would
actually
be heated
contend,
then
water
quality
would be so degraded that higher forms of aquatic life
671
eopardize water
became impossible and would
towers cannot prowide a satisfactory
would likely yield
Furthermore,
it
supplies.
solution,
either,
serious cl imatic changes in
could pose potential
growth and dispersion
of
Cooling
since it
sensitive
areas.
health hazards because the
erms I iving
in
the
water
might
be
en hance d.
7 and 12 focus
Brochures
Again,
both
the
del iberately
waste
disposal
and
potential
physical
dangers
policy
by state
organs
and the
materials
on
understating
dangers to
these
reprocessing.
from radioactive
of
apparently
the population at
large were the two reasons for the env ironmentalists' opposition.
The immediate
I ack
world-wide
reprocess ing p lants
scale;
(b)
dangers are seen to
physical
the
of
in
experience
several
norma I
storing spent f uel
reprocess ing
elements;
facilities;
(d)
(e;)
s t orage of high-l
intermediate
ein?e I
with the governments plans of
glass and storing
unresolvedt
temperatures;
them into
glass-structures
glass,
leak into the salt
time
Ionger
the
the
risk
reprocessing
of transporting
working
r isks
and
wastes;
plants
melting
conditions
assoc i ated
(t)
hi gh- jeve
sal t-mines
may
oecome
is
and
l
in
with
waste
final
wastes
ties
into
perceived as yet
unstable
in
high
cement an bitumen may corrode becausie of
radiation and radiolysis;
might
fuel
the
commercial
Poin t, a whole range of uncertain
As for the last
disposal.
(c)
on a
the
magnitude higher (than at
order s of
mode;
(a)
from
operating
sufficiently problem-free
nuclear reactoirs emission levels for
operating in
arise
microbes might attack bitumen;
water
formation as long as it is being ti Iled
88
with wastes (two pits at the test Bngsite
were
the salt dome-usually containing crystallized water-
flooded);
may
in Asse allegedly
become unstable
because
produced may escape;
policies
the
geological
release of radioactivity.
Information
of
heat
generated;
ay result
activities
The general criticism
of
the state
of
by
the
Federal tinistry
responsible
of
the Interior
in the
BBU on the
concerning nuclear
hazards received new substance by the ways potential
kept secret
gases
power
dangers were
authorities.
In
19-75, the
mandated the Institute
of
Reactor Safety(IRS) to conduct a study on the consequences of the
possible accidents
largest
nuclear
reactor.
major accident
in
a reprocessing
The study -concluded In 1976- projected
n a reprocessing facility
would yield
levels in a 100 km radius around the installation
that
assumptions
and should not be seen as an assessment of
of
Effects
the same timer
assiwe Fissile
which was originally
plans
in
alleges
analysis
case of
was based
was based on most pessimistic
a second study on the
realistic
Radiological
Releases from PWRs was conducted, (2)
plannedto be used to
catastrophic
on
radiation
pointed out
repeatedly
At
the
that a
exceeding 10 to
200 times the immediate fatal dosis. (1) The study
dangers.
and a
facility
unrealistic
draft
events.
optimistic
civil
defense
This study which BU
assumptions
was
(1)
'Die Auswirkungem schwerer Unfael le in Wiederaufbereitungsanlagen
und Atoiraftwerket
B8BU January 1977 . p.* *
Includes a
reprint
of the first
study UIRS,No. 90) and excerpts from the
second study (IRSNo.Z93).
(2 ibid,
p.65
89
the first
concluded three months after
report and arrived at less
dramatic potential casualty f igures,
study shoul d be distributed
whether the first
lower
of
levels
devastating
There was newer a question
the
admin istration,
results
of t he second
appropriate for release
to the public or to
But
even
study
were
the
not
to th e agencies responsible
defense
planning
decision
was reached by a
on the
r egiorwal and county
oi nt
in
it
were
unec onomica
levels.
nonpoliti
Fur thermore, t he r esul ts
I
desastr ous that
This
rotection
described
on such a basis
would be
of
were so
the
study
subordinate o bureaucracies should better remain
Whether or
un in forme d.
civil
.uclear commission of the Laender
unlikely that planning
so
deemed
for
cal body of the Radiation
Commission(SSK)o. he reasoni ng as that the accidents
and the independent
less
not
the
public
at
large
should
be
acquainted with the risks of reprocessing was never even an issue
of
and i t
debate,
took
structure t o publ icize
of
probab I i ty
charge
of
conc I uded
their
siting
that
a
the
group
bureaucrat ic
extremely
sall I
The state of Lower Saxony in
of the Entsorgung faci lity
ano licensing
are
the
dangers and the
occurence.
"there
outs ide
sti I I
severa I
methodologica l
and
tec hnologic at problems uresolved which are in the best solvable
in
the ongoimg project".
And "'the resistance
of the local population cannot bre
Therefore,
even preliminary
intervent ion by the police"*
(i) Frankfurter
Info K7
Rundschau
,
decreased
.iork
" wi I
of n umerous
y more
require
8
and
I nformat on",
the drast ic
(1)
December 1976 ; quoted
from
BBU
90
The civil
defense plans devised to protect the population against
serious nuclear accidents were also not disclosed to the public.
In
brochure
B8U publ ished the available
the
11i
contingency plan to deal with
a catastrophic
parts of the
accident
in
French nuclear reactor in FessenheimJust across the border.
concluded that
*protection measures
"the
population were more a bureaucratic alibi
They are by no means suited to diminish significantly
of
the catastrophe
the effects
the plans can not
the disclosure of certain facts would mean
be published "since
risks
protection.
the event of a large reactor accident".
in
According to the agency in charge in Frelburg,
increased
BBU
thne civt I
for
than true
the
implementing protection
for preparing and
measures" * l)
The nuclear opposition has also a very strong social and cultural
component which must be
evolution
generation
of
in
motives
included
texture
and
Nyhl experienced
MWirtschaftswunder'comfort
forms
of
the 'Westwal '
meant a similar
threatened
order
of
the
parallels.
-Hitler"s
destruction
f irst
The
military
understand
the
The young
groups.
cleavage
between
of the traditional
older
generation
barrier against France-
of the farmlandand
two more times by the trespassing
Ki) Rhein-Neckar-Zeitung
to
Before the wargthe construction
stories about their ancestors" support
K1i
the
and the failure
democratic representation
discovered historical
of
In
, ii March 19t
for
the
regior was
military.
Old folk
Friedrich
Hecker s
; quoted from
8U,
infto
91
revolutionary
heritage.
reasserted";
the
tribereeember
of having always
And even more
ancient
people in Wyhldescen.ants
are
from the Alemannen
resistant
Their trlbeindeedgwas the last
Christianity.
to
one to be converted
bonds
been extraordinarily
any form of oppression
against
their cause a sense of
were revitalized,giving
1848 revolution
their
By linking
(1)
current anti-nuclear cause to this general sense of independence,
the
being
basis which was close to
Their
in
lost
material
abundance.
restricted
any longer to an anti
the soil for positive
and resurrected a cultural
rediscovered
Buergerinitlativen
the
anti-nuclear
opposition
attitudeit
-
decades of
past
was not
also
provided
achievements. The long months of occupying
the site led to the creation of the Volkshochschule yhler Wald'
can
-which
be
translated
as the Community College
It offered nightly lectures on various topics aroundand
Forest.
transcending the nuclear issue. (2)
accomplishmentsS
cultural
plays
in the WyhJ
were performed;
songs
people
poems were
and
could meet.
posed as a countermeasure against
abundant
And t provided a forum for
the
and industrial
of ficial
written;
The site
passive
pro-nuclear
(3)
occupation
acceptance
braina
of
shing.
(1) Wyhlp.62 f.
12)
Wyhlpp.115/116 The program for July
nightly lectures and discussionst
Tuesdays
on the Kaiserstuhl
1wine area near WyhlJ
Series on Medicine and Protection
(3) Die Lieder
Fre iburg
instanceg included
Serles on Nuclear Power Plants - Growth - Progress?
Wednesdayst Series
FridaysS
1975for
aus
Wyhil "Bundschuh
of Llfe
Velt ag,
Wilhelmstr.i5,
92
Ethnic relationships
with the Alsatians across
accumulated in centuries
Prejudices
were reasserted.
the Rhine River
of mutual
prpagandaaout the French - German* nherited host ili ty'could be
more effectively overcomeby the oint struggle against nuclear
and
industrial
years
ventures
of officia I I
German groups
construction
of
tarckolsheim,
on either side of the border than by 20
procaiamed
supported
a
chemical
public
plant
the French assisted
There were also
German -
pro-nuclear
French
opposition
in
the
friendship.
against
French
the
village
of
in the Wyh dispute.
Buergerin it lat iven operat ing.
According to the Battelle Institute study on Buergerinitiativen
and nuclear power plants, at the beginning of the discussions on
the
WyhI plant
was formed.
The
objectively
a local pro-nuclear
goa Is
of
the
group with 20 to 40 members
group
since
they considered
obs
supplies
would possibly
are
a prerequisite
to the anti-nuclear
actions as a goal
initiative
to
get
in formed
and to counteract thewidespread impression that the
whole population in Wyhl was opposed to
contrary,
were
also
their
On the
the plant advantageous for the area
be created
and sufficient
energy
for economic development.
Contrary
groups the
cf
the plant.
pro-group did not
organization.
(i}
see direct
A pro-nuclear
appeared in Brokdorf. Entering the picture in
the form of 'informative leaflets', the initiative
"Rationality
Step Forward" warned that "creating panic belongs to the devilish
recipe
of extremists" who"take every opportunity to reach their
(1)Battelles p142/143
93
destructive
creation
( 1)
goals".
of
the
The group
pro-nuc ear
I obby,
was accused
strong
of
being
support
a
for that
contention can be seen in the facts that a lawyer in
Frankfurt
several hundred i lometers away signed responsible for the group,
that
the
leaflets
were designed by a public relations
Hamburg, and that the
group did
not
requests for information by citizens.
respond
protests
in KatKar, a pro-muclear rally
several
thousand
employees of
Chancellor
Schmidt had explicitly
but
and free
these
view
picture
of active
population.
transportation
events
and
to Bonn.
(3)
a
util ities.
paid
day
One cannot
endorsement of nuclear power by
of
help
parts
of
a
the
Whereas nuclear energy has probably considerable
energy source in its
generally
the
reject
politically
more
nuclear power as an
present form.
IV.2.The Responses by the rraditional
The series of demonstrations against
Political
planned
Actors
power plants
in
and Grohnaethe selection of Gorleben as the Entsorgung
Brokdorf
1.
anti
as badl y disguised attempts to create
segments seem to
center,
the
was attended by
energy
received
tacit support in the population at large,
active
written
endorsed the demonstration one
day ahead, the demonstrators allegedly
vacations
the
to
(2) Following
breeder
KWU
agency in
the court order on yhl and their widely
Spiegel
5 April
1976 -
(2) ibid.,p90
(3) HSt ,
October
1977
.89
received
press
91
the
coverage forced
actors to take the
political
traditional
nuclear power issue more seriousl y.
All three parties official Iyadhere to the position that nuclear
power is
to
essentia I
provide the energy needed for economic
the country's
growth which n turn is thought indispensable for
future
of the party members
Within the rank-and-file
viability.
for
and the parliamentary delegationss however, support
power is
mixed.
in
ranks.
their
All three major parties thaveoutspoken critics
policiess
FDP to a detailed
especially
moratorium of
waste disposal
nuclear
disputed werethe
nuclear
facilities
power in
respective
innerparty
advocating
of
(limited)
a
power
(limited)
the
significance
needed.
unified positions
late
moratorium
at
But the
1977.
through 1977 had seen strong
nuclear
of
other energy sources, and the
congresses in
party
nuclear
the lack of adequate
arrived at fairly
discussions all
a
uestions of
and technology,
the array
Both, FOPand SPAfinally
of their
plant construction,
amount of nuclear energy actually
their
review
opposition
nuclear
The extra-parliamentary
SPO and
forced
nuclear
wings
and a fundamental
discussion on the necessity of future economic and energy growth.
SPD and FDP groups and governments in several
states
have
called
for a nuclear moratorium , reacting on strong pressure from their
rank
and file
members.
Schleswig-HolsteinHamburg
The SPD leaders
and
in
Baden-Wuerttemberg
the
states of
have
voiced
their opposition against further -nuclearplant construction.
SPD governing
the
ordered a licensing
states
of
The
Bremen and Nordrhein-Westfa len
stop for new plants
which might
last
for
95
years.
(1)
are influenced
of course,
Many such declarations
by
local and regional politics in order to gaie tactical advantages
over the opposition
party or to broaden the electoral
base,
thus
But the
cannot be considered as genuine statements of principle.
responsiveness to demandsof the nuclear opposition
increasing
indicatesat
least,
the parties
that
about the possibility
concerned
are seriously
of further alienating
substantial
parts of
their constituencies in the anti-nuclear movement.
Most outspoken in behalf of -and locally often
anti-nuclear
initiatives
the
was the youth organization of the SPO,
the Jusos
They supported a nuclear moratorium,
solidarity
with
the
of-
a part
demonstrators
expressed
their
n BroKdorf and Grohnde. and
cal led the resistance against the further construction of nuclear
plants a political
.further
and moral duty. (Z)
nuclear developmentwithin the SPD ere
members and affiliates
of the trade unions.
to more realistic
reduced growth projections
seriously
to
the
party
congress
anti-nuclear party decision. (3)
reached
the
Minister
levels
that
nuclear
power,
government
Hattheefer
but
Chancellor
lndicating
The party
congress,
finally,
a compromise which was supported by a wide majority.
it)Spiege1,7 February 1971,p*32
(2) SZ , 21 March 1977
23 September
p*2
19177
P.1
never
he would even disobey an
stated that new nuclear plants should only be built
(3) HSt
n favor of
considere d the demanasfor a moratorium.
Schmidt remained always committed to
prior
Host strongly
It
if the demand
96
for energy cannot be satisfied
not
secured when the first
Entsorgung can be considered
In principle-
can
being provided.
without Entsorgung faci lities
be constructed
plants
Newnuclear
by coal.
construction license for the integrated center has been issued.
However, construction permits for new plants can also be granted
with facilities
if Entsorgungis contractually guaramteedti.e.
the country.
outside
the FRGare not
participation
sites
of the population
providing
comprehensive
discussion
forums
economic growth the
,however to what
appeasementfor
and
making
power issue, its
effects
extent
such
a broad
left
the
a
further
for
t remains open
merely
an
the puolic outrage and internal splitsand
to
for
search
debate
solutions
initiated.
In the past,fundamental criticism
always rejected for reasons of practicality
keeping the fragile
(1)
The
process.
implIIcations
on employmentetco.
an honest
establishment
establ Ishing
the urgency of
what extent
The situation
by
by a new law. 41) Especially
the nuclear
discussion of
decision
has stressed
party
the
the
new plant
must be assured by
plants
information
during
detal is must be specified
wing of
concerned regard ing
old
of
expansion
and the
The
may be completed.
construction
under
license.
issue a construction
to
sufficient
currently
Plants
Guarantees for intermediate storage within
coalition
within
firmly
the
is
is
meant
to
be
from the Jusos was
and the desire
for
with the FP alive.
was
FDP
backed Frider ichs
SZ * 15 November 1917 , p.10
;
SZ
similar.
energy
The
program.
16 November 1977
party
The
P.2
97
of
pursuit
measures was supported
conservation
of
on the party congress
in
the
Demands from the Young Democrats
November 1976.
further nuclear plant construction
the party leadership.
,
FOP youth
(the
groups for
party
and regional
organizat ion)
to
devel opment
and
researc
nonnuclear
of
prohibition
however, were rejected
the party opted in June 1977
Nevertheless,
the
any nuclear power plant construction permits until
defer
by
partial construction license for the Entsorgungcenter has
first
accejting
been issued, thus virtually
decision
This
take
as the SPOwas to
adopting the same basic position
fal I.
oratorium and
a temporary
in
the
agreed upon
was weakened by the principles
for
in the November1977 party congress. Construction- licenses
should be granted if
new plants
(i)
there were some first
positive results from the geological tests performed to determine
the feasibility
of the envisaged site for the ntsorgung center,
the safe
(il)
disposal
assured, and (iil)
hi gh-level
The latter
2 conditions will
safety
oe considered
cEvernment and the Bundestag were
be met whenever the federal
satisfied
radioactive wastes was
safe intermediate storage over long periods of
timewas available.
to
of
based on the expert opinion
provided by
radiation
(SSK) commissions.
(RSK)
and
safety
reactor
the
However,
nuclear energy shoulo only be rel ed upon as so far as all
other
energy sources can not meet energy demands. i(J)
The CDUhas been most
supported
(1)
the
firmly
committed to nuclear
energy and
has
emphasis of the governmental energy program.
SZ , 9 November 1971
,
p.
;
SZ
15 November 1977 ,
It
. 10
98
cr i t cized
c on f I c t i ng
the
ex pressed
condemnation ot uclear power development delays
allegedly
on
for
the
legal
the program against public opposition.
give
caused
established
measures to
the Wyhl
After
order
party called for changes in the A-tomgesetz in
decisionthe
authority
the
seemed also
for
appropriate
more
to
legal
The crucial
the
means
CDJ than a fundamental
the current regulations
if
Federal Ministry of Irterior
by the
less restrict ive
the
to
back
Regulatory and
programatic discussion, especially
established
p lanning
energy
from the courts.
politiciansiaway
question
attack
(1) entailling calls
order
implement
to
as an
movement was depicted
political
FOP
The extra-parlamentary
by the undecisiveness of the government,
nuclear
SPU and
by
excluding Schmidtand Friderichs from their
explicitly
factions,
v ie s
the Entsorgung
of
importance
could be made
was also acknowledgedwithin the CUW. CDU
thowever,
state governmentswill only issue operating licences for nuclear
construction
Entsorgung
the
it
facilities
stop
government, in
problem has been resolved,
was considered
general
As far
as
question.
would yield
nuclear
(i) SZ , 5/6 March 1977
as possible.
reduced
n
the
world
also be assured of utmost precautions.
not be completed before 1993,
p.6
The
economic
safety is concerned, the argument
wentt Germanplants are the safest
nould
of
should intervene as little
A policy of forced energy saving
growth.
out
but a
intermediate
and Gorleben
But since it can
storage
facilities
99
must be provided.
(1)
from the width of the inner-party cleavages in both SPD
Inferring
and FOPthroughout
have hardly
yielded
against
from labors and a SPO decision
been interpreted
succeeded
to
block
(2)
the
it
of
convinced that
nuclear
brandmarked the
and irresponsible
investments
have
The DGBleadership
Nuclear energy must be considered
DGB is
would
power
7 nuclear and 6 conventional
oss of
Unions
ts votes
to make a clear statement on the
movementas chaotic
That corresponded to a
450,000 jobs.
nuclear
In April 1977, finally,
Buergerinitiatiwen
Trade
part of
as a decision against lobs.
had long been reluctant
power debate.
of
German League
y the
the SPO draws a substantial
Especially
(OGE).
positions without the strong
the unified
endorsement
pro-nuclear
would
congresses
most of 19779 the two party
which
power plants.
ON 16.5
B and
indispensable.
the safety
of reactor
operations, and Entsorgung for nuclear
construction, reactor
personnel and the population at large will be guaranteed. (3
What did the Bundestag accomplish with regard to
In the legislative
nuclear
power?
period from 1973 to 1916, the third and fourth
supplements to the Atomgesetz were passedt and a fifth
supplement
is planned for the 1977 to 1980 period.
limits for
the
The liability
were raised to ODH
t
and the
owners of nuclear facilities
federal governmentreceived the sole authority
(1) SZ
(2) SZ
,
12 November
22 April
1977 ,
977
(3) SZ , 15 November 1977
.2
p.4
p.10
;
SZ
ower the final
15 November 1977
p.iO
100
ReJected were
waste.
nuclear
proposals
disposal
of
utilities
to introduce site independent type licensing.
by the
For the
entire nuclear fuel cycle now the Verursacherprinzip' applies
-the principle that whoeverhas caused damages is liable for
for
regulations
version
preYvious
the
prob I em.
the
reprocessing
plant,
construct ion,
and
of
construct ion
the
the
of
a comprehensive resolution
framework for
the legal
supplement provided
The fourth
them.
eliminating
te
Entsorgung
law had
and
included
the
of
operation
fourth supplement addressed functions,
of
operat ions
the
fina I
waste
Ageocy
in
di sposa l
facility ()
Federal
i the Physica I Techn ical
and operates the
c nstructs
facility.
preparat ory
T he
(PlanfeststeI
preliminary
Braunschweig
central waste disposal
feasibility
studies and the
work for site selection and site acquisition
ungsverfahren) remains the responsibility
of
the Laendero
are oblgated
to
site or at collecting sites in the Laender. Therates
for
power plants
2Z the operators of nuclear
dispose
of
their
nuclear wastes at the federal Entsorgung
Violations of the
waste processing must cover the costs.
obligation to waste disposal are prosecuted
of fenses.
3. The
appl les for radioactive
erursacherprinzip
producers of these wastes must bear
their
safe collection,
disposa
l.
4. The shut-down,
the
full
as criminal
The
wastes.
costs
for
treatment, safeguarding, and final
safeguarding,
and final
d ecommiss ion ing
of
requires a permit which is contingent upon
the operators' proof that there is no danger for the
nuc lear
plants
environment during the shut-down period.
5,
he standardization
for
the
prefabricated components is
equivalent to a standardized
(i) 258 ,
-_ _
pp. 7819- 17825
;
November 1976 , pp.
3053 ff
testing
possi b e.
site
III)LIII
Bcndesesetzb
of
not
type
procedures
This is
i nde pen den t
at t
- -II
Te I
I
6
10 .
I icensing.
nuc lear
Each
independent
pl ant
licensed
be
supplement has been proposed to deal with the ftinancing
the fifth
the
of the decommissioning of nuclear plants,
plants
must
I y.
to
of
adaption
old
and new technology, and the improvement
new standards
of the access to licensing by legalizing class action suits.
A step towards
to
attributed
the
nuclear opposition.
pressure of
Industrial
usage
public
may
be
partial
by industr
claims
Power Producers
cogenerated at costs of
y
opinion exerted by the
It concerns the cogeneration of
process heat and electricity
of
energy
rational
more
industrial
producers, The Federation
8500 NWe could be
that
M 1.3 B, i.
eo at about the same costs
new nuclear plants with equal power output.
as
Cogeneration offers
the advantages over additional power plants since (1)
- energy conversion ratios
are twice as high
- only half as much environmental pollution
is caused
- only 20Z instead of 6X of the heat produced ill
- of course, less
oil
or uranium needs to be imported.
As indicated in section III.3.,
the large
electricity
self-sufficient
cogeneration
the discriminatory
utilities
against RWE,the largest
Hearings
electricity
of
discriminatory
11) SZ , 8 December 197
, p.22
to
implement more
under the anti-trust
law began
producer in the country,
December 1977 to determine the vwaidity
accusations
practices of
against self-producing but not
users were a malor obstacle
systems.
be lost
pract ices.
and extent
RWE
in
of the
reacted
102
surprisingly
fast.
In February 1978 it
offered
to abandon the
penalties imposed on users who produce parts of their electricity
themselves.
to
Industrial
users are, therefore,
produce cogenerated electricity.
industrial excesselectricity
pay a fair price for it.
nto its electricity
systemand to
(i)
decision
started.
of
construction
are Called
considered negligibly
since
the risk
pressure vessel
could be substantially
arrived
same size,
Wyhl.
rupture
at an entirely
(1)
SZ
same reactor
and the area
risk
could not be
decreased
an
oith
ir
administrative
different
court
decision about a
(2) It
Grafenrheinfeld.
type as in Wyhl at approximately
the
s not less densely populated than around
The ludges in Wuerzburg came to the conclusion
of
the
O 201 to 300 .
nuclear plant being constructed
employs the
arch 1977 that -unless
udgement that
A few weeksafter the yhl court rulingan
Bavaria
the
small for a plant of that size, especially
investment of additionally
in
attention,
at the Wyhl nuclear power plant cannot be
the reactor
in
pon
drawing national
The decision was based on the
a rupture
impeded
agreed to input
Administrative Court in Freiburg ruled in
appealed-
longer
RIE further
IV.J. The Courts
In a surprising
no
that
the
the pressure vessel was not impossible but "unlikely
17 February
(2) SZ,13 April
1977
1978 , p.9
pll
and
SZ
31 May 1977
P. 14
10 3
by human ludgement".
not
required.
herefore.
small,
but
courts,
of
on y
catastrophic
immense
the expenses to
zero.
Both
based their opinions on the same section 2
7 of the atomic
be
the
of such an accident to virtually
interestingly,
article
that
maintained
decrease the risks
was
of a pressure vessel rupture was indeed
such an accident would ustify
consequences of
vessel
court deciding on the Wyhl plant shared the
rhe
view that the probability
very
a second containment
licensed
if
aw; stating
that a nuclear plant can
to
"according
available
science and
technology the required precautions against the damageshave been
taken which could arise from construction and operation
the
Apparently,
in.
uerzburg
of
the
considered
facility".
(i
carefully
manufactured and regularly controlled pressure vessels
as to accord to the current
udges
state
science and technology.
of
collegues in Freiburg footed their opinion as fellows when
'heir
they referred
to the
above quoted provision
of the Atomic Law:
"This scale of measurement -specific
for the Atomic Lawexerts a very strong pressure towards progress. If the
necessary protection were technlogically
then
the
required
precaut ions
according to the state
of
could
technology
still I
not
mpossible,
be gudranteed
and the
spir it
of
Precautions,
not be met.
7 would, ther eforet
article
indeed, are by no means required' only insofar as the state
of technology of the time being would allon
to employ.
Since the protection
of I ves and health is at stake, the
limits of precautions can not be delineated
by merely the
presently feasible
safeguards." (2)
If future decisions were to follow this line of argument nuclear
power
development
would
be
stopped
(i) Atomgesetz , p3057
(2)quoted in Spiegel
,
4 July 1977 * p.57
unt i I
ore
advanced
t10
supposedly imposedby
remaining negligible risk'
the currently
Then, the
the imperfect state of science and technology.
would have made a very important contribution
opinions,
second
a
could argue that the
the
appeasing
faith
may be
the two decisions
Although
into
to fall apart
immediately
local opposition
strength.
its
issuethe
tendency
anti-nucl ear
reasoning.
injured
The
were hoped
has
The Wyhl ruling
The nuclear
question
but
to
of thermal pollution
court decision.
because
everybodynot
because of
opponents had
the dangers for the livelihood
pointed
government quickly
The Wyhi order came as a big surprise
of
means of
and to restore
a higher court may repeal the district
that
One
been appealed by the state of Baden-Wuerttembergand
its governor as well as the federal
out
judicial
a
Wyhl as a victory
celebrated
and lose their
diverging
and democratic society.
legality
who
as
to nuclear safety.
was basically
Wyhl verdict
justice,
Buergerinitiativen
seen
courts
may also have some merit.
explanation
outraged
eliminate
which would largely
technologies would becomeavailable
the underlying
focused on the
siting
for the Rhine River,and
of the wine growers caused by
the
plant cooling processes. The court ,however, dismissed all those
serious,scientifically
disputed issues and rather settled for a
reason which among experts is
Indeedothe Reactor
Safety
Commission (RSKJ responded within
few days that ruptures In the reactor pressure vessel
detected
court
beforehand
almost
would have a technically
safe.
considered relatively
with certainty.
a
could be
Thus, the appeal
easy case for reversing
the
Wyhl
10 5
As a matter of fact, in the Grafenrheinfeld case,the RSK
order.
of
I ine
found
argument
Paranthet icallya
by
acceptance
construction
stop
one third of the total
already been spent whileno construction
costshave
Wyhl has yet
work in
Judges.
there would have been much
more expensive since about 0 500 Halmost
construction
the
been started.
reveal a profound trust into
does not
This assertion
the alleged
of
independence
the
estateabut the nuclear lobby and others have been qute
judicial
capable of making the notion of three ndependent estates
appear
rather questionableo
resulting
in court
reactor
spring
of
in
stop for the plant
n Grohnde.
Esenshamwhich had been operatlonable
1977 was den.ied to
projects
theAdministrative Court in
intervention.
Htannover order a construction
[he
plant
were not the only power
Wyhl and Grafenrneinfeld
begin operations
(1i
since the
since
the
environmental impact of the cooling system appeared unacceptable.
The construction stop for Brokdorf issued in 1976 was maintained
by the Administrative
The Judges ruled
formal application
Appeals Court in
for an intermediate storage facility
waste disposal
facility
mentioned
section
the breeder project
(1L Spiegel
(2) SZ
October.
last
that construction can not be started before a
fuel has been made and before
in
Lueneburg
have
III.1,
geological
been
for
(2)
the final
As
briefly
the courts have also been cal led on
in Kalkar.
4 July 1977
initiated.
tests
for spent
, p. 55
15 November 1977 , p.10
Construction
continues
but
the
10 E
uenster decided n July 1977
Appeals Court in
Administrative
that "dangers of national scope" may e posed by the unrestricted
construct
the
of
ion
and
I rwoked
Karlsrune
to
reactor
in
Constitutional
Court
constitutionality
of the Atomic Law. (1)
whether
rule
The basic
so
that
important
authorize future nuclear
the
governments decide,
invoked
to
voice
parliaments
complaints.
form
for
If
is
and
responsibility
As long as
for nuclear critics.
Court
Administrative
issue
woul d have to
rowth. The question of
would have strong ramifications
the
or whether these
construction licensing of nuclear power plants,
are
on
for siting
the governments should remain responsible
dec isions
Federal
the
system can
the parliaments
appeals would be
be
would become
the
Federal
competent, the
only
Constitutional
Court which ould reduce the chances for citizens
intervention via the court system. A decision by the court
Karlsruhe
is
unliely
to
be reached before
in
the ena of this
decade.
A second option which would seriously curtail
opposition
on nuclear plant licensing
the
has been discussed by the
presidents of the 10 Administrative Appeal Courts.
maintaining
the
of
influence
time consuming 3 tiers
Instead of
administrative
proceedings, proposals have been made to establish
court
only a 2-tiers
sequencefor objections against nuclear power plants and other
underlying the regulations of the Federal
large facilities
(1) SZ ,
p.40ff
5 November 1977 , p.10
;
Spiege I
£
August
1977
107
Iramissions Protection Lawt (1) but without abandonirg the 3 tiers
structure
as a whole.
immediately
Nuclear
be dealt
with
power related
litigation
would
on the Appel late Court level.
The
question arises, of course, whether the appelate udges of higher
age and position would more likely decide favorably for the state
than their collegues on the lowest level,
-Thepresident
of
the
fuenster court denied this allegations conceding, however, that
appelate
Judges
usually
have more "1 ife
experience" than their younger collegues.
and
professional
(2)
Newspapers and magazines took the Wyhi decision as an opportunity
to speculate about some of the longer term
implications
of
the
I ssue.
The pro-nuclear Stuttgarter Zeitung discussed the court decision
in a front page editorial in ra ther technical terms. The court
overestimated the minimal remaiing risk by requiring
the
installment of anti-rupture measures for the reactor pressure
vesselthus unduely increasing electricity costs and delaying
further necessary plant construct ions.
the paper concludes
"The ruling encourages the Buergerinitiat iven to further
opposing this kind of technical
progress.
The danger is
increased that the Federal Republic is left behind by the
international
development. A verdict in the nameof the
people - is it good for the People ?" (3)
The Sueddeutsche Zeitung approached the possible consequences
the
Wyhl decision
(1) Spiegel,
(2) Spiegel
moresoberly.
t August 1971
,
· P.45
1 August 1977 t p*46
(3) StZ,15 March 197,p.1
of
[he udgesruled against risk
LO 8
-the risk that predominant y exists
vicinity
of
for
those
I iving
a nuclear plant and which can be greatly
by providing additional protection.
course,but no principal
verdict
ir
the
alleviated
That means higher
coststof
against nuclear energy and no
final victory for the nuclear protestors.
The Buergerinitiativen
forced the court to look into the matter more thoroughly and they
therefore
deserve
susceptibility
than1s
towards
f or
having
modern problems.
raised
There
factual moratorium in the country -a chance for
fundamental technical
and political
the
now exists
performing
anything
categorical
then,
sense
paradigmatic
a
the
essessment which should have
been done in the past before stumbling into the nuclear
If
publ Ic
venture.
nuclear power deserves to be treated with a
of
example
responsibility.
for
Wyhl
may
become
what are the acceptable risks
a
for the
present and future generations. (1)
IV,4* Regulatory Practices - Revisited
The past regulatory practices have received strong criticism
from
the extra-
from
nuclear
and i ner-parlamentary
opponents
and proponent s
opposition
and both
The opponents complained
lack of sincere interest on the part of the regulators
for and to honestly consider citizen
on
the
other
increases for
(1)
nand, have
their
objections.
experienced
serious
prolects due to citizen
SZ,15 March Jl7t,p.4
the
to allow
The proponents,
delays and cost
induced court
10 9
intervent
Consequent ly
ion.
aws and
of
changes
various
regulations relevant to licensing have been considered which will
be presented in the following.
The publ ic
the
smoothing
"more
Lovernment announced its
intention
and more
transparent
effectivemore
possibil
for
ties
process. In the summerof
and siting
licensing
1975, the federal
several
has raised
discussion
maintaining the highest possible
rapid
safety
to
achieve
licensing
by
(I)
standards",*
Standarbdized components and facl
ities
should be developed which
to
type
I icensing.
for
wculd allow
has
been
Type
approved.
assumptionthat scientific
specific
safety
considered
definitely
Bundestag,
in
highly
based on the implicit
precautions with respect
must
quastionsof
each single
have favore
be met-
in the
course,would stl
case.
First, it
to current
would be violated.
Hore
I
Site
have to
standardization
the expansion of nuclear
was opposed to the introduction
two grounds.
a
and technological progress
sufficient
technology
and
is
was
wi I I slow down. Otherwise,the provisions of the
field
Atomgesetz-that
science
licensing
issuehowever,since it
controversial
nuclear
would
This
separate licensing for each plantonce the type of the
eliminate
plant
switching
would
power. The
of type licensing
woulo have further
be
diminished
on
the
opportunities of effective anaequitable public participationand
secondly it
(i) 3871,p.28
would have disincented
the reactor
ndustry from
11 0
developing better safety euipment ad procedures, (1)
Bundestag eased the
the
requirements in the fourth
licensing
and siting
licensing
components may be standardized.
reactor
have had god
Nuclear critics
proc edur es
that testing
supplement to the Atomic Law by alowing
for prefabricated
However,
that
reasons to believe
(2)
the whole
process was primarily staged to satisfy
public objections without in effect rendering them. TheBattelle
study observed that
by
operated
"the
licensing
the
functionless".
hearings
be called
must
authorities
The hearings can gather the sentiments of the
(3)
public but the authorities
considering
arrange d and
as presently
are not obligated
to
further
An Administrative Court order supports this
them.
vi ew3
"It is the rationale of the ob ections to infrm the
the
about the rough sentiments of
Administration
populatienghence providing the opportunity of testing the
project specif ically for its real and alleged
"
weaknesses.
(4)
Ttat suggests that the hearings provided a
citizens
concerned
to voice their criticism to the licensing authority but
were not intended to offer
any legally
effective
would add teeth to the objections
court
administrative
(I) Siegel,?
procedures which
raised.
It
system which has been established
to provide legal standing for the citizens
(2) 250
for
forum
against
is
the
n order
governmental
March 197t1,P.157
p.1782
(3)Battelle , pJl7
(4) Administrative
KB
Court in Mlannhelm,14October 1975 quoted
from
Iii
In the past few years, citizens have
made extensive use of the administrative courts, as described in
as such
the previous section. (1) However, Buergerinitiativen
them.
af fecting
projects
have not had legal standing.
by the
Positivelyreceived
the
possibility,
uergerinitidtivem
addressed
by Chancellor
therefore,
,
lelmut Schlmidt in his
speech in December 1976,to introduce
re-election
'Verbandsklage' within the licensing
al low the
Buergerinitiativon
was
(2) It
procedure.
to file
so-called
the
class-action
would
suits.
Presently, only single membershave legal standing, provided they
can show that they would be directly
plant.
The legal
standing
affected
by
of communities
the
has
proposed
not yet been
legally decided, although several communities have one to court
so far against nuclear prolects to be located in their vcinity.
Jhe Verbandsklage
common interest
would allow to file
may be more than the sum of
enabling non-local
the entire
broadly
as an interest
group
ndividual
whose
interests,
groups to sue -which could virtual ly involve
environmental
based control
movement.
of
The efficacy
administrative
planning
of
such
a
has been
summarized by Rehbinder2
"Often, only the availability of a procedure of objective
legal control compels the administration to take bothersome
objections by concerned citizens seriously enough that they
are given sufficient weight whenthe decision is made." (3)
for a detailed description of the rules governing administrative
court suits for the nuclear oppositions see Battelle
(2) NEngIJaniary 1977,p.? ;
(3) quoted in Battelle
P31J
SPO- Leitfaden, p. 11
pp.60-b8
When the fourth
intention
to
supplement to the
legalize
the
possibility
true
the
Helmut
wording this proposition in his
government
introduc ing a
which
(41)
commitment to
in
"the federal
of
Verbandsklage",
passed,
was
One should note, however, that
Schmidt was very careful
As he put it,
Law
some form of a Verbandsklage in the fifth
supplement was expressed.
speech.
Atomic
is
stil
citizen
I
...
practical
far
from
deliberates
form
an
group participation
of
the
explicit
in licensing
I
matters.
The possible effects of the introduction
pointed out by the Battelle
of the erbandsklage -as
stuay- deserve,
consideration by the Buergerinitiativen.
that
in
the process of getting
group officially
however,
a
carefu I
It is quite conceivable
the legal standing of a citizens
acknowledged by a state authority,
some sort
of
control mechanism
will be established allowing the administration
to
gain
insight
into the structure
As a matter of fact,
hysterical
reported
as non-profit
tax-deductible,
the authorities,
contributions
an "almost
levels".
(2)
in Freiburg and Ahaus, for example, have lost
status
tax
already
prosecution of nuclear opponents on all
Citizen initiatives
their
the dBU has
and menoership of the group.
as
organizations making donations
on the contrary, are
income.
arrested during
anti-nuclear
(1) SPOLeitfaden
P. ol
(2) SZ , 25 January 978 , p.10
SZ
8 November 1977
p.5
Protestors
trying
to
ore or less randomly
demonstrations have been bi lled
;
SZ 3 February 1978 , p.6
11 3
of
thousands
pol ice
DM in order to pay for the incurred costs for the
mobilizatior .
Verbandsklage is
Another possible
the
tendency to
drawback
from
the
increase centra lzation
and
bureaucratization within the Buergerinitiatiwen
authorities
which
exists
that
The
may require a responsible leadership as contacts
the
contradicts
organization
themselves.
most groups.
characterizing
spontaneous
decentra lized
informal,
Further, the danger
the designation of some initiatives
standing may result
for
legal
in competition amongiluergerinitiativen
to
acquire that status. (1)
All intentions
to provide for morecitizems input into the siting
and licensing of nuclear power plants via the court system would
be counteracted,
of
courses if
decisions would be transferred
the legislatures.
legal
in Karlsruhe.
from the
for
decision
Buergerinitiativen
Interestingly,
that proposition
embers
commentsfollowing the Wyhl decision, ()
Administrative
Justified
with
(2)
SZ
in
the
Court to deliberate
Kalkar
Court
had been made both
Bonn in
several
the
breeder project.
the appropriateness of considering
(i) Battelle
to appeal such a
the first
months before
Appeals Court In nuenster formally
the SupremeConstitutional
connection
governments to
would be the SupremeConstitutional
by government and opposition
the
Laender
for these
As described in the previous section, the only
instrument
parliamentary
the responsibility
requested
question
Pol it lcians
such a transfer
p.33 ff
16 March 1917
p.2
;
StZ
in
15 March 1977 , p.12
of
it
by the fact that the court system has neither
responsibilities
been designed nor
proportions
of
intended
the
national
mandated to the politicians.
actual Iv
to
energy
This
conduct
policy, a
approacht
of
resemble
the
such that
the symptons of a desease become less
important
task which is
course,
would
doctor who decides to change his treatment methods
than when
visible
employing the old method which, even not good enough to cure
patients
was at
apparent.
su f icient
to make the symptons oecome
There are no compelling reasons to
parliamentary
objective
least
debate on licensing
rules
and siting
mandate an effective
participation,
believe
most
effective
scheme for
means of
wouldvof
coursesnot
equally legitimately
of
differing
In order to altow for
the Battelle
citizen
resistance
perception
betweenthe population at large and ts
ive organs.
ore ef tfet Avecitizen
study proposed to
prowide
for
group participations
the
financing
problem would be the source of money, of course.
estimated such costs to 01 500,008 to OM 1 M which
negligible
amount when compared to the construction
(i)Battelle , p.315
and
considered by the nuclear opponents
expert opinion to present the grievances of the citizens.
major
,
proper way.
proper and rather strengthen the
interests
supposed I y representat
oe
in more
be deprived
nuclear expansion could proceed in a formally-legally
It
the
Unless state laKs
the Buergerinitiativenindeedgwoula
from one of their
that
would result
and means of implementation.
would explicitly
the
Is
of
(1)
A
Battelle
st i I
a
costs of a
ii 5
If these expert testimony would result
nuclear plant.
be much greater.
The utility
building
both could oear the costs.
behalf
of
alteration
the
of
modalities
expert opinion,
directs
scientific
indeed,
al though
has taken
a
first
judges compiled a list
testifying experts,
had to testify
(1) Spiegel
soliciting
confrontation
step
only
in
Prior
that
of conf lict
ing
court in Freiburg,
direct ion
to the legal
n the
proceedings,
of questions and assigned them to the
In adition
verbally,
dispute conflicting
Instead of
an
hearings and
licensing
The administrative
argumentation of the Wyhl case.
the
or
both forums could provide the stage for a
control led
viewpoints.
suggest
iould
moreover,
Administrative Court proceedings.
written
the plant or the state
The hiring of expert opinion on the
Buerger ini tiat lven,
of
higher
the benefits would naturally
safety and ifrless accidents
plant
in
to their written
to clarify
details
reports,
with the court, and
cpinions withdissenting collegues. (i)
4 Ju ly 1977
* p.57
they
E
li
V.
Moreover , citizens
seriously
3 :
Thesis
developing perspectives
movements are
challenge the traditioral
that
assumptions of society about
economic growth, the need for more energyt and the
compatibil ity
of high technology and democratic participation.
The preceeding chapter
depictec
evolving
in which the traditional
a society
in
formation
ani decision
Buergerinitiativen
part icipation
Buergerinitiativen
have
making
came into
existence
matters
in
the
of
as
forces of will
fai led.
Increasingly I
as a new form of public
general ,regiona I
or
I oca I
relevance,as correctives to imperfect bureaucratic planning,or as
a
against
countermeasures
co I usion
of
governments,
administrations, part ies, legis lative oocies, scient fic and
technological el ites, technological imperatives, and economic
necessities.
At least,such explanations are attempts to come to
grasp with the puzzle the Buergerinitiativen
and
pol itical
-including
assess
although
journalist,
the
the role
uergerinitiativen
nobody has been capable
themselves-
to
comprehend or
of these new groups thoroughly.
Host anti-nuclear initiatives
designation
pose for politicians
of
their
started as opposition against the
community
as
a
new plant
protests simply had the goal of preventing the plant
constructed
power
heres
el sewhere.
opposition,
the
of ten
Var ious
main
one
they had no objections
fact ors
has
not
must
have
sole ly
site.
Such
from being
against nuclear
tr iggered
this
been the conscious
117
knowledge of the possible dangers and uncertainties
As we have seen in Wyl ,critical
power.
awakened public resistance.
background
information
organizedgpositions
responses to
allof
hearings
hybris
establishment
attitudes
The policy
towards
of
the
provide
the
not
foundwas
that
of
the
authorities.
mislead
opponents the
public
of
expected
apparent
they
will
guarantees.
scattered pockets of
by
but that
On the
resistance
What they
they had
adminis trat ive and
against
domain.
and bureaucratic
purpose to
physical
of
Parts
nuclear powerimplementation certainly
their
popular
more
nuclear power was not as innocent and
protect
and political
to technical
the
scient if ic
been
scientific
Consequently, the nuclear opposition broadened from
being directed to
social
nucl ear
citizeins
harmless as they had been made to believe
de lberately
form of
ones
for answers to appease their fears.
onl y
Above
governmental secrecy,the
carriers
contrary, they provoked the still
to search actively
of
nuclear
Knowledgable
could not
be drawntand
for the harmlessness of the
ignorant
disconcern of the traditional
together
got
lrwime
growing- wanted to be
arrogance
and
had to
discontinue
-farmingftishing
technology.
or igina I
basic
campaigning became necessary.
pro-nuc lear
accomodated by unambiguous guarantees
nuclear
originally
was acquired when Buergerinitiativen,
in public
existence
scientists
nuclear
Very quicklyhoweversome
course,the fear of having to
material
of
as
lnaaequacies
in
the
into
the
shortcomings of
continued to be attributed
press for corrections.
gained in depth as well
dangers
brea dth,
and
the
groups
saw
However, the movement
and developed
strong
11i 8
fee ings
aDout
the
necessi t y
feas ibil it y and desirabi lity
continued economic and energy growth at the rates
The question
of
were
irreversiale
past.
the
arose whether nuclear power was indispensable for
employmentt the dangers of a nuclear powered society
liberties
of
brought
upt
and
the
right
civil
for
imposing
of
an
burden on future generations was debated.
V.1.
Long Term Perspectives
i. 6rowth
The 8BU dealt
with the energy pol icy of
the energy industry
and
the
federal
government
n a brochure which was part of a series
of 6 on energy alternatives.
Official
()
energy
planning
has
been based on four assumptions3
to
1. Energy demanddoubles every 15
18
year s
electricity
consumption every 8-12 years.
2. Growing energy consumption
secures
obs.
3. Growing energy consumption enhances the quality
-4. Future energy needs require
the construction
of life
of many large
nuclear plants.
dBUrejected
energy
all
* needs'
-of these premises.
The estimates
were basical ly extrapolations
were becoming less and less applicable
rates
in
the
past
30
years
(i) BBU, Energie Alternativen , no.6
future
of the past which
for the future.
occured
for
in
the
The high
post
WWII
1i 9
reconstruction period with a substantial
caused by high birth
eastern
parts
rates and millions
rowth of the population
of
from
immigrants
the
of Germanys The present and future situation
on
the contrary, is characterized by saturation in many economic
sectors, resulting in overproduction a gradual decline of the
population,
and by ecological
limits
ecoming apparent
global comparison, the major industrial
energy
consumption rates
much more dramatically
"The question
countries
On a
have exceeded
of the developing world as a whole and
on a per capita
basis.
must be asked whether private
electricity,
now,
pools
heated
by
growing -garbage dumps due to increased planned
obsolescense,
more
and
more
machines
and
autom mat ion,
higher rates of change and deterioration
of the quality of
cons.uer goods, more and more consumptionretc.
are really
desirable
In iew of the misery and economic poverty in the
Third World. Are increases in energy and electricity
demand
and more consume really giving us more inner happiness?" ()
On the contrarys
harmful
a much more
economical
households,
of
energy
consumption
less
insulation
currently
of residential
consumed;
of
northern
consumption;
ibid.
patterns
In
private
the insulation of private buildings, and te optimal
harnessing of wind power and blomass.
(1)
ecologically
way of energy production and usage could be achieved by
minor changes
areas
and
(3)
buildings
The BU
and that
(2) Energie Alteernativen
, no.2
(3) Energie
,
Alternativen
generate
changed methods
po3
no.4
that
the
could save 20X of the energy
2) that wind power used
Germany could
claims
n
the
coastal
20% of electricity
in
agricultural
12 U
production,
putting
an emphasis on ecological ly
growth patterns, restricted
agricultural
and
human wastes,
wastes to power small
generate
20X to
usage of
fertil izers,
using
Although
decentralized
turbines,
0OXof the country's
electricity
even less,
by a rigid
needs on 5X of
to narrow, strictly
splinters of an ecologically
perspective
the
of a non-nuclear
Association
groups, not
the waste
of
just
heat.
have not yet been
scientific
scrutiny,
anad
a conclusive proposal for implementing these
offer
ideas, they nevertheless indicate
confined
to
would allow
-to my nowledge- these figures
subaected to and verified
the use of
of methane produced from
the arable land with an optimal integration of
(i)
compatible
ant i-nuclear
attitudes.
and socially
Initiatives
of
are
not
Gradual
Iy,
compatible positive
future are evolving.
Citizen
a sect
that the initiatives
The BBU-note,
with some 90 member
anti-capital
environmentalists- is aware, however,that
1st
inte llectua I
substantial economic
resistance" against such a future needs to be overcome for
three
reasonsS
"J.Renewable energy sources are provided by nature without
charge. Therefore, there exist
o comparable ways of making
prof its
oil(see
as to the extraction and processing of uranium and
oil
companies and uranium industtry).
2.The lack of polluting
profits,
substances entails a loss
even though
of
to a much seal ler degree than
environmental protection industry).
making
.(cf.
3.rhe decentralized production directly
at and by the consumer
curtails
the profits of the energy utilities
as compared to
trad it ional
central ized
(I) Energie Alternativen
no.5
production
with
subsequent
121
distribution
and sales of energy."
(1)
2. Employment
In my view, the linkage
of nuclear energy to employment plays
a
pivotal role in the conflict, and the Buergerinitlativen will
have made a major step towards implementing
their
succeed in getting the trade unions as their
1977, the
allies.
Heinz Oskar Wetter, stressed that the
against those Buergerinitiativen
experiences
act
as
in
al I
ital
trade
issues for
and
have been made, he declared,
have to
society.
that
Lots of
Buergerinitiativen
was unbearable that
labor
shortsightedness and neglects in
the
pay for
etter
referred
to an
by a trade unions journal according to which 7 nuclear
6 conventional
power
pl ants
representing
Ruhr Valley, stating
initiatives:
Its
22 April
1977
been
blocked
by
leaflets
n parts
of
the
clear opposition to the anti-nuclear
"The Buergerinititilven
(1) Energie Alternativen
had
an investment of DM16.46 8 and
h450,000 obs. (3) [he DG8 distributed
SZ
would turn
unions
cover-ups for well-to-do citizens who are determined to
uergerinitiativen,
(2)
'he DGBchairman,
the
energy policies with the loss of lobs.
article
took a
who made themselves the highest
defend their private idyl". (21 It
tshould
In April
German League of Trade Unions (DBG), however,
stand quite contrary to te environmental ists.
authorities
goals once they
must knowthat
no,6
p.4
(3) Atomenergie und Arbeitsplaetze
, p,-411
the
unions
122
are not wi lling tc lend their hands to chaotic developments...
and Grohnde are deterring
Wyhl, Brokdorf,
warning
an d
examples
where the actions of anti-nuclear initiatives will finally be
leading
to." ()
.gave
some
Although the DGBacknowledged that the groups
too
for
and the
8uergerinitiativen
a
thought,
cooperation
GB was seen as impossible.
opposed
diametrically
The 88U took a standpoint
between
the union
to
leadership concerning ob security:
"The expansion of nuclear energy is
rather
energy intensive
BBUsupported this
from the
lost
production."
position
lobst
it
due to capital and
(2)
with the fact that 600,000 lobs
were
id 1960sto the mid O70sin the FRG despite of new
of DM 2
investments
not securing
endangers jobs by rationalization
and increasing
energy consumption.
The BBU
argumentation is based on the fol lowingset of questions,
What are the direct
to
employment ef fects of a nuclear
be constructed?
the GermanInstitute
power plant
for EconomicResearch
(DIW)in Berlin estimated that a nuclear plant to be built
an
investment
With an average consumption period of
worth of jobs.
and a
total
labor
would contribute
A I together,
(1)
(2)
uoted
BBU
about 6008 man-years
1 B would provide
of about
of about 25
only minimally
39,000
n SZ
force
man- years
22 April 1977
Informationen
to
People,
total
worth of
years
one such plant
employment
would
(3)
be
p4
zur Kernenergie
no
(3)
Atomenergie
4-6
employment.
9
DIW - Wochenbericht 26-21/1976 ; in Informationen
· no.9 ;
with
und Arbeitsplaetze
, P.17
zur Kernenergie
123
in duced.
What are
the
seconddry
of
effects
employment
power
nuclear
deve I opment?
It has been estimated that only about 100 skilled
needed to operate a nuclear plant,
overall
political
climate
in
specialists
(1) (and dependent upon the
the country several 100 or 1000
generated in
positions for security personnel). (2) Electricity
nuclear
are
plants, however, will in industry predominantely be used
production,
where human
replaced by electricity
consuming
for highly automated nd energy intensive
labor will be increasingly
automated equipment.
A paragraph from the annual report
German Electric
Utilities
for 1974 of the Association
(VDEW) may be quotedt
of
(3)
"The results of automation measures become visible
at the
consumption per norking hour which
rate of electricity
amounted to an average of .4 kwh in 1964 and to 14.6 kwh in
1974. Altogetbher, consumption per work hour rose from 19b4
to
1971
the total
by almost 140X.
industrial
That means a higher
electricity
than
increase
consumption, since the
number of hours worked has decreased in the same period.
For the amount of moneynecessary to pay for the average
gross
houri y
wage,
industry
c ould buy 53.2 kwh of
electricity
in 1964 and 112.3
kwh
In
1974
That
is
an
increase
of 111X. Oespite of higher electricity
rates and
consumption per work hour almost twice as high
electricity
(1) Atomenergie und Arbeitsplaetze,
p.20
(2)
According to the 0GB journal
"WIrtschaft
und
Wissen",
January
L977, 91000 additional positions for security personnel will be
created until
power plants.
1980 in the FRG, most
of
them to
guard
nuclear
(in Atomenergieund Arbeitsplaetze, p30)
(3)
Energie AIternativen
,
no.6
:
from
Die
oeffentliche
E ektrizl taetsversorgung
im
Bundesgeb Let
einschiliessl ich
West-Berl in ; see also Atomenergie und Arbeitsplaetze,
p.21
14
as in
1974 costs of electricity
are,- thereforer muchmore
favorable today than ten years ago."
point,
As a case in
10 depicts
Taole
the
ndustry.
f or the bituminous coal
employment and mechanization
amounted to 22
In 1958, the degree of mechanization
on
a
index, 316,000 miners were employed workina In the pits,
miner
produced about
L. 65
tons
of
worked underground, but the productivity
to 3.8
the
and each
coal per shift.
In 1971,
per man and
dichotomy
shift
had
this is not an argument for more
tons of coal.
qualify
labor intensive coal mining, but these statistics
relate
given
had increased to a value of 93. only 135,000 people
mechanization
risen
between
trade-of f
between energy
intensive
to
automation and
human employment.
Still,
the argument could be made that abundance of cheap energy
would create new types of work in an amount sufficient
for
the obs lost by automation.
motives
for
investments from 1976 to 1980 yielded the
fol lowing preferencess
2514 companies ncluded automation,
Innovations,
technical
changes of
134 more
produc tion,
611
explicitly
specify
e mployment,
there
investments
would create
(i) ifo
quoted
human orking conditions,
(1)
the relation
can De
protec tion,
environmental
production expansion, 20O research.
not
the evidence is
Unfortunately,
A survey conducted among3359 companies about
to the contrary.
their
to make up
Although this
of
no indication
new Jobs.
the
730
298
does
list
investment to
that
The categories
n Atomenergle und Arbeitsplaetze,
2001
most
of
the
automation,
p23
125
and changes of product ion suggest
technical innovations,
further
of
replacements
uman labor.
has experienced
German ndustry
rather
In the past several years,
a
capital
boom of
exports,
predominantly into countries with an ample supply of cheap labor.
high rates of unemploymentof the past two years
The relatively
can almost directly
exports
(and
certainly
be attributed
a third
energy
energy supplies.
wouli require
as a precordition
and capital
factors concentration of companies), but
not to insuf ficient
any proposals which
automation
to
the
I am not aware of
availability
for high employment
evels.
of
cheap
It might be
argueds of course, that the export dependent German economyneeds
to
automate its
energy in
order
industry,
to
remain
and suPply
large amounts of cheap
competitive
in
the
international
markets, so that .it would be able to pay for the imports of basic
commodities, but then the question about the fundamental
of industry arises in its
interests
ost radical and explosive formt whose
served
are
purpose
by
such
an
existence if
its
justification
for
opportunities
for most of its citizens?
what
industry?
it
s
the
diminishes the
As soon as this kind of
question is being aske by the rak-and-file trade union members,
the alliance with anti-nuclear initiatives would be paramount.
The process of raising those issues by the 8uergerinitiativen
will take quite a while. If the Buergerinitiatiwen wish to gain
the support of organized labor,
constructive
perspective
non-nuclear energy alternatives
A step
in that
direction
thetn groups
how the
need to
allegedconflict
and employment can
is an analysis
offer
a
between
be resolved.
by a group in Essen.
The
6
group estimated the ef fects on employment which would be incurred
if
by 1980 all
I private
nouseholds
in tne FRG would have sw itched
as the source of domestic space heating and hot
from electricity
supplies
heat.
The study concluded that 38,000 additional
created
fired
to
converted into low temperature
water
fuel directly
if the electricity
Seven millon
plants.
produced.
had originally
tons
If the electricity
plants, 67000 additional
transition,
however,
distribution
of
not
have to
saved had originated
jobs would be provided. (t)
Jobs in
a
shift
be
from nuc I ear
This
the sect oral
on
the mining industry
in favor of more work in the manuf aturing
reduced
would be
been generated in coal
SKE would
would require
abor.
obs
would be
the
industry,
craft business and the service sector.
Aside from the trade unions top l eadership,
and
Mitbestimmungsesetz
It
well.
industry,
exist.
generallI y are anti -Buergerinit iativen
that
has been mentioned
demonstrations
but
(2) It
Buergerinitiativen
have been conducted by
a
the
by
legitimized
representatives
l oca Il
the
I arge
the members at
few anti-nuclear
of pro-nuc
series
a
employees
groups within
ener gy
task
of
develop and demonstrate the compatibi
of environmental protection
I ear
the unions also
will be an important and long-range
to
the
in
as
and ob security to the
all
I ity
trade union
membership.
(1)
kurzfristige alternativen
zum atomstrom im haushalt (strombedar f
und arbeitsbedarf), katalyse technikergruppe hett 9 Karl Barth
Haus, Wittenberg
Str.14-b6
4308
(2) Atomenergie und Arbeitsplaetze,
Essen 1
,
May 19?7
p.53 SZ
15 April
p.4
1977
p.6
127
3. Civil Liberties
the 88U s convinced that widespread nuclear
energy production
and civil liberties are incompatiblein a society.
It perceives
the free society to be threatened by
- the possibility of terrorist
acts using plutonium stolen
from the nuclear fuel cycle
the possibility
of blackmail of
the restriction
of civil rights which have to be expected
facilites
and sabotage
in nuclear
after an act of terrorism
the indefensibility
of a highly nuclear FRGin case of war (
conventional as well as nuclear). (1)
The concerns for civil
liberties
by the anti-nuclear
groups are
based on the assumption that the large uantities of radioactive
materials produced by and shipped around the various nuclear
installations
cannot
be guarded
sabotage in a iberalistic
nuclear
have to be expected
everywhere
democratic state.
from people
the whole area
protection of nuclear
justification
from terrorism
Since
threats
and
for
and diversion of sensitive materials would
facilities
system in
safely
employed within
nuclear
touched by nuclear transports,
installations
It
the
would give a compelling
for a widespread system of supervision
on everybody.
the
and controls
would not even be necessary that
sensitive materials have actually been diverte,
the possibility
alone that some material could have been diverted anywhere nside
or outside
the
country
with
nuclear
(lI Informationen zur Kernenergie , no0
facilities
:
would make a
128
potential threat credible.
[he argumentoften heard that mankind
has been living with risks throughout the ndustrial
compelling for
too
more a question it
two reasons* first,
a wiser
route
the
threats
of
the industrial
but
andisecond,
nuclear blackmail by some lunatics
is not only
even more
which
so because the public
all orderly societal life.
would be
perception and
reaction in the case of such a threat would be likely
to paralyze
Whatultimately counts in terroristi
is not the physical size of a threat but the size as
calculations
it
era
much fewerrisks,
larger because of the sheer size of destructions
inflicted,
not
it Is becomingmore and
through
could not have been found involving
age is
would liKely
defending
be perceived by the public.
the
llIberalistic
population has already
democratic
Under the banner of
order'
the
been exposed to a substantial
German
but
still
limited degreeof intervention by authorities into civil life and
civil
rights
in
the past
decade. The gadual curtailment
democratic rights has been briefly
problem
was certainly
anti-terrorist
to
li3ht
by
six
harmless light
of
water reactors
pol ice
must be
and intel l igence,
nuclear breeder industry coexist
How could
society,
of
witn
the
risk?
of
the
supported
and
by a growing
how could a completed
basic democratic rights?
one deal with persons in such a society
considered a security
of
weeks
Since apparently even the introduction
defended against a predominantly peaceful opposition
apparatus
The
hysteria that fol lowedthe Schleyer kidnapping in
the fall of 197.
relatively
brought
traced in section II.3.
of
which must be
Of course, one coula find
the
type
BBU argues, which would provide the necessary
129
conditions for nuclear powers
for a system which could guarantee the social
"When one lo.s
an economy bdsed on
stability
and security necessary for
one would ftind it most likely in the German
nuclear fission,
Democratic Repuol ic or the Soviet Union of tne Stalin period
not in the FRGor n the West European states.
-certainly
police state is
The tendency towards the total itarian
of
clearly marked out in the introduction
energy."
nuclear
(1)
danger for
Unfortunately, the question of the potential
liberties
raised
responded to
references
in
statements.
When
have been made then they have rather
since we are living
s ome
indirect
been of the forms
best possible
this realist ically
now in
a commitment to
the
of basic democratic rights goes without saying.
But
democratic basic order,'
' lieralistic
maintenance
groups has hardly been
by the anti-nuclear
off icial
civil
e must suspect you of being
if you continue to raise this
issues
an enemyof our liberalistic
democratic basic order'.
Perhaps,
Aldous Huxley was rightJ
"The greatest
triumphs
of propaganda have been
accomplished,
from doing. Great
not by doing somethin6g, but by refraining
from a practical point of iew,
greater,
is truth, but still
is silence about truth." (2)
Y.2. Explanations and Understanding
-
-I--
--
({) Informationen zur Kernenergie
Jungk , Der Atomstaat
(2)
Alaous uxley1946 introduction
Pub I ishers,
N.Y. t p.xii
, no. 10
to
;
al so
see
--
Robert
Brave New WorldHarper Row
130
The rise, strength,
have not
and durabi lity of the
onlysurprised the traditional
have also evoKed a
protests
of
anti-nuclear
wide
range
on such a scale,
overall I
mater ial
af irmation of
the
the
n society:
explanat ions.
they
Why popular
if the past decades have been a period
abundance and
political
a seemingly
of
causes
responsibi lity
lacking
general
system and its representatives?
four different
Zeit magazine offers
movementsl
of
actors
movement
for
of
the protest
parliamentary
democracy in the atomic age; god is dead t us depriving people
from trusting in the future; history hasalways been series of
powerful incentives for rebel lion and subsequent reforms;
man rejects
-in
Max Weber's term- the
large-scale
modern
organized
being' that he cannot understand and in which he feels exposed to
anonymous powers.
(1)
I will deal with two of these contentions in more detail
The various voices
at tempting to
explain
later.
and understand
the
8uergerinitiativen
'phenomenon* ref lect, of course, to some
degree their specif ic exposure to the movement as well as
material interests and ontologies. The explanations, therefore,
can not be value-free but are perceived through both
and ideological
presenter
and
glasses
briefly
opposition
(which is natural ly also true for the
interpreter
d ist inguish f ive
of
possiboe
been
these
idea I-type
and discuss their
has
idealistic
theor i es,
plausibil ity.
explained
(1) Zeit,25 February 1977,p.1
exp lanations).
and
I
present
wi ll
1
them
The anti-nuclear
evaluated
from (I)
i31
conservative,
I(i.)
technological
orthodox
(iii)
Marxist
what has been cal led {iv) the theory of
Further,
perspectives.
and
liberal,
politics
may be applied,
and (v)
kind
a
of
psychological derivation has been given.
1. Five Theories
The conservative
on the anti-nuclear
viewpoint
straightforward and sel f-assuring.
groups
s simple,
The initiatives
ight have
been started by citizens honestly disturbed about the
ef fects
f or
health
and environment,
unknowingly instruments
organizations
citizen
subversive
order to exploit
goals.
inexperienced
them for
subjective
iven are no longer
the masters
and envir cnmental ists -as accomplices of
communist infltrators,
questioned
(2) a high CU official
the constitutionality
pro-nuclear
earlier
Leftist
own housest (1) Baden - Wuerttemberg's governor depicted
the Wyhl ine-growers
the
elements.
A trade magazine for the nuclear industry
reported that most Buergerinitiat
of their
became soon and
have undermined these politically
groups in
revolutionary
for
but
potential
initiative
of 45 groups
Rationality
n the same state
n
WyhlI (3)
Step Forward' mentioned
explained the nuclear opposition as a product
by extremist
hysteria.
(j1)NEngl , January
(2) Spiegel
21
(4) The clashes with the
1977
p.21
arch 1917 , p.49
(3) Spiegel , 7 February 1977 , P.33
(4)Spiegel
5 April
1977
p.89
and
police
fabricated
at
the
132
demonstrations
confirmation
in
Brokdorf
the vdlidity
for
otherwise could
and Grohnde served
of
the purportedly
this
as
point
of
the final
view,
how
non-violent demonstrations be
turned into rightout battles with protecting
forces
by a small
minority of radicals?
perspective
The liberal
acting
forces
acknowl.edfes the
in their
own behalf and being guided by their
free will and aspirations.
trying
the nuclear
to use it as a vehicle
for their
opposition
causes, but
the movement at large remains genuinely autonomous,
The former
chairman of BBUhas declared that the Buergrinitiativen
system but not to repl ce it.
reform te
reject
illegal
but
actions,
by influencing
in society,
are united
FOP and SPO members in the 8undestag
pointed out that the Buergerinitiativen
forces,
however, need to be careful
maake these citizens
corner.
(i)
the
1)
iberal
Their members are
is ref
ecte
The democratic
to leftist
oe put
to
influences.
speech that not all
into
Instead of reacting to the groups
viewpoint
formation
that they give no reasons
even more susceptible
demonstrators should
-if
have repeatedly
activists.
Chancellor Schmidt appealed in his reelection
nuclear plant
prevented
are concerned citizens
interests.
not ideologists and not only left-wing
groups
on the view that the
the democratic process of will
deeply disturbed about their vital
want to
Most citizens
environmental hazaros from nuclear energy must be
possible
own
It can not be denied, of course, that
many radical groups are associated with
and may be
as
Buergerinitiativen
the
with
in 215, p. 4945 and
left-ning
suspicion,
p.
14957
133
y a researcher of the Battelle Institutel
arrived at
conclusions
controversy
nuclear
democratic
state.
which a
society
the
against
If
this
are
technologies
of
n a democratic state then such an
reeds a
Thus, resistance
immediate realization
that
resistance is not suppressedbut rather
of the technologies will
level
the
complex
strives to develop, he argues, the stronger is
allowed to unfold
general
not a danger but a chance for the
is
W(} The more
the resistance
technology.
by the
This point of view is exemplified
be better utilized.
"The
should
and repression, their really positi-ve potential
distrust,
of eucation
ultimately entail
mature
technology.
in a society,
Improvement
their acceptance.
The higher
the
the better founded the
in the democratic state.
resistance
This line of argument raises the question of how democratic the
country
actually
is,
opposition as a force
reacted
with
since instead
of
constructive
of respecting the nuclear
change, the
state
annoyanceand a considerable degree of repression.
was taken as an opportunity
by the
rhe Wyhl court
decision
to
about some of the longer term implications
speculate
has
media
for the
democratic state.
"The nuclear power plant construction in Wyhlafter long
a symbol for the environmental movementfhas been
battles
dec Ision.
suspended for the t le being by a court
will have far-reaching
Presumably the court ruling
; Zeit
SZ
,
Spiegel
P.2 ;
1977
;
p.5
March 1917 ,
2 March 1977 , p.41
25 February
22
(i) Spiegel
, 18 April
1917
p.108
14 arch 1977 , p.1,2
977 , p.?
NEngI , January
SZ
;
;
13'
consequences not only for the supply of energy in the FRG.
It confirms and animates the movementof Buergerinitiativen
that has already attracted more WlestGe-mans than al I the
parties together. Will the state and cities where planning
is hardly possible without encountering extra-parliamentary
entire ly ungovernablein the near future
oppositionbecome
?"
(1)
That was the introduction
Spiegel
to
magazine after
an article
the
in
the
widely
Wyhl court decision.
read
The headline
equated the citizens protest movementwith the fourth estate -the
three traditional
pillars of democracyhave proved insufficient
and outdated.
For
auergerinitiativen
agencies that
the
anti-nuclear
is an indication
Spiegel.
for the i nadequacy
supposedly plan for the society.
state and party bureaucracies tend to plan for
disregarding
the will
forming the political
any more".
functioning
erancipatedthey
parties
(2)
will
adequately
is
up to
react
their
own sake
that
"i r
How
the
something decisive is not
are
leaving
ecoming
the
mature
and
thinking to the
an
eclipse
of
Spiegel
framework and channel of popular will
question.
any longer
(1) Spiegel21. March J197,p.32
Spiegel,Zd
those
The planners in
achievements. Uiemocracy-the
March 1977,p.63
If
its
instruments
cannot
to the pressures put on them by the
hard facts of a complex technical
(2)
of
formation,and are capable of sensing their own
as the traditional
formation
fact
They have experienced
potentials for positive
argues-
will
Citizens
are no longer
and politicians.
traditional
of the
of those for Whomthe plans are made.
could that happen? The answer I ies in the
process of
the rise
world and thereby turn
out
to
13 5
be
insuff icient
constituency,then
from a
accomodating
in
the
general
democracy has been a mistael
I
less-technologica
era
wi lI
it
of
is
a
its
relic
and cal Is for replacement.
without having been such a mistake -which is still
opinion -then the Buergerinitiativen
are
But
the prevailing
better
regarded
as a
vital complementation
of political life.
It is not clear
yet
how the anti-nuclear
understood from the perspectives
movement could be
of the various communist groups.
Communist
movements
n Germany have been small and of negligible
influence,
since the
GermanCommunist Party (KPO) was declared
unconstitutional
in
the early 1950s. Starting in the mid 60s,
several communist factions were formed, entirely divided, each
claiming to be the only group withthe exclusively correct line,
qualified to build the new GermanCommunistParty. Some groups
have had a relatively strong following at the universities, but
it has been one of their main concerns to establish
a mass basis
among the working class.
Whereas the extra-parliamentary
largely carried
in
rise
major
mass -
conditions
must
be
groups with a (perceived)
of
60s was
based form
of
public
the history of the FRG. Although deviations for
local or regional
'different
late
by university students, the Buergerinitiativen
movement became the first
opposition
opposition in the
nuclear
Buergerinitiativen
opposition
taken
account,
with
reservations.
Since the
-nomen est omen- have a very strong
did
purposes.
the y were
contrary,
the
arxist background viewed the
component, they originally
On the
into
not seemfit
bourgeois
for revolutionary
discarded
by
some as
136
symptoms of a capitalist
"farcical
(1) one
society",
even
group
reportedl y claimed that the Buergerinit iativen were undermined by
the
association
of
industrialists
participate
The kind of participation
ideological
ase.
and is
The DKPwnich is strongly oriented towards the
strictly
Nuclear opposition,
OKP.
Since
both
nuclear route,
the
the
movement. It
confined
Union is
owever, poses a fundamental dilemma for
the
Soviet
KP can not support
confines
its
the ati-nuclear
criticism
shows, the Buergerinitiativen
nuclear power.
Therefore,
within the anti-nuclear
The 'anti-revisionist'
toward Naoistm all
capitalist
being
counterforce.
struggle
(1)
Spiegel
(2) Spiegel
-if
system.
base
As the
y no means believe
would
of
want
quote
that the
to
live
the DKPhas not been very active
groups.
groups (K-groups')
agree
on the
which tend
that
and
it
time
· 14 February
is
1977
, 21 March 1977
ripep.88
p.41
to
lean
fundamental premise that the
to prevent
will only be overcome
According to Marxist-Leniniist
the
the
to the ways nuclear
system willultimately use force in order
overthrown
to
Union and the GORhave taken the
GDR would be the kind of system where they
with
opposed
to act ions within the law.
power is introduced in the 'capitalist'
above
to
differed with the overall
German Democratic Republic and the Soviet
violence
began
demonstrationsand (attempted) site
in anti-nuclear
occupations.
groups
however, communist
(2) Subsequently,
fascism.
and preparing the road for
wi Il
doctrine,
by
armed
cl imax in a socialist
137
revolution
the
which would mark the beginning of the dictatorship
proletariat.
Eut the K-groups have different
of
opinions about
the class base and essence of the anti-nuclear
and
initiatives
have taken very diverse attitudes ranging from cooperation in and
with
the
Buer erinitiativen
confrontation
the
to
ith the state.
Buergerinitiativen
as
provocations
and a strategy
Since the population at large
of
and
hole oppose violence -the latter
a
argue-, it is up to the communist vanguard to unveil the violent
nature of the state, thus triggering
the public's
violent
means of its own. The court decisios
either,
since the judicial systemis
class.
As such, it
can not
groups
share
the
The
political
on
domination.
less
chaotic
of
using
They recognize,
the ruling
of
force
the
n the
Maoist
nature of the
to
overcome
however, that
and represented by Buergerinitiativen
advanced enough for accepting
the
Sathered
is not
violence as the only means at
the
time to successfully prevent nuclear powerinstallations.
Ratherr at the present situation,
seen appropriate.
and the
only part of
consciousness of the majority of the citizens
demonstrations
right
cannot be trusted,
fundamental v iew of the violent
state and the ultimate necessity
capital ist
to use
e expected to sustain rulings
of the people. (it
interest
ability
ill
adequately
Once the antagonism between nuclear interests
of the people has been revealed,
prepared
development.
(1) Spiegel
disputations and persuasion Is
to
fight
the people
nuclear development as capitalist
(In the point of view of many Maoist
,
14 February 1977
be
ill
p.86
-
groups,
the
13 8
policies of the Soviet block countries are to restore capitalisw,
that explains their nuc lear progr ams .)
Consequently, the
of communists in the
participation
part of the
cul tivate
struggle
against the capitalist
the anti-nuclear
constituency,
establishment
of the new proletarian
KPD.
An explanation
which would consider
nuclear
of
system,a means to
the
and prepares
ower
technological
thinkers
Langdon Winner describes
on
Bui Iding
Politics'.
an
off-spring
Theory of
is the
a marriage between technology and politics
Technological
movement is a
anti-nuclear
the
findings
of
such as Lewis Mumfordand Jacques El luls
the theory as followsS
essence of technology in
"Here one locates the political
its
total
formative impact on all of nature and human culture.
Technological
politics
,
in
this
manner
of
seeingencompasses the whole of technology's capacity to
transform, order, and adapt animate and nanimate objects to
accord with the purely technical structures and processes.
It
is the
system of order and governance appropriate
To the
universe made artificial.
extent
that
to a
the human
world becomes a product of rational artifice,
it ill fa I
under this mode of governance. Political reality becomes a
set of institutions
and practices shaped by the domination
of technical
requirements.
The order
which evolves
marked by stringent norms of performance, rigid
limitations,
and a tendency to alter
subtly
master*s relationship
to the technological slave."
is
structural
the human
(1)
The theory of technclogical
separation
of
pol itics
politics
overcomes the conceptual
and technology
as
expressed
in
the
standard 'physical' interpretation
of tiheit interaction.
The
testimony of a nuclear expert is as pol itical as a politician's
stance towards nuclear power has its technological ramifications,
(j) Langdon Winner.Autonomcus Technology,MIT Pressti977,p.2j7
139
although
In
of course,
technological
of emphasis would still
division
d
polit ics
' efficiency'
is
exist.
a Key notion.
Increasing portions of the humanlife are structurea in order
achieve some goals
in the quickest, economically cheapest, for
given inputs output optimizing ways-the most efficient
Efficiency
is
routines,
the
the
human interact ions thi nk proceduress the
knowledge availaole.
of
The new theory views traditional
efficiency.
means-ends relationships.
means to
caseS
serve
human action
satisfying
politics
It
human ends.
to a large
extent
imperatives of efficiency
proposes to
relationship
call
of the
ly
higher
requires a reevaluation of
Technology
higher
pol it ica l
optimality with regard
segregated phenomenaas subcomponents and routines
principle
ways.
manifestation of having organized industrial
process etc. along the line of algorithmic
to
to
can no longer be seen as
a
Rather the reverse is the
has
DecoDe
a
means
for
The theory of technological
the transformation of the means-end
reverse adaptation'
"[The] process of reverse adaptation
is the key to the
crit ical interpretat ion of how ends are developed for
large-scale
systems and for
the
activities
of
the
technological
society
as a whole. Here the conception of
the autonomous technology as the rule of a self-generating,
self-perpetuating
sharpest definition.
beyond a certain
self-pro gramming mechanismachieves its
The basic hypothesis is this: that
level of technological development, the
rule of freely articulated, strongly asserted purposesis
luxury that can no longer be permitted."
Five basic patterns
(1)
a
which reverse adaptat ion can take are
ident if iedc
(1) AutonomousTechnologyp.238
140
(1) he system controls markets relevant to its operations.
(2) The system controls
or strongly
(3) The system seeks a
mission'
capabi I ities
to
match
its
()
The system' in Winner's general
needs
formulation
refers
sociotechnical aggregates with humanbeings fully
(2) We wil I brief ly examine if
and thinking".
adaptation
occurs
in
the Germannuclear
particular
*system' in that
case will
on the promotion of nuclear energy.
technological politics
and
and
it
also
justif y its
to
(5) The system discovers or creates a crisis
expansion
political
technol ogica I
the
(4) The system propagates or manipulates
serves.
own further
the
influences
regulate i ts output
processes that ostensibly
operating conditions.
to "large
presentgactlng
how
reverse
powerdevelopment, the
denote the
forces
working
The second characteristic
of
is the technological Imperative*
"The influence of socially necessary technical systems begins
choice.
to constrain
ra ther than li berate political
Technological
imperatives appear in public deliberations as
generalized 'needs' or 'requirements'
maintenance and extension of highly
netorks.'
In
my view,
technological
nucIear
{(3)
both
features
imperatives
power issue.
immediately prevalent
of
reverse
(3) Autonomous
adaptation
can easily be verified
The
tec hnoIog ica I
and
Technolojy,p.242
echnol ogy, pp.258,
59
of
in the German
imperative
becomes
as long as the 'energy problem' is strictly
(1) AutonomousTechnotogy, pp.242f f
(2) Autonromous
*.. which Justify the
costly sociotechnical
141
stated
as a question of
nuclear power, as a matter
and gas will
be
supplies.
Under this point of view,
of fact,appears
exhausted sooner or
indispensable.
atercoal
Oil
poses too many
pollution dangers, solar poweris not yet economically feasible,
and fusion
is
even technically
flaws, nuclear remains currently
And
since
even
the
far away. Despite of all
the
only viable
LWR technology
alternative.
becomes obsolete
uranium supplies will be exhausted in not too distant
have to
will
mankind
generationt
the
technologically
breeder
technolog y.
and politically
current technologypbut the benefits
plant
to
be
hazardous than the
outeeigh the costs.
The
ventures in research and development, in spent fuel
multibillion
reprocess ing and in
proliferation,
waste disposal I
the
extremely,
the poss
justified
by
the
risks
ol e fatal
bene
LWRs in terms of energy
opposition
more
ill
a future,
likely
It is
much
when the
second nuclear
on the
rely
its
inside
the
for c ivil
e ff ects
fits
of
y lel
ds ,
a 50
of
government has continued to develop
nuclear
of
liberties,
and,
most
for future generations are
to 100 fold improvement over
De spite
and outside
dangers
of
the very
strong
Bundestag and parties,
the
breeder,
Kalkar
the
as
I
described in section I11.1.
Except for the 'mission,
hold which reverse adaptation may ta ke.
has been actively
personal
noted
promoting
nterconnections
that
patterns
four out o f the f ve possible
nucl ear
mentiorned
KWU, the dominant reactor
owned by Siemens, which traditionally
The electricity
industry
power.
from the
earl lert,
Apart
t
must
manufacturer,
has maintained
only
be
is entirely
close
I inks
142
to
the
part
electrical
of
the
industry.
system.
monopol
istic
And
ities
we have
seen
as
effectively.
the
Thuspattern
number 1
process, ostensibly regulating its
output and operating conditions.
and licencing
The examination of
processes and of
communities strongly
the
supports that
structure
assertion.
the siting
of the expert
The "mission'
can not be considered true although the attitude
pioneering physicists
pointed
earlier,
The second pattern asserts that the system has a strong
influence on the political
pattern
are undoubtedly
industry enables it to
of the uti lity
stracture
control the market very
applies.
So the uti
in that
for the peaceful
direction.
of the
use of nuclear
energy
The advertising campaigns of the
utility industry promoting the use of electricity
by increased
reliance on electrical househol d appliances and for residential
heating, the rate
consumption,
structure
and the
encouraging increased electricity
reluctance
of
the
towards the usage of excess industrial
utility
process heat
indicative that the fourth pattern appl ies.
of energy shortages
monopolies
with the resulting
are clearly
Finally, the picture
threats
for employment and
standards of living -characterizing the fifth patternbeen
drawn
pol iticians.
unclear,
and
repeated
by sc ientists,
The base for
however.
economic growth,
these
industry
horror
The indispensable ity
of
economic growth
for
has often
lobbyists
scenarios
of
remains
energy growth for
job
security,
increased consumption of goods for a better quality of life
higher GNP to a nigher
within
the existing
and
degree of human happiness
is
not
of
of
clear
socio-economic premises, and even less clear
144
under a different
set of basic cassumptions. On the contrary,
publ ic remained long misinformedi on the potential
efforts
the
of conservation
or cogeneration, and the notion of nuclear power as the
most desireable
sustained
and feasible
source of
energy
was created
and
by devoting the overwhelming share of RrD00 efforts
to
it(see Table ).
The last explanation given in the above mentioned Zeit
that
modern man rejects
he can not
understand
anonymous
powers,
the
and
could
large-scale
organlzed being'
which makes him feel
be seen
as
article
hich
exposed
a consequence
of
to
the
technological society. The breakdownof the closed society did
provide for individual autonomy, but the development of the
technical society againdeprived manfrom enjoylng this autonomy
by creating new dependencies and alienation.
any people tend to
prefer the old type of society wth Its sense of organic qual ity,
whereas
the new existence
even worse,
-or
appears to be put together
ly
"artificial
together
patched
at random
by
social
engineers without souls"t
"The prisoners of progress rebel
technocracy
and bureaucracy,
producerscheerleaders
If
to them."
The fifth
and trend
impotent of stopping
want to understand, at least,
however, would not limit
to the goal of understanding their
(i) Zeit,25
custodians:
what's happening
1i)
theory,
by
plans
for glazed paper and armored police.
they the prisonersi are ultimately
progressthey
article
against its
Iong-term
Narianne
February
Gronemeyer,
977,p,.1
the Buergerinitiativen
Impotence.
the
citizens
According
to
an
awakened from a
144
deep sleep and began to get emancipated
pol itical
dissatistaction
people in the FRGwhat was it
unsatisfied
passive
But there have been millions of
(
to protest.
dissatisfaction
the
explains
changed their
what
pronounced one? Gronemeyer
to an active,
dissatis fact ion as the result
covert
unconscious contract between the citizen and the
in
from subl imal
which the citizen
nad traded his right
welfare
in the consumption sector.
found itself
The citizen
felt
umbrella of the state started
encountered
of
earlier,
patches
of
show leaks.
course,
although
its contractual
Leaks
it
another.
their
got
fear
factual
life,
big, the citizens
too
could
encouragement,
orders
no
the
longer
state
imperatives, some
be
became frightened.
alt eviated
by
can
more
directly
obJ ectives:
Kursbuch
pp.81-98
Since
words
of
tried its containment by the might of
of civil
liberties
epidemic have been described in an earlier
(1)
However, when
for the incubated and preventive medicine for the
Some of the restrictions
young
The
the past have been increased consumption, references
scapegoats which could be blamed for shortcomings.
leads
had been
had always been
one way or
in
to the increasing complexity of
the
autonomy -
threatened once the protecting
to
re lat ively easy to find patches
in
The welfare states however,
increasingly incapable of fulfi ling
obligations.
state,
of participation
public decisions for social security and a piece of
illusions
of an
be
treated
meant to contain the
section,
by
youth.
changing
whereas the
educational
"[The
CDOJstate
congress
unanimousl y that
of
£primary
Lower
Saxony ... decided
and secondary school] curricula
*be freed from educational utopian thinking',
problem and conflict
oriented
topics
replaced by more value oriented contents".
There is nothing wrong with value oriented
argues,
the
only
problem
is
what
'predominantly
be disbanded*
and
()
teaching,
kind
of
'be
Gronemeyer
values
can
be
communicatedif problematic and conflict oriented topics are left
out? Theeducational system which is administrated by the state
can
prepare the student for a monologue of
and values or to "reality
An alternative
the
s the dialogue
It
the outside, and with other
which has
ust been
taken
up
by
is the dia logue with the power on
members internall y.
to maintain
tried
information
prescribed from above". (2)
8uergerinitiativen.
have always
eceiving
such a dialogue,
ntell ectuals
but they engaged
in it theoretically whereasthe Buergerinitiativen understand it
as action.
Gronemeyer
the
tied
posi tive
aspirations
of
the
Buergerinitiativen together:
"Clean air and pure water, security from atomic destruct ions
-be
it
by
nuclear
inhabitable cities,
power plamts
or
and in competition with each other but
others.
In three ways are these vital
wants, wants going against the grainS
-They express the longing for
the erroneous hope that lifes
"a Iways-have-more .
uality
neutron bomb-,
with
only jointly
interests dangerous
of life.
It questions the existing
(1) quoted in Kursbuch . p.84 from FR
It concludes
promisecould be pursued by
growth and progress and capitalism .
(2) Kursbuch , p.85
the
can no longer be struggled for privately
notion
1JZSeptember 1977
on
14 6
action and social
- they contain a certain impulse to common
life. After all, it might be the case that common action
-for
the sake of one' s cause- may lead to social
experiences which entail as such 'the sympathy to the
other person' . That would question the existing notion on
competit ivenesss
performance,
and
misunderstood
individual i ty.
- If
n the pursuit of the common
goal to live differently'
its practical usefulness will oe experienced transforming
meaningful doing into a genuine need, then the widely
exercised practice is uestioed that denies people to be
the masters cf their owncircumstances." (i')
Z. Critique of Theories
The conservative
viewpoint
the existence
of
seems to be less
the 8uergerinitiativen
an explanation
than self-appeasement.
the anti-nuclear opposition is not merely a product
propaganda
but
is
supported
themselves as good citizens,
for
by people
of radical
who sti ll consider
who under usual circumstances rather
choose not to break the law, and ho would never have expected to
becoming political
activists,
marching
in
demonstrations
or
trespassing private property. The conservative attitude coula be
best
by a
described
nicht sein darf"
not
German proverb "was nicht sein kann, das
what can not be, ought not to be) -if
suspect that this self-deception
Besides expressing
one
did
could also serve a purpose.
a large amount of arrogance
toward
the
will
formation of 'ordinary people', the conservative viewpolnt also
suggests
the seemingly easy and effective
remedyl
don't
bother
about the will of most of the aroused citizens, Just strike down
on the radical leaders and the nuclear plants can be built.
At
({1 Kursbuch
,
p.96
'47
the most, open up a dialojue
the
soil
of
basicorder*.
democratic
I iberal istic
the
rooted firmly in
with those citizens
The
adequate means for that policy are tough internal security laws,
a tightening of citizens' influence on the licensing procedure,
(leftist
and the continuation of heavy loads of anti-terrorist
inte llectua l) propaganda.
viewpoint s a much more accurate
Jhe liberal
of many groups,
In the understanding
of the protestors.
actually arethe correctives
of the mood
picture
alfunctions.
to some societal
firmly believe that once they have brought the validity
the
argument cross,
then
liberal
nowever,
the
theory,
movement which
sustained within
with
centra lized
notion
fairly
the
transcend
of
struct ures,
or
eually,
parli amentary
communicated
undoubtedly,
hierarc
proceedings,
by a plurality
aims
are always striving
rea Ipolitik.
hical I
the
oriented
the
civil
by
the
They see the limits
withinv but otherwise,
with
in
the
costs ana benefits
process
The
I ibera l
l iberties
L.
iberals
guided
by
trade-offs
and
approach,
what
is
are aware, that they
for the seconc est solution,
best
economy
will being adequately
popular
of pa rties.
to protect
growth,
operating
organ ization,
1 decision
politica
and the
The
of I ife can be
quality
cont inued expansion,
perceived as the democratic state
seeking
the
the regulated market distributing
of
of their
fixed.
that
premises
the present system of a profit
tendency
its
be
They
does not account for those aspects of
liberties,
employment, civil
will
shortcomings
they
prevented
between ideals
of 'reforming
from
and
the system from
would tnings not turn to the worse? Thelr
14 8
sympathy
are
for
the
constantly
legitimacy
anti-nuclear cause means a dilemma since they
asked
to
decide
of the protests.
the
between
legality
and
Liberals in the state and federal
governments and bureaucracies
vascillate
demands of the Buergerinitiat
between conceding to the
iven, Postpone the
construction
of
plants, agree to the think-pause,
add a second containment
structure,
improvet-he part ici patory oppor
tuni
t ies
in the
I icensing and siting procedures on the one hand; on the other are
the
demands for
industries
the
more Jobs,
and exporters,
conservatives
bureaucracies;
governmental subsidies
the cal I for more law and
the
inertia
order
of changing the
and the deception of hving
enough in order
for ailing
from
course of
to stay in power long
to approach all their ownnoble ideals on the
third hand.
Paradoxical Iy,the orthodox Marxist viewpoint shows at the outset
the same ajor flaw as the conservatives
seem to adhere to.
do not want to see the true nature of tne
an
autonomous
mowement with genuine
not have a proletarian
nonviolent;
lose
goals.
The initiatives
background; their strategy is
as
do
consciously
their organizational structure is decentralized,
spontaneous,
not see
Buergerinitiativen
They
informal, ana at the most coordinating.
a handle
now even
persistent
cooperation
initiatives
would
consciousness.
t he
between
help
At the
to
best,
most
patient,
honest,
and
orthodox Marxist groups and the
plant
the
a
influence
orthodox
but the notion of a proletarian
Marxist
of the communist
groups can succeed to make the nature of the capitalist
economy apparent,
I can
state
revolution
and
and
149
the
subsequent
of
establishment
the
dictatorship
of
the
proletariat is diametrically opposedto the sel f-perception and
of the anti-nuclear
evolution
groups.
One may rather
expect that
the BuergerinitLativen will be able to plant someseeds of their
future perspective and form of organization
Marxist
thinking.
Both sides could
orthodox Marxists have consistently
thinking
on how the
lacked positive
legitimize
l
of
liberties.
civil
environmental
of fact,
constructive
environmentalists
ownership
Socialist
Ideatly,
a
on
the
the
in the sustenance
merger between socialist
would be achieveds
perspective
of
groups could
among labors
scene, and becomea valuable ally
internationa
The
famous second stage of communismmight be
means of productior has oen eliminated.
to
greatly.
benefit
approached n concrete termss once the private
help
orthodox
into
which9 as
a
and
matter
would recombine very Marxian outlookst
"The positive transcendenceof private property -ile.
sensuous
appropriation
the
for and by man of the human essence
and of human I lfe, of objective man, of human achievementsis not to be conceived merely in the sense of directs
one-sided gratification
-merely in the sense of possessings
of having.
Man appropriates his total essence in a total
manner, that is to says as a whole man. Each of his human
relations to the world -seeing, hearing smelling, tastings
feeling, thinking, being aware, sensing, wanting, acting,
loving- in short, all the organs of his ndividual being,
like those organs which are directly social in their f orm,
are in their objective orientation or In their orientation
to the object, the appropriation of the humanworld; their
orientation to the object is the manifestation of the human
worIld; it is humanefficaciousness and humansuffering, for
sufferings apprehended humanly is an enjoyment of self in
man."
(i1 Karl
(1)
Marx
Philosophic
Private
Property
and Communismg in
Manuscripts of 18a4, in Tucker (ed-),
Reader, Norton
Co.,
nc.,N.Y.t-972 , p73
Economic
and
The Marx-Engels
15U
declarat ion is not possible.
A more pro-environmental
The major shortcomirg of the theory of technological
t at it
has not attempted to
in quire
in
politics
is
detail into man's
responses to a world where he is losing his autonomy. It briefly
surveys the chances for effective
ordinary
responses for intellectuals
people, concluding, that the intellect
will never find a
fixed point to set cut his case while the ordinary
remain captured by television's
"Active participation
Thus t he
through
citizen
wide world of shallowness.
will
(1)
is replaced by haphazard monitoring.
technological
paths
and
a Iready
order
and its
major subcomponents,
are
traced,
free
to
take
on a
character of their ownt which determines their destination."
(2)
But howdo the Buergerinitiativen
millions
of Americans stop
thousands of nuclear
nuclear plant
the
war in
protestors
construction
Clamshell Alliance
fit into this model? Howcould
Vietnam;
delay
can
tens
of
-3nd perhaps prevent-
in German
y; can hundreds in the
accept
to
iet
in their conviction
and ordinary
against nuclear power? Theyare the intellectuals
citizens,
but
they
are
jailed
not only individuals
but dedicated and
determined members of small groups or
arge organizations
commonbeliefs and having a pract ical
cause.
and
merely
parts
individual
thereof,
more
than
members. They have the capacity
_
(1)
are
__ ___
Autonomous
(2) Autonomous
__
echnoogy
p.295
echnology,
;. 296
___
_ __
sharing
Human soci et less
the
sum of their
to stem and finally
_
._ _ _ _ _____ _·
i51
overcome any kind
perceive
of technological imperatives
these threats as a general societal
of technological politics
provided, they
concern.
The theory
is right that a course of action cannot
simply be found or taking "a deep breath and begin spewing forth
plans for a better
world".
anti-nuclear
initiatives
technological
imperatives?
questions
as
intentionally
Langdon
(1)
Can a popular movement like
the possible encroachment by
overcome
The
does not
theory
Winner
explains,
and positive
the
part
left
that
yet.
has been transferred,
ObJectively,
fishermen in 8rokdorf
Fortunatelys
be oulltt
potential
of
to become "the
are not
but
human
lost.
part
of
transformaed, and separated
from living needs and creative intelligence"
that
gap is
achievement has been ultimately
Autonomoustechnology might be striving
our being
this
Grantedtthe reactors In
and Wyhl and Brokdorf eventuallyImight
there is no reason to believe that all
resistance
the
address
-a challenge to those who wouldact.
the nuclear opposition has begun to act.
Seabrook
the
(2) but
the peasants
principally
in
opposing
it
is
not
Wyhl and the
technology,
but are f gnting with a perspective which if continued and spread
will
enable them finally
political
technology". (3)
to enjoy the benefits of a "truly
the theory of technological
politics
has not made it plausible that self-organized social opposition
is doomedto surrender to categoric technological imperatives.
(1)
Autonomous Technologyp.325
(2) Autonomous
echnology,r.333
(3) Autonomous Technologyp.333
152
V.*.
In summing up the
and Outlook
Conclusions
made so
arguments
far,
one
can
certainly
conclude that the nuclear power controversy has brought to I ight
in the ways
many inadequacies
and
technically
nuclear
power
the second
politically.
to correct
handled
can also be
thesis
has
least,
these inadequacies. Is the third thesis also
movementfurther questions some
true that the Buergerinitiativen
or all
been
the very
af firmed that the nuclear opposit ions at
tried
has
of the premises
- that other ways than the parliamentary system representing
the public will which supposedly is communicated through
political
parties
should be explored?
- of the necessity of maintaining the rates of growth of
past of economic development?
- that
economic growth
can
only
be
sustained
corresponding gross-increase of energy available?
the
by
a
- that this gross increase can be assured best by centralized
high tecrnologies?
- that nuclear is the most feasible of these tectnologies?
for a large
Although probably not for all but certainly
the
citizens
comprising the
answeredaffirmatively.
what
fraction
of
the
nitiatives,
the third
It is very hard to
Suergerinitiativen
rejects which of the premises stated above.
the
nuclear
issue covering
the
part
of
thesis can be
judges of course,
membership ho Ids or
Opinion surveys on
hole population showed a 2 to
majority in favor of nuclear powers with
young people largely
i5
opposed to it,
and with abcut 4iX of the
respondents
undecided,
others revealed that only 357 of the adult population would
(1)
vicinity
want to live in the
power plant.
of a nuclear
(2)
National surveys are not representative for the feelings on those
areas where direct
citizens
involvement
Surveys amongmembersof Buergerinitiativen
one main reason
being
suspicious about giving
that
to
depend upon the
oin
the
been very high.
are
not
initiatives
away in format ion
membership to unknown surveys.
The willingness
the
has
on
available,
have becomevery
their
group
(3)
Buergerinitiativen
realization
does not
If
suffer
the initiatives
defeats than achieve advances, their constituency will
of
more
gradually
That means that the groups have to assess their chances
success and pursue such a series of actions
compensated for by accomplishments.
between activities
long-term
ultimate
plant
only
that such a step is necessary but
also upon the chances of success.
retreat.
and
geared towards tangible
concrete
aims of
the
goal of a group consists
to
solely
must be maintained
and the
achievements
movement.
are
Of course.
of preventing
if
the
a nuclear
a success would meanthe end of the group.
be built,
Gronemeyerpostulates
(I) NEngI , April/a
A balance
that failures
that the Buergerinitiativen
y
9,6i
p.13
and March
(Z)
movement needs
, p.10
-917
Allensbacher Berichte 1971,No.8, p.3
Institut
fuer Oemoskopie
Al ensbach, cited
in Carl Amery, P.Ctayer-rasch,
Klaus .Meyer
ohne Basis, Fischer Taschenbuch, February
Abich, Energiepolitik
.978 p.j8
{3) see, e.g., Battelle,
p7 and p.25
154
to act on three levels:
t.on the level of
ramif icat ions
Z.on the level
struggle
of
the concrete
one's
with
goal
own soca I ization;
all
this
its
is
the
against the deformation of thinking, wanting, and
doing within the groups
3.on the level of involving the public at large
1)
Both dealing within the system and also questioning its
premises
must continue to be the arena of action for the initiatives.
opportunities -despite
The
of their limits- which the licensing and
siting procedures provide to voice citizens'
objections
should
continued to be utilized.
Non-violent direct manifestations of
opposition such as demonstratlons, ral is, debates, site
remain
occupations
forms of
appropriat e
attention as well as giving a sense of
affiliation
setting
lined
to
the
participants.
must be addressed.
by attempts
least the civil
aga inst
liberties
further
'dialogues'
forcefulness
Further, tne whole political
nuclear
exist ing now need to
AI though
the
nature and purpose of
with the citizens
and
power
democratic rights of citizens
infr ingeuents.
cautious about the
unity,
Since the path to
to curtail
gaining nati onaI
is
at
be de fended
groups
officially
must be
induced
as they have been attempted in the
FRG, Sweden, Holland* or Austria,
(2) they should be accepted
as
(ji Kursbuch , p.97
(2)
Dorothy Nelkin, Michael Pollak
The Polit ics
of
Participation
and the Nuclear Debate in Sweden, the Netherlands, and Austria
Public Policy, Volo.25No.summer 191177)
; for the FRG Battelle
E Einstellungen
und Verhalten
der
Bevoelkerung
,
gegenueber
verschiedenen Energiegewinnungsarten, Juni J1917 Kernenergie ,
.55
stages for voicing disagreements, raising
issues, and presenting
-ownperspec tives.
The Buergerinitiativen
need to increase the cooperation with the
suited other groups in society both to foster allies and spread
their views
churches, susceptible parts
factions
intellectuals,
naturalistic
to
a
withl-n
organizations, etc.
of
the
the
But crucial for the transition
policies
are
of
on employment must be resolved,
the
on the
views
perspectives must fal
8uergerinitiativen
principles
effects
The conflicting
environmentalist
traditional
parties,
society with sound environmental and social
the trade unions.
trade unions,
i thout the gradual
endorsement by labor.
In my view , the strength
movement lies
civilized
in
its
compatibility
relations,
abil ity
to
devise alternative
The Buergerini tativen
direct
(or
must continue to
should
machines;
turn the attention
merger of work and
be
left
to)
B#FT, 1916
;
urd Gespraeche zur Kernenergie,
1917
;
66
prepar ing
to the problem of a
The
elne
uergerinformation,
in
leisure.
be alone
Karlsruhe,
ake this
the discussion towards the
woulo not
Interviews
new
in a future where more and more basic and higher tasks
given to
meaningful
an evolving
energy and appropriate technologies and their
kind and share which humans have to
are
perceive
betweenman, nature, tradeunions, social
form and use in social life;
contribute
Buergerinitiativen
and, simultaneously, of being the mediumto
become true.
vision
and prcmise of the
Buergerinitiat
Iven
the future but could be the
ans
Matthoefer,
C.F. Hu.eller Verlag,
156
treatment of the subject with
medium of combining intellectual
social evolution towards its real izat ion.
of
As two cases in point,
issues have been taken up at a seminar on 'the
these
a new life-style',
(1) or
y t he OECD which
of social concerns commont o
'list
The list
consists of
e nvir onent s
areas
so c ial
and participation
opportuni ties
traditional
manipulation;
of
forms
with
a
OECD'.
(2)
situation,
-in
that
ph ys ica I
a]na
order.
socia
Th le
I
basic
iven must be persuas ion inistead of
approach of the Buer gerinitiat
some
to
secor i t y,
ment
environ
up
c,onc erms which are health,
of
economic
leisure,
work,
education,
9
development
came
members
most
a
propaganda,
deception,
or
need
i nd of persuasion I amtalking about requires
the
the clear comprehens;ion of means and ends.
Nuclear
power
Is
of
interrelate
only
where
the
reality
and political
amount of
substantial
a
instance
friction.
empathy need to complement each
ise and po litical
perce ive one ano ther
to
as bothersome
cease
e xp,ert
Technical
and
side-ef fect S.
and
w lth
particul ar
and social
pl anning
ob ectives
other
one
on ly
find
of interest
emeshed
it
S.
in
The
tradi t i onal political
hard to deve lop a future
The
forces
acceptable for a plurality
experts in the universi ties
party
and
governm ent
have stagnated
and politicians
b r eaucr ac ies
often
very
receptive t 0 industr ia I in terests, have lost touch with the needs
and feel ings of
(1)
SZ 9 24 April
a
large
segment
1918 , P.24
(2) Spiegel , 18 April
1977 , p.*2
of
the
popul at ion.
The
15 7
Buerger in itiat iven
are
have emerged and begin to realize
by many to
expected
parliaments,
the
erase
goernments,
gap left
and universities.
that they
by
parties,
Both in order to
make a perspective becometrue and to remain rooted in real life,
the
Buergerinitiativen
organization.
The
movement must
find
adequate ways of
groups must remain decentralized,
be present
whereever issues come up, encourage its membership for
action,
and spread the gospel' on a visible
One setting
century
which comes to my mind
Raiffeisen
virtually
movement.
everywhere in rural
cooperatives
political
could
and everyday basis.
oe
a
areas and in the cities
try
to
construct
or
and
maintain
their
to interested
pool the resources
many members,
of
local
needs.
and
They could
and knowhow
Since they could
citizens.
they
These
solar, wind,
warehouses where materials
wculd be made availaole
could
support
the
of solar heating or the irsulation of buildings
installation
financial Iyat affordable rates.
alternative
could found
adapt suitable
like
20th
existing
developmentand linking it to practical action.
biomass, or conservation to speci fic
cooperative
of
The Buergerini tativen
economically promising energy technologies
shops
kind
which could becomea means of both continuing
cooperatives could
open
positive
outlets,
ideally
The very
existence
of
set up in buil dings making use of
technologies, could demonstrate the strengths
weaknesses of
such solutions
and allow direct
They could maintain
which would benefit
local employment and the tax base.
these
material
factories
needs,
and
comparisons with
conventional ones.
But besides fulfilling
such
the
in
the area
cooperatives
158
cculd also
experiences
po i t ica
provi de
forum
centers.
family
for
membershipat large.
eventSt
pose
and to learn.
force
as
ideas and
ser ve
as
al ternatives
to
allow ing to trade
onI,
for everybody
open
L oca
they could
,
I
in shaping poIi cles rlelevant to the
Internally,
they would have t,o find ways to
accomodate peacefully conflicting views.
possibly rely
to
and
seclusion
active cooperati
who would want to contribute
oecome an important
exchange of
the
would
They
or small
consumptio
o
f or
nd cultural
for social
individualistic
passive
a
FoIr
on the direct-democratic
tha
p Princl
t
they could
p les
which are
currently adhered to in many Buergerini tiat iv en.
[he cooperatives could becomeimportant
local
pol itics
and persona
fact ors
a tt It udes.
But
oecomeinstrumental in determining national goals
Although
the
groups
to
the
t hey could even
and policies.
cooperate and coordin mate on the national
They could serve as a direct
preferences
influencing
remain large Iy auton omous locally,
should
they could nevertheless
level.
iin
official
channel of popular needs and
Iy mandated pol icy makers, possibly
gradually replacing existing part ies.
More than such a general
the specifics
outline
can not be
given
ex
cat hedr a,
needto evolve theoretically and practically
within the groups.
from
15 9
BIBL IOGRAPHY
The following abbreviations are used n the footnotest
AG Umwelt
Radioaktive Kontamtnation
n der Ugebung
kerntechnl scher Anlagen
Analyse der amtlichen Ugebungsuebervachung
Dieter Teufel, AG Umweltschutz an der
Universitaet
Heidelberg, September 1976
Atoogesetz
Bundesgesetzblatt ell
kBattelle
Buergerinitiativen
i
I t 1976
p.3053ff
Bereich von
Kern kraf twerkens
Report for BFT February 1975 ; conducted by the
Battelle Institute, Frankfurt
und
8 FT
Program fuer Energieforschung
FR
Frankfurter Rundschau,Frankfurt
HSt
Hellr
ifo
Peter RammerZukunft der Stronversorgung
mit Fragezelchen,
Ui Schnel dlenst r 1/2 1977,pp.3-13
Jun g
Robert Jungk, Der Atomstaate
Kur sbuch
8uergerini t at ive n/Buergerproteste eine neue vierte Gealt?
Energi etechno I ogi en
1977 - 1980 ,8NFT Bonn, 1977
Klndler
onner Stimme, Heilbronnm
Verlag,
Muenchen# 19?7
Kursouch 50, Kursbuch/RotDuch Verlag,
Berlin,
1977
NEngI
Nuclear Engineering International
NN
Nuclear
rororo-WA
Atommuell oder
Spiegel
Der Spiegel
News
Traumv rororo
er Abscnied won einem teuren
aktuell
4117-. February
-a weekly magazine
197t
160
SZ
Sueddeutsche Zeitun, Munich
StZ
Stu t tgarter Zeitung, S tu tty art
Verf lechtun_4en Verflechtungen von Wirtschaft,
Staat,
und Wissenschaft im Bereich der Kernenergie,
Bund fuer Uweltschutz,
Tuebingen, Sept.1976
Wyhi
Lieber heute aktiv als morgenradioaktiv,
Pol itik 65Publ isher t Klaus Wagenbach,
Berlin,
1976
Zeit
Die ZeitHamburg
66
Zum richtigen
-a weekly newspaper
Verstaendnls der Kernenergie
66 frwiderungen,
Autorengruppe
an der Universitaet
Bremen,
des Projekts
SAIU
OQe!tJCuMyriLga Berl i n, 1975
215
Proceedings of the German Bundestag,?th period,
Session 215, 22 J anuary 1976
250
Session
3410
German Bundestag 7th periodRecord
no. 73410,
Grosse Anfrage of SPD and FOP on
The Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy in the FRG
3871
10 June 1976 , p. 17819ff
Answer of the Federal
Record
8/570
250,
No.
3871t
Goverment to j410
16 July
19715
Answer of the Federal Government to a
Par liaentary
Inquiry by PD and FDP
Record
No. 8/570
8 June 1977
A
P
P
E
N D
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0
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t-u
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k-
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k--) O
v- N
co
X.
-- z
-
co
03
t)
t-
-j \n -j
~p
v,_
-P- N)
~-m
N)
% of consumption
1973
1976
mineral oil
lignite coal
natural gas
uranium
others
95
96
3
3
43
59
100
100
36
5
59
61
< net imports of
primary energy consumption
absolute figures (M tons)
SKE
8/570 , p.8
Table
223
228
2 : Share of Net Imports at Consumption
Primary Energy Sources
of
c+
cn 3:
H+
Pu
Eg
uC
o~~
H M
H(D
0
0
*C)
C)A
-
00
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0
0
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c+
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c+
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rC
0D
rn
o
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N
<
CD
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0
"-0
· \
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\0
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v
0
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c+
o
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c+
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kI 0
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\0 \o
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3
1½
r)
O
00 -
F'
P-F
-r7
CO
-
F-0
'0
CD
ON0
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o
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co
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0
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No
tI'-C0 vO
i-
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h_
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F"
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00
---.
F--
'
O )
-
~a-
Z-F
G\ -K)
F-n
-vC
-
c.
v
F-
1985
1975
million tons SKE(,)
-
-
bituminous coal
24.4 (24.8)
32 (18)
lignite coal
30.6 (31.2)
34 (19)
heating oil
8.6 ( 8.8)
12 ( 7)
natural gas
17.5 (17.8)
23 (13)
nuclear energy
7.1 ( 7.2)
62 (35)
hydro power
5.2 ( 5.3)
6 ( 4)
others
4.8( 4.9)
7 ( 4)
c
total
98.2
176
source : 8/570 , p.10
Table 4 : Fuel Sources for Electricity Generation
1975 and 1985
total
generating
capacity
share
conventional
plants
share
nuclear
plants
vlre
1970
50 833
49 875
958
1971
53 977
53 015
962
1972
57 617
55 309
2 308
1973
62 050
59 636
2 414
1974
70 120
66 616
3 504
1975
74 356
70 852
3 504
1976
81 800
75 350
6 450
1980
92 000
79 000
13 000
source : 8/570 , p.1l
Table 5 : Shares of Conventional and Nuclear
Power Plant Generating Capacity
1970 --
1980
-·
U)
cmn+
oP)
H,
CD
o
0
0
P-J.
F-
C+
0-C)j
o0
4:c-$-
0
·
-
H(:
F
H\0
I
o
H-
C0
0--j
"\--o
4:-
0`'O 0
~3ON
~.p\0
k-\,\-
,DoU)
c
O
Co
0)3cU)
0
)
03 -·
J
Wr
-U'
w
03rQ
-- ON
1972
789
I.
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
831
924
1079
1004
1029
1100
1186
1217
II.
10
18
110
222
233
324
406
448
443
nonnu.L
111.
57
64
76
80
85
83
91
98
107
flSio
total
856
913
1110
1381
1322
1436
1597
1732
1767
total
78,9
46,2
8,4
4,9
4,3
3,2
7
Source
2,6
res.
nucl.energy
_j'
n
re
energy
2,7 nc/nonxu
ciear
withou· fusion
: BhFT , p.174
Table 7 : Federal Nuclear and Nonnuclear Energy Research
1972 - 1980
.
prediction
1976
1980
1985
1990
2000
in Ge
Fept. 1970
25
Aug.
1973
9 3
19
38
75
Oct.
1975
7.0
19
45
77
134
source : NN , Mid February 1976
p.4 7
Table 8 : Forecasts for German Nuclear Power Growth
1976 -- 2000
m
cr
D
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o ~
r ON
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CD
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N)
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C00
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0
o
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or
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o
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-7
co
co
k-
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n
O\
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0 p
o o
00
(D
cn
total
production
in
tons
degree of
mechanization
produced
per man
miners
under
and shift
in tons
ground
in 1000
1 .65
376
1 958
149
22
1959
142
26
1960
142
40
1961
143
50
1962
141
60
2.37
264
1963
142
67
2.52
248
1964
142
74
2.61
237
1965
135
79
2.70
225
1966
126
82
2.92
201
1 967
112
85
3.26
170
1968
112
89
3.52
151
1969
112
91
3.66
141
1970
111
93
3.75
138
111
93
3.82
135
1971
1
346
2.06
308
287
Source
: listed in Atomenergie und
ArbeitsplaLetze , p.2 9
Table 10 : Employment and Automation of Bituminous Coal
Production in the FRG
1 58 -
1971
- .-
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i
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J
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fur
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Jlich GmbH
4
BUNDTE
UNTERNEHMEN
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Energiebeteiligung mbH
Bayer AG
KONZERNE
'
4
Veba AG
Hoechst AG
;
RuhrkohleAG I
,
!
.
RheinischWestfdlisches MetallgesellElektrizitatsschaftAG
SICH
-
o
Allianzrungs-
AG
A
i
_
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VerwaltungswVersiche
ges.fndustre-
I
Uran-
gesellschaft
mbH& CoKG
3313
3
-
m
1
Z
Uranerzbergbau-Gmbi
& Co KG
incCorpo-
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4D
RBGRoaktorBrenneementeGmbtl
gAG
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su bereitungs
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AKTORBAU
|
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BRENSTOFFE
REICHE-
/|
Deutsche
BankAG
mbH
URAN-
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G
1
beteiligungen
SUCHE
egussa
_
I
_
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VER4 i
SalzgitterAG
H
|
|
Zirn nben den Pfen=
Anteile In Prozent
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Source:
|
Der Spiegel , 12/1976 , p.67
Figure 1 : Entangled Nuclear Power Interests
Application for
Nuclear Plant
Construction
Public iscl sure ; Hearing
of Complaint
Initial
Check by
TUV
Coment
Comments1
~ls
JK~
I
L
Review by
K
f--
.
TUV
,
I
--
[
?
Review
IRS
I
Comments
IRS
Comments by
Agencies
Involved
....
i
ii
I
Decision
I
,
_
or
Licensing
Figure 2
-~--
Supervision
BMI
z'valuation by
Licensing Agc.
[11
Nuclear Licensing Procedure
Publication
of Decision
I7