Richard Stevens
Stephen B. Monsen
Chapter
19
Forbs for Seeding Range
and Wildlife Habitats
Forbs are abundant in all vegetative types throughout the
Intermountain West. Most are found intermixed in grasslands
and as understory plants in shrub and forest types. Forbs
provide ground cover, soil stability, community (flora and fauna)
diversity, nutritious forage, and are of aesthetic value.
Forbs should be seeded in most range, watershed, mine reclamation, highway, recreational site, restoration and revegetation
projects. Many commonly used forbs have been introduced to
the Intermountain West and are now under cultivation for seed
production. The principal introduced forbs planted on range and
wildlands are alfalfa, small burnet, and cicer milkvetch. Lewis
flax, Rocky Mountain penstemon, and Palmer penstemon are
the major native forbs being commercially grown and planted.
Additional species are being commercially grown in seed fields as
demand increases. Seeds of many native species are collected
from wildland stands but generally are in short supply.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
425
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Chapter Contents by Species
Achillea millefolium ssp. lanulosa (western yarrow) .......................................................................................... 430
Artemisia ludoviciana (Louisiana sage) ............................................................................................................... 430
Aster chilensis (Pacific aster) ................................................................................................................................ 431
Aster glaucodes (blueleaf aster) ............................................................................................................................ 433
Astragalus cicer (cicer milkvetch) ......................................................................................................................... 433
Balsamorhiza sagittata (arrowleaf balsamroot) .................................................................................................. 435
Balsamorhiza macrophylla (cutleaf balsamroot) ................................................................................................. 436
Balsamorhiza hookeri var. neglecta (hairy balsamroot) ...................................................................................... 436
Coronilla varia (crownvetch) ................................................................................................................................ 437
Geranium richardsonii (Richardson geranium) .................................................................................................. 438
Geranium viscosissimum (sticky geranium) ........................................................................................................ 439
Hedysarum boreale (Utah sweetvetch) ................................................................................................................. 439
Helianthella uniflora (oneflower helianthella) .................................................................................................... 440
Heracleum lanatum (cow parsnip) ........................................................................................................................ 441
Ligusticum porteri (Porter ligusticum) ................................................................................................................. 442
Linum perenne spp. lewisii (Lewis flax) ............................................................................................................... 443
Lomatium triternatum (nineleaf lomatium) ........................................................................................................ 444
Lomatium kingii (nuttall lomatium) .................................................................................................................... 445
Lupinus sericeus (silky lupine) ............................................................................................................................. 446
Lupinus argenteus (silvery lupine) ....................................................................................................................... 447
Medicago sativa (alfalfa) ....................................................................................................................................... 447
Medicago falcata (sicklepod alfalfa) ..................................................................................................................... 447
Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweetclover) ............................................................................................................. 451
Mertensia arizonica (tall bluebell) ........................................................................................................................ 452
Onobrychis viciaefolia (sainfoin) ........................................................................................................................... 453
Osmorhiza occidentalis (sweetanise) .................................................................................................................... 454
Penstemon palmeri (Palmer penstemon) .............................................................................................................. 454
Penstemon cyananthus (Wasatch penstemon) ..................................................................................................... 456
Penstemon eatonii (Eaton penstemon) ................................................................................................................. 456
Penstemon humilis (low penstemon) .................................................................................................................... 457
Penstemon pachyphyllus (thickleaf penstemon) .................................................................................................. 457
Penstemon rydbergii (Rydberg penstemon) .......................................................................................................... 457
Penstemon strictus (Rocky Mountain penstemon) ............................................................................................... 457
Sanguisorba minor (small burnet) ....................................................................................................................... 457
Senecio serra (butterweed groundsel) ................................................................................................................... 459
Solidago canadensis (Canada goldenrod) ............................................................................................................. 460
Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia (gooseberryleaf globemallow) ................................................................................ 461
Sphaeralcea coccinea (scarlet globemallow) ......................................................................................................... 462
Trifolium (clovers) ................................................................................................................................................. 463
Trifolium fragiferum (strawberry clover) ............................................................................................................. 463
Trifolium hybridum (alsike clover) ....................................................................................................................... 464
Trifolium pratense (red clover) ............................................................................................................................. 464
Trifolium repens (white clover) ............................................................................................................................. 464
Viguiera multiflora var. multiflora (Showy goldeneye) ....................................................................................... 465
Viguiera miltiflora var. nevadensis (Nevada goldeneye) ..................................................................................... 466
Important characteristics of a number of forbs are
listed in table 1. Seeding recommendations for principal vegetative types and conditions are discussed in
chapter 17. Seed characteristics and information
about collection, cleaning, and storage are provided
in chapter 24. Forbs adapted to different vegetative
types and conditions are included in the seeding
recommendations.
426
The following forb species have the potential for
improving range and wildlife habitats in the Intermountain West. A brief description along with information regarding ecological relationships and distribution, cultural requirements, use, and management
of each species are included.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
3
3
4
5
4
2
2
2
2
3
4
3
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
3
5
5
4
5
5
2
3
5
3
3
4
1
5
2
2
2
3
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
4
4
1
4
Angelica, small leaf
Aster, blueleaf
Aster, Englemann
Aster, Pacific
Balsamroot, arrowleaf
Balsamroot, cutleaf
Balsamroot, hairy
Bluebell, tall
Bouncing-bet
Burnet, small
Cinquefoil, gland
Clover, alsike
Clover, strawberry
Columbine, Colorado
Cow parsnip, common
Crownvetch
Daisy, common oxeye
Deervetch, birdfoot
Eriogonum, cushion
Fireweed
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Flax, Lewis
Geranium, Richardson
Geranium, sticky
Giant hyssop, nettleleaf
Globemallow,
gooseberryleaf
Globemallow, scarlet
Globemallow, stream
Goldeneye, Nevada
Goldeneye, showy
Goldenrod, Canada
Goldenrod, low
Goldenrod, Parry
Groundsel, butterweed
Helianthella, oneflower
Iris, German
(common iris)
Ligusticum, Porter
3
3
5
5
2
4
5
5
4
3
5
3
4
4
4
4
3
5
5
4
2
2
5
2
4
2
Alfileria
5
5
Species
Alfalfa, range type
2
4
4
4
4
3
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
4
2
5
4
5
2
1
1
4
5
4
1
4
5
1
5
2
4
Ease of
Ease of
handling Ease of
transseed
seeding planting
Table 1—Characteristics of Selected Forbs.
4
3
4
4
3
5
2
4
4
3
2
3
3
3
3
4
5
4
4
5
3
3
4
2
4
4
3
3
3
4
5
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
Germination
3
3
3
3
3
4
1
4
4
2
3
2
2
2
3
5
5
5
4
4
3
2
4
2
4
4
1
1
2
4
5
1
3
3
5
4
4
5
3
3
4
4
3
3
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
3
3
4
5
4
3
3
3
3
4
3
4
3
1
1
4
4
5
1
3
3
5
4
5
5
3
4
4
5
4
3
5
3
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
3
5
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
3
4
3
4
4
4
3
5
3
4
Initial Seedling Final
estabgrowth
establishment
rate
lishment
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
3
3
4
5
4
4
3
4
3
2
5
4
5
3
3
5
5
3
4
4
5
4
5
3
5
4
5
3
5
2
5
Persistence
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
3
3
3
3
4
5
5
5
4
5
2
2
5
5
4
3
2
2
3
5
4
2
5
5
3
5
5
4
Natural
spread
3
4
4
4
4
3
2
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
3
3
4
5
4
2
2
5
4
2
5
2
3
4
5
4
3
5
4
3
4
4
3
5
Forage
yield
4
4
4
4
3
4
5
4
4
3
3
4
4
4
3
5
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
3
5
5
4
5
5
4
5
5
Early
spring
palatability
Ratingsb
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
3
3
4
4
4
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
1
1
5
3
5
1
5
5
4
5
3
4
Summer
palatability
4
4
5
5
4
3
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
4
2
2
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
5
3
5
4
4
1
2
2
2
2
1
5
1
1
3
2
2
2
2
2
4
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
4
1
1
1
2
5
1
2
2
1
2
1
3
3
4
3
3
3
5
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
3
4
4
4
2
3
3
3
4
4
2
3
4
4
4
3
3
2
3
5
4
4
4
4
4
3
1
3
4
3
3
2
2
4
3
4
4
4
3
3
2
4
4
3
3
4
3
4
3
4
5
4
2
3
5
3
4
5
CompatiTolerbility with Seed
ance to Evergreen- other
producgrazing
ness
species
tion
3
4
5
5
4
3
4
3
3
4
4
3
3
3
4
3
4
5
4
4
3
3
5
4
5
3
3
3
4
5
3
3
4
5
3
5
3
4
Soil
stability
2
4
3
3
4
2
4
2
4
3
3
4
4
3
2
2
3
4
5
5
5
4
3
2
3
2
1
1
4
4
2
1
4
4
3
4
1
2
Flood
tolerance
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
2
3
2
3
4
4
3
2
3
4
1
3
3
5
4
4
3
3
3
2
3
3
3
2
2
4
3
3
3
3
4
Shade
tolerance
2
3
3
4
2
3
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
3
4
3
3
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
4
2
4
3
5
Range
of adaptability
(con.)
SA,A,PP,MB,JP,
MS,BS,WS
JP,MS,BS,
WS,BB
SA,A,MB
A,WM,PP,MB,
JP,BS
A,WM,PP,MB
A,WM,PP,
MB,JP,MS,BS
PP,MB,JP,
MS,BS
PP,MB,MS
PP,MB,MS
SA,A,WM
PP,MB,MS
PP,MB,JP,MS,
BS,WS
A,WM,PP,MB
WM
WM,IS
SA,A,WM
SA,A,WM
A,PP,MB,MS
A,PP,MB,JP
A,PP
PP,MB,JP,
MS,BS
SA,A,WM,PP,
MB,JP,MS,BS
PP,MB,JP,MS,
BS,WS
SA,A,WM
SA,A,WM
SA,A,MB
JP,MS,BS,WS,
SS,BB
MB,JP,MS,BS,
WS,SS,BG,BB
JP,MS,BS,WS,
SS,BB
MS,BS,WS
SA,A,PP,MB,JP,
MS,BS
A,PP,MB
A,PP,MB
A,PP,MB
A,PP,MB
A,PP,MB,MS
SA,A,PP,MB,
JP,MS,BS,WS
A,PP,MB
Vegetative
a
type to
which the
species is
adapted
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
427
428
2
5
2
3
5
5
5
2
2
5
3
Penstemon, toadflax
Penstemon, Wasatch
Sage, Louisiana
Sage, tarragon
Sainfoin, common
Salsify, vegetable-oyster 3
4
Penstemon, thickleaf
Solomon-plume, fat
Sweetanise
3
3
5
5
5
5
5
Penstemon, sidehill
5
5
5
Penstemon, Palmer
5
5
5
Penstemon, low
5
5
5
Penstemon, littlecup
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
5
Peavine, flat
Peavine, perennial
Peavine, thickleaf
Peavine, Utah
Penstemon, Eaton
4
Penstemon, Rocky
Mountain
Penstemon, Rydberg
2
5
4
Painted-cup,
northwestern
5
4
Milkvetch, Snake River
plains
Milkvetch, tall
5
4
Milkvetch, cicer
3
3
5
5
5
5
3
3
5
5
5
4
2
3
3
4
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
3
5
1
2
2
5
4
3
2
2
2
5
Ease of
Ease of
handling Ease of
transseed
seeding planting
Lomatium, nineleaf
Lomatium, nuttall
Lupine, Nevada
Lupine, silky
Lupine, silvery
Medick, black
Species
Table 1 (Con.)
3
2
4
3
5
4
3
3
3
4
3
5
5
3
4
3
3
3
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
5
Germination
4
2
5
1
4
2
4
2
3
3
2
4
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
5
2
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
5
3
3
5
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
2
3
4
3
3
4
3
4
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
3
4
3
5
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
Initial Seedling Final
estabgrowth
establishment
rate
lishment
4
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
4
3
3
5
4
4
4
5
4
3
3
4
5
5
4
3
4
4
4
4
Persistence
4
3
4
3
4
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
3
4
3
3
5
2
4
4
5
3
3
3
3
3
4
Natural
spread
4
2
3
3
5
3
4
2
2
2
3
3
4
2
4
4
3
4
4
3
3
2
4
5
3
2
4
4
4
3
Forage
yield
4
5
3
2
5
2
3
4
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
4
3
4
5
4
4
3
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
Early
spring
palatability
Ratingsb
4
4
4
2
4
3
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
5
4
4
4
4
4
3
2
4
4
4
4
Summer
palatability
4
3
3
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
4
3
3
2
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
1
3
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
5
3
3
3
2
2
2
3
1
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
4
3
4
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
2
4
3
4
3
5
3
4
4
3
2
3
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
3
4
4
4
3
3
3
4
5
4
3
3
2
3
2
2
3
2
3
3
5
3
4
3
3
3
5
CompatiTolerbility with Seed
ance to Evergreen- other
producgrazing
ness
species
tion
3
3
3
4
3
5
4
3
4
4
4
4
3
5
4
5
4
5
4
3
1
4
4
5
4
3
3
3
3
5
Soil
stability
4
5
4
3
3
4
4
3
3
3
5
3
2
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
3
4
3
3
3
2
2
3
3
4
Flood
tolerance
5
3
4
3
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
3
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
Shade
tolerance
3
2
4
3
3
4
4
3
3
3
2
3
4
3
3
3
3
4
3
4
3
2
3
4
3
3
4
4
4
2
Range
of adaptability
(con.)
PP,MB,MS
A,PP,MB
JP,MS,BS,WS
A,PP,MB,MS
A,PP,MB,MS
A,WM,PP,MB,
JP,MS,BS
SA,A,WM,PP,
MB,JP,MS,BS
PP,MB,JP,MS,
BS,WS
PP,MB,JP,
MS,BS
SA,A,WM,PP,
MB,JP,MS,BS,
WS
SA,A,PP,MB
SA,A,PP,MB
SA,A,PP,MB
SA,A,PP,MB
PP,MB,JP,MS,
BS,WS
PP,MB,JP,MS,
BS,WS
PP,MB,JP,MS,
BS,WS
PP,MB,JP,MS,
BS,WS,BB
A,PP,MB,JP,
MS
SA,A,WM,
PP,MB
PP,MB,JP,MS,
BS,WS
PP,MB,JP,
MS,BS
PP,MB,JP,MS,
BS,WS
A,PP,MB,JP,
MS,BS
SA,A,WM,PP
MB,JP,MS,
BS,WS
SA,A
PP,MB,JP,
MS,BS
PP,MB,JP,
MS,BS
SA,A,WM,
PP,MB
SA,A,WM,
PP,MB
Vegetative
typea to
which the
species is
adapted
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
5
3
2
3
4
4
4
Sweetclover, yellow
Sweetroot, spreading
Sweetvetch, Utah
Valerian, edible
Vetch, American
Vetch, bramble
Yarrow, western
4
5
5
3
4
4
5
5
5
4
4
2
3
3
3
3
4
5
4
2
3
2
5
5
Germination
4
3
2
2
3
3
5
5
4
2
4
2
3
3
5
5
5
4
4
3
5
4
2
2
Initial Seedling Final
estabgrowth
establishment
rate
lishment
5
5
5
5
4
3
2
2
Persistence
5
3
3
2
3
2
3
3
Natural
spread
3
3
4
3
4
2
4
3
Forage
yield
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
Early
spring
palatability
Ratingsb
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
Summer
palatability
5
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
4
3
3
1
3
2
3
3
4
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
3
4
4
5
5
CompatiTolerbility with Seed
ance to Evergreen- other
producgrazing
ness
species
tion
5
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
Soil
stability
5
3
3
4
3
4
4
4
Flood
tolerance
4
4
4
4
3
4
3
3
Shade
tolerance
5
3
3
3
3
2
4
4
Range
of adaptability
SA,A,WM,
PP,MB
SA,A,WM,
PP,MB,
JP,MS,BS,WS,
SA,A,WM,
PP,MB
PP,MB,JP,MS,
BS,WS
SA,A,WM,PP,
MB,JP,MS
SA,A,WM,PP,
MB,JP,MS
BS,WS,SS,
BG,BB
SA,A,WM,PP,
MB,JP,MS,BS
Vegetative
typea to
which the
species is
adapted
Key to vegetative type: SA = Subalpine; A = Aspen-conifer; WM = Wet and semiwet meadows; PP = Ponderosa pine; MB = Mountain brush; JP = Juniper-pinyon; MS = Mountain big sagebrush; BS = Basin big sagebrush;WS = Wyoming big sagebrush;
SS = Shadscale saltbush; BG = Black greasewood; BB = Blackbrush; IS = Inland saltgrass.
b
Key to ratings: 1 = Poor; 2 = Fair; 3 = Medium; 4 = Good; 5 = Excellent.
a
5
Ease of
Ease of
handling Ease of
transseed
seeding planting
Sweetclover, white
Species
Table 1 (Con.)
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
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Chapter 19
Family Compositae
Achillea millefolium ssp. lanulosa __
Western Yarrow
In the Intermountain West the majority of the yarrows fall into three taxonomic units: Achillea
millefolium ssp. millefolium, which was introduced
from Europe and is widely cultivated in North America,
and A. millefolium ssp. lanulosa, a native to North
America, which is divided into two varieties—var.
lanulosa (western yarrow) that occurs from the valley
floor to above timberline and var. alpicola that is
generally found above timberline (Welsh and others
1987). All three taxonomic units intergrade. Western
yarrow, a perennial member of the sunflower family,
has flowers that are borne in flat-topped cymes (fig. 1)
that are white, grayish, and barely pink, all with
yellow centers (Hermann 1966). The leaves and flowers are aromatic.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Western yarrow is found in Southwestern Canada,
in all States west of North Dakota, south to Northern
Mexico, and from the low plains to subalpine communities. Greatest areas of occurrence are in mountain
brush, ponderosa pine, aspen, and open timber
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
types (USDA Forest Service 1937). Western yarrow
has good fire tolerance, some shade tolerance, and is
fairly resistant to drought. It grows in sandy to loam
soils that range from weakly basic to weakly acidic
(USDA Forest Service 1937; Wasser 1982). Yarrow
spreads by rhizomes and seed, and is especially useful
on disturbed or misused sites. Tolerance to grazing is
good.
Plant Culture
Western yarrow can be seeded successfully by drilling or broadcasting. Seeds are small (4.1 million per lb
[9.0 million per kg] at 100 percent purity) and should
not be planted more than 0.25 inch (6 mm) deep. Seeds
germinate uniformly, and produce vigorous seedlings.
Seed is usually marketed with about 50 percent purity
and 80 percent germination. It is recommended that
seed be stored no more than 2 years, due to loss of
viability. The species is easily transplanted. Western
yarrow can be seeded successfully in mixtures with
other species (Stevens and others 1985c).
Uses and Management
Western yarrow has fair forage value for sheep,
somewhat less for cattle, and is used by small and
large game animals (Hermann 1966; Kufeld 1973;
Kufeld and others 1973; USDA Forest Service 1937;
Wasser 1982). It provides important habitat for upland game birds. This species has good potential for
revegetation and for stabilization of disturbed sites
from big sagebrush through the subalpine zones. Western yarrow establishes and spreads well in sites occupied by annual weeds. It persists with heavy grazing,
and often recovers well by natural seeding. Areas
seeded to western yarrow should not be grazed for at
least 1 to 2 years following seeding.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There is considerable variation, and locally adapted
ecotypes should be planted.
Family Compositae
Artemisia ludoviciana ____________
Louisiana Sage (wormwood)
Figure 1—Western yarrow in a mixed
grass forb community.
430
There are a number of subspecies and numerous
varieties and ecotypes of Louisiana sage in the Intermountain West (Holmgren and Reveal 1966; Welsh
and others 1987). Considerable differences occur among
the various subspecies, varieties, and ecotypes. Louisiana sage is an herbaceous native perennial that is
aromatic and very rhizomatous, with stems that
grow from 1 to 3 ft (30 to 91 cm) tall. Leaves are
mainly cauline, entire, lobed or pinnately incised, and
borne on the stem.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Louisiana sage (fig. 2) occurs throughout North
America in all vegetation types from sagebrush
through alpine and tundra zones. This species does
well on shallow as well as on deep, slightly acidic to
basic soils. It prefers well-drained soil, but also grows
in riparian communities and on other moist sites.
Louisiana sage does well on disturbed exposed soils as
well as on sites supporting some cover. As a pioneer
species, it creates microenvironments suitable for the
invasion of other species.
Plant Culture
Flowering occurs in mid to late summer, depending
on location, with seed maturing in late August to
early November. Seed can be collected by hand stripping, beating, or combining. Most native stands do not
produce an abundance of seeds on a regular basis.
Seed is cleaned by debearding and screening. There
are about 2.5 million seeds per lb (5.5 million per kg)
at 100 percent purity. Seed is generally marketed at
10 to 15 percent purity and 80 percent germination.
Seed viability declines rapidly with more than 3 to
4 years of storage.
Seed can be drill seeded or broadcast seeded, followed by very shallow soil coverage. Drill seeding
requires a purity of greater than 40 percent for seed to
flow through most seeding units. Seed can be broadcast with as low as 10 percent purity, depending on the
type of broadcaster used. Seed that is fall broadcast on
disturbed soil generally does not require mechanical
coverage because natural soil sluff is sufficient to bury
the seed. Louisiana sage can be seeded as a single
species or as a component of a mixture. It also establishes easily from sprigs.
Uses and Management
Louisiana sage plays an important roll in providing
soil cover and stabilization in areas where it is adapted
(Hermann 1966; McCulloch 1973). It can be an early
invader on disturbed sites including mine spoils
(Monsen 1975; Monsen and Plummer 1978). Where it
is seeded or becomes established, it acts as a nursery
crop that allows establishment of other species. Ellison
(1951) considered it an important invader of overgrazed sheep range and as a soil stabilizer on the
Wasatch Plateau in central Utah. It can be used to
stabilize riparian disturbances including dry meadows and areas subjected to infrequent flooding.
Livestock, small and large game, and rodents use
this forb (Hermann 1966; Kufeld and others 1973;
McCulloch 1973). It has considerable tolerance to
grazing and trampling; however, when occurring on
shallow soils or disturbed sites, it should not receive
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Figure 2—Louisiana sage.
extensive use or trampling from grazing animals.
Stand density fluctuates, particularly at higher elevations where the species may be suppressed by overstory shading. It recovers well after fires and can be
used to prevent the entry of weeds by providing ground
cover after a disturbance.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There is one variety. ‘Summit’ was selected for its
its ability (1) to establish from sprig planting and
direct seeding, (2) increase or spread rapidly by rooting, (3) provide quick cover and soil stabilization, (4)
grow on harsh sites, and (5) create microenvironments
suitable for the invasion of other species (Stranathan
and Monsen 1986). ‘Summit’ is particularly useful as
a ground cover or erosion control species for sites
above 5,000 ft (1,500 m) elevation.
Family Compositae
Aster chilensis __________________
Pacific Aster
Pacific aster is a native perennial of the compositae
family. It is described by Harrington (1964) as developing short to long root stocks and stems that are
usually less than 2.5 ft (0.8 m) tall, with long, linear
pubescent leaves. Few to numerous heads occur with
blue, violet, or rarely white flowers. Seeds or achenes
are usually hairy with many white pappus bristles.
Plants bloom from July to September. This is an
extremely diverse species. Welsh and others (1987)
consider Pacific aster a generalized taxon with no
well-defined diagnostic features. Hitchcock and others (1955) recognized three subspecies: spp. hallii,
which occurs in the Oregon Cascades, and in Washington west to the coast, spp. chilensis, which is found
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Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
throughout the Cascades and Sierras; and spp.
adscendens, which occurs in the Great Basin and
eastern Oregon, and on the Snake River plains.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Pacific aster (fig. 3) is a native perennial that can
spread rapidly by seed or rhizomes. This forb occurs
throughout the Intermountain region at elevations
between 5,000 and 9,500 ft (1,500 to 2,700 m). It
occupies areas from the sagebrush foothills to the
subalpine zone (Harrington 1964). It is most commonly found on dry, open sites in the sagebrush-grass
and pinyon-juniper types.
Plant Culture
Pacific aster can be established by direct seeding,
sprigging, and with nursery or field-grown transplants (Stevens and others 1985c). Seed is best planted
by broadcasting; however, if it is cleaned to at least
50 percent purity, it can be drilled. Picker or thimble
seeders can be used to plant the uncleaned, trashy
seed. Special care must be taken to ensure that seeds
are not planted more than 0.25 inch (6 mm) deep. To
ensure that viable seed is planted, seed should not be
stored more than 3 years. Harvested seed usually
consists of the achene and attached pappus. The
pappus is removed by gentle hammermilling, or
with a debearder. Seed is usually not cleaned to
more than 50 percent purity, and most seed is sold
at 10 to 14 percent purity. At 100 percent purity, a
pound of seed consists of just over 2.5 million seeds
(5.5 million per kg).
Seeds of Pacific aster ripen throughout the late
summer and fall. Not all seeds ripen uniformly; consequently, considerable debris and immature seeds are
often collected. Seeds can be separated from the debris
with special cleaning equipment. Seed should be purchased based on the percent of viable seed.
Seeds of Pacific aster germinate readily. Nearly all
viable seeds germinate within 15 days. Seedlings
appear early. They are able to compete with most
seeded herbs and persist under adverse conditions.
Young plants usually do not attain large stature the
first growing season, but they do form an extensive
root system.
Although the seeds are small, they establish well
with only minimum seedbed preparation if they are
seeded with the pappus attached. Seeding with the
pappus on, however, is very difficult.
Neither livestock grazing nor rodent and insect use
have been observed to damage new seedings. New
plantings are not heavily used by rabbits and can be
established where rabbit populations are high. The
plant can also be seeded on unstable slopes because
432
Figure 3—Pacific aster in full bloom.
small plants do not attract heavy use and provide
excellent ground cover.
Uses and Management
Pacific aster is one of the first forbs to “green up” in
the spring, causing it to be highly sought by livestock
and big game. Game and livestock do, however, make
some use of this species during all seasons because the
plants retain some green material most of the year
(Hermann 1966; Kufeld and others 1973; Plummer
and others 1968). Hermann (1966) and USDA Forest
Service (1937) reported that Engelmann aster is more
palatable than Pacific aster to most animals. Our
observations indicate similar differences, but recognize
that Pacific aster receives moderate to heavy seasonal grazing.
Pacific aster is one of the most widely distributed
native forbs within the Intermountain region. Selections obtained from the low foothill sagebrush communities are well adapted to semiarid situations. Pacific
aster is one of a few forbs that can be easily seeded
within the arid region occupied by big sagebrush. It
persists well, furnishes good midsummer forage, and
can be used to control cheatgrass. It recovers well from
wildfires and spreads naturally.
To date, Pacific aster has normally been seeded as
a minor component of most seed mixtures, usually at
0.25 lb seed per acre (0.3 kg per ha). However, it can be
seeded at higher rates of 2 to 5 lb per acre (2.2 to 5.6 kg
per ha) to provide more summer forage. Pacific aster
does not restrict seedling establishment of associated
herbs, and its own seedlings are not impaired by the
presence of other seeded species. Consequently, increasing the seeding rate of this plant usually results
in a corresponding increase in plant density.
The strong rhizomes and root system enables the
species to be very useful in stabilization of disturbed
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
areas. Pacific aster is a useful species for planting
exposed sites with shallow soils, particularly midwinter game ranges. It can be successfully seeded on
areas that are difficult to treat with mechanical equipment. It is well suited to infertile, rocky soils and sites
subject to erosion.
Pacific aster is a useful pioneer species and nurse
crop. The plant is able to occupy harsh sites and
improve surface stability, enhancing seedbed conditions for other species. New seedlings are able to
establish amid the seemingly dense ground cover
provided by this forb. It is not unusual to observe
seedlings of other plants establishing and surviving
within a clump of Pacific aster. Consequently, the
plant is used to furnish cover on steep slopes where
pinyon and juniper have been chained. The plant is
also valuable for seeding or transplanting roadways,
mines, and other major disturbances. Areas seeded to
Pacific aster should not be grazed for at least two
growing seasons following planting. Creeping rhizomes enable this species to withstand considerable
grazing and trampling once plants are established.
Pacific aster has only been sparingly used in controlled grazing studies, but it is apparent that this
species can be managed to provide midsummer and
winter forage. In addition, the plant can be seeded to
control cheatgrass and to furnish needed cover on
critical semiarid ranges.
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Figure 4—Blueleaf aster at seed maturity. This
stand was established by broadcast seeding on a
raw roadfill in the mountain brush type.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
Family Compositae
Aster glaucodes ________________
Blueleaf Aster
Blueleaf aster (fig. 4), a native perennial, has about
the same forage value and seed characteristics as
Pacific aster. However, its seeds are more than three
times as large (500,000 per lb [1.1 million per kg]), and
the species is more widely distribted, commonly occurring in all vegetative types from salt desert shrublands
and saline seeps to spruce-fir forests. It furnishes an
open spreading clump, with short seed stalks and wide
leaves. It is well adapted to harsh sites (fig. 5) and
tends to exist alone. This species is better adapted to
calcareous soils and saline conditions than Pacific
aster. When seeded with principal forage grasses, it
does not provide a dominant cover. It is grazed by big
game and livestock, but it is not heavily used. Like
Pacific aster it persists amid heavy infestation of
grasshoppers when other succulent herbs are usually
consumed. If seed of both species were more available,
they would be recommended for planting range, watershed, and wildlife habitats.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Figure 5—Blueleaf aster stabilizing a severely
eroded cut.
Family Fabaceae
Astragalus cicer ________________
Cicer Milkvetch
A native of Eurasia, cicer milkvetch is a perennial
member of the pea or legume family. It has vigorous
creeping rhizomes and a short taproot. The leafy,
succulent, decumbent stems are fairly large in diameter. They grow to about 5.5 ft (1.7m) in length, and
originate from crown and rhizome buds. Flowers are
born in compact heads and are pale yellow to white.
Blooming occurs in midsummer, and seeds mature in
late fall. The inflated, bladder-shaped, leathery black
pods contain several seeds. Seed pods persist on the
plant into the winter.
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Chapter 19
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Cicer milkvetch (fig. 6) is an introduced, long-lived
perennial from northern Europe. It is bloat free and
does not accumulate toxic alkaloids (Davis 1982a;
Rumbaugh 1984; Rumbaugh and Townsend 1985;
USDA Soil Conservation Service 1968, 1972a; Williams
and others 1976). It is safe for grazing (Rumbaugh
1983).
This species has vigorous spreading rhizomes, good
frost and drought tolerance, and produces considerable succulent forage with a high protein content and
a low crude fiber level (Davis 1982a). It grows in
slightly acidic and basic soils, and does especially well
in soils derived from limestone. This forb establishes
and grows on thin, infertile soils and on disturbed sites.
Spring growth starts about 2 weeks later than alfalfa
and continues about 2 weeks longer in the fall. Foliage
is green and succulent throughout the summer and
fall months. Basal leaves remain green through winter. This species has more frost tolerance than alfalfa
and remarkable resistance to insects and disease.
Cicer milkvetch requires at least 13 inches (33 cm)
of annual precipitation, and does especially well with
16 inches (40 cm) or more. It is tolerant of water tables
within 3 ft (91 cm) of the surface and does fairly well
on wet sites. It has some shade tolerance, and is well
adapted to sagebrush-grass and pinyon-juniper sites
with sufficient precipitation. It also does well in the
mountain brush type (Plummer and others 1955;
Rumbaugh and Townsend 1985) and in openings in
aspen and subalpine areas.
Plant Culture
Cicer milkvetch can be broadcast or drilled seeded.
There are about 113,000 seeds per lb (249,000 per kg).
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Seed should be inoculated with appropriate inoculant
before seeding (Carleton and others 1971; Hafenrichter
and others 1968), and should not be planted more than
0.25 inch (6.4 mm) deep. Because of its hard seedcoat
and dormancy, seeding should be done in the fall.
Scarification can improve seeding success. However,
once seeds are scarified they will not retain viability
over extended periods.
Seed of cicer milkvetch has been stored for up to 14
years without any loss of viability (USDA Soil Conservation Service 1968a). This species is easily transplanted. Cicer milkvetch has done well seeded in
mixtures and has been successfully interseeded into
various native and introduced grass communities
(Rumbaugh and others 1981; Stevens and others
1981b). Because of its lower seedling vigor (Rumbaugh
1984), cicer milkvetch does best when seeded in well
prepared seedbeds that are relatively free of competition. This species does not reach full productivity
until the third year following seeding. Once established, cicer milkvetch is very competitive and longlived. It has been demonstrated that cicer milkvetch
can stimulate and increase forage production of
associated species (Johnson and others 1983).
Uses and Management
Seed of cicer milkvetch is produced commercially
and is generally available. Acceptable purity and germination for commercial seed is 95 and 85 percent.
Cicer milkvetch is palatable to livestock and big game,
and seeds are eaten by small birds, deer, rabbits, sagegrouse, and pheasants (Plummer and others 1968;
USDA Soil Conservation Service 1968, 1972a; Wasser
1982). Once established, this species has excellent
grazing tolerance. This species can be classified as a
semievergreen because basal leaves are green all
year.
The rhizomatous characteristics of cicer milkvetch,
along with its semiprostrate nature and profuse flowering, make it ideal for use around summer homes, on
disturbed sites, in campgrounds and parks, and in
areas with high aesthetic value.
This species is useful as a forage and conservation
plant, providing excellent ground cover and stabilizing eroding sites. It can be seeded for intensive
pasture management. The plant has considerable value
for seeding semiwet sites that are used by upland
game birds for summer forage. It also provides winter
and nesting cover for upland game birds.
Varieties and Ecotypes
Figure 6—Cicer milkvetch growing in association with smooth brome, Gambel oak, and
mountain big sagebrush.
434
‘Lutana’ was released in 1970 and has the characteristics described for the species. ‘Monarch’ was selected
for its superior seedling emergence. ‘Oxley’ is a 1971
Canadian release (Rumbaugh and Townsend 1985).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Family Compositae
Balsamorhiza sagittata ___________
Arrowleaf Balsamroot
Arrowleaf balsamroot (fig. 7) is a broadleaf perennial with a deep, woody taproot. It is the most abundant balsamroot in the Intermountain area. Simple
deltoid or sagittate leaves are entirely gray-green and
heavily pubescent. Flowering stems produce a few
reduced leaves. Flowers or heads are usually borne
solitary on extended seed stalks. Both disk and ray
flowers are produced, but they lack a pappus (Welsh
and others 1987). Flowering occurs in early April, and
seed matures in late May and early June (Harrington
1964). Leaves dry up between late June and the end of
July.
Figure 7—Seed increase planting of arrowleaf
balsamroot.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
A native perennial forb, arrowleaf balsamroot can
be found growing on well-drained silty to loamy soils
in sagebrush, mountain brush, and ponderosa pine
communities, and open slopes in aspen and coniferous forests. This forb is usually found at elevations
between 1,000 to 9,600 ft (305 to 2,900 m) (Harrington
1964; Wasser 1982). It occurs in solid stands or mixed
communities. Arrowleaf balsamroot is the most widespread species of balsamroot. It ranges from the Sierras east to Colorado and north to southern Canada on
acidic and alkaline soils (Hitchcock and others 1955;
Plummer 1977). It dominates many extensive foothill
areas, often growing as nearly pure stands (USDA
Forest Service 1937).
Arrowleaf balsamroot is intolerant of shallow water
tables, but withstands brief periods of soil saturation.
It is strongly drought resistant, winter hardy, and
tolerant of semishade, open sunlight, and of grazing
(Wasser 1982).
Plant Culture
Arrowleaf balsamroot is one of the first plants to
initiate growth in the early spring. Plants flower in
April and usually attain maximum stature in late
April or May, and seeds ripen in May and early June.
Seed heads are formed individually on extended solitary peduncles, and if plants are not heavily grazed,
large quantities of seed can be produced. Seeds ripen
uniformly and are large, with just over 55,000 per lb
(120,000 per kg). Seed is easily harvested by hand
stripping or beating. Extensive areas of level terrain
and dense stands can be harvested with a combine or
reel-mounted harvester (Plummer and others 1968;
Stevens and others 1985c). Seed can also be produced
under cultivation (fig. 7).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Seeds lack a fluffy or bristly pappus common to
many other compositae. Seeds are long, smooth, and
easily cleaned. Wildland stands are often infested
with seed damaging insects, and entire seed crops can
be damaged. Seed should be carefully inspected prior
to collection. Plummer and others (1968) suggest treating seed production areas with insecticides to reduce
seed predation However, treatment must be timed to
avoid elimination of pollinators. Seed in storage should
be treated to prevent insect damage. Seed stored
properly in an open warehouse retained good viability
after 5 years (Stevens and Jorgensen 1994).
Mature seed will remain on the plant for a short
time, but is readily eaten by rodents (Everett and
others 1978b). Immature and insect-damaged seed
will persist on the plant for longer periods. Too often,
the persisting poor-quality seed is mistakenly harvested and marketed. Immature and damaged seed
may often be normal size. However, it is light weight
and can be separated from fully developed seed by
gravity, wind separation, or flotation seed cleaning
techniques. Good quality lots will have 95 percent
purity and at least 40 percent germination.
Arrowleaf balsamroot seeds can be drill seeded quite
easily with conventional equipment. Seeds should not
be placed more than 0.33 to 0.5 inch (8 to 13 mm) deep.
Seeds can be broadcast planted but only if they are
covered. Because of seed dormancy and rodent preference for this species, late fall seeding is recommended
(Eddleman 1978; Everett and others 1978b; McDonough
1976; Young and Evans 1979). Arrowleaf balsamroot
seeds are often planted alone or with slower developing herbs and shrubs. This species should not be
seeded directly with more aggressive developing
herbs, but should be planted in separate rows or
435
Chapter 19
broadcast onto sites free of competition. If planted
with grasses or other broadleaf herbs, arrowleaf
balsamroot plants may survive, but would require
10 years or longer to reach maturity.
Although seedlings germinate and emerge quickly,
young plants develop slowly. Even under ideal conditions thick, dense stands usually do not develop
from artificial seedings. Causes for low return are
not fully known, but insects and rodents can cause
considerable damage. Seeded plants may produce
only two to three small leaves for a number of years
following planting. Plants are slow to increase in
stature, but they are extremely hardy and persistent.
Uses and Management
Arrowleaf balsamroot is an important forage plant
for deer, elk, cattle, and sheep, especially on spring
ranges where it greens up early (Harniss and Wright
1982; Hermann 1966; Holecheck and others 1982;
Kufeld 1973; Kufeld and others 1973; Mueggler and
Stewart 1980; Plummer and others 1968). The plant
is also grazed later in the season with considerable
use made of the heads during and following flowering. In many plant communities, a major portion of
total forage production is arrowleaf balsamroot.
Plantings of arrowleaf balsamroot do well when
seeded within areas of its natural occurrence. Attempts to extend or seed this species on areas outside
of its natural range or on mine or roadway disturbances have been unsuccessful. This forb is encountered in low, semiarid conditions with Wyoming big
sagebrush, but has been difficult to seed in these
circumstances, usually because of using unadapted
ecotypes, heavy grazing, and competitive effects of
associated species. The most successful seedings have
occurred in the lower elevation mountains in sagebrush and mountain brush communities.
Arrowleaf balsamroot can be used to improve forage
conditions on game and livestock spring and summer
ranges. It undoubtedly has been eliminated from some
situations, but is extremely hardy and persistent even
under heavy use.
Because of a deep fleshy taproot, arrowleaf balsamroot can withstand drought, trampling, fire and considerable grazing pressure. Natural reproduction will
occur if seeds are allowed to mature. Seeded areas
should not be grazed for at least two growing seasons
following planting. New plants are slow to mature,
requiring 3 to 4 years to flower on the most preferred
sites, and 7 to 8 or even 10 years on the lower
precipitation sites.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
436
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Like most other natives, arrowleaf balsamroot
grows on many different soil types and in many precipitation zones. Consequently, various ecotypes likely
occur. Considerable differences are noted among populations in regard to palatability, seed production, and
drought tolerance. Seeds are normally produced each
year from upper elevation sites where precipitation is
more reliable; however, seeds should be acquired from
sites similar to the area proposed for treatment. The
genus also appears to lack genetic barriers to hybridization, and intergradation occurs when any two taxa
exist together (Welsh and others 1987).
Family Compositae
Balsamorhiza macrophylla ________
Cutleaf Balsamroot
Cutleaf balsamroot has large leaves 12 to 24 inches
(30 to 61 cm) long that are divided into broad, entire,
or few-toothed segments 2 to 5 inches (5 to 13 cm) long
(Welsh and others 1987). The leaves have long, soft
hairs and a somewhat unpleasant odor.
Cutleaf balsamroot generally occurs at slightly
higher elevations and in more moist conditions than
arrowleaf balsamroot. It is not distributed as widely
as arrowleaf balsamroot and is less palatable to grazing animals. Cutleaf balsamroot ranges from northern
Utah and southeastern Idaho to western Wyoming
and southwestern Montana (Hitchcock and others
1955). Seed collection, cleaning, and storage as described for arrowleaf balsamroot. Seeds are somewhat
larger than those of arrowleaf balsamroot with
about 33,000 per lb (73,000 per kg). Seed can only be
stored for 3 years without significant loss of viability
(Stevens and Jorgensen 1994). Cutleaf balsamroot is
better adapted to areas of slightly higher elevations
and more moist conditions than arrowleaf balsamroot.
Neither species should be seeded in place of the other.
Site differences are not easy to differentiate.
Family Compositae
Balsamorhiza hookeri var.
neglecta _______________________
Hairy Balsamroot
Compared to arrowleaf balsamroot, hairy balsamroot has smaller leaves 4 to 12 inches (10 to 31 cm) long
that are divided into narrow segments 0.5 to
2 inches (1 to 5 cm) long (Welsh and others 1987).
These segments are often divided a second time into
even smaller segments. The leaves are covered with
coarse, short, stiff hairs.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
This species has a more limited distribution than
arrowleaf or cutleaf balsamroot, occurring from eastern Oregon to southwestern Nevada (Hitchcock and
others 1955). Welsh and others (1987) report two
varieties of Hooker balsamroot are found in Utah,
these occur in separate regions, but grow on a variety
of sites.
Seed collection, cleaning, and storage are as described
for arrowleaf balsamroot. Seed production is much lower
than for arrowleaf or cutleaf balsamroot. In addition,
plants usually do not exist in large dense patches, but are
scattered and intermixed with other herbs.
Plants usually grow as an understory with shrubs,
and have been useful in seeding pinyon-juniper and
mountain brush sites. Sources that grow in drier
circumstances offer opportunity to select and develop
materials adapted to sagebrush and salt desert
shrublands.
Family Fabaceae
Coronilla varia __________________
Crownvetch
Crownvetch (fig. 8) is an introduced perennial legume with strong rhizomes and a deep taproot (Leffel
1973). Varigated white to purple flowers start to blossom in early summer and blooming continues for 4 to
5 weeks. Seed matures in early fall in pencil-like pods
that break into segments as they dry. Each segment
contains one yellow to dark red, rod-shaped seed.
Flowers are arranged in an umbrella or crown-like
fashion. Basal leaves are green early in the spring and
remain green into the winter.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Crownvetch is a long-lived, cold-tolerant perennial
from the Mediterranean region. This species is not a
true vetch because it does not have tendrils for climbing. It does, however, tend to climb if supported by
shrubs like mountain big sagebrush, Gambel oak, or
serviceberry. This forb does fairly well with 21 inches
(530 mm) annual precipitation and thrives with over
30 inches (760 mm) of precipitation. Crownvetch exhibits some shade and fire tolerance. It prefers slightly
acidic soils but has also done well on slightly basic
calcareous soils. It does not persist on poorly drained
soils.
Crownvetch can be seeded in mountain brush, ponderosa pine, and aspen communities. It persists well
at lower elevations once established. Although it performs best when grown on fertile soils, it demonstrates
unusual ability to persist, spread, and remain productive when planted on mine disturbances and sites
lacking top soil. It is especially useful for stabilizing
erosive sites. This species is very competitive. Over time
it will dominate an area and exclude other species.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Figure 8—Crownvetch stabilizing a road cut.
Plant Culture
Seeds are produced in segmented pods. Cleaned
seeds are separated from the pod, and should be
inoculated with the proper rhizobium prior to seeding (Magness and others 1971; Wasser 1982). There
are about 135,000 seeds per lb (298,000 per kg) at
100 percent purity. Acceptable purity and germination for commercial seed is 95 and 75 percent. Seeding
is best accomplished in the fall on a well-prepared
seedbed. Stratification requirements can be overcome
with fall seeding. Seed can be drilled or broadcast, but
it should not be covered deeper than 0.25 inch (6 mm).
This forb can be seeded with other species. When
seeded with a grass mixture, it is best seeded separately
through the legume seedbox. Excellent establishment
can be obtained from transplanting or sprigging. Seeding at a rate of 2 to 4 lb per acre (2.2 to 4.5 kg per ha)
is satisfactory when seeded in a mixture.
Uses and Management
Crownvetch produces strong, spreading, fleshy rhizomes. This extensive system enables crownvetch to
be an excellent soil stabilizer and an aggressive
spreader. It has been used to stabilize watershed and
mine disturbances at locations receiving over 16 inches
(40 cm) of annual precipitation. The plant is characterized as having a succulent dark green appearance,
profuse flowering, and excellent ground cover characteristics. These features make crownvetch a prime
landscape species for summer home developments,
roadways, campgrounds, and areas of high recreational use.
Palatable forage is produced by crownvetch for all
classes of livestock and wildlife (Wasser 1982), with
little or no bloat hazard (Leffel 1973; USDA Soil
437
Chapter 19
Conservation Service 1978). Deer, elk, and livestock
will paw through snow to find and use its semievergreen forage. Birds and rabbits use crownvetch for
food and cover. Crownvetch has some poisonous characteristics (Shenk and others 1976). However, when
used in conjunction with other species, poisoning has
not occurred (Shultz 1984). Crownvetch is normally
seeded as a component of a mixture to enhance forage
production and quality. This species establishes
slowly, and production is low the first or second year
following seeding. Once established, it can withstand
considerable grazing and trampling. It recovers from
close grazing, but does not have the regrowth capabilities of alfalfa. When seeded in mixtures with other
species, it will spread vegetatively, and will tend to
dominate a community.
Varieties and Ecotypes
‘Emerald’, ‘Penngift’, and ‘Chemung’ have done well
in mountain big sagebrush, mountain brush, and
aspen communities. Emerald is the smallest in stature and produces less forage, but it is a more aggressive spreader.
Family Geraniceae
Geranium richardsonii ___________
Richardson Geranium
A member of the geranium family, Richardson geranium (fig. 9) is a perennial native forb, with flowers
that are generally white with pinkish or dark veins.
Stems are single or few and somewhat hairy and
viscid. Leaves are large but thin. Flowering occurs in
July and early August, and seed matures in September. The foliage gives off a distinctive geranium odor
when crushed (USDA Forest Service 1937).
Figure 9—Richardson geranium.
438
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Richardson geranium occurs in openings throughout the coniferous forest as an understory species in
aspen and subalpine meadows (Judd 1962; USDA
Forest Service 1937). It is the most widely distributed
geranium in North America (Hermann 1966). The
species is not restricted to any particular soil type, but
usually occurs on fairly moist gravelly or sandy loams.
However, it can be found on drier granitic soils and
heavy clay loams (Judd 1962; USDA Forest Service
1937).
Plant Culture
Seed is generally produced yearly if plants are not
grazed. Seed can be collected by beating it into a
hopper or with a mechanical seed beater mounted on
a vehicle. Seed is extracted from the collected material
by hammermilling or with a debearder (Stevens and
others 1985c). Seed can be stored for at least 5 years
without substantial loss of viability. Acceptable germination is 60 percent. There are about 65,000 seeds
per lb (143,000 per kg) at 100 percent purity. Seed can
be cleaned to 60 percent or higher purity. Seed can be
drilled or broadcast seeded on a prepared seedbed,
preferably in the fall. Seeding depth should not exceed
0.25 inch (6 mm). This species can be seeded singly or
as a component of a mixture of other forbs and grasses.
It demonstrates excellent ability to spread by natural
seeding. Seeds are small and can establish on a loose
seedbed or on sites where litter has accumulated.
Uses and Management
Forage value for cattle and sheep is rated good to
excellent during early growth stages, and poor to good
later in the season. Forage value for elk (Kufeld 1973)
and deer (Kufeld and others 1973), is greater than for
livestock (Hermann 1966; Judd 1962; USDA Forest
Service 1937).
The species develops a stout, woody root system that
enables it to stabilize soil and withstand considerable
grazing, trampling, and some drought. Seedings on
fertile soils have been most successful. Attempting to
seed or use this species on sites where it does not
normally occur is not recommended. However, this
forb spreads naturally and has successfully invaded
roadway disturbances. Richardson geranium can persist with moderate to heavy grazing. Plants appear to
be long-lived and spread well from natural seeding.
Newly seeded stands should not be grazed for at least
two growing seasons following planting. This species
frequently increases with proper management. It persists well with seeded grasses, including smooth brome
and intermediate wheatgrass. It is useful for adding
diverity to mixtures, especially where shade from
overstory species exists. Limited seed supplies restrict
the use of this species.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
Family Geraniceae
Geranium viscosissimum _________
Sticky Geranium
This species occurs in the same climatic and edaphic
areas as Richardson geranium. Its forage value for
cattle is rated from fair to good and from good to
excellent for sheep, deer, and elk (Buchanan and
others 1972; Kufeld 1973; Kufeld and others 1973;
Mueggler and Stewart 1980). Seed is collected, cleaned,
stored, and seeded in the same manner as described
for Richardson geranium. Seeds of sticky geranium
are a little larger with about 52,000 per lb (115,000 per
kg). These two species hybridize on the Wasatch Plateau of central Utah (fig. 10) (USDA Forest Service
1937).
Sticky geranium (fig. 11) can be distinguished from
Richardson geranium by its multiple, erect stems
bearing deep purple to pink colored flowers, and its
usually sticky and glandular herbage.
Figure 11—Sticky geranium.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
Family Fabaceae
Hedysarum boreale ______________
Figure 12—Utah sweetvetch.
Utah Sweetvetch
Utah or northern sweetvetch (fig. 12) is a native
perennial member of the legume or pea family that
grows 10 to 30 inches (25 to 76 cm) tall and 30 to 80
Figure 10—Hybrid of Richardson and sticky
geranium.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
inches (76 to 203 cm) wide. Blossoms are bright rosepink to purple and very showy. Leaves are green
above and grayish on the underside. Growth begins
early in spring and provides a considerable amount of
early spring forage that is highly palatable to both big
game and domestic livestock. An abundance of forage is provided with some basal leaves remaining
green throughout the winter (Rumbaugh 1983).
This species produces a tap root (Welsh and others
1987). Some strains are rhizomatous (Ford and others
1984). This species has nitrogen fixing capabilities
(Ford 1988; Ford and others 1989; Redente and Reeves
1981). Abundant seed is produced most years. Considerable variation occurs within the species, and there
are a number of subspecies and varieties (Ford 1988;
Northstrom and Welsh 1970, 1979; Rollins 1940).
Utah sweetvetch is the most abundant sweetvetch in
the Intermountain West.
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Chapter 19
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Utah sweetvetch occurs in most Western States
(Ford 1988). It has fair shade tolerance (Rumbaugh
and Townsend 1985; Wasser 1982) and can be found
in subalpine, aspen, mountain brush, ponderosa pine,
pinyon-juniper, and big sagebrush types. In northern
Utah it has been found in the shadscale saltbush type
(Plummer and others 1968). Sweetvetch grows with
10 to 36 inches (25 to 91 cm) of annual precipitation
on acidic or basic soils ranging from sands to heavy
clays (Plummer 1977), making it well adapted to
semiarid areas of the Intermountain West (Redente
1980).
This species has a stout, branched, woody taproot,
thus it can take advantage of deep soil moisture,
resulting in considerable drought resistance and winter hardiness. Rhizomatous accessions have been reported (Ford and others 1984, 1989; McKell and others
1979; Plummer and others 1968; Rumbaugh 1984).
Plant Culture
Flowering occurs in late May and June. Seeds mature in late July and early August. A segmented
loment or pod is formed (fig. 13) that can be harvested
by hand or with a combine. Seed has been successfully
produced under cultivation. Seeds can be stored
and seeded in or out of the pod. Seeds should be
treated with an insecticide to control insect damage.
There are about 33,000 seeds per lb (73,000 per kg) at
100 percent purity. Acceptable purity and germination in the commercial market is 90 and 60 percent. By
extracting the seed from the pod, unfilled, damaged,
and immature seed can be removed. Seed is extracted
from the pod with a debearder or Dybvig. Heat and
mechanical breakage resulting from improper use of
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
either machine can reduce viability of the seed lot.
Seed can be stored up to 5 years without any significant loss in viability (Stevens and Jorgensen 1994).
Good results can be expected from direct seeding.
Seeding should occur in the fall or early winter, with
the seed covered at least 0.13 inch (3 mm) but not more
than 0.38 inch (10 mm) of soil. Seeds should be inoculated with the appropriate inoculant (Redente and
Reeves 1981; Rumbaugh and Johnson 1984). Seed can
be drilled or broadcast. Utah sweetvetch should not be
seeded where its seedlings are in direct competition
with seedlings of aggressive species. If drilled, this
forb should be seeded in rows separate from grasses.
Utah sweetvetch does not produce strong seedlings.
Germination is slow and seedling emergence follows
that of many other species. Seedlings and young plants
also develop slowly. Flowering does not occur until the
third or fourth year following planting. Once established, this species is very persistent, particularly
when seeded with other herbs. Plants can be established by transplanting in the early spring (Institute
for Land Rehabilitation 1979).
Uses and Management
Livestock and big game make considerable use of
Utah sweetvetch (Hermann 1966; Plummer and others 1968; Rumbaugh 1984; USDA Forest Service
1937; Wasser 1982). Spring growth provides succulent
forage. Considerable green herbage is retained throughout the growing season, and basal leaves remain green
through the winter (Redente 1980; Rumbaugh 1984).
This species is thought to be a bloat-safe legume
(Rumbaugh and Townsend 1985). It has considerable
potential for improving big game and livestock ranges,
and for stabilization of disturbed and eroding areas
(Plummer and others 1968; Redente and Reeves 1981).
Seeded areas should not be grazed for at least 2 years
following seeding. Once established, this species can
withstand considerable use; however, continual use
has reduced its density in some areas.
Varieties and Ecotypes
‘ Timp’ exhibits excellent growth rate, seed production, and nitrogen fixing capacity. This variety is fairly
widely adapted.
Family Compositae
Helianthella uniflora _____________
Oneflower Helianthella
Figure 13—Segmented loment of Utah sweetvetch.
440
There are eight species of Helianthella in North
America (Weber 1952), with oneflower helianthella
having the widest distribution. Plants are upright
with erect heads. Seeds are flat and covered with
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
hair, whereas most sunflower seeds are thick and
lack pubescence. Oneflower helianthella produces yellow flowers in late May and early June, and seeds
mature in July (Hermann 1966).
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Oneflower helianthella (fig. 14) ranges from Montana
to Oregon and south to New Mexico, mainly in mountain brush, aspen, spruce-fir, and ponderosa pine
types (Hermann 1966; USDA Forest Service 1937). It
does well in full sunlight and partial shade, growing on
dry hillsides, open woods, and intermixed in various
shrub communities.
Plant Culture
Seed matures in July and can be collected by hand,
stripping, mechanical beating, or combining. Seed is
easily cleaned, by screening to remove debris. Seeds
do not remain viable for more than 2 years (Stevens
and Jorgensen 1994). There are just over 52,000 seeds
per lb (115,000 per kg) at 100 percent purity.
Direct seeding by drilling or broadcasting has worked
well. When seeding oneflower helianthella, seed should
be covered no more than 0.38 inch (10 mm). Germination is rapid, and strong seedlings develop quickly.
This species does well seeded in mixtures with other
herbs. Reproduction from new seedings usually
occurs within 3 to 4 years after the initial planting.
Uses and Management
The leaves, flowers, and more tender portions of the
stems of oneflower helianthella are eaten by big game
and livestock. Palatability is rated as poor to fair for
cattle and elk, and fair to good for sheep and deer
(Kufeld and others 1973; Mueggler and Stewart 1980).
This perennial provides considerable forage in the
spring and through the summer.
Oneflower helianthella can be seeded in mixtures
with other herbs to furnish diversity and forage. The
plant grows on a variety of sites, occupying harsh open
conditions, yet also doing well on moist, fertile soils in
some shade. When seeded with native and introduced
grasses, it persists well and provides useful forage. It
will spread to colonize open disturbances, and can be
used to beautify recreational sites and roadways. It
usually does not provide a dense ground cover, but
mixtures of oneflower helianthella with other herbs
are useful for controlling erosion.
New seedlings should receive at least two growing
seasons of nonuse following planting. Selective grazing of this species does not occur, and it can be easily
maintained in a mixture with other herbs on summer
ranges.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Figure 14—Oneflower helianthella in full bloom.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
Family Umbelliferae
Heracleum lanatum ______________
Cow Parsnip
There are about 60 species of Heracleum throughout the world. However, only one, cow parsnip, occurs
in North America (Hitchcock and others 1961). Cow
parsnip forms a compound umbel (fig. 15), with flowers occurring at the ends of long, hollow stalks. Plants
are tall, often reaching 7 ft (2.1 m). The white to light
yellow flowers bloom in July and early August. Seed
matures in late August and early September. Roots
are woody, short, jointed, and aromatic. Leaves are
divided into three very large, irregularly toothed
leaflets, each 4 to 10 inches (10 to 25 cm) long.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Cow parsnip is found from Alaska, eastward across
Canada, and south through the Western States and to
Georgia. In the Intermountain West, cow parsnip
occurs in aspen, spruce-fir, and subalpine areas, and
in meadows, with rich, loamy soils. This species prefer
some shade and exists in open woodlands.
Plant Culture
Cow parsnip seeds are flat, obovate in shape, and
fairly large, with just over 44,000 per lb (97,000 per kg).
Collection of seed is best accomplished by hand stripping or beating. If allowed to mature, good seed crops
are generally produced yearly. Seeds are easily
cleaned by screening to separate them from debris.
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Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Reproduction is by seed only. Continual annual
grazing will prevent seed production, reduce vigor,
and result in elimination of this forb. Cow parsnip is a
highly preferred species that requires deferred grazing. Seeded areas should not be grazed for at least two
growing seasons following planting.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
Family Umbelliferae
Ligusticum porteri _______________
Porter Ligusticum
Porter ligusticum (fig. 16) a North American native,
is a member of the umbel or carrot family (Welsh and
others 1987). Plants are perennial with a characteristic aromatic taproot. White flowers are borne in a
terminal umbel which is often subtended by a whorl of
three to eight lateral umbels. Flower stalks are hollow
and may attain a height of 4 ft (1.2 m). Flowering
occurs in July and early August. Seed matures in
August and September.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Figure 15—Cow parsnip in full bloom.
Germination is generally low, and viability is not
maintained for much more than 2 years (Stevens and
Jorgensen 1994).
Seed can be broadcast or drill seeded, preferably in
autumn before snowfall. Seed should not be covered
more than 0.5 inch (1.3 cm) deep. Seeds are rather
large and are difficult to seed in mixtures with smaller
seeds. Seeds must be placed in seedboxes separate
from smaller seeded species so that planting rates can
be properly controlled. Seeds can be easily fractured
during cleaning or mechanical planting. Seedlings
usually establish and grow rapidly, and can persist
when seeded with most herbs. Plants normally require 3 to 4 years to attain maximum size, but once
established they remain highly productive.
Porter ligusticum is the most widespread ligusticum
in the Intermountain West. It can be found in openings
in aspen, spruce-fir, and subalpine types and as a
component of the understory in aspen stands. Porter
ligusticum prefers well-drained soils. It has fairly
good drought tolerance and good winter hardiness,
and can withstand considerable grazing (USDA Forest Service 1937).
Uses and Management
Cow parsnip is highly palatable to livestock and big
game (Ellison 1951; Hermann 1966; USDA Forest
Service 1937). It has considerable potential as an
ornamental plant for summer homes, administration
buildings, and recreational areas.
442
Figure 16—Porter ligusticum growing in a
subalpine forb community.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
Plant Culture
If allowed to mature, good seed crops are generally
produced yearly. Seed is collected by hand stripping or
beating. Seed is flat, winged, and relatively easy to
separate from debris by screening. Dried seeds are
brittle and can be fractured or damaged by improper
cleaning or mechanical seeding. There are about
70,000 seeds per lb (154,000 per kg).
Seed can be stored for up to 5 years without
appreciable loss of viability (Stevens and Jorgensen
1994). Seed can be drilled or broadcast seeded. Fall
seeding onto a disturbed seedbed has worked well if
the seed is covered with soil. Seeds are heavy, irregularly shaped and do not flow well through most conventional seedboxes. However, when mixed with other
seeds of the same size, uniform plantings can be
achieved. Seeds are relatively large, and the gates of
most seedboxes must be opened wide enough to assure
passage. When this is done, seeds of smaller species
may be planted too heavily. Consequently, this species is often planted separately from other seeds, and
a carrier is added to aid in uniform planting.
Drill seeding at rates of 2 to 4 lb per acre (2.2 to
4.5 kg per ha) in separate rows from seeded grasses
is recommended. Broadcast seeding is possible if
followed by light harrowing or chaining. Although
studies have not identified specific ecotypic differences among populations, survival and growth rate
differences strongly indicate distinct ecotypes exist.
Seed lots should not be planted in different elevational
zones than the collection site. Moving seed from aspen
communities to sagebrush types is not advised.
Good germination and seedling establishment usually result from field plantings, but subsequent survival is often low. Plants are suited to grow with other
species and persist well in mixtures once established.
Some plantings have been conducted in the aspen and
oakbrush communities, but this forb also exhibits
usefulness in the upper sagebrush communities. It is
often encountered in openings and on shallow soils,
and can be seeded to improve forage conditions on
somewhat harsh situations.
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
Family Linaceae
Linum lewisii ssp. lewisii _________
Lewis Flax
There are approximately 100 Linum species in the
temperate regions of the world (Hitchcock and others
1961), with about 20 species occurring in the western
United States. Lewis flax is a delicate, erect perennial
sometimes reaching 3 ft (0.9 m) in height. Numerous
glabrous stems grow from a single crown with a woody
taproot. Flowers are generally sky blue (fig. 17), but
also range from white to dark blue. The petals are
caducous, dropping within 1 day of flowering. Flowers
open in the morning and close by mid-afternoon
(Howard and Jorgensen 1980). Flowering begins in
May and extends through June. Spherical capsules
that produce up to 10 seeds each mature in late July
and August.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Lewis flax ranges from Alaska south to California
and Texas (Harrington 1964). It is a perennial semievergreen that grows on well-drained soils ranging from
moderately basic to weakly acidic (Wasser 1982). Lewis
flax can be found in shadscale-saltbush, sagebrush
grass, and pinyon-juniper communities, and in openings in mountain brush, aspen, and conifer types,
especially on warmer south and west exposures. This
species is intolerant of poor drainage, flooding, and
high water tables (Wasser 1982).
Uses and Management
Livestock, particularly sheep, and big game make
considerable use of this species in spring and summer. It is highly sought out at all dates (Hermann
1966; Kufeld and others 1973; USDA Forest Service
1937). Seeded areas should not be grazed for at least 2
years following planting. Established stands should
be allowed to produce seed periodically, as reproduction is entirely from seed.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Figure 17—Lewis flax in full bloom.
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Chapter 19
Plant Culture
Lewis flax can be established easily from direct
seeding. Seeding can be accomplished by aerial and
hand broadcasting, drilling, and interseeding. Care
should be taken to ensure that seeds are not covered by
more than 0.13 inch (3 mm) of soil. Lewis flax has been
successfully seeded in range, wildlife, roadway, mine
disturbance, and landscape plantings. It establishes
well when included in mixtures (McKenzie and others
1980; Plummer and others 1970a), and grows and
reproduces well in association with other species
(Stevens and others 1981b). However, young plants
can be suppressed by competitive perennial grasses.
This species does well when seeded in mixtures with
shrubs. Generally, 0.25 to 0.5 lb per acre (0.3 to 0.6 kg
per ha) is seeded in mixtures. Reproduction is entirely
from seed. The species is well adapted to sagebrush,
pinyon-juniper, and mountain brush communities,
and is one of the few forbs that can be seeded successfully in the salt desert types (Monsen and Plummer
1978). Everett (1982) reported that Lewis flax was the
superior forb in a number of pinyon-juniper seedings.
It has been one of the most successful native forbs
seeded in the sagebrush and pinyon-juniper communities in Utah. Seeding is best accomplished in fall or
winter (Everett 1982; Howard and Jorgensen 1980).
Seeds require an afterripening period to obtain maximum germination (Eddleman 1977; Stevens and
Jorgensen 1994). Seed can be held in storage up to 10
years without any appreciable loss of viability (Stevens
and Jorgensen 1994).
Seed can be collected by hand, with power-driven
beaters, or with a combine. Seed production is generally high. Seed is also being successfully produced
under cultivation. Natural reproduction is usually
good, resulting in stable numbers and production
even though individual plants are relatively shortlived (4 to 7 years). Flowering occurs over a 6 week
period, causing seed to mature unevenly over an extended period of time. There are about 280,000 seeds
per lb (617,000 per kg) at 100 percent purity.
Uses and Management
Lewis flax produces basal foliage from a woody taproot (Plummer and others 1968). This species can be
classified as a semievergreen because some basal
foliage remains green throughout the winter. Animals
paw through the snow to reach the green growth in
winter. Early spring growth is grazed by big game,
upland game birds, and livestock. Forage value for
livestock and big game is moderate to high, and birds
and rodents seek out the seed (Everett and others
1978; Howard and Jorgensen 1980; Plummer and
others 1970a). Lewis flax responds well to late summer and fall storms by producing new basal leaves.
444
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Because it maintains green basal foliage year round,
this species does not burn readily, and it can be used
as a fire suppressant species. Lewis flax has the ability
to compete with and spread in some cheatgrass communities. When seeded in mixtures, Lewis flax establishes and spreads well. It quickly occupies open areas
and slowly suppresses annual weeds.
Flower color ranges from nearly white to dark blue.
Profuse flowering occurs for about 6 weeks (Addicott
1977), beginning in mid-May. The flowering characteristics of this species make it a prime ornamental
candidate. When seeded in a mixture, Lewis flax can
help make a seeding more aesthetically pleasing.
Seeded areas should not be grazed for at least 2 years
on better sites and 3 years on drier, poorer sites. Seed
should be allowed to mature periodically. Individual
plants are relatively short-lived (4 to 7 years). Abundant seed is produced when plants are not excessively
grazed. Lewis flax will reproduce and remain in most
seedings if properly managed.
Varieties and Ecotypes
‘Appar’ Lewis flax was released by the Utah Division
of Wildlife Resources, the USDA Forest Service Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, and
the USDA Soil Conservation Service Aberdeen Plant
Materials Center in 1980. This cultivar was named for
A. Perry Plummer. It was initially selected for its
appearance and competitiveness with native grasses.
It is easily grown under agricultural conditions and
has produced up to 700 lb of seed per acre (785 kg per
ha) with irrigation. ‘Appar’ exhibits a wide adaptability to sites in the Intermountain area. It is recommended for sites receiving 10 to 23 inches (25 to 58 cm)
of annual precipitation (Howard and Jorgensen 1980;
Shaw and Monsen 1983a). Pendleton and others (1993)
report that the origin of the cultivar appears to be
European and that it is derived from a naturalized
population of Linum perenne.
Maple Grove Lewis flax was released by the USDA
Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
and the USDA NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials
Center. It is a selected germplasm of Linum lewisii
that originated near Maple Grove, UT.
Family Umbelliferae
Lomatium triternatum ____________
Nineleaf Lomatium
Nineleaf lomatium (fig. 18) is a member of the
umbel or carrot family (Welsh and others 1987). It
was formerly identified as Lomatium simplex. It has
now been divided into two subspecies, L. triternatum
spp. platycarpum and L. triternatum spp. triternatum
(Hitchcock and others 1961; Welsh and others 1987).
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Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Uses and Management
Nineleaf lomatium is one of the first species to
begin growth following snowmelt. Extremely early
growth and development takes advantage of spring
soil moisture and provides much needed spring succulence for big game and livestock. Deer, elk, antelope,
cattle, and sheep make use of the foliage (Hermann
1966; Mueggler and Stewart 1980; USDA Forest Service 1937).
Large, deep taproots enable nineleaf lomatium to
withstand considerable drought, grazing, and trampling. Newly seeded areas should be given at least two
seasons of growth before they are grazed.
Figure 18—Lomatium in full bloom.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
This aromatic perennial forb, with yellow flowers and
green leaves, grows to about 14 inches (36 cm) in
height. It blooms in April and May, and seeds mature
in July and August.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Nineleaf lomatium occurs in central and southwestern Colorado, Montana, southwestern Canada, and
south from California, to Colorado (Hermann 1966;
Hitchcock and others 1961; Welsh and others 1987).
Nineleaf lomatium prefers well-drained or dry
rocky soils on flats, sunny open ridges, and slopes.
L. triternatum ssp. triternatum occurs in mountain
brush, ponderosa pine and aspen forests, and dry
valleys from 5,200 to 8,500 ft (1,600 to 2,600 m). L. triternatum ssp. platycarpum is present in sagebrushgrass types, pinyon-juniper, mountain brush, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, and dry meadow communities
from 4,300 to 9,500 ft (1,300 to 2,900 m) (Welsh and
others 1987).
Family Umbelliferae
Lomatium kingii _________________
Nuttall Lomatium
Nuttall lomatium, (fig. 19) formerly referred to as
Lomatium nuttallii (Welsh and others 1987), is a
native perennial forb that can be found growing from
sagebrush-grass up through the subalpine communities. It exists on basic and acidic soils (Plummer 1977;
Welsh and others 1987). Nuttall lomatium is not as
widely distributed as nineleaf lomatium. It does,
however, occur on drier sites and may have more
drought tolerance. Seed is best collected by hand.
Viability is generally high. Seeds are large with approximately 12,500 seeds per lb (28,000 per kg). More
Plant Culture
Seed matures in July and August. It can be hand
collected. Screening to remove debris is all that is
generally required to clean field-harvested seed.
Viability of freshly harvested seed is generally good
and remains high for 3 to 4 years. There are about
42,000 seeds per lb (93,000 per kg) at 100 percent
purity. Seed can be drilled or broadcast seeded. Seeding is best accomplished in the fall, with seed being
covered not more than 0.25 inch (6.4 mm) deep. This
species does well when seeded in mixtures with other
herbs.
Figure 19—Nuttall lomatium setting seed.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
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Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
than 70 percent germination can be expected even
after 5 years of storage (Stevens and Jorgensen 1994).
Seed is collected and cleaned in the same manner as
described for nineleaf lomatium.
This species is readily grazed by big game during
spring months. It is one of the first forbs to green up,
thus providing much sought after spring and early
summer succulence.
Family Fabaceae
Lupinus sericeus ________________
Silky Lupine
Silky lupine (fig. 20) is a highly variable native
perennial legume. Plants are usually 12 to 47 inches
(30 to 120 cm) tall, growing from a branching caudex.
Flowers and foliage are usually quite abundant.
Flowers are large, blue, blue-purple, or white (Welsh
and others 1987). Flowers emit a distinctive pungent
odor. The leaves are large, palmately compound, often
pubescent, and gray-green (Welsh and others 1987).
Individual seedpods usually contain 3 to 5 seeds.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Silky lupine ranges from southern Canada south to
New Mexico (Hermann 1966). It is common in the
Great Basin and can be found in sagebrush-grass,
pinyon-juniper, mountain brush, ponderosa pine, and
aspen types. Welsh and others (1987) reported that
silky lupine is one of the most widely distributed
species in Utah, with four different varieties reported.
It is most abundant in upper mountain brush and
aspen communities. This species grows on basic,
neutral, and slightly acid soils. It prefers open sunlight, but possesses some shade tolerance.
There are a number of perennial lupines in the
Intermountain West. Most tend to intergrade with
each other. Two common and abundant species are
silky lupine and silvery lupine.
Plant Culture
Seed is usually ready to harvest in early September.
Seed pods must be collected before they dry and seeds
are shattered. Consequently, seed is collected by hand
stripping of the complete inflorescence and, if in pure
stands, by mechanical seed beaters or combines. Following collection, the pods need to be further dried
before seeds can be extracted. During drying, collected
material must be covered with a screen to prevent seed
loss. As pods dry, they open, twist, and propel the
seed a distance of 3 to 10 ft (0.9 to 3.0 m). Lupine
seeds have considerable longevity. Silky lupine seeds
have been stored for 20 years and still retained 72
percent germination (Stevens and Jorgensen 1994).
446
Figure 20—Silky lupine.
Seeds are rather large with only 13,000 per lb (29,000
per kg). Most seeds imbibe water when planted but
some fail to germinate. Some seeds that fail to germinate are lighter in color than healthy seeds. Silky
lupine should be seeded in the fall to meet stratification requirements. Seed can be drilled or broadcast,
with seed covered not more than 0.25 inch (6.4 mm)
deep.
Silky lupine establishes well when seeded on disturbed or depleted sites in acid or basic soils (Plummer
1977). Fairly strong seedlings are produced; however,
full plant development can be somewhat slow, with
flowers not being produced for 3 to 5 years following
seeding.
Good numbers of seedlings appear from most
plantings. However, plant numbers are generally reduced quite dramatically the first growing season.
Plants that persist the first year are usually very
hardy and will persist even under adverse conditions.
Young plants are quite competitive and persist with
some competition. To date, most range seedings have
been conducted using seed collected from aspen communities. These sources are not suited to lower, drier
elevations.
Uses and Management
Silky lupine is one native legume that has good
potential for revegetation of ranges in upper sagebrush-grass, mountain brush, ponderosa pine, and
aspen types. This species provides early spring succulence and is grazed by cattle, sheep, deer, rodents,
and small mammals throughout the year (Hermann
1966; Holechek and others 1982; Kufeld and others 1973;
Plummer and others 1968). It can be seeded in mixtures or in separate drill rows from grasses and other
broadleaf herbs. It is extremely productive and provides not only useful forage but also soil protection
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
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Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
and erosion control. It persists with grazing, and does
well as an understory species. It can be used in riparian disturbances and on dry meadows that are not
flooded.
Silky lupine often recovers well when disturbed
sites are protected for a number of years. Rodents
gather and forage on lupine seeds and can interfere
with seedings and natural spread. Seeded areas should
not be grazed for at least 2 years, and in some cases,
3 years following planting. Once established, this
species has excellent grazing and drought tolerance.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
Family Fabaceae
Lupinus argenteus ______________
Figure 22—‘Nomad’ alfalfa. Yellow- and blue-flowered
alfalfa growing together on a pinyon-juniper site.
Silvery Lupine
A major difference between silvery lupine and silky
lupine is the presence of less pubescence on the leaves
and stems of silvery lupine. Its flowers are predominantly blue-purple, blue, and white. Meeuwig (1960)
reported that silvery lupine has outstanding forage,
ground cover, and revegetation potential at higher
elevations. Most of the perennial lupines readily hybridize (Hermann 1966). Lupinus alpestris is now
included as part of the silvery lupine complex (Welsh
and others 1987). Seed production, seed handling,
seeding, and seedling establishment characteristics of
silvery lupine are similar to those of silky lupine.
Silvery lupine occurs at higher elevations than does
silky lupine. Major areas of occurrence are aspen,
spruce-fir, and subalpine herblands (fig. 21).
Poisonous Characteristics
Some lupines, including silky and silvery, have
poisonous characteristics and can cause death if used
improperly during some seasons of the year (Davis
1982b; Davis and Stout 1986; James and others 1980;
USDA Soil Conservation Service 1968). Care should
be taken with livestock where substantial quantities
of lupine are available. Livestock that obtain forage of
other species in addition to lupine are generally not
adversely affected (USDA Soil Conservation Service
1972b). When planting lupine, care should be taken to
ensure that it is seeded in mixtures with other species, and that large, solid stands are not established.
Family Fabaceae
Medicago sativa
Medicago falcata ________________
Alfalfa
Sicklepod Alfalfa
Figure 21—Silvery lupine in a subalpine community.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Two species, Medicago sativa (alfalfa) and M. falcata
(sicklepod alfalfa), were introduced to North America
(Hansen 1913). Alfalfa is generally blue-flowered (fig.
22) and nonrhizomatous, whereas sicklepod alfalfa is
generally yellow-flowered and somewhat rhizomatous.
Both species are perennials. Stems normally reach
11 to 40 inches (30 to 100 cm), depending on growing
conditions. Stems are branched; some are ascending.
Most range varieties form decumbent stems at the
base of the plant. Varieties cultivated for hay production or irrigated pastures are normally more erect.
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Chapter 19
Leaves of alfalfa are glabrous to hairy, alternate,
and pinnately trifoliolate; the leaflets are serrate
distally and oblanceolate to oblong. Flowers are small,
usually less than 7 to 10 mm long. Fruits consist of
several-seeded spiral pods (Harrington 1964). Plants
produce an abundance of herbage, with growth beginning early in the spring.
Alfalfa is a complex taxon with nine recognized
subspecies (Gunn and others 1978). These express
intergrading morphologies and hybridize quite freely.
The genus evolved in the Mediterranean region. The
perennial mesophytic subspecies arose in Western
and Central Asia (Lesins and Lesins 1979). Diploid
(2N = 16) and tetraploid (2N = 32) forms commonly
occur. Most cultivars are tetraploid (Rumbaugh and
Townsend 1985). Lesins and Lesins (1979) report that
the diploid populations of alfalfa originate from steep
mountainous regions.
Miller and Melton (1983) described over 400 cultivars and strains of alfalfa in North America. Today
there are many more. The origin of the 15 most
commonly grazed populations are described by
Rumbaugh (1982a). All dryland forage types are interspecific hybrids of alfalfa and sicklepod alfalfa
(Rumbaugh and Townsend 1985) (fig. 23). These
authors reported that sicklepod alfalfa contributes
genes that increase drought tolerance, winter hardiness, and tolerance to grazing. Alfalfa germplasm
enhances resistance to disease and insects and improves forage and seed production.
Most range and field varieties of alfalfa used in
Western range plantings arose from the early efforts
of Dr. N. E. Hansen (1913) of South Dakota. Early
testing conducted by Dr. Hansen, led to identification
of population with spreading root systems. This characteristic has subsequently been bred into field and
range varieties (Rumbaugh and Pedersen 1979).
Canadian scientists later advanced the usefulness of
this species by breeding varieties with better grazing and cold tolerance (Heinricks 1963). Alfalfas
were entered into extensive field plantings within
the Intermountain region in the 1930’s. Numerous
field and range varieties have subsequently been
developed.
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Figure 23—‘Rambler’ alfalfa seeded into rootplow
strips in a Gambel oak-mountain big sagebrush
community.
Seedling establishment is rapid, and seeding success rate can be high. Grazing stimulates rhizome
production, which results in increased crown size and
ground cover (Rosenstock and Stevens 1989).
Alfalfa is well suited to harsh sites and infertile
soils. Under these conditions seedlings of few other
herbs survive as well as alfalfa. Once established,
alfalfa serves as an excellent nurse crop. Although
plants begin growth early in the spring, they do not
prevent the entry of other species. Alfalfa may produce
considerable annual litter that provides a good cover
for the seedbed. Once established, alfalfa is very persistent (Rumbaugh 1982b) (fig. 25), but little reproduction has occurred from established stands on
rangeland sites (Rosenstock and Stevens 1989). Rhizomatous forms do spread vegetatively even under
arid conditions.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Rangeland varieties of alfalfa are well adapted to
areas that receive 10 inches (25 cm) or more of annual
precipitation. They are especially well-adapted to sagebrush/grass, pinyon-juniper, and mountain brush
(fig. 24) communities. They have been seeded and
have performed fairly well in aspen, spruce-fir, and
subalpine types. This forb is semievergreen, having
green basal leaves throughout the winter. Growth
starts in the spring when the plant is exposed from
underneath the snow. Once grazed, regrowth of rangeland types is limited compared to that of irrigated
alfalfas.
448
Figure 24—‘Ladak’ alfalfa on a 27-year-old
pinyon-juniper chained site.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
Figure 25—Rehabilitated range 21 years following chaining of juniper-pinyon and aerial
seeding. Thirteen grasses, shrubs, and forbs
were seeded. After 21 years alfalfa is the
predominant forb.
Plant Culture
Alfalfa is the most widely seeded rangeland forb in
the Intermountain West (Rumbaugh 1984; Rumbaugh
and Townsend 1985). Depending on the rangeland
sites and seeding technique, it can be seeded in the fall
or spring. Planting early in the spring usually produces good stands, but plantings in late fall or winter
have been satisfactory in large restoration programs.
Late winter plantings may prevent precocious germination (Plummer and others 1968), but alfalfa
germinates quickly in early spring and may succumb
to spring frosts.
Seed can be drilled or broadcast seeded, but it must
be covered. Aerial seeding followed by anchor chaining
or pipe harrowing and aerial seeding on snow over
disturbed soil has produced excellent rangeland stands.
Broadcast planting has often been more successful
than drilling (Plummer and others 1968). Fall aerial
seeding on a rough seedbed has resulted in excellent
stands (fig. 25). Whether broadcast or drilled, seed
should be covered 0.25 to 0.5 inch (6 to 13 mm) deep
(Plummer and others 1968; USDA Soil Conservation
Service 1971a).
Alfalfa is particularly adapted to drill or broadcast
seeding in mixtures with other species. Seeds are
rather small, round, and smooth. When mixed with
grasses, seed sorting and separation can occur in the
seedbox. Alfalfa seed usually does not separate when
mixed with grasses if planted at a ratio of 1 to 5.
Separate legume seedboxes are mounted on most
drills. The legume boxes are designed to dispense the
small alfalfa seed more accurately than the larger
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
seedboxes and eliminate seed separation when mixtures are planted.
Although alfalfa seeds should be planted slightly
shallower than large seeded grasses, adequate stands
normally appear when they are drilled together. Alfalfa seedings develop rapidly and compete favorably
with many grasses and other broadleaf herbs. Alfalfa
seedlings, however, do not compete well with seedlings of crested and intermediate wheatgrass and
smooth brome.
Because of the possibility of bloat, alfalfa should be
seeded as a component of a mixture when planted in a
pasture (Lorenz 1982). Up to 40 percent by weight of
a grass-legume mixture has been seeded to alfalfa
without causing bloat problems to livestock. Bloat has
not been observed as a problem on mixed rangeland
seedings.
Because alfalfa is highly utilized by livestock, big
and small game, birds, rodents, and rabbits, a sufficient number of plants must be established to ensure
the species is not eliminated by overuse. On most
ranges, at least 2 lb of seed per acre (2.2 kg per ha)
should be planted in the seed mix. Seed costs are
generally not prohibitive, and under some conditions
alfalfa should be planted at even higher rates. As
seeding rates are increased, stand density also increases. Seeding alfalfa at rates exceeding 6 to 8 lb per
acre (6.7 to 9.0 kg per ha) is unnecessary. There are
about 220,000 seeds per lb (485,000 per kg). Purity is
generally over 95 percent with germination at least
85 percent. Under warehouse storage seed longevity is
excellent and little viability is lost after 25 years
(Stevens and Jorgensen 1994).
Alfalfa is able to fix nitrogen, thereby improving
soil fertility. Johnson and Rumbaugh (1981) reported that alfalfa appears able to fix nitrogen even
during periods of drought when other legumes do not
nodulate.
Uses and Management
Alfalfa is heavily grazed by livestock, big and small
game, upland game birds, rodents, and rabbits during
all seasons (fig. 26). The inclusion of alfalfa in a
rangeland seeding can have a number of positive
effects. It can (1) increase total herbage production, (2)
increase production and protein content of associated
species (Johnson and others 1983; Rumbaugh and
others 1981, 1982), (3) extend the grazing season, both
during spring and fall, (4) increase diversity (flora and
fauna) of seeded communities, and (5) improve soil
stability. Species growing in association with alfalfa
are generally positively affected by its ability to fix
nitrogen (Johnson and others 1983; Rumbaugh and
others 1981, 1982). Consequently, alfalfa can be
interseeded into established grass stands to improve
vigor and herbage production.
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Chapter 19
Figure 26—Alfalfa seeding in a chained pinyon-juniper basin big sagebrush area. Deer
use only on left, rabbit and deer use on right.
Alfafa is compatible with native species in seedings
in mountain brush, pinyon-juniper and big sagebrush communities. The forb has not noticeably diminished or eliminated native broadleaf herbs or
grasses.
Regrowth capacity varies among varieties. Deeprooted types possess better regrowth capabilities than
rhizomatous range types. Alfalfa initiates growth early
in the spring and remains green and productive as
long as soil moisture permits. It can recover following
grazing or clipping. It normally attains maximum
production after most cool-season grasses cease
growth. Certain strains of grass, including ‘Latar’
orchardgrass and ‘Greenar’ intermediate wheatgrass,
mature when alfalfa is at the optimum stage of growth
for harvesting as hay (Hafenrichter and others 1968).
These species can be planted in mixtures to significantly extend the season of grazing and enhance total
herbage production. Alfalfa also furnishes excellent
fall green-up, and standing crops cure quite well.
Consequently, this species has been used in wildlife
seedings to attract and keep game animals from trespassing in agricultural fields. Areas seeded to alfalfa
should not be grazed for a minimum of two growing
seasons following seeding. Early use can result in poor
survival and loss of vigor (Berdahl and others 1986).
Drier areas may require additional time before stands
fully establish.
It is not unusual for seedlings and young plants to
succumb during the first 1 to 3 years following planting (Rosenstock and Stevens 1989). Once established,
however, alfalfa has considerable longevity, resistance to grazing and trampling, and moderate shade
tolerance. Kilcher and Heinrichs (1966b), Pearse (1965),
Rosenstock and Stevens (1989), and Rumbaugh and
450
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Peterson (1979) reported excellent stands persist
23 to 28 years after seeding on sites with 8 to 11.5 inches
(20 to 29 cm) of precipitation. The Utah Division of
Wildlife Resources has aerial seeded alfalfa on over
150,000 acres (60,700 ha) of game range during the
past 30 years. At a few sites, there has been a major
loss in plant density. Where a decrease in density has
occurred, it has been a result of continuous heavy
rabbit use and continual spring use by cattle. Similar
results have been reported by Rumbaugh and Pedersen
(1979) and USDA Soil Conservation Service (1971a).
Rumbaugh (1982b) reported that stand density of
eight different varieties was adequately maintained
during a 25-year period, with proper spring grazing by
cattle. Where insufficient seed is planted and plant
density is low, considerable grazing pressure will
reduce the stand At least 2 lb. (0.9 kg) of seed per acre
should be seeded to ensure sufficient density to sustain grazing.
Alfalfa generally receives more grazing pressure than
other associated species and withstands greater use
than other broadleaf herbs. Weakened stands recover
readily when grazing pressures are removed. The deep
taproot, large crowns, and extensive rhizomes enable
the plant to persist over extended periods of drought.
New seedings can be damaged by continuous grazing
by rabbits, rodents, livestock, or big game animals.
Insects, including grasshoppers, have seriously defoliated alfalfa, often within a 2 to 5 day period. Attempting to seed alfalfa and palatable grasses in areas with
high rabbit populations can be risky. Once established, mature plants can usually recover from cyclic
periods of heavy use, but young seedlings cannot.
Alfalfa can be used to sustain big game animals
during the early spring and summer months. Plantings established on pinyon-juniper sites in central
Utah clearly attract deer and provide a substantial
part of their diet, beginning in early March and continuing until early June (Rosenstock and others 1989).
Wildland sites seeded to support big game should be
grazed only lightly by livestock. If plants are subjected
to stress by drought or excessive use by insects or
rabbits, livestock grazing should be curtailed.
Alfalfa has been seeded on some rather arid sites,
including sites dominated by Wyoming big sagebrush
and shadscale saltbush. When seeded during years of
average precipitation, plants usually establish. However, failures can be expected if seeding occurs during
years with low precipitation. Plantings can be maintained under arid circumstances if grazed judiciously.
Varieties and Ecotypes
A number of strains of alfalfa—‘Ladak’, ‘Rambler’,
and ‘Nomad’—are adapted to ranges where annual
precipitation exceeds 10 inches (25 cm) (Plummer and
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Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
others 1968; Rumbaugh 1982b). These strains produce much larger crowns than the usual field strains
and have more complex root systems. In addition, they
survive better from underground attacks by gophers
and other rodents. Some plants also spread by stem
layering. Consequently, these strains are superior for
seeding rangelands (Plummer and others 1968).
‘Ladak’ is the best known and most widely used
rangeland variety. If seeds of several strains are
available, a mixture may be used. The varieties mentioned above have shown unusual persistence and
production under heavy grazing and lower precipitation (Plummer and others 1968). Other cultivars—‘Spreader’, ‘Spreader II’, ‘Rhizoma’, ‘Runner’,
‘Travois’, ‘Teton’, and ‘Drylander’—have also demonstrated good adaptability to wildland sites.
Additional varieties are currently being developed
for rangelands. A major concern is to improve drought
tolerance so the forb may be planted in more arid
environments.
Family Fabaceae
Melilotus officinalis ______________
Yellow Sweetclover
The two most abundant sweetclovers on Western
ranges are yellow sweetclover (yellow-flowered), and
white sweetclover (white-flowered). Neither are native to North America. There are annual and biennial
forms of each; however, most populations are biennials (Rumbaugh 1984; Smith and Gorz 1965). During
the first season, only vegetative growth occurs; during
the second season, long, well-branched stems 1 to 6 ft
(0.3 to 1.8 m) tall (fig. 27) develop. Leaves are trifoliolate, and dentate margined, with small narrow
stipules. Flowering occurs on long narrow racemes,
and single seeds are produced in straight smooth
pods (Hermann 1966). After flowering and seed
maturation, plants usually die.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Yellow sweetclover originated in Europe and Asia
and is now distributed over most of the United States
and Southern Canada. The species is especially adapted
to disturbed sites. It has a strong seedling, fairly good
drought resistance, and good winter hardiness (USDA
Forest Service 1937; USDA Soil Conservation Service
1971b). It grows well with over 10 inches (25 cm)
annual precipitation in aspen, mountain brush,
ponderosa pine, big and black sagebrush, and pinyon-juniper types. Yellow sweetclover also does
well in saline and alkaline soils and on many riparian
sites (Plummer 1977; USDA Soil Conservation Service 1968, 1971b; Wasser 1982).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Figure 27—Yellow sweetclover.
Plant Culture
Seed production of yellow sweetclover is generally high. There are more than 250,000 seeds per lb
(550,000 per kg). Germination is generally high, and
good viability is retained for at least 2 years with
warehouse storage. Adequate, inexpensive seed is
generally available. Like most legumes, sweetclover
seeds have a hard coat and are best seeded in the fall
or winter. Seeds can lie dormant in the soil for years
and then germinate when temperatures and moisture
conditions are favorable. In central Utah, seedings
more than 35 years old still retain some yellow
sweetclover. Nichols and Johnson (1969) report that
with 15 inches (38 cm) of precipitation, yellow
sweetclover will reseed successfully. Seeds can be
drilled or broadcast on relatively unprepared seedbeds. Best stand establishment occurs when seeds are
planted 0.13 to 0.25 inch (3 to 6 mm) deep, preferably
on a fairly firm seedbed.
Uses and Management
Yellow sweetclover is frequently seeded on Western
rangelands (Rumbaugh and Townsend 1985). It is an
effective erosion control species because it has an
extensive, deep taproot system and a strong vigorous
451
Chapter 19
seedling. It also produces a dense ground cover in 1 or
2 months and fixes nitrogen. Up to maturity, palatability is high for big and small game (Graham 1942;
Kufeld 1973; Kufeld and others 1973; Mueggler and
Stewart 1980; Plummer and others 1968; Rumbaugh
1984; USDA 1971b) and for livestock (Hermann 1966;
USDA Forest Service 1937; USDA Soil Conservation
Service 1971b), with forage quality reportedly higher
than that of alfalfa (Magness and others 1971;
Rumbaugh 1984). Waterfowl, upland game birds, and
bees also use yellow sweetclover (Autenrieth and others 1982; Rumbaugh 1984; USDA Soil Conservation
Service 1971b). The species has a very strong seedling
that emerges in the spring, providing early succulence. Yellow sweetclover provides much needed live
ground cover and forage during the critical first and
second years. It can be seeded at 0.5 to 2 lb per acre
(0.56 to 2.2 kg per ha), (Nichols and Johnson 1969;
Plummer and others 1968; USDA Soil Conservation
Service 1971b). Yellow sweetclover is generally seeded
with perennials on disturbed sites. It furnishes initial
cover and forage as slower developing herbs attain
mature stature. It withstands heavy use and can
reseed following fires or other disturbances.
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Figure 28—Tall bluebell in full bloom.
11,000 ft (1,800 to 3,400 m). The species can be found
along streams in canyon bottoms, meadows, parks,
and in scattered timber stands. It grows well in shade
and open situations in pure stands as well as in mixed
communities. Tall bluebell is present in all mountain
regions of Utah, southwestern Wyoming, and northwestern Colorado (Cronquist and others 1984).
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are three released varieties—‘Goldtop’,
‘Madrid’, and ‘Yukon’ (Wasser 1982). These varieties
have not performed any better than the common seed
sources. Most seed marketed is from uncertified
common lots.
Family Boraginaceae
Mertensia arizonica ______________
Tall Bluebell
Tall bluebell is the most widely distributed Mertensia
in the Intermountain West (Higgins 1972; Mathews
1968). There are, however, other bluebells that are
locally important (Hermann 1966). Different varieties
of tall bluebell have been described, particularly from
collections obtained in Utah (Cronquist and others
1984; Welsh and others 1987). Tall bluebell is a rhizomatous native perennial with a thick, woody root. It
grows to a height of 2 ft (61 cm) and produces an
abundance of pale blue to very dark blue flowers
(fig. 28). Leaves are abundant and are borne on erect
stems. Fruits are hard and consist of four nutlets
(Cronquist and others 1984).
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Tall bluebell occurs in fairly moist to well-drained
soils in aspen, spruce-fir, ponderosa pine, and subalpine types, usually at elevations from 6,000 to
452
Plant Culture
Flowering occurs during midsummer. Seeds mature
in September and can be collected by hand stripping,
beating, and in pure stands with various types of
combines. Germination is generally high (60 to 70
percent), with good viability being maintained for at
least 5 years. Seeding is best accomplished in the fall
on disturbed soil, with seed covered 0.25 to 0.5 inch
(6 to 13 mm) deep. Tall bluebell can be seeded in
mixtures with other herbs. It usually grows on fertile
soils. When planted on disturbed, degraded sites it has
not done well. Under good conditions, plants establish
quickly and reach maturity in 3 to 5 years. Plants
spread slowly by rhizomes, yet are very persistent and
compatible with other native species when seeded in
mixtures.
Uses and Management
Sheep, elk (Kufeld 1973), and deer (Kufeld and
others 1973) seek tall bluebell and gain weight exceptionally well on the herbage. Cattle prefer the flower
stalks but will make use of all plant parts (USDA
Forest Service 1937). Sheep graze the herb whenever
available. The bluebells are generally very showy and
fairly easily seeded or transplanted, and are good soil
stabilizers. Consequently, the plant is a good candidate for use in recreational areas, summer home sites,
and areas with high aesthetic value and use. The
plant furnishes such excellent forage that it should
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Chapter 19
be included in most seedings on adapted sites. However, the lack of sufficient seed currently curtails the
use of this forb. This species has not done well if
planted off site, particularly at lower elevations where
it normally does not occur.
Newly seeded areas should not be grazed for at least
2 years. Large fibrous root systems, once established,
allow tall bluebell to withstand periods of drought,
grazing, and trampling. Concentrated use can occur if
seedings are not properly managed.
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
inches (36 cm) of annual precipitation. Sainfoin prefers well-drained, deep calcareous soils (Eslick 1968),
exhibits fairly good salt tolerance (Jensen and Sharp
1968), and grows well in soils low in phosphorus
(Rumbaugh and Townsend 1985).
Plant Culture
Sainfoin (fig. 29) is a perennial, nonbloating, introduced legume that grows 1 to 3 ft (30 to 91 cm) tall, and
produces white or pink to purplish pea-like flowers.
Stems are semierect, originating from a branched root
crown attached to a deep main taproot. Leaves are
alternate, odd-pinnate and oblong to elliptic or oblanceolate (Rumbaugh and Townsend 1985; Welsh and
others 1987).
Single seeds are produced in pods and are marketed
unshelled. There are about 26,000 unshelled seeds
per lb (57,000 per kg). Unshelled seeds are best drilled,
but can be broadcast if covered sufficiently. Seed
should be covered at least 0.25 inch (6 mm) and not
more than 0.75 inch (19 mm) deep (Jensen and Sharp
1968). Seeding is best done on a firm seedbed that is
relatively weed free. For range seeding, it is best to
seed in the fall. Seed should be inoculated with the
proper rhizobium (Dubbs 1968). Seed is marketed
with about 70 percent germination and 95 percent
purity. When seeded in a mixture, about 2 to 5 lb per
acre (2.2 to 5.6 kg per ha) is recommended. Seed can
be stored up to 4 years without much loss of viability.
This species can be seeded individually or as a
component of a mixture. A strong seedling is usually
produced. Rate of growth following seeding is only fair
on mesic sites. However, plants are quite persistent
and hardy. Two years are required for flowering to
occur under favorable conditions.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Uses and Management
Sainfoin was introduced into North America from
Europe. It has been used primarily as a hay or pasture
crop. However, the species demonstrates considerable
usefulness for rangelands.
Sainfoin is adapted to sagebrush, pinyon-juniper,
and mountain brush areas that receive at least 14
Sainfoin is nonbloating and palatable to livestock,
big game, and sage-grouse (Autenrieth and others
1982; Holder 1968; Rumbaugh 1984; Shaw and Cooper 1973; USDA Soil Conservation Service 1968a).
Mule deer in Utah have been observed to prefer sainfoin hay over alfalfa hay. Sainfoin has a deep taproot
and has wilt and drought hardiness equal to or slightly
less than does ‘Ladak’ alfalfa (Dubbs 1968; USDA Soil
Conservation Service 1968a). Some basal leaves remain green throughout most of the winter. Sainfoin
starts growth early in the spring, usually prior to
alfalfa. It continues to grow or remains green
throughout the summer period. Once grazed or clipped,
regrowth is limited. Characteristics that give sainfoin
considerable potential in the Intermountain area as a
forage crop include early greenup, cold and drought
tolerance, nonbloating characteristics, high forage production potential, ability to grow with other species,
and adaptation to calcareous soil.
Areas seeded to sainfoin should not be grazed for at
least the first two growing seasons. Every 2 to 3 years,
seed should be allowed to mature and seed naturally.
Plants are persistent and withstand heavy clipping or
grazing. Once established, this species also competes
fairly well in mixed communities.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
Family Fabaceae
Onobrychis viciaefolia
Sainfoin
Figure 29—Sainfoin growing with crested wheatgrass and basin big sagebrush.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
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Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Varieties and Ecotypes
A number of improved varieties have been released,
including ‘Eski’, ‘Melrose’, ‘Nova’, ‘Onar’, ‘Remont’,
and ‘Runemex’. All were released for cultivated pastures and for hay. ‘Eski’ is the most commonly seeded
variety on ranges. This variety does well when seeded
in upper pinyon-juniper, mountain big sagebrush, and
mountain brush areas.
Family Umbelliferae
Osmorhiza occidentalis __________
Sweetanise
Sweetanise is an erect, perennial, aromatic native
that grows up to 4 ft (1.2 m) tall (Welsh and others
1987) (fig. 30). Crushed leaves and seed give off a
heavy licorice odor (Hermann 1966). It is a member of
the umbel or carrot family and produces small umbels
of yellowish-green flowers. Flowering occurs in May
and June, and seed matures in September. Fruits are
slender and sharp-pointed.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Sweetanise occurs from Western Canada south
through Utah and Colorado. It grows well in shade,
open areas, mixed communities, and in solid stands.
Sweetanise prefers cool, moist woods, moist hillsides,
valleys, and forest openings in aspen, spruce-fir, and
subalpine types. It grows on basic, neutral, and slightly
acidic soils.
Plant Culture
This species can be successfully established by direct seeding. Lack of a consistent seed source reduces
seeding of this species. It establishes easily and spreads
quickly from seed. Seeding is best completed in the
fall. Seed should be covered, but not more than 0.25
inch (6 cm). Sweetanise does well seeded in mixtures.
Seed is usually collected by hand, but dense stands can
be mechanically harvested. Seeds are brittle and can
be damaged during cleaning and seeding. Seeds can
generally be cleaned by screening from harvested
debris. There are about 30,000 seeds per lb (73,000 per
kg). Seed should not be stored more than 2 years, or
considerable loss in viability can occur. Thirteen year
old seed is reported to exhibit 44 percent germination
(Stevens and Jorgensen 1994). Seeds are large and
usually must be drilled seeded to ensure proper soil
coverage. Seeds are approximately the same length as
some grass seed and can be planted in a mixture,
depending on the species sown.
454
Figure 30—Sweetanise with mature seed.
Uses and Management
Cattle, sheep, and big game show a particular fondness for the foliage and for developing seeds of
sweetanise (Hermann 1966; Kufeld 1973; Kufeld and
others 1973; Plummer and others 1955; USDA Forest
Service 1937). The plant is palatable and remains
green throughout the grazing season. Consistent seed
crops are produced yearly if seeds are allowed to
mature before being grazed. Large, thick, woody roots
allow the plant to withstand considerable use during
dry periods. This species does not furnish a dense
ground cover and is not recommended for erosion
control. Heavy grazing can eliminate or reduce its
density.
Seeded areas should not be grazed for at least 2
years following planting. A fairly strong seedling is
produced, and the rate of growth is good. Seeds are
generally produced the second year following planting. Maturing seeds are readily eaten by grazing
animals. Some type of deferred grazing should occur to
allow seeds to mature at least every 2 to 3 years.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
Family Scrophulariaceae
Penstemon palmeri ______________
Palmer Penstemon
In North America there are over 200 native species of Penstemon (Hermann 1966; USDA Forest Service 1937). Many are short-lived herbaceous species
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
that spread readily by seed. A number are rhizomatous. Some penstemon are semievergreen, producing
basal leaves that persist the entire year. They can be
found in most vegetative types of Western North
America.
Palmer penstemon (fig. 31) has long flowering stalks
20 to 55 inches (50 to 139 cm) tall with large showy
pink blossoms that are produced in late spring and
early summer. Seed matures in September. Flowers
give off a pleasant fragrance that is unique among the
penstemons, as they usually have little or no scent
(Stevens and others 1985b).
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Palmer penstemon is an evergreen native perennial
that occurs in blackbrush, sagebrush-grass, pinyonjuniper, mountain brush, and ponderosa pine types
of the Intermountain West. It is a fairly short-lived
(4 to 5 years) pioneering species. Plants spread by
seed. This species can be found growing on basic and
acidic soils (Plummer 1977). It produces long seed
stalks and an abundance of basal evergreen leaves
that usually remain gray-green throughout the year.
A large fibrous root system is produced. Palmer penstemon has considerable grazing tolerance and good
drought tolerance.
Figure 31—Palmer penstemon in full bloom.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Figure 32—Broadcast seeding of Palmer penstemon on a roadside disturbance.
Plant Culture
Good results can be expected from drilled or broadcast seedings on disturbed soils and on raw and
eroding sites (fig. 32) where it occurs naturally as an
early invader. Seed can be drilled or broadcast onto
disturbed soil, with covering not to exceed 0.15 inch
(3 mm). Natural reproduction generally compensates
for the short-life span of individual plants. Seed is
generally produced in abundance. Some dormancy
exists that allows seeds to accumulate in the soil
until favorable conditions occur for germination and
establishment.
Seeds of most penstemons, particularly Palmer penstemon, can be seeded in mixtures with most other
herbs. Small vigorous seedlings appear early in the
spring. They compete well and usually are not eliminated by competition from other species. When seeded
heavily, considerable thinning or dieoff of young
seedlings normally results. However, sufficient survival usually occurs to provide adequate stands. Palmer
penstemon is particularly adapted to harsh situations and tends to dominate or establish on areas
where other species fail. It is one of the few native
broadleaf herbs that most consistently establishes
from seeding. It is particularly important for its ability
to establish and enhance the establishment of other
plants on harsh sites.
All species of penstemon have small seeds that are
easily cleaned to a purity that exceeds 90 percent.
Palmer penstemon has 350,000 seeds per lb
(770,000 per kg) at 100 percent purity. Seeds are so
small that they are difficult to meter through most
conventional drills. If seeded alone, a carrier is often
used to regulate planting rates. Seeds can be mixed
with seeds of most other species although some separation can occur in the seedbox. When seeded in
mixtures, 1 to 3 lb per acre (1.1 to 3.4 kg per ha) are
adequate.
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Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Seeds can be collected by hand stripping or beating;
pure stands can be combined. Seeds are cleaned by
hammermilling and screening. Storage of up to 5 years
has resulted in no significant loss in germination
(Stevens and Jorgensen 1994). Seeds are being produced commercially.
Uses and Management
Palmer penstemon is eaten readily by deer and elk,
especially during winter and spring months (Kufeld
and others 1973; Plummer and others 1968). Basal
leaves are green and succulent all year long. Cattle
and sheep also make use of this species. The large,
fibrous root system and large, succulent basal leaves
provide considerable soil protection. This species is an
early invader and does especially well on disturbed raw
soils. Pink blossoms in late spring and early summer
make this plant useful for beautification projects.
Because of seed dormancy, seeding should occur in
the fall. Once established, stands are self-perpetuating. Seeded areas should not be grazed for at least two
growing seasons following planting. Flowering and
seed production often occur the second year following
planting. This species has little shade tolerance, but
grows as an understory with sagebrush. It is somewhat resistant to fire and trampling, but can be eliminated by excessive grazing.
Figure 33—Wasatch penstemon in a mixed subalpine forb community.
however, somewhat larger with about 230,000 per lb
(510,000 per kg) at 100 percent purity. This species is
particularly important as a forage and cover plant,
and establishes readily from artificial seeding. It persists under heavy grazing and can be seeded in mixtures with other herbs.
Family Scrophulariaceae
Penstemon eatonii ______________
Eaton or Firecracker Penstemon
Varieties and Ecotypes
‘Cedar’ was selected and released in 1985 (Stevens
and others 1985b) for its wide area of adaptation,
winter succulence, forage and seed production, and
grazing preference by livestock and wildlife. ‘Cedar’
does well in blackbrush, salt desert shrub, sagebrushgrass, pinyon-juniper, and mountain brush types
within the Intermountain region. Commercial seed is
readily available and recommended for use.
Eaton or firecracker penstemon (fig. 34) is a bright
red to scarlet-flowered perennial semievergreen native that occurs primarily on rocky soils. It occurs in
Family Scrophulariaceae
Penstemon cyananthus __________
Wasatch Penstemon
Wasatch penstemon (fig. 33) is a native perennial
with bright semievergreen basal leaves. Plants develop from a primary taproot and produce several 2 to
3 ft (61.0 to 91.4 cm) long stems with deep blue to
nearly purple flowers. Wasatch penstemon can be
found on rocky soils, but is usually associated with
more fertile, deeper soils that may be slightly acidic or
basic. It occurs from the mountain brush type to
higher elevations, including the subalpine zone.
Flowering occurs from May through July. Seeds
are formed in September. Seed processing and
planting features are similar to those of Palmer
penstemon and most other penstemons. Seeds are,
456
Figure 34—Eaton or firecracker
penstemon.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
mixed desert shrubs, sagebrush-grass, mountain
brush, and aspen communities. This species forms a
taproot. It is generally found on harsh, rocky sites; but
it also occurs on more favorable sites. Seed collection,
handling, and seeding techniques are similar to
those described for Palmer penstemon. Seeds can be
stored up to 12 years without much loss of viability
(Stevens and Jorgensen 1994). Eaton penstemon is particularly useful for seeding in pinyon-juniper, mountain
brush, and big sagebrush sites. It is not an abundant
seed producer but establishes easily and is a useful
forage species. Its brilliant flowers are extremely attractive and useful in landscape plantings. ‘Richfield’,
a source-identified variety, has been released.
Family Scrophulariaceae
Penstemon humilis ______________
Figure 35—Rocky Mountain penstemon.
Low Penstemon
This semievergreen native penstemon is a lowgrowing, 12 inch (30 cm) tall perennial forb with a
matted, much-branched root system. Flowers are
borne on short flower stalks and range in color from
deep-blue to violet-blue. Foliage is light green. Low
penstemon can be found in sagebrush-grass, pinyonjuniper, mountain brush, aspen, and subalpine communities, generally on gravelly, well-drained soils.
Planting procedures and seed collection are similar
to those of other penstemons. This penstemon is eaten
by wildlife and livestock and can be used to stabilize
erosive sites.
Family Scrophulariaceae
Penstemon pachyphyllus _________
Thickleaf Penstemon
Thickleaf penstemon, as its name indicates, has
broad, fleshy, thickened, bluish-green leaves covered
with wax. Flowers are light purple to bluish-violet.
Seeds are small with 335,000 per lb (739,000 per kg) at
100 percent purity. Seeds can be stored for up to 14
years without appreciable loss of viability (Stevens
and Jorgensen 1994). Seeding requirements are similar to those of Palmer penstemon. This species occurs
in eastern and northern Utah in salt desert shrub,
sagebrush-grass, pinyon-juniper, mountain brush, and
conifer communities. It is eaten by wildlife and livestock, and provides excellent soil protection.
Family Scrophulariaceae
Penstemon rydbergii ____________
Rydberg Penstemon
This species occurs in mountain brush, aspen, coniferous forests, and open parklands on basic and acid
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
soils. Rydberg penstemon has a dark violet-purple
flower and dark green basal leaves that are present
throughout the year. It is highly sought by sheep and
big game animals. Seed and seeding characteristics
are similar to those of Palmer penstemon.
Family Scrophulariaceae
Penstemon strictus ______________
Rocky Mountain Penstemon
This is a semievergreen penstemon that has an
abundance of dark, shiny green leaves and blue to
violet flowers borne on stalks 1 to 2.5 ft (30 to 76 cm)
tall. Rocky Mountain penstemon (fig. 35) does well on
rocky and sandy loam soils that range from weakly
acidic to alkaline. This species does best with 15 to
20 inches (38 to 50 cm) of annual precipitation. Seeding and seed handling requirements are similar to
those of Palmer penstemon. One variety, ‘Bandera’,
has been released, and seed is being produced commercially. ‘Bandera’ was selected for its longevity and
excellent forage and seed production. It is well adapted
to mountain brush, ponderosa pine, and spruce-fir
areas.
Family Rosaceae
Sanguisorba minor ______________
Small Burnet
A member of the rose family, small burnet (fig. 36),
is an introduced perennial with a basal rosette of
pinnately compound leaves arising from a caudex and
taproot. Numerous flowering stalks may grow from
2 to 20 inches (5 to 51 cm) in height. Flowers are
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Chapter 19
Figure 36—Small burnet.
formed in dense, terminal heads. Basal leaves remain
green nearly the entire year. Growth starts in early
spring, flowers appear in May and June, and seed
matures in August and early September.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
There are approximately 30 species of burnet,
occurring primarily in Europe and the Middle East
(Hermann 1966). Two species, western burnet and
Alaskan burnet, are native to Western North America.
They are locally valued as forage plants (Hermann
1966; Hitchcock and others 1961). Selections of
small burnet from Mediterranean and Middle Eastern countries have been more widely adapted to sites
in the Intermountain region than any of the Western
North American species. Small burnet has proven to
be well adapted to pinyon-juniper, basin big sagebrush, and mountain big sagebrush communities, and
to drier exposures in the mountain brush and aspen
types. Small burnet will grows well on acid or alkaline
soils (Plummer 1977). The species is adapted to sandy
and clay soils, with silty and loamy soils the most
preferred (Wasser 1982). Small burnet has good winter hardiness and some fire and shade tolerance.
Introduction of S. magnollii, S. dictyocarpum, and
S. muricata have exhibited characteristics similar to
those of S. minor when grown on southwestern Idaho
rangelands (Shaw and Monsen 1983a).
Plant Culture
Excellent seed production, high seed quality, and
ease of seed processing and planting have contributed
to the widespread use of small burnet. Aerial or hand
broadcasting, drilling, and dribbling have all proven
to be successful means of seeding. Seed needs to be
458
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
covered, but not more than 0.25 inch (6 cm) deep. Fall
and winter seedings have proven to be the most successful. Because of the rapid rate of germination and
seedling development, small burnet can usually be
successfully established by spring seedings. Small
burnet has been seeded widely throughout the West
(Plummer 1977; Plummer and others 1970a,b; Stevens
and others 1977). Following germination, growth is
rapid, resulting in good ground cover within 1 or 2
years. A large amount of foliage and seed is usually
produced, even during the first year of growth. Small
burnet is a excellent species to seed in mixtures.
Seed lots of small burnet germinate between 80 and
95 percent, and retains high viability when stored for
over 25 years (Stevens and Jorgensen 1994). Seeds
undergo afterripening, with germination improving
yearly up to 3 years following harvest (Stevens and
Jorgensen 1994). There are 55,000 seeds per lb (120,000
per kg) at 100 percent purity. Seed is marketed at
about 95 percent purity and 90 percent germination.
Seedling emergence and establishment for small burnet is high (5 to 8 percent) compared to many other
range species (Everett 1982).
Most plants appear to have a lifespan of 7 to 12 years,
but some have persisted to 20 years (Plummer and
others 1968; Stevens and others 1977b). Because seeds
are readily eaten by rodents (Everett and others 1978b)
and rabbits, little natural increase has occurred on
many areas. Where seeds are allowed to mature and
rodent and rabbit populations are low, reproduction
will take place. Dense stands of small burnet have remained in some seedings for as long as 25 years. Vegetative propagation can be accomplished by dividing
and transplanting the somewhat rhizomatous plants.
Uses and Management
Small burnet forage and seeds are highly preferred
at all seasons by livestock, big game, rodents, and
upland game birds (Autenrieth and others 1982;
Wasser 1982). Birds and rodents also make considerable use of the seeds. Seed caches and resulting plants
are common. Small burnet is particularly important
in late winter, early spring, and late summer when
other species provide less green forage. Plants produce an abundance of basal leaves that remain green
and persist throughout the dry summer and winter
months. Stand vigor and density may be reduced by
selective grazing during these periods.
Once established, small burnet can compete fairly
well with cheatgrass. This forb has done well on
mountain brush, pinyon-juniper, and upper sagebrush sites. Although it exhibits useful attributes
for the drier sagebrush and desert shrublands, it is
not adapted to areas receiving less than 10 inches
(25 cm) of moisture. Under favorable circumstances,
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
seedlings will establish when planted on dry sites.
However, seedlings often fail if seeded when spring
moisture is low. Mature plants are hardy and competitive and will persist, once established, on areas
receiving 8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 cm) of moisture.
Currently, some ecotypes express much better drought
tolerance and longevity than most cultivated strains.
These selections offer opportunity to expand the use
of this forb to drier environments.
Seeded areas should not be grazed for at least 2 years
following seeding. Because plants live from 7 to 12
years, every effort should be made to ensure that seed
crops are not grazed and are allowed to mature every
3 to 4 years.
Small burnet can be seeded, grazed, and maintained
in mixed grass and broadleaf herb plantings. Too
often, the species is heavily grazed with livestock in
the spring and early summer, and later grazed by
game animals in the fall and winter periods. Use can
be expected during any season as the plant retains
some green foliage throughout the entire year. Rodents, insects, and game animals will forage on the
plant whenever it is available. Consequently, livestock grazing must be regulated to compensate for
wildlife uses. The plant should be seeded heavy enough
to lessen concentrated use and satisfy animal needs.
If seeded in mixtures with perennial grasses, the
species can diminish in density because it is shortlived. Competitive grasses and heavy grazing can
prevent natural seeding. Sufficient plants have persisted on most wildlife plantings where livestock
grazing has been controlled.
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
numerous yellow heads about 0.25 inch (1.0 cm) in
diameter with black-tipped bracts (Welsh and others
1987). Flowering occurs in May to July.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
A native in all Western States, butterweed groundsel (fig. 37) can be found in plant communities ranging
from sagebrush to subalpine. Welsh and others (1987)
describe two varieties with somewhat separate areas
of occurrence. Senecio serra var. serra exists in the
sagebrush, pinyon-juniper, mountain brush, lodgepole
pine, and spruce-fir communities at 6,000 to 10,000 ft
(1,800 to 3,000 m). Senecio serra var. admirabilies
grows in ponderosa pine and subalpine meadow communities (Welsh and others 1987). Both varieties are
early colonizers of disturbed sites and grow on sites
ranging from open, dry slopes with sandy to gravelly
loam soils to forest openings. Both varieties grow well
in association with wheatgrasses, bromes, wildryes,
and a large number of forbs.
Varieties and Ecotypes
‘Delar’ small burnet was released in 1979. It is
recommended for sites in the Intermountain region
that receive at least 12 inches (30 cm) of annual
precipitation. It will, however, establish and do fairly
well with as little as 10 inches (25 cm) of precipitation.
Forage production is excellent, even the first growing
season. Under irrigation ‘Delar’ has produced up to
1,050 lb seed per acre (1,177 kg per ha) (Howard 1981).
Additional selections are being investigated.
There are some selections that do well with as little
as 7 inches (18 cm) of annual precipitation, but these
strains are not commercially available.
Family Compositae
Senecio serra ___________________
Butterweed Groundsel
This native perennial is a member of the sunflower
family. It grows in clumps of several stems 2 to 6 ft
(0.6 to 1.8 m) tall and has a woody base. It produces
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Figure 37—Butterweed groundsel in full bloom.
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Chapter 19
Plant Culture
Seeds usually mature in September, and can be
collected by hand stripping or by using small paddles
to beat them into collection trays. Seeds are attached
to a white pappus that should be removed to facilitate
seeding. This can be accomplished by mechanical
debearding and screening. Seeds are very small, with
just under 3.5 million per lb (7.7 million per kg) at 100
percent purity and with the pappus removed. Seed is
best broadcast planted unless the pappus is removed,
after which seed can be drilled. Acceptable purity and
germination is 50 to 70 percent.
This species does well when seeded in mixtures with
other herbs because it has a fairly strong seedling. Fall
seeding is preferred. Seed should not be covered more
than 0.13 inch (3 mm).
Uses and Management
Butterweed groundsel is grazed extensively by sheep,
cattle, and big game (USDA Forest Service 1937). It
greens up early in the spring and retains a large
amount of green growth late into the summer. It can
tolerate considerable grazing, trampling, and drought.
It persists well in partial shade and frequently remains green late in the season. Deer and elk (Kufeld
1973; Kufeld and others 1973) make good use of it in
the spring and early summer. Cattle and sheep may
forage on the entire plant late in the season when the
leaves are partially dry. Because of its woody base and
stout, fibrous, rhizome system, this species does an
exceptionally good job of stabilizing disturbed soil. It
can be used to plant both dry and wet sites, although
it does not tolerate prolonged flooding. This species
can be seeded in disturbed riparian sites where the
water level has been lowered by down cutting of the
channel. It establishes well from broadcast seeding
and can be planted with a grass-forb mixture. Young
plants persist well amid competition, but the plants
are slow to attain maximum stature. Because it is slow
to achieve dominance, it can be seeded with slower
developing shrubs and trees without limiting their
survival.
Young plantings are usually not adversely effected
by grazing. Plants normally require 2 to 3 years to
fully establish. When planted with a grass mixture,
this forb persists equally well and does not require
special management. Established stands should be
allowed to set seed periodically.
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Family Compositae
Solidago canadensis ____________
Canada Goldenrod
A native perennial composite, Canada goldenrod
(fig. 38) produces stems 1 to 6 ft (0.3 to 1.9 m) tall that
grow from creeping rhizomes. Flowering occurs from
July to October. Pale golden-yellow flowers occur
along only one side of the curved flowering stalk.
Basal leaves are deciduous or become withered at
the time of anthesis (Welsh and others 1987).
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Canada goldenrod occurs from southwestern
Canada to New Mexico and California in pinyonjuniper, mountain brush, ponderosa pine, and aspenspruce-fir types. It occurs along riparian areas, in
moist places and forest openings, and on dry slopes. It
grows on basic, neutral, and slightly acidic soils.
Plant Culture
Flowering occurs during midsummer, and seeds
mature in October. Generally, an abundance of seeds
are produced each year. Seeds are best collected by
hand stripping or beating. The pappus can be removed
from the seed using a debearder. Seeds are then
separated from the debris with a screening type
cleaner. The seed pappus is generally removed to
facilitate seeding. Cleaned seeds can be drilled or
broadcast planted. Uncleaned seeds can only be hand
broadcast. Seeds should not be covered more than
0.13 inch (3 mm) deep. Good results can be expected
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
460
Figure 38—Canada goldenrod.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
from broadcast seeding on prepared seedbeds and on
disturbed or eroding soils. Once established, plants
spread well from creeping rhizomes. Wildland collected seed lots are generally highly viable. Only fresh
seed should be planted because viability declines with
1 year of storage. This species does well when seeded
in mixtures with other herbs because it has fairly
vigorous seedlings. More successful stands usually
establish from fall seedings.
Uses and Management
Canada goldenrod is palatable to livestock and big
game. Some use is made at most seasons. Plants green
up early in the spring and remain green longer in the
fall than most associated species. Canada goldenrod
invades disturbed areas and provides an effective
ground cover. It can be used to control erosion on
extremely disturbed areas and is often used in watershed plantings. This species can be used to beautify
recreational areas, summer home sites, administrative areas, and other areas with high aesthetic value.
It is adapted to semiwet situations and can be used to
treat riparian disturbances where dry and semiwet
sites are closely aligned. Canada goldenrod establishes well by transplanting and can be used to provide
immediate ground cover. It persists with heavy trampling and grazing disturbances.
Canada goldenrod usually occurs in aspen and conifer forest communities. It recovers well following burning, logging, and grazing. Established stands should
be allowed to set seed periodically. Newly seeded
stands should not be grazed for at least 2 years
following planting.
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
This species is a drought-tolerant native forb that
occurs in blackbrush, shadscale, rabbitbrush, sagebrush, and pinyon-juniper communities, and occasionally in the mountain brush zone on sites receiving
8 to 12 inches (200 to 300 mm) of annual precipitation
(Stevens and others 1985c). It is common on disturbed
and burned pinyon-juniper sites (Everett 1982;
Plummer and others 1968). It ranges throughout the
West from Washington to Arizona (Welsh and others
1987).
Gooseberryleaf globemallow prefers full sunlight. It
exhibits good winter hardiness, grazing tolerance,
resistant to burning, and considerable drought resistance. Gooseberryleaf globemallow is found in alkaline soils and tolerates moderate salinity, but not sodic
soils (Pendery and Rumbaugh 1986).
Plant Culture
Gooseberryleaf globemallow can be established on
harsh sites. It is one native forb that has been successfully seeded in blackbrush, shadscale, pinyon-juniper,
and sagebrush communities and in disturbances with
basic soils (Monsen and Plummer 1978; Plummer
1966, 1977).
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
Family Malvaceae
Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia ______
Gooseberryleaf Globemallow
There are approximately 200 species of globemallow; about 20 are native to Western North America
(Hermann 1966). A member of mallow family, the
genus is variable and complex, and its taxonomy has
been extensively revised (Jefferies 1972; Kearney
1935; Welsh and others 1987). Gooseberryleaf
globemallow (fig. 39) is a densely, gray-green, pubescent perennial. Leaves are gooseberry-like. Floral
stalks grow from 1 to 2.5 ft (30 to 76 cm) tall. Plants
develop a branched taproot, and a near-surface fibrous root system. Flowers have showy orange to
reddish petals (Hitchcock and others 1961). Flowering
occurs from May to July, and seed matures unevenly
from June to August.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Figure 39—Gooseberryleaf globemallow.
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Chapter 19
Seeds can be collected by hand or with mechanical
strippers. They are easily cleaned. There are just over
500,000 seeds per lb (1.1 million per kg) at 100 percent
purity. Seeds should be dusted with an appropriate
insecticide to prevent destruction by weevils (Pendery
and Rumbaugh 1986). Seed viability is, however, maintained for up to 15 years without any significant loss
(Stevens and Jorgensen 1994). Page and others (1966)
reported that low germination results from a combination of low fill and a hard seedcoat impregnated with
nonwetable substances. Mechanical or acid scarification can increase germination. It can be seeded on
disturbed and burned pinyon-juniper areas. Because
the species has fairly strong, competitive seedlings
and a moderate growth rate, it can be seeded in
mixtures with other species. Fall and winter seeding is
recommended (Monsen and Plummer 1978). Seeds
can be drill seeded and should be planted at depths of
0.25 inch (6 mm). Seeds may lie in the soil for years and
germinate when conditions are suitable (Plummer
and others 1968). This species can be successfully
transplanted and will reproduce from stem cuttings
(Everett 1982).
Uses and Management
Forage value of gooseberryleaf globemallow is rated
as good for sheep and cattle (Hermann 1966; Wasser
1982). Preference or palatability is rated as none to
fair for cattle and sheep (Hermann 1966), and fair to
excellent for antelope (Hancock 1966; Smith and Beale
1980), elk, and deer (Kufeld 1973; Kufeld and others
1973; Urness and McCullock 1973). Antelope especially prefer this herb when it is flowering (Pendery
and Rumbaugh 1986). Protein content during winter
and early spring has been found to be high, ranging
from 10 to 20 percent (Pendery and Rumbaugh 1986;
Urness and McCullock 1973). Gooseberryleaf
globemallow greens up early in spring and will green
up again in autumn after fall storms.
This species establishes well on disturbed sites from
seed or from transplanting. Because of its drought
resistance, continuous, colorful flowering, and ease of
establishment, this species has been recommended for
use in dryland ornamental landscaping (Natural Vegetation Committee 1973). Gooseberry globemallow is
quite competitive and can be used to suppress
cheatgrass and other annuals. It is one of only a few
native herbs that can be seeded on low elevation
Wyoming big sagebrush and shadscale sites.
Following germination gooseberry globemallow produces strong and persistent seedlings. It has a deep
taproot. Plants are tolerant of grazing, but can be
weakened by close grazing in late spring. Drought
tolerance is excellent, but plants should not be grazed
following extended periods of drought. Plant density
tends to fluctuate from year to year.
462
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
Family Malvaceae
Sphaeralcea coccinea ____________
Scarlet Globemallow
Scarlet globemallow (fig. 40) is a low-spreading, native
perennial with creeping rhizomes (Arnow 1971; McKell
and others 1979; Welsh and others 1987). It prefers
clay soils and can be found on hills and dry plains in
blackbrush, shadscale-greasewood, sagebrush, pinyonjuniper, mountain brush, and ponderosa pine communities from Southern Canada to Texas and Arizona
(Hermann 1966; Welsh and others 1987).
Scarlet globemallow exhibits considerable drought
resistance, and establishes especially well on disturbed sites. This species can be successfully seeded or
transplanted in blackbrush, shadscale, black greasewood, sagebrush, and pinyon-juniper types. It is particularly useful for planting on disturbed sites, as it
is drought tolerant and can spread by rhizomes. It is
well suited to adapted sites where wildfires frequently
occur.
Palatability for livestock and big game is rated from
poor to good (Hermann 1966; Kufeld 1973; Kufeld and
others 1973; McKell and others 1979; Wasser 1982).
Varieties and Ecotypes
There is one released germplasm, ‘ARS 2936’.
Figure 40—Scarlet globemallow.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Family Fabaceae
Trifolium _______________________
Family Fabaceae
Trifolium fragiferum _____________
Clovers
Strawberry Clover
Taylor (1985) reported that about 250 species of true
clovers occur throughout the world. All species possess
the typical papilionaceous legume flower with 10 stamens. Leaves usually consist of three leaflets. Most
have simple taproots; some produce stolons or rhizomes. About one-third are perennials and the others
are annuals. About one-third are self-pollinated; the
others are cross-pollinated and require bees for pollination (Taylor and others 1980). All species are able
to fix nitrogen if nodulated with strains of Rhizobium
(Allen and Allen 1981).
Within the contiguous United States, clovers are
most important as range plants from the Rocky Mountains west to the Pacific Coast (Crampton 1985).
Approximately 65 species occur in the Western States.
Most species, particularly many annuals, are abundant in the central valley of California (Crampton
1985; Küchler 1977).
Although native perennial clovers are found abundantly throughout the mountains, meadows and wetlands of the Intermountain area, and to a lesser extent
in the drier sagebrush habitats (Crampton 1985), few
natives have been utilized in range revegetation efforts. Most clovers of agricultural interest were introduced from Europe. There are about 15 species that
are used in North America (Hermann 1953; Hollowell
1960). Most are adapted to temperate climates and are
used to improve irrigated or native meadow pastures.
Because they are legumes, clovers are particularly
useful in fixing atmospheric nitrogen and enhancing
soil fertility. A cool, moist climate is required for the
best growth (Taylor 1985). Spring and fall periods are
favorable for adequate growth in the Intermountain
area.Various species demonstrate usefulness on a
variety of sites, and future trials will undoubtedly
result in more widespread use of different clovers.
Most clovers are quite palatable, shade tolerant, and
tolerant of flooding for short periods. Consequently,
they are useful for seeding semiwet meadows, and as
understorys in conifer forests and aspen stands. All
species attract use by wildlife and can be planted to
supply forage for extended periods. Most species demonstrate good regrowth and, thus, withstand heavy
grazing.
Seeds are small and include a high percentage of
hard seeds. Seeds should be treated with an inoculum
to assure establishment.
Strawberry clover was introduced to the West from
Eurasia and the Mediterranean region (Forde and
others 1981). It is not known when it was introduced
into the United States, but specimens were collected
in 1878 in Pennsylvania.
Strawberry clover is a low-growing stoloniferous
perennial used primarily as a pasture legume
(Townsend 1985). Stems are decumbent to creeping
and root at the nodes. Plants are less than 10 inches
(25 cm) tall. White to pink flower heads are borne at
the ends of each seed stalk (Gillett 1985; Harrington
1964; Hermann 1966). The flower and seed head
resemble a strawberry—hence the name. Plants are
pubescent or glabrous. The leaves are congested on
auxiliary peduncles that are curved and ascending
(Bendixen and others 1960).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Strawberry clover has spread or been seeded throughout North America and has become naturalized in
some locations (Townsend 1985). It is noted for its
ability to grow on wet saline or alkaline soils and has
demonstrated adaptability to wet meadows, streams,
and seeps. Bendixen and Peterson (1962) report that
strawberry clover withstands flooding because the
stolons exhibit a tropic response that causes the tips to
be elevated above the water level. Light, oxygen deficiency, and atmospheric conditions also influence the
tropic response.
Strawberry clover is not hindered by wet-saline
conditions; consequently, it is very useful on many
seeps and salty sites at a wide range of elevations.
Seedlings are not suppressed by high osmotic conditions that depress the growth of white clover (George
and Williams 1964).
Plant Culture
Strawberry clover can be drill or broadcast seeded
on a prepared seedbed. Seed coverage should be shallow, less than 0.25 inch (6.4 mm). When seeding irrigated pastures, a planting depth of about 0.50 inch
(13 mm) is recommended (Townsend 1985). Seeds are
small with about 290,000 seeds per lb (650,000 per kg)
at 100 percent purity. They require planting into a
firm seedbed. Evers (1982) found that drill seeding
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Chapter 19
produced only slightly higher yields than broadcasting. Seeding rates vary depending on seeding methods, but acceptable stands are achieved with 6 to 8 lb
per acre (6.7 to 9.0 kg per ha) when seeded alone, and
2 to 4 lb per acre (2.2 to 4.5 kg per ha) when planted in
a grass mixture.
Strawberry clover seedlings are easily established
and grow rapidly. The plant establishes well with
minimal seedbed preparation. Successful stands establish from broadcast seeding and natural spread.
This clover does well when seeded in mixtures with
grasses. When planted in mixtures under irrigation,
herbage production can be increased and better distributed throughout the growing season (Peterson
and others 1962).
Uses and Management
Forage and seeds of strawberry clover are used
extensively by livestock, big and small game, and
upland game birds.
Strawberry clover is especially well suited to close
and continuous grazing (Raguse and other 1971), and
when seeded on most rangeland sites, tends to attract
heavy use. In vitro digestibility compares favorably
with white clover, red clover, and alfalfa (Reed and
others 1980).
This forb can be successfully seeded onto depleted
riparian habitats, degraded meadows, and inland
saltgrass areas. It can be used to stabilize streambanks,
erodible soils, and related disturbances. It is particularly useful for seeding disturbances on saline soils
and sites subjected to frequent periods of flooding.
Varieties and Ecotypes
No selection or cultivar has been developed for
rangeland uses, although various cultivars have been
developed for pasture seedings in the United States
(Peterson and others 1962).
Family Fabaceae
Trifolium hybridum ______________
Alsike Clover
Alsike clover is a native of northern Europe that was
introduced into the United States in about 1839
(Townsend 1985). It was thought to be a hybrid of red
and white clover—hence its species name “hybridum”.
It is well adapted to high elevations within the Intermountain region where conditions are cool and moist.
It is a short-lived perennial, but can be managed to
reseed and maintain itself. Alsike clover is an excellent hay and pasture species (Townsend 1985), but is
also useful as a range forage species. It is adapted to
sites that are too wet or acidic for red clover or alfalfa
(Townsend 1985). Plants establish well from either
464
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
spring or fall plantings. Drilling or broadcast seeding
on a firm seedbed is recommended. Planting with
grasses to improve forage productivity is a common
practice (Grable and others 1965).
Seeding in mixtures at a rate of 2 to 4 lb per acre
(2.2 to 4.5 kg per ha) produces excellent stands. There
are approximately 68,000 seeds per lb (150,000 per kg).
Seeds have a hard seedcoat, but this does not prevent
good establishment even from spring seedings.
No cultivars have been developed for rangeland
conditions in the United States, but two Canadian
cultivars, ‘Aurora’ and ‘Dawn’, have been developed
for pasture plantings.
Family Fabaceae
Trifolium pratense _______________
Red Clover
Red clover is perhaps the most widely used pasture
clover in the United States. It is generally grown in
mixtures with grasses for intense pasture management. It is also grown for hay or silage production, or
as a soil improvement crop. Plants produce nitrogen
that favors growth of companion species and improves soil conditions (Smith and others 1985).
Red clover can be used as a short-term perennial or
winter annual to furnish immediate forage and improve soil fertility. It requires 20 or more inches (51
cm) of annual precipitation, but it is well suited to cut
over timber lands and moderately acid soils
(Hafenrichter and others 1968). It can be used to
improve meadows and degraded riparian sites.
Hafenrichter and others (1968) reported that the
commercial varieties—‘Kenland’, ‘Pennscott’, ‘Dollard’,
and ‘Lakeland’ are well adapted to conservation plantings in the Northwest. None have been extensively
evaluated for range sites in the Intermountain area.
Family Fabaceae
Trifolium repens ________________
White Clover
White clover is a shallow rooted perennial with
creeping stems that root at the joints. This introduced
European species has become naturalized in North
America in fairly moist areas on medium and high
elevation mountain ranges. White clover is winter
hardy and can withstand more extreme temperatures
than either red or alsike clover (USDA Forest Service
1937). Livestock and wildlife make good use of this
species. Areas of adaptation include sites with fertile
and well-drained soils that are moist throughout the
growing season, and along streams. It has good soil
stabilization characteristics. White clover is generally
seeded in a mixture with perennial grasses.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Chapter 19
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Family Compositae
Viguiera multiflora var. multiflora __
Showy Goldeneye
There are about 150 species of Viguiera. Most species occur in the new world (USDA Forest Service
1937). Two varieties of goldeneye, showy goldeneye
and Nevada goldeneye, occur within the Intermountain region (Welsh and others 1987).
Showy goldeneye (fig. 41), a member of the sunflower or compositae family, is a perennial native
forb growing from a short, branched, woody taproot.
It is usually 1 to 3 ft (30 to 91 cm) high with leaves
commonly more than 0.25 inch (6 mm) wide and 0.50
to 0.75 inch (12 to 19 mm) long. Two or more showy,
yellow, sunflower-like blossoms (heads) are borne on
each plant. Flowering begins in July. Seed matures in
late August and September. Basal leaves elongate and
green up shortly following snowmelt (Welsh and others 1987).
Figure 42—Showy goldeneye in an aspen opening.
Ecological Relationships and Distribution
Showy goldeneye is a very attractive perennial, that
occurs throughout the Intermountain West at elevations between 3,500 to 11,000 ft (1,100 to 3,400 m)
(Stevens and others 1985c). Showy goldeneye can be
found from moderately moist habitats to dry, open,
rocky slopes in sagebrush-grass, pinyon-juniper, mountain brush, aspen (fig. 42), spruce-fir, subalpine, and
often in riparian communities (Welsh and others 1987).
This species is not restricted to full sunlight, but can
be found in partial shade and in densely wooded areas
(Arnow 1971; Plummer and others 1955). Showy goldeneye can be found on a wide variety of soils ranging
from heavy clays to gravel (USDA Forest Service
1937), and from acidic to basic conditions (Plummer
1977). It establishes quickly on disturbed sites, has a
rapidly developing seedling, and competes well with
annuals and perennials.
Plant Culture
Figure 41—Showy goldeneye.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004
Each showy goldeneye plant can support numerous,
golden yellow, sunflower-like heads that generally produce an abundance of seeds. Seeds are collected by
hand, mechanical beating, or stripping. Viability of wildland lots is only fair. Seed can be stored up to 7 years
without any major loss in viability (Stevens and
Jorgensen 1994). There are just over 1,000,000 seeds
per lb (2.2 million per kg) at 100 percent purity.
Showy goldeneye develops strong seedlings. Plants
establish quickly, and can spread from seed. Showy
goldeneye will invade disturbed sites and may quickly
become the dominant species. Seeds can be broadcast
or drilled with equal success. Seeds should not be
planted more than 0.25 inch (6 mm) deep. Seeding is
best accomplished in the fall or winter. The species
does well when planted as a component of a mixture
(Stevens and others 1981b).
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Chapter 19
Principal Areas of Use
Showy goldeneye is an early spring-greening forb
that is sought by big game (Kufeld 1973) and livestock.
Foliage and flower heads are readily consumed by
cattle, sheep, deer, and elk. Birds also make considerable use of the seeds.
Strong seedlings and a rapid rate of growth enable
showy goldeneye to be seeded in conjunction with
other species. These features also contribute to its
establishment and spread into annual communities.
Profuse flowering of this species makes it a prime
candidate for summer home sites, campgrounds, administration sites, and other areas with high aesthetic
values. This species has potential as an erosion control
species on disturbed and burned sites.
Newly seeded areas should not be grazed for at least
2 years following planting. Established stands should
be allowed to set seed every 3 to 4 years.
Varieties and Ecotypes
There are no releases.
466
Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats
Family Compositae
Viguiera multiflora var.
nevadensis _____________________
Nevada Goldeneye
Compared to showy goldeneye, Nevada goldeneye
has narrower leaves (usually less than 5 mm wide) and
can be found on drier sites in southwestern Utah,
Nevada, and California. It occurs with pinyon and
juniper, Wyoming and basin big sagebrush, black
sage, and various saltbushes. Plummer (1966) recommends it as a candidate species to be used in seeding
areas in the salt desert shrublands. Coles (1982)
reported that Nevada goldeneye rapidly invaded Wyoming and basin big sagebrush burns in southwestern
Utah. He further reported that mule deer tend to seek
out and concentrate on areas with high densities of
Nevada showy goldeneye. The species invades roadsides and other disturbed areas. Seed production and
seeding procedures are similar to those described for
showy goldeneye.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004