Digital Signal Processor Software for the High-Energy Transient Experiment Satellite: Video Data Filtering and Storage by Scott Anthony Aquinas McDermott Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degrees of Master of Engineering and Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY May 1994 ( Scott A. McDermott, MCMXCIV. All rights reserved. The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part, and to grant others the right to do so. ... ....... ......................... ....... ........-. Author Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science May 16, 1994 Certified ~-A ¥~.tc ,Nlo -. by...... FR . |" '' ':'i ^. * \\l ................ ' ' nd K.Vanderspek esearch Physicist Thesis Supervisor .............. .............. Morgenthal FROsi aiF.R. ........ [ CDepartment Committee on Graduate Theses ~Chair, Grdut Theses Digital Signal Processor Software for the High-Energy Transient Experiment Satellite: Video Data Filtering and Storage by Scott Anthony Aquinas McDermott Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science on May 16, 1994, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degrees of Master of Engineering and Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Abstract The following Thesis is a description of software to control, filter, and store video data representing a field of stellar objects detected at the ultraviolet wavelengths. The High Energy Transient Experiment (HETE) satellite uses two Motorola 56001 Digital Signal Processors as a computational buffer between an Inmos T805 Transputer General Purpose Processor (GPP), running high-level algorithms, and low-level camera electronics, providing raw pixel data. One 56001, the Front-End Processor or FEP, relays command and status information between the GPP and the camera electronics, and filters the video data to provide the GPP with the loci of stars within the fields of view of two ultraviolet CCD cameras. The other 56001, the Back-End Processor or BEP, stores the camera images to answer the GPP's requests for detailed analysis. Thesis Supervisor: Roland K. Vanderspek Title: Research Physicist Acknowledgments I wish to express my appreciation & admiration to - My parents, not only for making it possible for me to get this calibre of education, but more for always believing in me - when you were asked what you wanted me to be when I grew up, you responded simply "Happy". I certainly am; learned how from you. Roland, for three years of support and praise, always encouraging while never pressuring. Je te remercie. Laura, for listening, and smiling, and Being There. For whispering "Theeeeesiiiiiis" when I needed it. For all the love. Hurl, the most caring, funny, intelligent, and talented bunch of folks I have ever had the honor and pleasure to call my Friends. You have made MIT not only bearable, but magical. All the Best. Contents 1 Introduction 9 1.1 9 The High-Energy Transient Experiment Satellite ............ 1.2 Focus of this Thesis ............................ 10 1.3 11 Outline of this Document ........................ 2 The HETE Project 13 2.1 Mission Background .... 2.2 The Problem of Localization . . . . . . 2.3 Mission Goal 2.4 HETE 2.5 A Day in the Life of HETE . . . . . . ................ 2.6 The HETE Team ...... . . . . . . ........ Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 ................ ..14 ................ ..17 ................ ..23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 . . . . . . . . . 3 The HETE Computer System . .. 19 25 3.1 Overall Structure and Relations ..................... 25 3.2 Processor Capabilities 27 3.3 The Inter-Process Protocol ........................ .......................... 4 The UV System 30 33 4.1 UV System Components ......................... 33 4.2 Controlling Transputer: The GPP .................... 36 4.3 Dual DSP System: The FEP and BEP ................. 37 4.4 Camera Electronics: The Lasagna Box ................. 41 4 49 5 Front-End Processor Functionality 5.1 Camera Electronics Command and Housekeeping 5.1.1 5.2 5.3 Lasagna Box Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Event Finding .................... . . . . . . . . . . 52 5.2.1 Arrival of Video Data ............ . . . . . . . . . . 53 5.2.2 The FEP Event Finding Algorithm .... . . . . . . . . . . 56 5.2.3 Video Processing .............. . . . . . . . . . . 60 . . . . . . . . . . 64 Command & Response List ............ 67 Functional Breakdown. 6.1.1 6.2 Memory & Resource Allocation .... Initialization and Normal Function 6.2.1 6.3 ...... . Serial Communication Interrupts Communications ................ 6.3.1 GPP Communication .......... 6.3.2 6.4 Lasagna Box Communication Video Processing ..... ................ 6.4.1 Synchronization. 6.4.2 Event-Finding. ............ ............. . . . . . . . . . . 68 . . . . . . . . . . 74 . . . . . . . . . . 76 . . . . . . . . . . 79 . . . . . . . . . . 80 . . . . . . . . . . 80 . . . . . . . . . . 81 . . . . . . . . . . 82 . . . . . . . . . . 85 . . . . . . . . . . 86 7 Back-End Processor Functionality 7.1 7.2 7.3 50 5.1.2 GPP Requirements ............. 6 Front-End Processor Implementation 6.1 49 The Frame Buffer 92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 7.1.1 Low-Level Frame Buffer Interaction: Windows . . . . . . . . 93 7.1.2 High-Level Frame Buffer Interaction: Regions . . . . . . . . 94 . . . . . . . . 96 Frame Buffer I/O .................... 7.2.1 Deal on Write vs. Deal on Read ........ . . . . . . . . 96 7.2.2 Frame Buffer Write Operations ........ . . . . . . . . 98 7.2.3 Frame Buffer Read Operations ......... . . . . . . . . 102 . . . . . . . . 105 Command & Response List .............. 5 109 8 Back-End Processor Implementation 8.1 8.1.1 8.2 110 Functional Breakdown .......................... Memory Initialization & Resource and Normal . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 118 Allocation Function 120 ................ 8.2.1 Serial Communication Interrupts 8.2.2 Region Configuration ....................... 120 8.2.3 Assembly Language Techniques ................. 123 8.3 Frame Data Storage 8.4 Frame Data Retrieval 124 ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 127 9 Future Possibilities 131 10 Conclusion 134 A IPP Messages Associated with the FEP 136 B IPP Messages Associated with the BEP 142 6 List of Figures 2-1 Information Flow In and Around the UV System .......... . 20 3-1 The HETE Processing System ...................... 28 4-1 Structure and Readout of the UV CCDs ................ 42 5-1 Levels of Detail Within the Video Data Stream 54 ............ 5-2 Local-Maximum Check ................... 5....... 58 6-1 Encoding Formats for Events & Other Coordinate-Related Data . . . 73 6-2 FEP RAM Memory Map ......................... 75 7-1 Deal-on-Write Frame Organization 99 ................... 8-1 BEP RAM Memory Map ......................... 7 116 List of Tables 4.1 Lasagna Box / DSP Communication Signals ....... 35 . . . . . . . 4.2 Construction of Package-of-Four Video Words ...... 5.1 Assignment of Event-Finding threshn 7.1 Calculation of offsets 8.1 Modification of axbound-deltasfor Deal-on-Write Frames Variables ..... Given Transmission Mode .... 8 45 57 101 123 Chapter 1 Introduction The universe is full of magicalthingspatiently waitingfor our wits to grow sharper. - Eden Phillpots 1.1 The High-Energy Transient Experiment Satellite The High-Energy Transient Experiment Satellite, or HETE1 , is the product of an international effort to understand the origin and characteristics of cosmic gamma-ray bursts. It utilizes a distributed-processing architecture to identify transient events in the gamma, X, and ultraviolet wavelengths, and then to associate those events which have a common origin. A transient event is a circumstance where a stellar object - a star, or other cosmic entity which gives off radiation - suddenly increases its photonic output, to wit, "becomes very bright very fast". All data relevant to these events are passed down to researchers on Earth. Gamma-ray bursts offer significant insight into the workings of stars and other stellar sources; however, detectors sensitive to gamma photons (8 keV to 1 MeV) 'commonly pronounced "heh-tee" 9 have difficulty accurately determining the origin of the radiation. It is thus nontrivial to identify what stellar object produced a given burst. If however another transient event occurred, at about the same time and from the same general region as the gamma burst, then they could be associated: the two transients could be assumed to have come from the same object. And if the second event could be better localized, then the source of the gamma-ray burst would be better identified than is possible with the gamma detector alone. This is the purpose of the HETE project. Space science laboratories in the Unites States, France, and Japan are working together to create the HETE satellite for a launch in 1995. Each team is responsible for a different part of the satellite - gamma ray detection, ultraviolet imagery, spacecraft hardware, et cetera - and data from the mission will be widely disseminated to researchers interested in the results. This broad distribution of both responsibility and outcome is another unique aspect of the HETE project. HETE has extensive on-board processor power, centered around four Inmos T805 Transputers, each of which has two Motorola 56001 Digital Signal Processors at its disposal. These twelve microprocessors work in conjunction to perform a great deal of computation within the spacecraft itself, maximizing its ability to deal intelligently with many (potentially time-critical) observation situations, and minimizing the need for extensive communication with the ground. Each of the Transputer-plus-two-DSP processor groups govern a single HETE system. There is one system to control the spacecraft - power, radio, attitude, and the like - one to perform gamma and X band observations, and two to perform ultraviolet band observations. The two ultraviolet (UV) systems are virtually identical, differing primarily in the portion of the sky which they observe. 1.2 Focus of this Thesis The present Thesis is primarily a presentation of the software designed for the two DSPs within each UV system. These DSPs lie between a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera system sensitive to the ultraviolet wavelengths, and a governing Transputer 10 referred to as a General Purpose Processor or GPP. The two cameras per system are commanded by, and report their data to, the DSPs; the DSPs are in turn commanded by the GPP above them, which wishes to know information such as: * The status of the camera electronics * The loci of stars in the cameras' fields of view * The pixel values in a section of an image previously read out from the cameras Since the GPP is intended to focus its resources toward the end of identifying UV transient events and associating them with gamma-ray bursts, the nuts-and-bolts interaction with the camera electronics is left to the DSPs. That is to say, the DSPs take the raw data from the cameras, and process it to produce information more useful to the GPP's work. These DSPs must therefore be programmed to perform the functions the GPP requires. These functions primarily boil down to filtering and storage of video data, and it is a discussion the design and implementation of software to perform these functions that will occupy the majority of the coming pages. The context of this work will also be described: the value of gamma-ray burst research and the unique abilities of HETE to contribute to it, the computational environment wherein the HETE UV DSPs reside, and this designer's thoughts regarding improvements on, additions to, and limitations of the software suite presented. This document should therefore be a reasonably complete introduction to the HETE project as well as a detailed analysis of the UV system DSP software. This work was done at the MIT Center for Space Research CCD Lab as a con- tribution to MIT's part in creating the HETE spacecraft. It was both a joy and a privilege to work with this laboratory and its staff over the past three years. 1.3 Outline of this Document Following this Introduction, the HETE mission will be described in further detail. The goal of the mission, and the benefits of achieving this goal, are presented; the unique abilities of the HETE satellite that help to gain this end are then offered. 11 Chapter 3 outlines the HETE processing system, the capabilities and responsibilities of each of its components, and their means of communication. This is followed by a chapter focusing on the UV system in particular, how it uses its resources to achieve its purpose, and how those resources interact. Each of the UV system DSPs is then discussed in detail, both in terms of their design (algorithms and algorithmic concerns, trade-offs, etc.) and their implementation (specific coding issues). This Thesis concludes with thoughts on future possibilities for the software presented, and a summary of the information conveyed. The code developed is appended to this document. 12 Chapter 2 The HETE Project "Going on an Ezpotition?" said Pooh eagerly. "I don't think I've ever been on one of those. Where are we going to on this Expotition?" - A.A. Milne Winnie-the-Pooh 2.1 Mission Background The first gamma-ray burst was detected by Vela satellites designed to detect airborne nuclear tests. Scientists analyzing the Vela data noticed bursts of gamma rays coming from sources other than the Earth or Sun, and concluded that they were cosmic in nature. The bursts were detected in 1968-69, but were not published until 1974.[8] The unique and scientifically exciting characteristics of such high-energy transient events are described by S.E. Woosley et al. in the following passage: On anyone's list of intriguing astronomical phenomena, x-ray and 7-ray bursts would rank near the top, both because of their enigmatic nature and the enormous instantaneous powers they develop. The -ray event of March 5, 1979, for example, was briefly (for 0.12 s) as bright, in bolometric energy flux, as a star of apparent magnitude minus 5 (i.e., brighter than the planet Venus at maximum elongation) and, if situated, as many believe, in the Large Magellanic Cloud, had a luminosity equal to roughly 100 supernovae or ten times the electromagnetic output of the 13 entire Milky Way Galaxy! Yet this flux had a rise time of less than 0.2 ms indicating an origin within an extremely small volume. Many other 7-ray bursts have delivered energy fluxes about 100 times small than this, but have maintained their bright output for longer times. X-ray bursts too are known to generate power comparable to the most massive stars ( 105 solar luminosities), but originate from neutron stars that have radii of only -10 km and can develop these powers in a time less than one second.[11] A great many questions remain unanswered regarding the origin, purpose, and mechanics of these gamma-ray burst events.[7] Although the consensus was once that they are transmitted from the surfaces of accreting neutron stars, scientists are presently skeptical of this theory, and no single new theory has yet gained wide acceptance. Experiments such as the Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) on the Gamma-Ray Observatory satellite attempt to provide data to test new models, but so far the results from BATSE have not led to conclusive proofs or disproofs of any hypotheses, and in fact has raised more questions than it has answered. BATSE and related experiments suffer from the problem of localization, which makes association of high-energy burst events and the object that cause them difficult. Without a definite idea of the cosmic source of gamma-ray bursts, formulating ideas about their creation is exceptionally troublesome. 2.2 The Problem of Localization Unlike low-energy optical range photons which can be focused and recorded in a camera, high-energy gamma and X range photons are difficult to record and with present technology impossible to focus: to wit, a detector can tell if it has been hit by highenergy photons, but it is difficult to determine where they came from. The BATSE experiment on the Gamma-Ray Observatory satellite is capable of determining the origin of a gamma-ray burst to an accuracy of 2 when bombarded with photons (10- 4 erg/cm 2 ), losing accuracy exponentially as the flux decreases. The first proposals to attempt to improve this figure involved coordination among several observation sites separated by vast distances. For instance, localization of six gamma-ray burst events down to 0.05-14 arcmin2 have been accomplished using 14 satellites orbiting the Sun, Earth, and Venus.[3] However the timing accuracy required by such a scheme in order to provide good triangulation data is in the millisecond range, making this route both costly and prone to unreliability. Further, the ten satellites used all had missions of their own, and extrasolar gamma-ray observation was a secondary benefit. The HETE satellite was conceived to be a single satellite focused on the mission of detecting and localizing high-energy transient events. To accomplish this end, it utilizes burster counterparts: transient events in lower energy bands that are correlated with the high-energy bursts. The case for using optical counterparts is well presented by B. Schaefer: It is generally felt that identification of bursters with objects at other wavelengths will probably be required before significant progress can be made in determining their origins. The reason that low energy counterparts are so desirable is that low energy observations are much easier, cheaper, and more sensitive (as energy flux detectors) than gamma-ray observations. In addition, they offer the promise of establishing a muchneeded distance scale for bursters. Finally, large data bases already exist for low energy data that can be compared to GRB [Gamma Ray Burst] observations. Low energy counterparts can be identified when the GRB is bursting or when it is quiescent. ... [T]here are the optical bursts which are expected to be produced at or near the gamma burst source itself by a variety of processes .... There are several motivations in searching for optical flashes. A light curve could yield the optical duration, the delays with respect to gamma radiation, and the presence of precursors or afterglows. This would aid in choosing between models in which the optical radiation is produced by reprocessing in an accretion disk or in the atmosphere of a stellar companion on one hand, and those in which it is produced by cyclotron repressing. A precise location can be measured which will allow deep follow-up searches for the quiescent counterpart. The fraction of the energy emitted in the optical is another useful quantity for comparison with theory, as would be polarization and color of the flash. In addition, a recurrence time scale may be much easier to measure with optical techniques, although it is not yet clear whether optical and gamma ray recurrence times are the same. Each of the above mentioned quantities can be compared with theory and hence can serve to distinguish between models.[4] 15 2.3 Mission Goal It was in this purpose that the HETE 1 project was conceived by the participants of the 1983 conference of the American Institute of Physics, "High Energy Transients in Astrophysics".[11] It was meant to be small and inexpensive, utilizing current and proven technology to provide a relatively quick creation time and reliable system performance. To accomplish its mission, the HETE spacecraft would possess a gamma-ray detector, an X-ray detector, and several optical cameras. It would perform the detection and localization of high-energy transients on-board, making time synchronization among detectors both simpler and less important (as it would not be using time data to triangulate, but only to associate) than with the multi-craft scheme; and the several astronomical units of detector separation required by the latter is rendered unnecessary by the use of optical burst counterparts as a localization device. The scientific goal for the HETE mission, as defined by those who conceived it, is to answer the following questions:[11] * What physical processes operate in a 7-ray burst that allow the production of non-thermal radiation for a period (typically seconds to minutes) that is so much longer than typical neutron star dynamic time scales (1 ms)? Which conditions lead to 7-ray bursts and which lead to X-ray bursts? What physical circumstances produce a 7-ray spectrum as opposed to the softer spectrum of an X-ray burst or X-ray pulsar? How are line features, both absorption and emission, produced? * What are the properties of those neutron stars that produce high-energytransients? What are their radii, masses, accretion rates, field strengths, and internal temperatures and how do these parameters carry for the different categories of transients? What is their evolutionary status? 1Originally "High Energy Transient "Experiment" Explorer"; 16 "Explorer" has since been replaced by * How do repeated thermonuclear explosions on the surface of a neutron star interact with the interior temperature and a variable accretion rate to produce, from the same source, X-ray bursts that are sometimes regular in occurrence, sometimes erratic, and that sometimes cease altogether. How common are instances of recurrent flashes with intervals so short as to be incompatible with simple thermonuclear models? * Do observable optical flashes always accompany -ray bursts? How is the optical flash produced? Is it an extension of the 7-ray mechanism or fluorescence of a disk or companion star? How does the time history of the optical flash compare with that of the 7-ray burst itself? Can the optical emission be used to obtain the properties of the binary star system or to indicate the presence of a strong magnetic field? Are there other classes of short lived astronomical phenomena that emit chiefly in the optical (or ultraviolet or near infrared)? Ultraviolet was chosen for the HETE mission. * Are the basic processes that produce 7-rays in solar flares also operating elsewhere in the cosmos where highly magnetized plasmas are present? 2.4 HETE Instrumentation HETE has one omnidirectional gamma-ray spectrometer, one wide-field X-ray monitor, and four ultraviolet cameras. It is also an autonomous spacecraft, meaning it has attitude control capability, a (solar) power acquisition and regulation system, a radio link with the Earth, and monitors for potentially dangerous situations such as depressions in the protective Terran radiation belts. The omnidirectional y-ray spectrometer is sensitive to photons in the 6keV to >1MeV range. It can resolve transient events down to a separation of 4ms. It is based on proven technology developed in France for the Soviet Phobos probes, which uses an array of four detectors, covering a region of the sky 27r steradians in area. The wide-field X-ray monitor is sensitive to photons in the 2 to 25keV range. It 17 can resolve transient events down to a separation of lms. Note that this energy range partially overlaps that of the y-raydetector, but this device offers a higher temporal resolution. The monitor observes a total of -2 steradians of sky area using two units, and can determine an X-ray source's origin to +6 arcminutes of accuracy. Both the 7-ray spectrometer and the wide-field X-ray monitor communicate with two Motorola 56001 Digial Signal Processors (DSPs), which use their high-speed mathematical calculation abilities to process this raw detector data to find salient information. This information is provided to an Inmos T805 Transputer, called a General Purpose Processor or GPP. This GPP determines whether a burst has occurred in either of these bandwidths. The GPP, two DSPs, y-ray spectometer, and X-ray monitor comprise the Gamma / X system. The four ultraviolet cameras, divided into two pairs, are sensitive to photons in the 5 to 7eV range. They uses state-of-the-art charge-coupled device technology similar to that in consumer use to provide inexpensive, reliable detection. The UV system can resolve events from -0.5s to 6s, depending on how much of each camera's image is read out. Normal operations read out full frames from each camera in a data-compressed fashion every 2.0s. The four cameras, in total, view -1.7 steradians of the sky, and have ±3 arcseconds of precision of localization (lao). Each pair of cameras is connected to readout electronics named the Lasagna Boz. The Lasagna Box is commanded by, and reports its data to, two Motorola 56001 DSPs, called the Front-End Processor(FEP) and the Back-End Processor (BEP). They too use their ability at high-speed calculation to extract useful information from the raw pixel data, and provide this information to a governing Inmos T805 Transputer GPP. This GPP searches for transient events in the ultraviolet region and responds to burst announcements from the Gamma / X system to provide integrated reports on Gamma / X / UV burst activity. A GPP, two DSPs, and two ultraviolet cameras compose a UV system; there are two UV systems on-board HETE. The spacecraft itself is largely cylindrical, 48cm in diameter and 90cm in height. It uses a single momentum wheel for attitude control. Its attitude is kept so the science instruments are always on the anti-Sun side of the vehicle, with the CCD 18 cameras radiatively cooled to -60°C for improved quantum efficiency. It carries four solar panels which extend after deployment to provide 0.9m2 of surface area, providing the 30 watts necessary for the scientific instruments and 16 watts necessary for spacecraft infrastructure. It is expected to transceive 10 kilobits of data per second with the Earth (orbit average), over an S-band radio link. It is projected to weigh approximately 250 pounds. A fourth Inmos T805 Transputer GPP oversees two more Motorola 56001 DSPs, which in turn interact with the electronics controlling the spacecraft's power, attitude, communications with Earth, and so forth. These three processors and the spacecraft hardware they govern are collectively called the Spaceraft Control system. HETE will be inserted by a Pegasus launch vehicle (shared with one other satellite) into 550nm high, 380 nominal inclination circular orbit above the Earth. It is expected to perform its mission for one to two years. 2.5 A Day in the Life of HETE This section relates how the mission described above is accomplished by HETE, by describing the typical daily behavior of the spacecraft, in particular the UV system. The flow of requests and replies among the spacecraft processors is shown in Figure 21. The following chapters detail how the actions described here are performed. HETE's detectors - the omnidirectional7-ray spectrometer, the wide-fieldX-ray monitor, and the four ultraviolet cameras - always point in the anti-Solar direction. Thus for half of its orbit, these detectors are pointed toward the sunlit Earth, and for the other half, toward deep space. During the former, HETE is performing day- time operations,and during the latter, nighttime operations. Daytime operations are minimal: the detectors and most of the DSPs (those not in the Spacecraft Control system) are shut down to conserve power, and the GPPs spend most of their time idling. Once nighttime operations commence, however, HETE "wakes up" to work. The GPPs in the Gamma / X and UV systems request the Spacecraft Control system provide power to their respective DSPs and detectors. The DSPs are booted 19 attitude information Gamma& X-ray burst reports Photometry, astrometry, attitude Lasagna Box lists Video Channel: Rawpixeldatafromthecameras HousekeepingChannel: Replies to read commands clockingcommands CCD clocking Figure 2-1: Information Flow In and Around the UV System 20 and the detector electronics initialized by the GPPs above them. All four HETE systems are now active and looking for burst events. We now focus on the behavior of one UV system. The UV system GPP uses its FEP to command the Lasagna Box below it, and to receive status ("housekeeping") information back from this Lasagna Box. With the system initialized for nighttime operations, the GPP commands the Lasagna Box to begin reading out pixel data from both cameras; both the FEP and the BEP receive this pixel data. The FEP processes this data as it arrives, searching for stellar objects (events). An event is defined as a pixel which is not part of the background - and has the highest pixel value in a 3-by-3-pixel area around it. the dark sky Hence each ultraviolet-emitting stellar object visible to the HETE cameras should be recorded as a single event by the FEP. When an entire frame of data has been received by the FEP from the Lasagna Box, it reports the coordinates of all the events it found (the event list) to the GPP. The BEP does not process pixel data as it arrives, but rather stores it in a Frame Buffer. Several full-size frames and many subarrays - rectangular portions of a camera's full image - can be stored in the Frame Buffer, with new data overwriting old as necessary. The BEP uses the 56001's strengths in mathematical calculation to perform astrometry, 3x3-summation photometry, and spacecraft attitude determination, using pixel data in the Frame Buffer. These are the resources now available to the GPP, once it has commanded the Lasagna Box to begin generating frames. With every frame, the GPP receives an event list from the FEP. The GPP relays this list to the BEP, requesting photometry on each of these event coordinates, as well as an updated spacecraft attitude determination. The latter is forwarded to the Spacecraft Control system; the former is used to detect any new sources frame - events which were reported by the FEP for the first time this and brightenings in field sources - sources which have become brighter since previous frames. These are potential UV burst sources. Frame after frame, this process repeats. The Lasagna Box is reading out frame n; 21 the FEP is processing frame n for events; the BEP is storing frame n, while performing photometry on the events in frame n - 1. The GPP receives the photometry from frame n- 1 from the BEP and compares it to previous photometry to determine new sources and field sources. The GPP then receives the event list for frame n from the FEP, which it passes to the BEP for photometry on frame n. Now the Lasagna Box is reading out frame n + 1; the FEP is processing frame n + 1 for events; and the BEP is storing frame n + 1, while performing photometry on the events in frame n. This process can be interrupted by one of two occurrences within the Gamma / X system: the detection of either a gamma- or an X-ray burst. For both types, the full frames already in the Frame Buffer are of interest, as well as the frames about to be read out for the next few minutes. All of the frames currently in the Frame Buffer - that is to say, all of the frames preceding the gamma- or X-ray burst report - are sent to the ground immediately, and each frame following the report is sent to the ground after the frame is read out by the Lasagna Box and stored by the BEP. For a gamma-ray burst, these following frames are still full-size, because the 7-ray spectrometer cannot provide localization information, meaning the burst may have come from anywhere within all four UV cameras' fields of view. An X-ray burst, however, can be localized down to +6 arcminutes of area: either a tall narrow box, or a short wide box, or a small squarish box. The GPP then commands that only a subarray of the full frame be read out and saved, potentially decreasing the time the Lasagna Box takes to read out a frame, and increasing the number of frames that can fit in the Frame Buffer. The GPP resumes normal operation the ground - saving full frames, not reporting them to some minutes after the Gamma / X system reports that the gamma- or X-ray burst has ceased. Note that the UV GPP can compare its own list of field sources to the reports from the Gamma / X system, correlating the information and making an on-board estimate of the stellar object which originated the high-energy burst. It can communicate this information to the ground for potentially immediate reaction from ground-based observatories. Nighttime operations proceed in this fashion, with the UV system processing 22 full frames until the Gamma / X system reports a burst, at which point the UV GPP dumps the burst-preceding and burst-following camera frames to the ground; the latter frames may be smaller if the X-ray monitor was able to perform some localization that the UV system could take advantage of. As daytime approaches, the UV GPP dumps the photometry information it gathered through the night, as well as any previously saved frames of interest. The detectors and DSPs shut down, and daytime operations resume. It is important to note the following unique strengths of HETE: * Gamma, X, and UV detectors are all on the same spacecraft. Thus communication among them can be immediate, compared to disparate spacecraft trying to coordinate their observations. * All of the detectors are aimed at the same portion of the sky. If a burst is seen in the overlap region of one detector, any counterparts this burst has in the other wavelengths will be seen by the other detectors. * Predecessor information - information on the state of the sky leading up to a burst - is held in the Frame Buffer. 2.6 The HETE Team HETE is being jointly created by five organizations: * At the Centre d'Etude Spatiale de Rayonnements, in Toulouse, France: Gammaray detectors and software * At the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research, near Tokyo, Japan: X-ray detectors and software * At Los Alamos National Laboratories, in Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA: X-ray transient detection software and coded aperture * At MIT's Center for Space Research, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Ultraviolet system components (cameras and electronics) and software 23 * At AeroAstro Corporation, in Herndon, Virginia, USA: Spacecraft body and computer hardware MIT is also responsible for the archival of information downloaded from the satellite. This level of distributed responsibility, both conceptual and geographical, is unique in satellite design. Team members make extensive use of current communication technology - primarily electronic mail, but also teleconferencing, remote file transfers, and the like- to keep the project coordinated. Distribution of resultant data is also unique in the HETE project, as ground- based researchers can use the Internet to transfer data from MIT's archive to their own facility for analysis. They can further set up a small, inexpensive, omnidirectional VHF receiver to acquire data summaries directly from the satellite, for possible realtime coordination with local observatories. This large array of persons from around the globe - the design team, from France, Japan, and the United States, as well as all the physicists researching high-energy transient phenomena - compose the group that will take HETE from its conception to its goal. 24 Chapter 3 The HETE Computer System "Hello, computer ?" - Montgomery Scott Star Trek IV 3.1 Overall Structure and Relations The HETE computer system is centered around four Inmos T805 Transputers, each governing an independent HETE system, and communicating as peers to accomplish the satellite's mission. Each Transputer, termed a General Purpose Processor or GPP, has two Motorola 56001 Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) at its disposal; these DSPs in turn interface with the spacecraft externals - detectors, cameras, radio links, and the like. The DSPs thus provide a computation buffer between the GPP, and the low-level electronics which run the spacecraft and perform the actual astronomical observations. Figure 3-1 shows the architecture connecting these Transputers, DSPs, and low-level electronics. The four systems on board the spacecraft are: 1.' Spacecraft Control. Responsible for power management, attitude control, radio communication, and downlink message prioritization and buffering. 25 2. Gamma / X. Responsible for detecting transient events in the Gamma and X bands, and localizing them as well as possible. Passes this information to the UV systems for further localization, and to ground-based researchers. 3. UV System I. Responsible for detecting transient events in the ultraviolet band, and associating them with events reported by the Gamma / X system. Passes this information to ground-based researchers. Uses two UV cameras with partially overlapping fields of view. 4. UV System II. Same responsibilities as UV System I, but with cameras that observe a different portion of the sky. Each system is on a separate processor board; the four boards are connected by a Host Interface Bus. Each board contains one GPP, two DSPs, Host Bus Interface logic to allow these processors to communicate over the Host Interface Bus, and Host Control Interface logic to control communication between the GPP, and its DSPs and the Host Bus Interface. These systems communicate over the Host Interface Bus: any GPP can communicate directly with the other three. Communications are conducted under the Inter-Process Protocol, or IPP, described in section 3.3. Communication with the Earth takes place via a line-of-sight radio link with a set of primary and secondary ground stations. Three primary ground stations, in Arizona, Japan, and Italy, both receive from and transmit to the satellite; numerous (22 at last count) secondary ground stations scattered across the planet use simple omnidirectional receivers to accept selected downlink data as well, associating them with local observatories seeking curiosities in the visible, infrared, and radio bands. This is the first step in the dissemination of satellite information: those who wish to receive data as soon as possible when the satellite is overhead, need only acquire a small receiving system. The second step is prodigious use of the Internet, whereby data received from the satellite by the primary ground stations is sent to MIT for archival, and project researchers use standard Internet tools to acquire this information from MIT. 26 These four processor boards governing their respective systems, together with communication with and around Earth, define the HETE processing system. 3.2 Processor Capabilities The Inmos T805 Transputer is designed to be capable of running a set of independent processes simultaneously, as well as communicating easily and efficiently with other devices of the same type. It is a 32-bit device running at 20 MHz. It has 500 kilobytes (131,072 words) of ROM, and 4 Megabytes (1,048,576 words) of RAM, both of which are two-bit error-checked. That is, words with 0 or 1 bits in error will be corrected in hardware and will not affect program execution; words with 2 bits in error will generate an exception, being a recognized and localized but not immediately correctable problem. The ease of inter-processor communication facilitates coordination among systems. A gamma-ray burst occurs, possibly partially localizable by the X-ray detector, and is detected by the Gamma / X system; the Gamma / X GPP sends a message to the UV system viewing this portion of the sky, and this UV GPP attempts to associate the gamma- and X-ray bursts with a UV transient. An association is found, and the UV GPP decides to inform ground researchers. It sends a message destined for the ground, which is first routed to the Spacecraft Control GPP, on its way down the radio link to Earth. A land-based researcher wishes to get the UV frames corresponding to this transient: a message goes up the radio, into the Spacecraft Control GPP, over to the UV GPP, which responds with a set of messages headed back toward the Spacecraft Control GPP on the way down to the ground. And so on: we see that this Transputer-to-Transputer message passing is a major component of the HETE spacecraft's ability to perform its mission. In normal operation, one GPP governs the two DSPs "beneath" it in the processing chain. If however one GPP should fail in flight, another can take over and command these DSPs remotely (i.e. from another processor board within the spacecraft), by using the Host Control Interface to "lock out" the faulty GPP from communicating 27 Figure 3-1: The HETE Processing System 28 with its DSPs. Direct Memory Access (DMA) will not be available between the remote GPP and the orphaned DSPs, meaning communication will be markedly slower; and the spacecraft bus will have much more traffic than it ought to under normal circumstances; but an entire system (UV, Gamma / X, or even Spacecraft Control, theoretically) need not fail because its Transputer has died. This is particularly applicable to the UV system, which has two identical instantiations on HETE: each UV GPP is de facto capable of performing the other's functions. All it need do is launch a new set of processes identical to the ones it already has running, with a few parameters changed - specifically, those relating to the orientation of the cameras, and the IPP addresses of the new DSPs. The DSPs, in turn, are programmed to send messages as replies to processes which request various kinds of information, and never actually know with whom they are communicating. This takes advantage of the "location ignorance" feature of IPP (described in section 3.3): neither the remote GPP nor its new charges need to know anything explicit about the physical or electronic location of the other; the former needs only know the latter's addresses, and the underlying IPP system takes care of routing commands and replies where they need to go. The Motorola 56001 Digital Signal Processor is a single-process device with extensive on-board serial and host interface capabilities. It is a 24-bit device running at 20 MHz. It has a small (512 word) boot ROM, 32 kilowords of program RAM (referred to as "P:" space), and 64 kilowords of data RAM (32K in "X:" data space, and 32K in "Y:" data space). Two DSPs on HETE systems - one each for the two UV have a 4 Megaword Frame Buffer as well. HETE DSP memory is not error-checked. The DSPs are intended to take raw low-level data - Gamma or X detector out- puts, pixel readouts from the UV cameras, signals from spacecraft utility electronics - and turn them into more high-level information that is immediately useful to the GPPs controlling them. Two serial communication systems are available to the DSP: a synchronous serial interface, where there is an explicit and distinct synchronization signal passed from the transmitter to the receiver; and an asynchronous serial 29 interface, where the synchronization is included in the data stream itself, as in the EIA232 (RS232) protocol. Each of these systems is capable of independent transmission and reception. It is through these two transmission channels and two reception channels per DSP, that communication is established with the low-level electronics. Communication with the GPP is accomplished via the DSP's 8-bit-wide host interface system. 3.3 The Inter-Process Protocol Processes communicate via IPP, the Inter-Process Protocol. Recall that the Transputers (GPPs) run several processes each, and each DSP is considered a single process. Processes can also be present on Earthside computers. The crucial element of IPP is location ignorance. No sending process need know anything specific about the receiving process - what kind of device it is running on, its location, how to get the message there - the method of transmission is the same, whether the destination is on the same on-board processor, or down on Earth halfway around the globe. Each processor has an underlying IPP system which completely abstracts away these concerns; this underlying system knows, for example, that messages to off-satellite processes should be routed first to the Spacecraft Control system, and messages to a process on the same processor board need not go out onto the Host Interface Bus. When one process wishes to send an IPP message to another, it needs the following information: * The recipient's IPP address * The sender's own IPP address * The message type * The message priority (0-255, 0 being highest priority) * The message itself: up to 512 16-bit unsigned words 30 A Constellation Name Server keeps track of each process's address. When a process becomes active, it registers with the Constellation Name Server, and gets its own IPP address in return. When such a process wishes to communicate with another, it asks the Constellation Name Server for that process's address, given its name (number actually): rather like copying information from a White Pages directory into a personal address book. Two processes which communicate with each other agree on a set of message types so the recipient will know what the data in a message means. For instance, the Gamma / X and UV systems would both recognize a XEVENTFOUND type: the former would know how to insert the relevant information - message the time of the transient event, the best estimate of its source location, and so forth - into the message, and the latter would in turn be able to extract this information and use it. The underlying IPP routing system will occasionally find itself with several, even many, messages requiring transmission. This is most likely true for inter-system messages when the Host Interface Bus is experiencing a lot of traffic, and almost definitely true for the Spacecraft Control system holding on to downlink messages until a primary ground station comes into view. To ensure that time-critical messages do not get delayed by less important communiques, each message has a priority number associated with it, and higher priority messages (those with lower numbers) are promoted to the head of any transmission queues. In this fashion a XEVENTFOUND message can get from the Gamma / X system to one of the UV systems, even if the other UV system is generating a great deal of traffic on the Host Interface Bus, say by sending a large frame of image data to the Spacecraft Control system for eventual transmission to the ground. The data within the message is a list of 512 or fewer "unsigned shorts", that is, 16-bit words representing the numbers from 0 to 65535. Data that are greater than 16 bits wide are customarily sent least-significant-word-first, so a number such as $12345678 is packaged as message[n] = $5678, message[n + 1] = $1234. If a long list of data that may span several messages needs to be sent, one of the words in each message is often a pair of flags indicating whether this message is the first or last 31 in the series. So if bit 0 ($0001) of message[0] is the "first message" flag, and bit 1 ($0002) of message[0] is the "last message" flag, then the recipient will usually receive a series of messages (of the same type) where message[0] reads 1-0-0...0-2. If the data can be fit into a single message, message[0] would be $0003 (= $0001 OR $0002). With this information collected, the sender may compose an IPP message and send it, trusting that the information will eventually get to its destination, regardless of where it is. The recipient, further, can offer a reply to the sender without ever having to know the sender's name, because the sender's address is included in the message. This takes location ignorance to an even higher level, as a process may respond to a command without knowing or needing to know who sent it. This feature is especially useful in the HETE DSPs, as indicated in section 3.2 and chapters 5 and 7. 32 Chapter 4 The UV System [Scientists] are Peeping Toms at the keyhole of eternity. - Arthur Koestler 4.1 UV System Components Arguably, the first component of the UV system are the stellar objects themselves, any and everything in the observable universe which sends out photons between 220nm and 310nm (5 to 7 eV, 9.7x101 4 to 1.4x1015 Hz). On the HETE spacecraft, four charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras stand ready to receive these photons. These four cameras are divided into two pairs; each pair is connected to an identical set of electronics. For simplicity, future references to "the UV system" and its components will refer to the system associated with one of these pairs, with the understanding that there is a duplicate system on the spacecraft, differing only in the fact that its two cameras are aimed elsewhere. The two UV cameras have a -10% overlapping field of view. That is, -10% of the image reported by one camera is also reported by the other. The overlapping regions are oriented to cover the areas of the sky to which the Yand X detectors are most sensitive. Charge-coupled devices require a good deal of support electronics to pull out pixel information. On HETE, the support electronics are contained in the 33 Lasagna Box. The Lasagna Box is a highly pipelined and parallelized combination of digital/analog converters, serial/parallel multiplexers and decoders, and command interpretation logic, designed to make camera images available to the rest of the UV system as rapidly, accurately, and robustly as possible. The Lasagna Box can read out all the data from the two 1024x1024-pixel cameras to 12-bit accuracy in 6.3 seconds; or, from a single camera to 16-bit accuracy in the same amount of time. Usually, the Lasagna Box will be configured to read out both cameras to 12-bit accuracy in a "2x2-summed" fashion, where the 1024x1024 pixel array is grouped into an grid of 2x2 squares, and the pixels within each square are summed to form a new image 512 pixels on a side. The Lasagna Box thus reports a 512x512-pixell image from each of the two cameras, to 12-bit accuracy, every 1.6 seconds: this is referred to in following chapters as a "normal-mode" frame. The Lasagna Box sends these pixel values to a pair of Motorola 56001 digital signal processors (DSPs) named the Front-End Processor (FEP) and the Back-End Processor (BEP). These DSPs report to the General-Purpose Processor (GPP), an Inmos T805 transputer which heads the HETE UV system. The GPP relies on the DSPs to perform a great deal of the initial computation on the video data sent by the Lasagna Box, transforming the long stream of pixel values into a collection of more useful information, such as the coordinates of stars within the image, the pixel intensities of some interesting portion of the image, and the like. The GPP itself is responsible for the highest level of on-board UV data analysis, most importantly the identification and localization of transient events, coordinated with HETE's Gamma / X system; and also for communication of important data to ground-based researchers through the HETE Spacecraft Control system, which has jurisdiction over the radio link. This division of labor takes advantage of the DSPs' ability to perform long and complex mathematical calculations quickly and efficiently, and the Transputer's ability to run several processes simultaneously while communicating easily with other Transputers. 1Hardware specifics within the Lasagna Box and CCD cameras may change the dimensions slightly 34 Channel Command Housekeeping Name STD SCK SC2 RXD Source DSP DSP DSP LBox Rate 500 kHz (2ps/bit) 500 kHz (2s/cycle) 20.8 kHz (48.s/sync) 31.25 kHs (32ps/bit) Purpose 24-bit command words, MSB-first Bit-wide clock Bit-wide sync pulse during last bit of command word 8-bit status words, EIA232 format SCLK LBox 500 kHz (2s/cycle) 16x sampling clock SRD LBox 4 MHz 250ns/bit) 24-bit video data, MSB-first SCO LBox 4 MHz (250ns/cycle) Bit-wide clock SC1 TXD LBox DSP 167 kHz (6,s/sync) Aperiodic Bit-wide sync pulse during last bit of video word Master reset signal, active high Video Reset Table 4.1: Lasagna Box / DSP Communication Signals The GPP and the DSPs are electronically linked by an 8-bit-wide DMA bus; however, they communicate via the Inter-Process Protocol (see section 3.3), which means the software developer need not be concerned with the hardware specifics at this level. The hardware specifics are of great importance, however, with regard to communication with the Lasagna Box. The Lasagna Box communicates with the DSPs via three serial links: * A command channel, a 24-bit-wide synchronous serial interface running at 500 kHz (48ts per word) from which the Lasagna Box accepts instructions; * A housekeeping channel, an 8-bit-wide asynchronous serial interface running at 31.25 kHz (320ps per word, including start and end bits) through which the Lasagna Box sends responses (two words per response) to queries; * A video channel, a 24-bit-wide synchronous serial interface running at 4 MHz (6ps per word) through which the Lasagna Box sends pixel data from the cameras. Table 4.1 describes the actual signals which travel between the DSPs and the Lasagna Box. The essential links in the UV system are thus Ground Researchers =IPP/radio Satellite =IPP cameras (x2) UV GPP photon, =IPP DSPs (FEP + BEP) =erial Lasagna Box parallel UV-transmitting stellar objects, with commands flowing down the chain left to right, and information flowing up the chain right to left. The FEP is in charge of relaying commands and status reports between the GPP and the Lasagna 35 Box, as well as producing event lists for the GPP; the BEP stores frame data for later analysis. See section 2.5, especially Figure 2-1, for an overview description of the use of these devices. 4.2 Controlling Transputer: The GPP Please see section 3.2 for information on the Inmos T805's capabilities, and the interrelation of these devices on the HETE spacecraft. In the UV system, these capabilities are put to use to identify transient events - stellar objects whose ultraviolet emissions increase by a statistically significant amount on timescales ranging from 2 to 1000 seconds - in the ultraviolet band, and associating them with transients reported by the Gamma / X system. To this end it uses the DSPs, and through them the Lasagna Box and the cameras, to * Locate all stellar objects (viz. stars) within the field of view of the two cameras. (FEPfunction) * Perform photometry on these stellar objects in each frame. (BEP function) * Compare the photometry of stellar objects from successive frames to determine if any of the objects are displaying transient behavior. (GPP function) * Narrow the field of interest within the camera images and grab a succession of frames, if a localized X-ray burst was reported by the Gamma / X system. (GPP function via the FEP, impacting the Lasagna Box and BEP) * Monitor the status of, and modify the parameters used by, the DSPs or the Lasagna Box to keep the video processing operating efficiently (GPP function via the FEP, impacting the Lasagna Boz and BEP) In normal operation, the GPP commands the UV subsystems to observe the entire field of view available to the two cameras. It takes the list of star locations for each frame, and attempts to associate each one with a star located in previous frames; 36 it can then compare the apparent magnitude of these stars at different times, to determine if a transient event has occurred. The Gamma / X system will from time to time report that a burst has occurred in these wavelengths. Included in the message will be the best estimate of the portion of the sky where the burst originated (within ±6 arcmin if the X-ray monitor could localize the event). The GPP then narrows the field of interest within the cameras' fields of view to include only this portion of the sky. This buys the UV system higher pixel-intensity accuracy, and the ability to save more frames separated by a smaller camera readout time. With this high-resolution (in both time and pixel intensity) series of frames, the GPP can gather a great deal of information on the exact location (within ±3 arcsec) and brightness-change characteristics of this event. The GPP is then responsible for relaying important information - details on the occurrence of transient events, relevant images, data on system status, et cetera to researchers and project staff on the ground. 4.3 Dual DSP System: The FEP and BEP This Thesis is focused on this component of the HETE UV system. In particular, a software suite to govern these two processors has been developed, and the following chapters will present the algorithmic and implentation concerns encountered along the way, with the solutions arrived at by this developer and his colleagues. To set the stage: the DSPs both have the following responsibilities * Function autonomously once booted, reporting regularly that it is still operating * Communicate with the GPP and beyond via IPP, following the principle of "location ignorance": a message from a DSP is sent to the process which requested the type of information the message contains, without the DSP being aware of any specifics about the recipient 2 2 For convenience, in this document the recipient is generally assumed to be the GPP, as this is the normal situation in-flight. So statements like "report to the GPP" actually mean "report to the process which asked for this kind of information". 37 * Monitor the video channel from the Lasagna Box * Advise the GPP when a frame is about to be processed, and again when processing is complete * Warn the GPP of any recognized error situations, such as a hardware exception, a problem with the data from the Lasagna Box, and so forth In addition, each DSP has these specific tasks: The FEP * Send commands from the GPP to the Lasagna Box, and relay responses back from the Lasagna Box to the GPP * Report events as requested. An event is a feature within a camera frame which is determined to be a stellar object; so the FEP tells the GPP where all of the stars are in an image. The BEP * Store frames or portions of frames as requested * Retrieve previously stored pixel data, presenting it in a form useful for analysis * Analyze pixel data: perform astrometry, photometry, and spacecraft attitude determination using previously stored pixel data 3 The BEP has a 12 Megabyte Frame Buffer, organized as 4,194,304 24-bit words, in which to store frames. This means that up to 16 normal-mode frames (32 camera images) may be stored in the Frame Buffer; or 8 normal-mode frames plus, say, 209 100x100-pixel camera images at 16-bit resolution, or 30 50x500 camera images followed by 17 200x500 two-camera frames at 12-bit resolution; and so on. In addition, both DSPs have 32 kilowords available in each of the 56001's memory spaces, P: (program), X: (data), and Y: (data). All of these spaces utilize a 24-bit word. This 3 Not implemented in this release, and not discussed further in this Thesis 38 means that since the FEP does not have a Frame Buffer, it has only 64 kilowords of data memory to work with, and hence cannot store an entire frame: its event-finding system must be able to operate in real time, as the pixels are arriving, without the option of putting a frame aside when it's busy and going back later. The code for the DSPs had to be, in descending priority order: fast, to keep up with the stream of incoming video data; robust, because a satellite must deal intelligently with unexpected circumstances without the benefit of a human supervisor; and readable, so that it may be understood by the members of the team who will use, augment, and support it. The DSPs must know how to communicate with the GPP on one side, and the Lasagna Box on the other: the former requires the software to be flexible, to respond to a variety of requests, and "intelligent", to take raw camera data and create information useful to the GPP; the latter requries the software to be not only fast, as stated above, but also efficient, to recognize the "meaning" of the data in real-time and deal with it accordingly. To this end, three software techniques are used extensively in both DSPs. Robustness and readability are aided by the use of a mainloop, where a single "main" function calls a series of functions - say, tryget_message() has sent a command, then tryproc_vid() to check if the GPP to check if something should be done with the video data that just arrived, then checkbuddy_time() to inform the GPP that the DSP is still alive and functioning - over and over in an endless loop. Each of these functions is constructed so that it returns within a reasonable amount of time to let the other functions operate; if it has not finished what it was doing, it picks up again the next time the mainloop calls it. In this way individual functions are less apt to swallow up all of the DSP's time should an unexpected situation occur - for instance, if the FEP were to send a command to the Lasagna Box and then sit in a wait loop until the response came back, a malfunctioning Lasagna Box could prevent the FEP from dealing with an important message from the GPP. Under the mainloop scheme, however, the FEP's Lasagna Box communication functions would send the command, and simply return. Then each time around the mainloop, these functions would check if a response had arrived yet, without interfering with the rest 39 of the FEP functions, like communication with the GPP. The 56001 has several features which make circular buffers easy to implement. When a stream of data needs to be passed from one routine to another, a circular buffer may be used to limit the need for coordination between the sender and receiver, improving speed and efficiency. It is like two runners jogging around a track, where the sender is dropping crumbs, and the receiver, some paces behind, picking up the crumbs and consuming them. Around and around the track they go: the receiver need only be concerned with (1) not bumping into the back of the sender and (2) not getting a full lap behind the sender (which would mean the sender would start trampling the crumbs he dropped before, that is to say, the sender would overwrite data that the receiver hadn't processed yet). The sender does not need to worry about the receiver at all. The most common reason for one routine to want to pass a stream of data to another in this fashion is communication. The 56001 hardware takes care of much of the mechanics of communication with the Lasagna Box and the GPP: when it has received a word from one of these devices, or it is ready to transmit a new word to them, it generates an interrupt to either read the word received or supply a new word to be transmitted. Interrupt handlers, however, ought to be as fast as possible, doing some minimal amount of work and then allowing the main code (i.e. code called by the mainloop, generally in a higher-level language than the interrupt handler, and thus more readable and possibly more robust) to deal with the data. And so an interrupt-plus-main-code system is used in these situations, where the handler for a receive interrupt simply places the new word into a circular buffer, and the handler for a transmit interrupt grabs the next word from a circular buffer and sends it. The main code is then responsible for filling the circular buffer used by a transmit handler, and for processing the data placed in a circular buffer by a receive handler. This takes the speed and efficiency advantages of a circular buffer and augments them with the speed of a short interrupt handler and the readability and robustness of high-level code. 40 The DSP code for HETE is written in Motorola GNU C, with time-critical routines (mostly relating to processing video data) coded in Motorola 56001 assembly. 4.4 Camera Electronics: The Lasagna Box The Lasagna Box, as indicated before, communicates via a command channel, a housekeeping channel, and a video channel. Words over the command channel correspond to either a write to or a read from a register within the Lasagna Box. Read commands generate a single response from the Lasanga Box over the housekeeping channel. There is no arbitration or regulation on housekeeping responses, so no more than one read command ought to be pending at any one time. A single active-high master reset signal initializes the device. A charge-coupled device (CCD) camera uses semiconductor technology to transduce light energy into electrical signals. A CCD is a silicon wafer, one to two centimeters on a side, which produces free electrons when hit by photons within a given range of wavelengths. Placing focusing optics in front of such a device, such that light is sensibly aimed at the wafer instead of hitting it from all directions, creates a potentially useful camera. All that remains is to get the free electrons off the wafer in a manner that indicates how many photons hit a given part of the CCD. Figure 4-1 diagrams how this is accomplished in the HETE UV system. A CCD is often pictured as an array of buckets which catch photons; the Lasagna Box measures the contents of these buckets and reports them as pixel values. Since this measuring process can take a significant amount of time, the CCD devices used on HETE are divided into an eposed area and a frame-store area: the former is exposed to photons arriving through the camera optics, which are then converted into an electrical charge; the latter is not exposed to photons, and therefore holds its charge until read out. When the exposed area has received sufficient exposure, its entire contents are shifted down into the frame-store area. The exposed area is now empty of charge and ready to receive the next image, and as it is doing so, the Lasagna Box is reading the pixel data from the previous image out of the frame-store 41 Single-Camera CCD Chip Layout -l i Slice Slice i A Slice C B Slice D :::...------7----- Pixels Exposed to ,_ Photons (0.3) (1.3) (2.3) (0,2) (1,2) (o,) (3,3) (4,3) (53) (6,3) (2,2) (3,2) 1(4,2) (5,2) (6,2), (7,2) (1,1) (2,1) (3,1 (4,s) ) (6,1) (1,0) (2) (30)(4,0) (5,0) (6,0) . (7,3) (8,3) (8,2) : (9,2) : (10,2) (7,1) (8,l) (9,1) (101) (7,0) (8,0) ..... ~....l....c... -,---'---,-_ _ !---,__,___ (0,0) (9,3) (103) (11,3) !(123) (13,3) (14,3) (15,3) (11,2) j (12,2) (13.2): (14,2) (15,2) . .... (1)(121) (~. . ....... .. (13,1) (14,1) (151) . . . .2. . ... . (9,0) (10,0) ( 1,0) (12,0) (13,0) (14,0) (15,0) ERTIiAL OVERCLOCKS- VERTICALC IVERC-OCKS-- VERlCAl,bVERLOCK . ..... ... ..... c....c........ ........... ............. Entire frame transferred VERT1CALOVERCL6CKS-- ; VERTICALC VERCIOCKS VERrICALJ VERCLOCKS --- Frame- Store - ,------- - ---- (0,3) : (1.3) (2,3) (3,3) i (4.3) (0,2) : (1,2) (2,2) (3,2) (4,2) :- ,- ..... :...... . (0,0) : (1,0) . (2,0) (7.3) (8,3) (93)3) (11,3) (12,3) (13.3) (14.3) (15,3) (5,2) (6,2) (7,2) (8,2) (9,2) (10,2) (11,2) ! (12,2) (13,2) (14,2) (15,2) (8,1) (9,1) (10,1) (11,1)j (12,1) (13,1) (14,1) (15,1) .... ..... (3,0) (4.0) ........ (6,3) Area ... : ......... (5,3) ............... (5,0) (6.0) (7.0) Frame- exposed ....... shifted Store area fone-byone as pixels (9,0) (10,0) (11,0) (12,0) (13,0): (14,0) (15,0) f are clocked YI out SERIAL:REGISrER ---:SERIAJ REGITER- SERlL RECISTER--- SE11AL REGISTER I,K-- Realdout I I I lM II I I II I I Readout rReadout NodeB \1 / NodeC Node A lines to Frame- : --- ---..... ...- -.. ....--:.....:..... .... (8,0) Store Readout NodeD Readout Options Camera Camera 0 or 1 Slice Slice B C .I . D I B I I D I _. I Slice Mode 0 Mode 1 Readout Readout I Camera 1 Slice Camera 0 I L k_ Slice Slice Slice )s <( A I Camera 0 D Slice Slice Slice Slice A B C D . Mode 2 Mode 3 Readout Readout Figure 4-1: Structure and Readout of the UV CCDs 42 L. c~ area. This reading is performed one bucket at a time, in a pixel-by-pixel line-by-line fashion. Say the CCD has been exposed to a new image, and the data transferred into the frame-store area: the Lasagna Box commands the first line in the frame-store area to dump its contents into the serial register, where the Lasagna Box can examine the pixel values in this line at one of four readout nodes. With the first line of data in the serial register, the second line can be transferred into the first, the third into the second, and so on. This poises the second line for transfer into the serial register for readout. The four readout nodes are lettered A, B, C, and D. Since there are two cameras, each with four readout nodes, there are eight nodes total in the UV system: AO, BO, CO, DO, Al, B1, C1, and D1. Each readout node is capable of reading or clocking out pixels from a certain region of the CCD, depending on the transmission mode (often abbreviated "Mode") of the Lasagna Box. Clocking out pixels entails measuring how "full" the bucket at the readout node is, giving this fullness a number called the pizel value or pixel intensity, and then shifting the buckets in the serial register toward the readout node to read the next pixel value in the line. The region of the CCD whose pixels are clocked out by a given readout node is called a slice, and so there are potentially eight slices across the two cameras, AO through D1, again depending on the Mode. There are four possible Modes: * Mode 0: 16-bit pixel values clocked out from all the readout nodes in a single camera. With four readout nodes per camera, each slice (A, B, C, and D) is one-fourth the total width of the CCD. A Submode determines which camera (O or 1). * Mode 1: 16-bit pixel values clocked out from readout nodes B and D of both cameras. With two readout nodes utilized per camera, Slice B is the left half of a camera, and Slice D the right half. * Mode 2: 16-bit pixel values clocked out from readout nodes A and C of both cameras. With two readout nodes utilized per camera, Slice A is the left half 43 of a camera, and Slice C the right half. * Mode 3: 12-bit pixel values clocked out from all the slices in both cameras. Each of the eight slices is one-fourth the total width of a CCD. Two pixels are packed into a word. For the 16-bit transmission modes (0 through 2), the lower 8 bits of each 24-bit word arriving over the video channel are all l's, so pixel data is OxPPPPFF, with the pixel value in PPPP. For the 12-bit Mode 3, two pixel values OxP1P1P 1 and 0xP 2P 2 P2 are stacked as OxP1P1PP 1 P 2 2 p 2 in each 24-bit video channel word. Note from Figure 4-1 that while readout nodes A and C clock pixels out leftto-right, readout nodes B and D clock pixels out right-to-left. Thus while readout node A would read pixel (0,0), shift its portion of the serial register to the left, read pixel (1,0), shift again, and read (2,0), readout node B would read pixel (7,0), shift its portion of the serial register to the right, read pixel (6,0), shift again, and read (5,0). This "backward" readout for Slices B and D complexifies reconstruction of the camera image. When a full line of pixel values have been clocked out, the next line is transferred into the serial register, and all of the lines above it are transferred down one line. It is important to note that the specifics involved in transferring lines and clocking out pixels produces three types of non-image pizels. When a readout node begins to clock out a new line, the actual pixel values are preceded by a set of horizontal underclocks, and when all of the pixel values have been clocked out, the readout nodes continue to supply horizontal overclocks before the next line is shifted into the serial register. When all of the lines containing image data have been clocked out, a few vertical overclock lines remain, and they are clocked out as well. These non-image pixels represent a baseline "dark" response of the CCD, and are included in the video data in the order they are produced. The Lasagna Box simultaneously reads all of the active readout nodes in its present Mode. This means that the Lasagna Box produces four pixel values at a time in Modes 0 through 2, and eight pixel values at a time in Mode 3. It uses these values to 44 Mode, [Submode] First word from slice(s) Second word from slice(s) Third word from slice(s) Fourth word from slice(s) 0, 0 AO BO CO DO 0,1 Al B1 C1 D1 1 BO DO B1 D1 2 AO CO 3 AO:BO CO:DO Al C1 Al:Bl Cl:Dl Table 4.2: Construction of Package-of-Four Video Words (Pl:P2 indicates pixel P1 is in the top 12 bits, P2 in the bottom 12 bits) construct a package-of-four-video-words, or package-of-four, where each word contains the pixel value(s) clocked out from one (two in Mode 3) of the readout nodes, as indicated in Table 4.4. These packages-of-four comprise the majority of the video stream. The video stream, transmitted to the FEP and the BEP over the video channel, contains three types of words: words containing pixel values; sync words; and blank words. A row sync pattern precedes every row of pixel data, and a frame sync pattern (which includes a frame identification number) precedes the set of rows representing a new frame. A small fixed number of blank words precedes each row sync pattern, and a large variable number of blank words precedes each frame sync pattern. The sync patterns are also organized in packages-of-four. At time of development, the frame sync was two consecutive packages-of-four containing all OxOOFFFF's, followed by 24 packages-of-four encoding a 24-bit frame ID (four OxOOFFFF'swas a one bit, four OxOOOOOO's was a zero bit; most significant bit was sent first). The row sync was four OxOOOOOO's followed by four OxOOFFFF's. Let us posit a camera whose four slices each have two horizontal underclock columns, three image pixel columns, one horizontal overclock column, two image rows, and one vertical overclock row. Note that the actual camera image is 12x2. With the Lasagna Box in Mode 0, the video channel would look like this: (Frame sync) (Blank words) 45 (Row sync) 1. First horizontal underclock of slice A, first row 2. First horizontal underclock of slice B, first row 3. First horizontal underclock of slice C, first row 4. First horizontal underclock of slice D, first row 5. Second horizontal underclock of slice A, first row 6. Second horizontal underclock of slice B, first row 7. Second horizontal underclock of slice C, first row 8. Second horizontal underclock of slice D, first row 9. First image pixel of slice A, first row: image coordinate (0,0) 10. First image pixel of slice B, first row: image coordinate (5,0) 11. First image pixel of slice C, first row: image coordinate (6,0) 12. First image pixel of slice D, first row: image coordinate (11,0) 13. Second image pixel of slice A, first row: image coordinate (1,0) 14. Second image pixel of slice B, first row: image coordinate (4,0) 15. Second image pixel of slice C, first row: image coordinate (7,0) 16. Second image pixel of slice D, first row: image coordinate (10,0) 17. Third image pixel of slice A, first row: image coordinate (2,0) 18. Third image pixel of slice B, first row: image coordinate (3,0) 19. Third image pixel of slice C, first row: image coordinate (8,0) 20. Third image pixel of slice D, first row: image coordinate (9,0) 21. Horizontal underclock of slice A, first row 22. Horizontal underclock of slice B, first row 23. Horizontal underclock of slice C, first row 24. Horizontal underclock of slice D, first row (Blank words) (Row sync) 25. First horizontal underclock of slice A, second row 26. First horizontal underclock of slice B, second row 27. First horizontal underclock of slice C, second row 46 28. First horizontal underclock of slice D, second row 29. Second horizontal underclock of slice A, second row 30. Second horizontal underclock of slice B, second row 31. Second horizontal underclock of slice C, second row 32. Second horizontal underclock of slice D, second row 33. First image pixel of slice A, second row: image coordinate (0,1) 34. First image pixel of slice B, second row: image coordinate (5,1) 35. First image pixel of slice C, second row: image coordinate (6,1) 36. First image pixel of slice D, second row: image coordinate (11,1) 37. Second image pixel of slice A, second row: image coordinate (1,1) 38. Second image pixel of slice B, second row: image coordinate (4,1) 39. Second image pixel of slice C, second row: image coordinate (7,1) 40. Second image pixel of slice D, second row: image coordinate (10,1) 41. Third image pixel of slice A, second row: image coordinate (2,1) 42. Third image pixel of slice B, second row: image coordinate (3,1) 43. Third image pixel of slice C, second row: image coordinate (8,1) 44. Third image pixel of slice D, second row: image coordinate (9,1) 45. Horizontal underclock of slice A, second row 46. Horizontal underclock of slice B, second row 47. Horizontal underclock of slice C, second row 48. Horizontal underclock of slice D, second row (Blank words) (Row sync) 49. First pixel of slice A, vertical overclock row 50. First pixel of slice B, vertical overclock row 51. First pixel of slice C, vertical overclock row 52. First pixel of slice D, vertical overclock row 53. Second pixel of slice A, vertical overclock row 54. Second pixel of slice B, vertical overclock row 55. Second pixel of slice C, vertical overclock row 47 56. Second pixel of slice D, vertical overclock row 57. Third pixel of slice A, vertical overclock row 58. Third pixel of slice B, vertical overclock row 59. Third pixel of slice C, vertical overclock row 60. Third pixel of slice D, vertical overclock row 61. Fourth pixel of slice A, vertical overclock row 62. Fourth pixel of slice B, vertical overclock row 63. Fourth pixel of slice C, vertical overclock row 64. Fourth pixel of slice D, vertical overclock row 65. Fifth pixel of slice A, vertical overclock row 66. Fifth pixel of slice B, vertical overclock row 67. Fifth pixel of slice C, vertical overclock row 68. Fifth pixel of slice D, vertical overclock row 69. Sixth pixel of slice A, vertical overclock row 70. Sixth pixel of slice B, vertical overclock row 71. Sixth pixel of slice C, vertical overclock row 72. Sixth pixel of slice D, vertical overclock row 48 Chapter 5 Front-End Processor Functionality When it is dark enough you can see the stars. - Ralph W. Emerson 5.1 Camera Electronics Command and Housekeeping The GPP relies on the FEP to relay instructions to the Lasagna Box, and to report back any replies from the Lasagna Box. The former is the Lasagna Box command channel; the latter, the housekeeping channel. The FEP reconciles the differing protocols and requirements of the GPP and the Lasagna Box. It is also sensitive to potential errors, reporting to the GPP should they occur. The requirements of the GPP in this regard are: * Communication must be via IPP * Commands for the Lasagna Box are sent to the FEP as a single IPP message, a list of up to 128 read and write commands * Each response from the Lasagna Box must be associated with the read command that generated it 49 * When a complete set of responses (and their associated commands) is gathered, it must be sent en masse to the GPP * Responses must be sent back to the process which sent the associated commands On the other hand, the Lasagna Box has the following restrictions: * Communication must be in the appropriate serial format (see section 4.4) * A word must be sent over the command channel every 48 microseconds * No more than one read command may be pending at any time 5.1.1 Lasagna Box Requirements Lasagna Box commands are 24-bit words, which either write to or read from a register within the device. Read commands generate a 16-bit response over the housekeeping channel, composed of 2 8-bit words, with the more significant word arriving first. The command channel is a synchronous serial interface, and the FEP is responsible for providing the 500 kHz serial clock and the one-bit-per-word synchronizing signal as well as the command data. The Lasagna Box provides the serial clock for the housekeeping channel, with synchronization included in the data stream. See section 4.4 for details. For the Lasagna Box to operate properly, it must be constantly in the state of receiving a command: that is to say, transmission of a single command word over the command channel takes 48 us (24 bits at 15OHz = 2ps per bit), and the Lasagna Box must receive a command word every 48 pls. The vast majority (99+%) of these words will be the "no-op" or no-operation command, which does not cause a read or a write within the Lasagna Box. The FEP supplies this regular stream of no-ops over the command channel, inserting more consequential commands as the GPP instructs it. This is accomplished by the standard DSP communication technique of low-level interrupt routine plus high-level "main" code, connected by a buffer: one routine in the FEP's main loop fills a circular buffer (the transmit queue) with no-ops; another 50 inserts "real" commands into the same buffer as they are called for; and an interruptdriven routine simply sends one word after another from this buffer out the command channel, once every 48 ps. When the Lasagna Box receives a read command, it sets about performing the read and relaying the result over the housekeeping channel. Different registers take different times to respond to a read command: a correlation error is therefore possible. For instance - the Lasagna Box receives read command for register A, which takes 200 s to respond, immediately followed by a read command for register B, which takes 50 s to respond. The FEP will thus receive the contents of register B first over the housekeeping channel, followed by the contents of register A, the opposite order of how the FEP requested this information. Further, there is no bus arbitration on the housekeeping channel within the Lasagna Box: in the above example, if the data from register A arrived while the data from B was still in the process of being transmitted, the result would be a useless jumble of bits. The FEP therefore assumes the responsibility of ensuring that no more than one read command is pending in the Lasagna Box at any time. When the FEP places a read command in the transmit queue, it holds off from placing any more read/write commands there (sending no-ops in the meantime) until it has the reply to that read safely in hand. Once the reply is received, the FEP may resume sending commands. This precludes any bus collisions within the Lasagna Box, as well as guaranteeing that the FEP can reliably associate each read command with its response. 5.1.2 GPP Requirements All communication between the FEP and the GPP is via the Inter-Process Protocol, or IPP, described in section 3.3. The FEP thus receives in an IPP message a list of commands to be sent to the Lasagna Box, and must compose an IPP message in response with a list of the replies from the Lasagna Box. Up to 128 Lasagna Box commands may be sent to the FEP in a single IPP message (512 16-bit words per message, and packing of each 24-bit Lasagna Box command takes 2 words). The FEP is able to store 3 such messages, providing a buffer that 51 shields the GPP from having to worry about the specifics of feeding the commands to the Lasagna Box. This buffer allows any process within the GPP to send a Lasagna Box commands message as it deems necessary without needing to check whether the FEP has finished sending a previous set of commands. The FEP, upon receiving such a message, begins to place the commands on the transmit queue. It checks each one to see whether or not it is a read command; if it is, it does not send any more of the commands from this message until the reply is received over the housekeeping channel, as per the system described in the previous subsection. Note that the FEP continues performing its other functions during this waiting period, in keeping with the mainloop concept described in section 4.3. When a 16-bit housekeeping word is received, it is paired with the read command that prompted it, and the two pieces of information are saved. Placement of commands from the Lasagna Box commands message into the transmit queue recommences, continuing until the next read command is encountered, in a repeating cycle until all of the commands from this message have been placed in the queue. When this Lasagna Box commands message is exhausted, the housekeeping data and their associated read commands are placed in an IPP message and sent to the originator of the commands message. If another Lasagna Box commands message has arrived in the meantime, the transmission process begins anew. In this fashion a GPP process which wishes to communicate with the Lasanga Box merely constructs a list of commands (reads and writes), and sends them in an IPP message to the FEP. Some time later this process receives a message in reply, which contains all the read commands the process sent, along with the results of these reads. 5.2 Event Finding When the Lasagna Box has sent a complete frame of data over the video channel, the FEP reports to the GPP the locations of stars within that frame. A star is defined as a pixel whose value exceeds a given background threshold and which is maximal 52 within a 3-by-3 area centered on the pixel. These pixels are termed "events", and event finding is the FEP's second major responsibility. This process is made difficult primarily by the peculiarities of the CCD camera system and its readout over the video channel, described in section 4.4. Recall that each of the two cameras governed by the Lasagna Box is composed of four CCD slices, each with their own photon response characteristics, and each having imagepixel and non-image-pixel regions. This poses the following additional constraints on event finding: * Only image pixels are valid event candidates. * Because slices have differing response characteristics, comparison of pixel values from different slices is invalid. Thus an event cannot be on the boundary between two slices, i.e., the first or last image pixel in a slice row. * For the same reason, background thresholds must be slice-specific. * Because CCD devices can have "bad columns" and "bad pixels", these locations, as well as those which use them in the 3x3 local-maximum comparison, are not valid event candidates. * The high rate of the video channel (at maximum, 2 pixels arriving every 6 ILs) demands an exceptionally speed-optimized event finding algorithm. Several of these constraints are actually turned to advantage in the FEP: specifically, the fact that any given 3x3 comparison occurs strictly within a single slice allows the FEP largely to ignore the jumbled slice order which arrives over the video channel; and the limitation to image pixels (which are easily located, even within the video channel pixel stream) significantly reduces the amount of computation required to find events. 5.2.1 Arrival of Video Data 53 _ ...... ...... . . ... ....... _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~____~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ . 1 Frame Frame 2 I Frame 3 ,".. :iiiiil , ,',' '. -_~~~~~~ ,'i Frame Frame 5 6 i:: '. :. |~~~~~ Frame 7 - ...~~~~~~'...End of Blank inter- Fr Frame 3 data frame words fra Row 1 Row 0 l>'j !i ; . . . ;.,. ; ... .... ..:...:.............. .::..... /Row Row 3 jl - - :- 509 Row 510 Row 511 i ,1 i :i-..- :::'::·-::::: iiiiil'i:8'f:l:'::i:ii:ii::l'i F~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I.::: _.: - ;_ _ =,::.... .. Row I Blank inter- Row 2 HOCs row words row sync ::_ : :_ .. _,: D" RoW2i: ......... : Row 2 :HUCs mage Pixels . Row 2 ~~~~~~~.. Blank inter- HOCs row words ,. . . Row 3 , . -. Row 3 row sync HUCs s.· BO | CO DO AO BO CO iDO AO Mode0, Submode 0 AO BO Co BI Cl DI Al BI Cl DI Al Mode0, Submode 1 Al BI CI Mode I DO BI DI BO DO BI DI BO BO DO BI Mode 2 AO CO A C AO CO Al C I AO CO Al Mode 3 AO BO COD AlIBI C AOBOC O AlIBI Cll AI BI CO00 AL clI--IAO , 24bit word . w ice B9 1, Pixel 9 . , " 24bit wrd 2424bit bit word word ./: .. DO AO BO CO DO -- Al BI Cl DlI Al BI Cl DI "' BO AO D CO BI Al D I BO C1 I AO DO CO BI Al DI DI ClI " . /Pixel 10 I : " CO B I C BO DO , , C01 , , Package-of-four-words . ,.t : |- 24-bitword VideoStream UPSTREAM (wordsarrived later) Figure 5-1: Levels of Detail Within the Video Data Stream 54 BO AO Al BI DO I I DI DI CO Al CI AO AOBOICO'OAIBI CID1 AO:BOICO00AIBI CI;)I AOBO CODOAILBIICIDI 24242424bit bit bit bit word word word word . . -> (wordsarrivedearlier) O O _ 24-bitword DOWNSTREAM O. DI Package-of-four-words '.-: /'/Slice ? . . DO Let us break down the data which arrives over the video channel, as shown in Figure 51. On the grandest scale, the data represent an ongoing series of frames, camera images taken at successive times. Narrowing our scope, we regard a single frame, which arrives between two other frames: this single frame's beginning is signalled by the arrival of a frame sync over the video channel, and its end by the arrival of the next frame's frame sync. This frame itself is composed of a set of lines or rows, all identical in structure - that is, if the twenty-seventh word in row 1 represents coordinate (100, 1) on camera 0, then the twenty-seventh word in row 2 represents coordinate (100, 2), and the twenty-seventh word in row r represents the coordinate (100, r). Taking a closer look at this row structure, we note some blank words followed by a row sync at the beginning, followed in turn by a set of pixel values which represent information about the CCD "buckets" along that row. Narrowing our scope still further to attempt to determine the meaning of these pixel values, we note that they come, conceptually, in packages of four 24-bit words. Each of these four words represents data from either one or two CCD slices; and adjacent four-word packages contain horizontally adjacent data from each of these slices. From another perspective: you are standing at a certain point in the video stream, and you know the number under your feet represents the value of the eleventh pixel in slice B, camera 1. If you want to find the twelfth pixel in slice B, camera 1, you go four words upstream (toward the later-arriving words); if you want to find the ninth pixel in slice B, camera 1, you go eight words downstream (toward the earlier-arrived words). This is true for all of the readout modes and submodes the Lasagna Box is capable of. Further: for each row every slice reads out a set of horizontal underclocks, followed by a set of image pixels, followed by a set of horizontal overclocks. Given the previous observation, we conclude that for every row, the video stream contains a set of packages-of-four-words which are horizontal underclocks (from each of the four or eight slices represented in the given readout mode), followed by a set of packages-offour-words which are image pixels, followed by a set of packages-of-four-words which are horizontal overclocks. 55 5.2.2 The FEP Event Finding Algorithm A review is in order, with a focus on the FEP's use of the above observations. The FEP needs to compare each pixel to one of eight thresholds (one threshold for each slice in the two-camera system); but if it approaches the pixel stream as arriving in packages of four words, it can select the thresholds applicable to the origin of each of these four words, and then cycle through these preselected thresholds repeatedly, without truly being cognizant of the specific meaning of each word it compares. For instance, let us say the Lasagna Box is operating in Mode 1. The packages-offour will therefore represent Slices (that is to say, readout nodes) BO,DO, B1, D1. The FEP, upon syncing a new frame, loads variable threshO with the threshold for BO, threshi with the threshold for DO, thresh2 with the threshold for B1, and thresh3 with the threshold for D1. The actual threshold comparison loop then simply consists of: 1. Compare this word in the pixel stream to threshO; go to next word in the pixel stream. 2. Compare this word in the pixel stream to threshl; go to next word in the pixel stream. 3. Compare this word in the pixel stream to thresh2; go to next word in the pixel stream. 4. Compare this word in the pixel stream to thresh3; go to next word in the pixel stream. 5. Go to step 1. If the Lasagna Box switches to Mode 0, camera 0, threshO through thresh3 are set to the thresholds for AO through DO, respectively. The threshold comparison loop is unaffected. This "mode ignorance" allows for a great deal of optimization, in both speed and program memory. Table 5.2.2 summarizes the possible assignments of these tt threshn variables. 56 threshO threshi thresh2 thresh3 thresh4 thresh6 thresh6 thresh7 Mode, Submode set to the thresh. for set to the thresh. for set to the thresh. for set to the thresh. for set to the thresh. for set to the thresh. for set to the thresh. for set to the thresh. for O, 0 AO BO CO DO unused unused unused unused 0, 1 1, 0/1 2, 0/1 Al BO AO B1 DO CO C1 B1 Al D1 D1 C1 unused unused unused unused unused unused unused unused unused unused unused unused 3, 0/1 Ao BO CO DO Al B1 C1 D1 Table 5.1: Assignment of Event-Finding threshn Variables Mode ignorance is carried through to the local-maximum check. Since comparisons are only performed intra-slice, and intra-slice neighbors are always a fixed distance apart in the pixel stream, the FEP neither knows nor cares what slice it is in when it performs a local-maximum comparison. The FEP has found a pixel value that exceeds threshold: it can compare this event candidate to the value four words upstream, and the value four words downstream - the candidate's horizontal neighbors. It can then go one row upstream and repeat the process, comparing the candidate to the three neighbors "above" it; similarly one row downstream, for comparison with the three neighbors "below". It is only when an event is found that its true on-camera coordinate is calculated and recorded. Note that there is the potential for error when a "plateau" is encountered, that is to say, a connected region of same-valued above-threshold pixels. If the local-maximum check searches for a pixel strictly greater in value than its neighbors, a plateau will generate no event; if on the other hand the search is for a greater-or-equal value, several of the pixels on the plateau may be recorded as distinct events. To alleviate this, the eight-neighbor comparison is divided into four greater-or-equal comparisons on one side, and four strictly-greater on the other. Specifically, a candidate must be > the pixels below and to the left' of it, and > the pixels above and to the right; or from another perspective, > the pixels which precede the candidate in the pixel stream, and > the pixels which follow it. This means that a summit plateau (where the pixel values decrease past the edges of the same-valued region) will cause a single 1 "Left" and "right" are meant here in a slice-relative sense: the fourth pixel in slice B is considered to be left of the fifth pixel in slice B, even though the reverse readout of slices B and D means that the fourth pixel is on the right of the fifth pixel in an absolute, camera-relative sense. 57 Pixels which arrived after the Candidate Pixels which arrived befon the Candidate Adjacent image pixels within a single slice Figure 5-2: Local-Maximum Check event to be recorded, in the upper-right corner of the plateau. This results in a local-maximum check of the kind shown in Figure 5-2; the arrowed lines indicate the order in which the comparisons are made, as described below in Check for Local Maximum. These are the key elements in the event finding algorithm. Bringing it all together, we have the following system: * Process Line (16 bit) Needs three full lines of data - processes the middle one 1. If word meets or exceeds threshO, Check for Local Maximum 2. Go to next word 3. If word meets or exceeds threshl, Check for Local Maximum 4. Go to next word 5. If word meets or exceeds thresh2, 6. Go to next word 58 Check for Local Maximum 7. If word meets or exceeds thresh3, Check for Local Maximum 8. Go to next word 9. Repeat until end of line * Process Line (12 bit) Needs three full lines of data - processes the middle one 1. If upper pixel in word > threshO, Check for Local Maximum 2. If lower pixel in word > threshi, Check for Local Maximum 3. Go to next word 4. If upper pixel in word > thresh2, Check for Local Maximum 5. If lower pixel in word > thresh3, Check for Local Maximum 6. Go to next word 7. If upper pixel in word > thresh4, Check for Local Maximum 8. If lower pixel in word > thresh5, Check for Local Maximum 9. Go to next word 10. If upper pixel in word > thresh6, Check for Local Maximum 11. If lower pixel in word > thresh7, Check for Local Maximum 12. Go to next word 13. Repeat until end of line * Check for Local Maximum 1. Go four words upstream (candidate's right neighbor) 2. Mask relevant bits from this word 3. If the candidate is less than or equal to this word, return 4. Go one row upstream (candidate's upper-right neighbor) 5. Mask relevant bits from this word 6. If the candidate is less than or equal to this word, return 7. Go four words downstream (candidate's upper neighbor) 8. Mask relevant bits from this word 9. If the candidate is less than or equal to this word, return 10. Go four words downstream (candidate's upper-left neighbor) 11. Mask relevant bits from this word 12. If the candidate is less than or equal to this word, return 13. Go one row upstream (candidate's left neighbor) 14. Mask relevant bits from this word 59 15. If the candidate is less than this word, return 16. Go one row downstream (candidate's lower-left neighbor) 17. Mask relevant bits from this word 18. If the candidate is less than this word, return 19. Go four words upstream (candidate's lower neighbor) 20. Mask relevant bits from this word 21. If the candidate is less than this word, return 22. Go four words upstream (candidate's lower-right neighbor) 23. Mask relevant bits from this word 24. If the candidate is less than this word, return 25. Record Candidate as Event * Record Candidate as Event 1. Determine the candidate's on-camera coordinate given its location in the pixel stream 2. If this coordinate is on or adjacent to (i.e. was compared to) a bad pixel or bad column, return 3. Record candidate's on-camera coordinate and intensity (X, Y, Z) as an event 5.2.3 Video Processing All that remains is to set up circumstances such that Process Line can operate sensibly. The FEP must keep track of the parameters that govern the Lasagna Box and the video stream, specifically: * The video transmission mode (M) and submode (SM) * The number of horizontal underclocks in a slice (HUCS) * The number of image pixels per line in a slice (IMPS) * The number of horizontal overclocks in a slice (HOCS) * The number of active rows in a frame (ROWS) * The number of vertical overclocks in a frame (VOCS) 60 With the horizontal parameters (the number of underclocks, image pixels, and overclocks), plus awareness of the number of inter-slice words that will arrive along the video channel (the row sync pattern, plus any inter-row "blank" words introduced by the Lasagna Box for hardware reasons), the distance from row to row in the video stream may be calculated. That is, the number of words in the video stream between the pixel representing (C, R) and (C, R+1) is given by ARow = 4*(HUCS+IMPS+HOCS)+ROWSYNClEN+INTERROWWORDS This is one variable the event finding algorithm requires. Also, threshO through thresh3 (or, for Mode 3, thresh7) must be set. The FEP keeps a list of the thresholds for each slice (AO through D1), updated as required by the GPP, and based on M and SM, loads them according to Table 5.2.2. And finally, the algorithm must have a means of observing the video stream itself. The FEP utilizes a circular video buffer, at least four times the largest possible ARow, into which data from the video channel is continuously poured. With a buffer of this size, three full rows of data are available for Process Line, and incoming data may continue to be dropped into the fourth row's worth of space. All that remains is to keep track of each row as it arrives. This is accomplished via the sync patterns inserted into the pixel stream by the Lasagna Box. Assume the FEP is waiting for a frame sync to arrive, so it can start processing a frame: as described in section 4.4, it will observe a long string of blank words, followed by a set frame sync pattern (within which a frame identification number is encoded). Once the FEP has found this pattern and noted the frame ID, it checks if this frame should be processed. If so, it reports to the GPP that it has synced this frame, and begins to search for row sync patterns. If not, it returns to wait-for-frame-sync mode, ignoring the frame data. The FEP first checks if a row's worth of data (ARow words) has arrived since the last row sync (or frame sync if this is the first row). If so, it checks for a row sync pattern at the beginning of this data. If there is a problem with the row sync, the FEP reports this to the GPP, and discards the remainder of this frame by going into wait-for-frame-sync mode. 61 If the row sync is valid, however, the FEP increments its running counter of the number of rows received so far in this frame. If this number indicates there are at least three image rows present in the video buffer, the middle row row preceding the one just received and synced - that is, the may be processed. Recalling from Figure 5-1 that for each row, the video stream has a set of packages-of-four-words representing horizontal underclocks, a set of packages-of-four-words representing image pixels, and a set of packages-of-four-words representing horizontal overclocks, we note that we are only interested in the middle section, and may easily avoid processing the other two. In fact, since pixels on slice boundaries are not to be considered event candidates, the packages-of-four-words that begin and end the image-pixel region in the video stream may be skipped as well. So if we start with a pointer PTR into the video buffer that points to the first word following the row sync just found, we want to go downstream one row to get to the line we want to analyze, then go back upstream past the underclock and slice-boundary words: PROCESSSTARTPTR = PTR - ARow+ 4 * (HUCS+ 1) ... and we want to process all the image pixels except the ones on the slice boundaries: WORDSTOPROCESS= (4* IMPS) - 2 In summary, a frame with 5 active rows and 2 vertical overclocks will be processed as follows: 1. FEP has current Lasagna Box parameters 2. FEP calculates ARow, WORDSTOPROCESS 3. FEP is in wait-for-frame-sync mode 4. Frame sync arrives and is placed in video buffer 5. FEP finds frame sync 6. FEP records frame ID and reports to GPP 7. FEP initializes threshO through thresh7 8. First row of data arrives and is placed in video buffer 62 9. FEP finds row sync preceding first row: 1 line received 10. Second row of data arrives and is placed in video buffer 11. FEP finds row sync preceding second row: 2 lines received 12. Third row of data arrives and is placed in video buffer 13. FEP finds row sync preceding third row: 3 lines received 14. PROCESSSTARTPTR calculated for processing of second row 15. Process Line called: second row is checked for events 16. Fourth row of data arrives and is placed in video buffer 17. FEP finds row sync preceding fourth row: 4 lines received 18. PROCESSSTARTPTR calculated for processing of third row 19. Process Line called: third row is checked for events 20. Fifth row of data arrives and is placed in video buffer 21. FEP finds row sync preceding fifth row: 5 lines received 22. PROCESSSTARTPTR calculated for processing of fourth row 23. Process Line called: fourth row is checked for events 24. Event finding complete: event list sent to GPP (with or without "Z" intensity values, as instructed by the GPP) 25. First vertical-overclock row arrives and is placed in video buffer 26. FEP finds row sync preceding first vertical-overclock row: 6 lines received 27. Second vertical-overclock row arrives and is placed in video buffer 28. FEP finds row sync preceding second vertical-overclock row: 7 lines received 29. FEP reports end-of-frame to GPP 30. FEP is in wait-for-frame-sync mode 63 5.3 Command & Response List The FEP responds to the following commands from the GPP: PROCESSVIDEO The FEP is instructed to process the next frame to arrive along the video channel. A parameter indicates whether the FEP should process only this next frame (and report intensity, or "Z", values), or to begin processing frame after frame until told to stop (and not report Z values to save communication time). DONTPROCESSVIDEO The FEP is to stop processing frames until told to start again. If a frame is currently being processed, the FEP is to finish doing so, but then ignore frames that follow it. There are no parameters. BAD_COLUMNLIST The FEP is informed of the columns which are deemed faulty by the GPP. The FEP is not to report any events which are on or immediately adjacent to these columns. The FEP's bad-column list may be replaced or appended by the data in this message. BADPIXELLIST The FEP is informed of the pixels which are deemed faulty by the GPP. The FEP is not to report any events which are on or within a 3x3 area around these pixels. The FEP's bad-pixel list may be replaced or appended by the data in this message. CCDCONFIGURATION The FEP is informed of: the transmission mode and cameras used (submode) by the Lasagna Box; the number of horizontal underclocks, active image columns, and horizontal overclocks per slice; the number of active image rows and vertical 64 overclocks per frame; and the on-camera row number of the first row to arrive over the video stream. The FEP may be instructed to abort processing the current frame in favor of these new parameters, or to institute these parameters when this frame has ended. EVENT_THRESHOLDS The FEP is told the background threshold values for slices AO, BO, CO, DO, Al, B1, C1, and D1. LB COMMANDS The FEP is given a list of commands to send to the Lasagna Box. The FEP generates the followingmessages for the GPP: DSPFRAMESTARTED The FEP reports that a frame sync has been found. The frame ID is included. Message goes to the most recent sender of PROCESS_VIDEO. DSPFRAMEENDED The FEP reports that all of the rows of this frame, including vertical overclocks, have been received. The frame ID is included. Message goes to the most recent sender of PROCESSVIDEO. DSP_FRAMEERROR The FEP reports that there has been some error (such as an absent row sync) while processing a frame. The frame ID and a number indicating the type of error are included. Message goes to the most recent sender of PROCESS_VIDEO. FEP XYEVENTJLIST 65 One of a set of messages reporting the (X, Y) coordinates of all events found in a frame. The frame ID is included, as well as a set of flags indicating whether this message is the first, last, or in the middle of the set. Message goes to the most recent sender of PROCESSVIDEO. FEP.XYZ.EVENT_LIST One of a set of messages reporting the (X, Y, Z) coordinates and intensities of all events found in a frame. The frame ID is included, as well as a set of flags indicating whether this message is the first, last, or in the middle of the set. Message goes to the most recent sender of PROCESS_VIDEO. LBRESPONSES The FEP reports the responses from the Lasagna Box generated by the commands in a previous LB_COMMANDS message. Each response is associated with the command that generated it. Message goes to the sender of the LB_COMMANDS message. DSPEXCEPTION The FEP warns of a hardware exception, such as a video channel receive overrun, or command channel transmit underrun. For errors relating to Lasagna Box command and housekeeping, messages go to the most recent sender of LB_COMMANDS; for errors relating to the video channel, messages go to the most recent sender of PROCESS VIDEO. 66 Chapter 6 Front-End Processor Implementation The last 5% of a project takes 95% of the time. - Murphy's Laws on Technology The FEP C code is compiled to use the 56001 's Y: data space, not to use register R5, and to employ parallel move operations when possible. FEP Assembly code uses parallel move operations heavily. Although efforts have been made in this chapter to point out when the FEP uses some subtle aspect of the compiler or the processor, readers unfamiliar with the Motorola 56001 or its GNU C compiler are referred to the documents on these cited in the Bibilography.[5, 6] This chapter also uses terms such as "video buffer" and "package-of-four" de- fined in the previous chapter. Readers unfamiliar with the algorithms that this code implements are referred there. Variables related to set beginnings are inclusive, and those related to set endings, exclusive. That is, startcol = 5 and endcol = 10 defines columns 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 as included in a set. This means that the number of members in the set is always the difference between the end and the beginning values. 67 Numeric indices - coordinates,array references, bit locations,et cetera - start with 0. Cardinal references start with 'first". Hence the "first bit" of a 24-bit word is "bit 0", and the most significant "twenty-fourth" bit is "bit 23". Confusing as this appears, I believeit is a reasonablynatural pattern, and consistent with related literature. 6.1 Functional Breakdown The FEP software is composed of the following modules: * FEPmain.c: Performs initializations (with FEPsetvars.c), engages mainloop (see section 4.3). Also contains simulation- and memory-related test routines. * FEPsetvars.c: * FEPcom.c: Contains initialization routines. Handles high-level (i.e. above Assembly-level) communications with the GPP and Lasagna Box. * FEPvid.c: Sets up event finding. Has routines for frame and row sync'ing, event recording, GPP updating; passes to FEPproc.asm for actual event- finding algorithm. * FEPproc.asm: Performs event-finding algorithm described in section 5.2. Highly time-optimized code. * FEPasmsupport.asm: Contains various small support routines which are best implemented in Assembly language, such as serial communications hardware control, interrupt vector initialization, et cetera. * FEPintr.asm: Long interrupt handlers, for command transmission and excep- tion, housekeeping receive and exception, and video receive exception. * crtrzp.asm: Startup file which controls the DSP's behavior on reset. Initializes the stack pointer, DMA communications with the host GPP, and the like; then passes off to FEPmain.c. 68 * FEPincl.h: Contains constants, type and structure definitions, and external function declarations used by the above C modules. #include's other infrastructure .h files, such as those related to IPP communication. * FEPglobals.h: Global variable declarations. #include'd once by FEPmain.c. * FEPequ.asm: Constant definitions and variable allocations for the above As- sembly modules. * machspec.asm: Constant definitions for Assembly modules, specific to HETE hardware (as opposed to the NeXT development system). * ioequ.asm: Constant definitions for communications hardware. FEPincl.h defines several structures which contain vital information on the state of the FEP, in particular its video processing functions. Of primary importance is vidbufparam-struct l , which contains the following variables: * id: 24-bit Frame Identification number of the most recently synced frame. When a new frame is synced, this number is set to the new frame's ID as encoded in the frame sync pattern. * ccd: Structure containing the relevant parameters governing the cameras and Lasagna Box (see below for description). * bad: Pointer to a structure containing information on the CCD pixels and columns which the GPP has deemed "bad", i.e., pixels at or adjacent to these locations are not to be reported as events. See below for description. * thresh[0..7]: The background thresholds for all eight slices in the two-camera system. Assumed to be right-justified but otherwise applicable to the current Lasagna Box transmission mode: i.e., a 12-bit number (0-4095) for Mode 3, a 16-bit number (0-65535) otherwise. The relation of index to slice is given by the SLICE_xx constants definitions earlier in FEPincl.h. 1'vidbuf' is an abbreviation for the VIDeo BUFfer. The values in this structure relate either directly to the video buffer, or to the processing of the data in it. 69 * dosifting:Flag telling the FEP whether or not this frame ought to be processed (i.e. searched for events). * sendz: Flag telling the FEP whether or not the GPP is interested in the intensity ("Z") values of the events found in this frame. Also indicates whether or not the FEP is in single- or multi-frame mode: if the GPP is interested in Z values, then the FEP should assume that this is the only frame to be processed; otherwise the FEP should keep sending down (X, Y) event lists for every frame it sees until told to stop. * eventsptr: Pointer into the region of X: data space where event information (coordinate and intensity) should be recorded. Note that dereferencing of this pointer must be done in (presumably in-line) Assembly, as the C code is compiled to use Y: data space. * numevents: The number of events recorded so far. If this number exceeds the maximum (and hence eventsptr threatens to leave the space allocated for event recording), future events for this frame are not recorded. * oneline-delta: The number of words a single row occupies in the pixel stream. If you are standing on a word in the pixel stream which corresponds to coordinate (c, r), going onelinedelta words downstream (toward earlier-arrived data) puts you on (c, r - 1), and going oneline-delta words upstream (toward later-toarrive data) puts you on (c, r + 1). See subsection 5.2.1 for a discussion of this phenomenon. * left-off: Pointer into the video buffer indicating the next word to be read. (The "receiver runner" from section 4.3's description of circular buffers.) * thisJine-start: Pointer into the video buffer indicating the first word in the row currently being processed, i.e., the word immediately following the row sync. * linesrcvd: The number of lines confirmed to have been received into the video buffer for this frame. When a full row's worth of data (oneline-delta words) has 70 been read into the video buffer since the end of the last row, the FEP checks for a row sync at the beginning of these new data; if found, linesrcvd is incremented by one. waitingfor-frame-sync: Flag indicating whether the FEP is currently searching the incoming video data for a frame sync, or whether it is processing a frame. When all of the rows in a frame have been received (including vertical overclocks), waiting-forframesync is set to search for the next frame's sync. Note that setting waitingforframesync while the current frame's rows are still being received effectively aborts processing of this frame. The variable ccd is a ccdparam-struct, which embodies the state of the Lasagna Box as it applies to the FEP. * mode: The transmission mode of the Lasagna Box (0, 1, 2, or 3). * used-cameras:Two-bit value representing which cameras have data in the pixel stream. Oxl means camera 0; 0x2 means camera 1; and so 0x3 means both cameras. This is another encoding of the "Submode" referenced in section 4.4: usedcameras = Ox1 means Submode 0, = 0x2 means Submode 1. * numlhucs: The number of horizontal underclocks read out per slice. * numcols: The number of image pixels read out per slice. * numhocs: The number of horizontal underclocks read out per slice. * totalcols: The total number of columns per slice (= num-hucs + numcols + numihocs). * numrows: The number of rows containing image pixels read out per frame. * num vocs: The number of rows which are vertical overclocks read out per frame. * totalrows: The total number of rows per frame (= numrows + numvocs). 71 * startrow: The "Y" value of the first row received after the frame sync. Non-zero if the Lasagna Box begins reading out at a line higher than the first CCD row in the camera. Event Y coordinates are thus a combination of linesrcvdand start row. The variable bad points to a badlocs-struct, which keeps track of the number of bad columns and pixels, the X coordinate of the bad columns, and the X and Y coordinates of the bad pixels (held in separate variables instead of a single two-dimensional array for faster access times). Camera number is encoded in bit 15 of applicable X coordinates, the most significant bit of these unsigned short values. A bad tenth column in camera 0 is thus encoded as badcolumns[n] = 0x0009, and a faulty pixel at camera l's (5, 32) is badpixels x[n] = 0x8005 and badpixelsy[n] = 0x0020. See Figure 6-1 for more information. Two variables of type vidbufparam-struct are kept: the vidbufparamsof the current frame (where a frame lasts from its frame sync to the next frame's sync), and the nextvidbufparams which become current upon the arrival of the next frame sync. When the GPP sends a command to change any of the frame-processing parameters, the FEP modifies nextvidbufparams; thus changes in the Lasagna Box state, slice thresholds, and the character of event reporting, result in modification of ccd and oneline-delta,thresh,and do-siftingand sendz, respectively within nextvidbufparams. In addition, within nextvidbufparams,id is zero to reflect that these parameters are not current; linesrcvd, waitingforframe-sync, and numeventsare also zero; and eventsptrpoints to the beginning of the event storage space. Then when a new frame sync comes along, the leftoff pointer in vidbufparams is copied to nextvidbufparams, and then nextvidbufparams is simply transferred en masse into vidbufparams, reflecting that these values are now current. If the GPP has changed any of the parameters, these new parameters now take effect; otherwise, the result is simply the resetting of id, lines-rcvd, waitingforframe.sync, numevents,and eventsptr. This bears repeating: vidbufparamscontains the parameters applicable to the current frame; nextvidbufparams contains the parameters applicable to the nezt frame to come along the video channel, parameters which go into effect upon the next frame 72 Format for communication with GPP: Event, bad-column, & bad-pixel lists 00000 unsigned short Camera X Coordinate unsigned short Y Coordinate unsigned short I Z Pixel Intensity Internal event-spaceformat unsigned int [ Y Coordinate unsigned int tO O 0 O0 0O 1 X Coordinate O 0 Z Pixel Intensity Figure 6-1: Encoding Formats for Events & Other Coordinate-Related Data 73 Camera sync. There is one caveat to this pattern. To save memory space, there is only one badparam-struct allocated; the badvariables in both vidbufparamsand nextvidbufparams point to this single structure. Thus when the GPP orders a change to the bad column or bad pixel list, the effect is immediate, as any new events found in the frame currently being processed will be compared to this new list. This is reasonable, and perhaps even advantageous. 6.1.1 Memory & Resource Allocation The DSP's three memory spaces - X:, Y:, and P:, each spanning 32 kilowords - are divided by the FEP into definite regions, illustrated in Figure 6-2. P: space has reset and interrupt vectors from P:$0000 to P:$003F, short-addressable space from P:$0040 to P:$01FF, and long-addressable space from P:$0200 to P:$7FFF. In addition, P:$0000-$OAAA is initially set to point to boot ROM, so the loader cannot access this area.2 So the majority of the code lies in P:$OAAB-$7FFF, with the crtrzp.asm reset code starting at P:$OAAB. Since short-addressable space allows for faster jump instructions, time-critical code FEPproc.asm specifically, that in FEPintr.asm and - is placed in this space. Because of the ROM boot area coverage, however, the code for these routines, as well as the interrupt vectors, must be explicitly written to this area by the FEP itself. X: space currently consists only of event recording, IPP variable storage, and the video buffer. With an 8K video buffer - -four lines at the maximum expected line length, which occurs when all 1024 columns of both cameras are read out in Modes 1 or 2 - and just a few words set aside for IPP, there is space for over 12,000 events (at two words apiece) to be recorded per frame. Y: space is heavily divided. The first bunch of words are allocated in FEPequ.asm to be short-addressable variables for Assembly routines; these variables must end up in Y:$0000-$00FF to be short-addressable, or preferably -$003F for short-addressable 2 Future versions of the spacecraft hardware may change this. 74 $8000 $8000 - $8000 - .- $7DC0 Stack / Heap Event Storage $2938 - Rest of FEP Code $1440 $2000 - Lasagna Box Housekeeping Queue $1400 - Lasagna Box $0AD6 crtrzp.asm $OAAB Transmit Queue t1nn Lvsvu - Video $01FF - Buffer Short-addressable space: $002C $0026 - - Reset & Interrupt Vectors $0000 - P: space Global C variables crtrzp.asm variables FEpproc.asm, FEPintr.asm $0040 M Quick-access variables $0000 - $0000 - X: space Figure 6-2: FEP RAM Memory Map 75 tor Assembly routines Y: space internal RAM (faster access times than short-addressable external RAM when external P: RAM is being used). After this comes compiler variables (memory limit, stack safety margin, et cetera), allocated in crtrzp.asm, and then C global variables. The Lasagna Box command / housekeeping queues (buffers) are placed above the global space, page-aligned so that the 56001's modulus registers Mn may be used to facilitate operation of these circular buffers. 1K is alloted for the transmit queue SSITXQ, and 64 words for the housekeeping queue SCIRXQ. The stack pointer R6 is initialized to start above these buffers, and the remainder of Y: space (Y:$1440--$7FFF) is the stack / heap. Since the C compiler is not allowed to use register R5, this register is allocated to the video channel receive interrupt routine. R5 is declared to be the video buffer write pointer (the "sender runner" from section 4.3's description of circular buffers). Hence the SSI receive interrupt (indicating a new word received over the video channel) is a short interrupt which simply reads movepx:<<m_rx,x:(R5)+, that is, "Take the word just received, put it in X: space at the address indicated by R5, and then increment R5 in anticipation of the next word". The modulus register M5 is set once to keep R5 within the video buffer; after that, the 56001 hardware takes care of the behavior of R5 automatically. 6.2 Initialization and Normal Function Upon reset, the FEP starts running at address P:$0000. A jump instruction here pushes program flow to P:$0AAB, above the ROM boot area, governed by crtrzp.asm. Hardware initialization - resetting the DSP stack pointer (SP), C code stack pointer (R6), peripheral hardware - is performed, and program flow is then switched to the main() routine in FEPmain.c. main() declares vidbufparams and nextvidbufparams; they are generally passed by reference (i.e. pointers to these structures are used by most other routines), not only to allow for modification, but to save calling time. The former is generally abbreviated vbp, and the latter vbpnew. main() also allocates space for the badlocs-struct 76 in the stack. Note that since these three structures are declared in main(), this space will not been overwritten. Control passes to onetimeinit() in FEPsetvars.c, which performs the following initializations: 1. Initialize P:$40-AAA 2. Initialize serial communications interrupt vectors: SSI transmit and exception (command channel); SSI receive and exception (video channel); and SCI receive and exception (housekeeping channel) 3. Register the FEP with the Constellation Name Server, and get default destination addresses 4. Set up variables for buddy-check (the regular reports to the GPP stating the FEP is still alive) 5. Set up variables for command / housekeeping functions 6. Make R5 point to the beginning of the video buffer, and set M5 to keep R5 within the video buffer 7. Set up vbpnewto sensible default values. In particular, ensure id, linesrcvd, waitingforframesync, numevents,bad->numbadcolumns, and bad->num_bad_pixels are all zero, and that eventsptr points to the beginning of event-recording space. Set vbp->left_offto the beginning of the video buffer, and "abort the incomto set the FEP looking for the ing stream" (set vbp->waiting_for_framesync) next frame sync to come over the video channel, at which time these default parameters in vbpnew will become current. 8. Initialize serial communications variables (serial communications control registers, and pointers into the command / housekeeping queues) 9. Turn the serial communications interrupts off or on, according to whether we are or are not in simulation mode, respectively 77 Back in main(), control passes into the mainloop. The mainloop performs the following steps in repeated succession forever: 1. checkbuddy_time(): Tell the GPP the FEP is alive See if an IPP message has arrived, and if so, process it 2. tryget_message(): 3. simulate_zx(): If the FEP is in simulation mode, fabricate pixel data and place it in the video buffer as though it arrived over the video channel; also empty the command channel transmit queue, as the SSI transmit interrupt would be doing in non-simulation mode 4. try_proc_vid(): Try to sync with the data which arrived during the previous mainloop; check a single row of data for events if possible 5. parse_tdb_command(): Insert consequential (i.e. non no-op) commands into the transmit queue if appropriate Fill empty space in the transmit queue with no-ops 6. tryfilllbcmd(): 7. try-relay_hk(): Check the housekeeping queue for responses from the Lasagna Box; if a full set of responses has been received, send it to the process which sent the associated commands 8. try-relay_errors(): If any exceptions have occurred during the previous main- loop (such as an overrun or underrun in the serial communications system), warn the GPP Note that for testing purposes, the FEP can be instructed to skip steps 3 through 8, effectively freezing much of the state of the FEP while letting it continue to report its live status and receive commands. The user can then instruct the FEP to execute a single mainloop (i.e. run through steps 3-8 once), and then observe how the state of the FEP has changed. 78 6.2.1 Serial Communication Interrupts As outlined in section 4.3, the FEP works under a "interrupt-plus-main-code" system; thus, operating concurrently with the mainloop described above, is a set of interruptdriven processes. Aside from the interrupts used by the underlying IPP system (host interface, direct memory access, and the like), the FEP utilizes six other hardware interrupts for use in serial communication with the Lasagna Box. There is one regular and one exceptional interrupt each for the command channel (SSIs transmit), video channel (SSI receive), and housekeeping channel (SCI4 receive). The SCI transmit line (TXD) is used as the master reset line for the Lasagna Box. For information on this and other electronic signals used by the DSP for communication with the Lasagna Box, see table 4.1. Interrupt vectors are initialized by init_intr_vectors() in FEPasmsupport.asm. As described above, the SSI receive interrupt is the fastest, as it is assumed to be the one called most often (once every 6pts). It reads simply movepx:<<mx,x:(R5)+, that is, "Take the word just received, put in X: space at the address indicated by R5, and then increment R5 in anticipation of the next word". The other five (including SSI receive exception) are jumps to long interrupt handlers, coded in FEPintr.asm. The two regular-interrupt handlers for SSI transmit and SCI receive are similar in structure. They put aside the values in the registers they will be using (R1 and M1), then reload these registers with the pointer and modulus (respectively) for their circular buffers. The SCI receive interrupt takes the word just received and saves it in the housekeeping queue SCIRXQ; the SSI transmit interrupt takes the next word in the transmit queue SSITXQ and puts it in mtx to be transmitted to the Lasagna Box. Both routines post-increment R1, and save this updated pointer to be re-loaded the next time this routine is called. They then update variables indicating how many times the interrupt has been called, so the main-code routines have an easier time figuring out how many new words have been written or read since the last time these variables were checked. The pre-interrupt values of R1 and M1 are restored, and the 3Synchronous Serial Interface Serial Communications Interface 4 79 handler returns. The exception handlers for these routines simply read the appropriate status register into a variable, clearing the 56001's exception flag, and pass control to the regular handler to try to re-establish normal operation. The SSI receive exception handler is similar, in that it also reads the applicable status register into a variable, and then performs the movep x:<<mrx,x:(R5)+ instruction. The main-code routine tryrelayerrors() checks if any of these exception status variables are non-zero, and if so, sends a warning message to the GPP stating that the error occurred and including the status register value. It then zeros the exception status variable to make sure only one message is sent per error. 6.3 Communications The FEP communicates with the GPP5 on the one side, and with the Lasagna Box on the other. Low-level interaction for the former is performed by the underlying IPP system, and for the latter by the interrupt handlers described above. High-level communication is governed by FEPcom.c. 6.3.1 GPP Communication All procedures in the FEP wishing to send information to the GPP use the function SendHostMessage(), which packages the information given it into an IPP message and sends the message. trygetmessage() uses GetIostMessage() to receive messages from the GPP. If a message is available, try-get_message() then checks the message type, and processes the data accordingly. Note again that modifications to video processing parameters affect vbpnew,that is, nextvidbufparams, and hence go into effect upon the arrival of the next frame sync along the video channel. The FEP keeps track of the IPP addresses of three processes: the most recent 5 As noted in section 4.3, statements like "communicate with the GPP" actually mean "communicate with processes using IPP in the HETE computer system". For the DSPs, this is usually the GPP above them. 80 sender of PROCESS_VIDEO is saved in videodest; the most recent sender of a command containing Lasagna Box commands is saved in Ib-dest; and the most recent sender of a test or debugging message is saved in testmsg dest. The FEP responds to a great deal of test messages - including "peek" and "poke" commands, parameter dump requests, and commands concerning holding off execution of the mainloop - under the message type viddspcommand. These test messages are handled by parse_viddsp_cmd(). The Lasagna Box command buffering described in section 5.1 adds a piece of complexity to this operation. Global space is allocated for three IPP messages, to be used in a circular fashion. The "free" message, i.e. the space into which new messages may be written, is indexed by IPPbufTail; if the new message contains Lasagna Box commands, IPPbufTail is incremented, and the mainloop function parse_tdb_command() recognizes that there is a message containing Lasagna Box commands (indexed by IPPbufHead) waiting to be transmitted. parse_tdb_command() then follows the algorithm outlined in subsection 5.1.2, placing commands into the transmit queue, while ensuring that no more than one read command is pending at any time. If too many Lasagna Box command messages are being stored, such that IPPbufTail threatens to overtake IPPbufHead, try_getmessage() declines to accept any new messages until space for a new message is freed. 6.3.2 Lasagna Box Communication parse_tdb_command() gram, tdb - - so named after the original Lasagna Box command pro- first checks if there is a message containing Lasagna Box commands waiting to be transmitted. If so, it picks up where it left off in this message during the previous mainloop (or starts at the beginning if this is a new message), and goes through the message one command at a time. Note that since commands are 24 bits, two IPP message spaces are used to encode them, with the least significant 16 bits preceding the 8 most significant bits. For each command, parse_tdb_command() - first checks if it is a special word a command that is not to be sent to the Lasagna Box, but rather parsed by 81 the FEP itself to have an ultimate effect on the Lasagna Box. The most important of these special words (or rather, the only one expected to be used in-flight) are TXDON CMD and TXDOFFCMD, which control the master reset line into the Lasagna Box. For all other words, parse_tdb_command() tries to write the command into the transmit queue. If the write was successful, the procedure checks if the command was a read command, i.e. one which will generate a response over the housekeeping channel: if so, it sets a flag noting that there is a read command pending; otherwise it proceeds to the next command in the message and repeats the write process. parse_tdb_command() returns when (1) it has run out of commands, (2) a read command is pending (no response has been noted from the housekeeping channel), or (3) a command-write was unsuccessful (the transmit queue is full). try_relayhk() monitors the housekeeping queue. It holds an IPP message which it fills with read commands and their responses as they arrive, and sends this message when all of the commands in the current Lasagna Box command message have been sent. If a read command is pending and two 8-bit words (= 1 16-bit response) have arrived in the housekeeping queue, try_relayhk() adds the command which prompted this response and the response itself to the IPP message it is holding, updates variables to note that this word has been read from the queue, and clears the readpendingflag. try-relay_hk() will report an error to the GPP if: (1) a response arrived over the housekeeping channel when no read command was pending; (2) more than one response arrived over the housekeeping channel when only a single read command was pending; or (3) a read command has been pending for too long without response from the Lasagna Box. The video channel receive system is discussed in the following section. 6.4 Video Processing Processing of data in the video buffer has two components: synchronization, and event-finding. Synchronization is handled by FEPvid.c; the core of event-finding is 82 in FEPproc.asm, which then uses FEPvid.c to calculate and record the coordinates of an event once located. try_procvid is the center of video processing, being the mainloop routine which calls the rest of the synchronization and event-finding routines. This procedure begins by checking if the FEP is in waiting-for-frame-sync mode. If so, it calls syncframe() to see if the frame sync has arrived in the video buffer yet; if the new frame is synced, the nextvidbufparamsare made current, and the ID encoded in the frame sync is recorded; if this frame is to be procesed, the GPP is informed of the frame sync's arrival, and variables used by procline() switch_params() are set. takes care of making nextvidbufparams current. It first pre- serves vbp->left_off, then sets all the values in vidbufparamsto the corresponding values in nextvidbufparams. The new parameters are now current, and nextvidbufparams now represent the next frame's parameters. switch_params() now checks for the kind of processing this frame entails: if this is a one-frame-only processing situation (evidenced by sendz being set), then clear the nezt frame's do-sifting flag; if the present frame is not to be processed, revert immediately back into waiting-for-framesync mode. If the FEP is not in waiting-for-frame sync mode, it is in find-events ("sift") mode. try_procvid checks if there is a full row's worth of new words in the video buffer. If so, it checks for a row sync at the beginning of this new data, warning the GPP and aborting processing if the sync is absent. Assuming the sync is found, however, vbp->linesrcvd is incremented, and if this means there are three image rows available in the video buffer, the middle row is processed. vbp->this_linestart is set to the beginning of the image-pixel region of the row being processed (i.e. the row immediately preceding the one just synced), procstart is set to the second packageof-four-words in this image-pixel region, and the row is processed by procine() in FEPproc.asm. See section 5.2 for more description of the reasons for these calculations. Once the row is processed, vbp->left_off is updated to point just past the end of the row just synced. If all of the image rows have been processed, and hence the 83 event list is complete, the event list is sent to the GPP. If all of the rows have been received, including vertical overclocks, inform the GPP that the FEP has completed processing this frame, and return to waiting-for-frame-sync mode. Note that while processing a frame, vbp->leftoff is in one of two positions in it is either immediately before the expected position of the next tryprocvid(): row's row sync, including preceding blank words (i.e. one word beyond the previous row's last pixel word, or one word beyond the frame sync); or immediately after the row sync just located (i.e. at the first word of the first package-of-four for this row). FEPvid.c uses certain basic utilities to move around the video buffer. They are implemented as macros for improved speed, and as such can modify variables in the argument list which appear to be "passed by value". That is, macros can change variable values given only the variable name; this is different than functions, which require pointers to variables in order to modify them. * read_vb(int *ad, int val): Read the video buffer at address ad, and put the value into val. Conceptually identical to val = *ad, but reads from X: instead of Y: space. * vb_add(int *adl, int ad2): Return the address resulting from starting at address adl and moving ad2 words in the video buffer. Let's say the video buffer extends from Ox6000--0x7000: x = vbadd(0x6002, -4) sets x to Ox6FFE - start at Ox6002,go back 1 to 0x6001, back 2 to 0x6000, back 3 loops around the circular video buffer to Ox6FFF, then back 4 to Ox6FFE. * vb_distance(int *from, int *to): Return the number of words in the video buffer which separate to from from. That is, how many words would one have to vb_add() to from to get to to. So in the previous example, x = vb distance(0x6005,0x6007) sets x to 2, while x = vbdistance(0x6007,0x6005) sets x to OxOFFE. * have_words(int *read, int *write,int num): Returns TRUE if there are num words separating writefrom read, FALSE otherwise. Hence x = havewords(0x6005,0x6007,2) sets x to 1 (TRUE), while x = havewords(0x6005,0x6007,3) sets x to 0 (FALSE). 84 vb_add() and vb_distance() rely on a particular orchestration of the video buffer. They require that the length of the video buffer is a power of 2 - or more to the point, that there is only a single 1 in the binary representation of this length. With this scenario, the "relevant bits" in a video buffer address are all the bits less significant than this singular 1 - these bits are the offset from the bottom of the video buffer for vb_add, and the only nonzero bits vb_distance can produce. Thus binary AND operations can be used to simplify these calculations. 6.4.1 Synchronization At time of code development, sync patterns were believed to be composed of zero marks and one marks, where a zero mark is four consecutive words of value 0, and a one mark is four consecutive words of value 0xOOFFFF. The frame sync was thus: 1. A large but unpredictable number of blank words (O's) 2. A one mark 3. Another one mark 4. 24 packages-of-four, each one either a zero mark or a one mark, to encode the Frame Identification number ("frame ID"). A zero mark meant a 0 in the 24bit frame ID; a one mark, a 1. The first package-of-four represented the most significant bit of the frame ID. A row sync was a zero mark followed by a one mark. There was to be a small but fixed number of blank words (value 0) preceding every row sync; this number is defined as ROWSYNCSKIP in FEPincl.h. With these patterns in mind, the check4() routine was created, which returned a number indicating whether the next four words in the video buffer represented a zero mark, a one mark, or neither, returning ZEROS4, ONES4, or MIX4, respectively. syncframe() STATE was designed as a state machine: 0 If a zero-to-Ox00FFFF transition is located in the video buffer, indicating a possible start to the frame sync, go to STATE 1. 85 STATE 1 If the next four words are a one mark, go to STATE 2; else go back to STATE 0. STATE 2 If the next four words are a one mark, the next 24 words are probably the frame ID: reset the variables concerned with reading the ID, mark this point in the video buffer in case something is wrong with the frame ID and we want to look at this part of the video buffer again, and go to STATE 3. Otherwise go back to STATE 0. STATE 3 Check the next four words for either a zero mark or a one mark. If one of these is found, record it as part of the frame ID; if a MIX4 is found, what we thought was the frame sync actually was not, so go back to where we were in STATE 2 and look for the frame sync again (go back to STATE 0). If 24 one and zero marks are read, the ID has been found and the frame synced - report this and return to STATE 0 for the next frame. syncrow() skips ROWSYNCSKIP (presumably blank) words, looks for the zero mark, and then for the one mark. If it finds these, it has found the row sync; if not, there is something wrong. Both sync functions return if they run out of new data in the video buffer, ready to try again during the next mainloop. 6.4.2 Event-Finding This is where the algorithm presented in section 5.2 is implemented. FEPvid.c sets up several variables for use by procline(): * asmthreshn: Background thresholds for each slice, as defined in table 5.2.2. These values are justified to match the location of the pixel being compared within its word (see below). * asm-proclen: Set to the number of active image columns per slice, minus two. This reflects that all of the line's packages-of-four containing image pixels are to be processed, with the exception of the first and last. 86 * procstart: Address within the video buffer, set to the second package-of-four within the image-pixel portion of the line being processed. * upl, downl: Number of words in the video buffer to go one line upstream (to the line which followed the line being processed, i.e., the line just synced) and one line downstream (to the line which preceded the line being processed), respectively. procline() begins by saving the registers it will be using on the stack. It then reads the parameters passed to it and stores them for quick access. R3 is used as the read pointer into the video buffer; M3 is set to keep R3 within the video buffer. procline() then checks whether the pixel data in the video buffer is 12- or 16-bit (i.e. Mode 3 or not), and calls the appropriate processing routine. There are a few pratfalls that this code must be aware of, and a few tricks it uses liberally: * The 56001 assumes 24-bit data are in 2's-complement format, so calculations and more importantly comparisons are conducted accordingly. To ensure sensible comparisons with unsigned data of 23 bits or fewer, the data is rightshifted by one bit, forcing the MSB to zero. Thus for left-justified 16-bit data, asmthreshn needs to be shifted left eight bits and then right one; for 12-bit pixels in the high half of the word, asm_threshn needs to be shifted left twelve bits and then right one; and for 12-bit pixels in the low half of the word, no shifting is necessary. * For parallel moves involving a variable used in the primary instruction, such as clr A Al,y:(R6)+ or cmp XO,A x:(R3)+,A1, sources are taken before the primary instruction, while desinations are modified after the primary instruction. Hence in these two examples, Al would be saved to y:(R6) before A is cleared, but Al is loaded with the value from x:(R3) after it is compared to XO. * Since DO loops cannot end in a jump instruction, loops that logically ought to end with one are "rotated" so that the logically first instructions in the loop is 87 "pulled around" to be the last instructions encountered. This means that these "pulled around" instructions need to be repeated before entrance to the loop for the first iteration, and that when the final in-loop instructions are encountered for the last time, they must have no ultimate effect. proc_l6_bit() is for processing data in Modes 0, 1, or 2. It assumes pixels will be in the high 16 bits of the 24-bit words, with the lower 8 bits being $FF. YO, N3, and the SHIFT flag are loaded for use in the seek_event() routine. Two "pulled-around" instructions precede the loop. Each loop iteration dispatches one package-of-four, so R3 being started at procstartand asmproclen being set to numcols - 2 means all of the image pixels in the line save those on slice boundaries will be processed. Each word is compared to the appropriate threshold, as described in Process Line (16 bit), in section 5.2. Note that since the pixels are left-justified, and then shifted one bit to the right to clear the MSB, the thresholds loaded into asmthreshn must be shifted up by 7 bits. This is accomplished in load_thresh(). Note also that since pixels are allowed to meet their thresholds and still be considered "above threshold", the extra l's in the lower bits of the word do not affect the algorithm. Pixels which exceed threshold trigger a jump to gethresh_l6(), which falls directly through to seek_event(). proc_l2_bit() is for processing data in Mode 3. It assumes pixels will be in both the high and the low 12 bits of the 24-bit words. YO, and N3 are loaded for use in the seek_event() routine, with YO defaulting to "low-pixel" condition (that is, it needs to be changed when the event candidate is a high pixel). Three "pulledaround" instructions precede the loop. Each loop iteration again dispatches one package-of-four, as in proc_l6_bit, so again all of the image pixels in the line save those on slice boundaries will be processed. The high and low pixels in each word of these packages-of-four are shifted or masked as necessary, and compared to the appropriate thresholds, as described in Process Line (12 bit) from the same section. Note that again shifting of the high-pixel thresholds is necessary, and performed by load_thresh(). Testing of high pixels is also similar to the testing of 16-bit pixels in that the extra bits from the low pixel do not impact the algorithm. Since the high 88 12 bits of the word are zeroed before comparison, there are no extraneous bits in the comparison of low pixels. Threshold-exceeding pixels found by proc_l2_bit() or ge_threshlo(): are sent to either ge_thresh_hi() the former, for high pixels, resets YO to mask the high pixel (shifted one bit to the right, recall) and sets the SHIFT flag to note that values should be shifted one bit to the right before comparison to avoid negative-value concerns; the latter, for low pixels, clears the SHIFT flag - YO is defaulted to mask the low pixel. These function then pass to seek_event(). The seek_event() routine is what checks if a pixel is a local maximum, following the Check for Local Maximum algorithm, again described in section 5.2. It uses YO and the SHIFT flag to be a general-purpose routine, not caring whether it is comparing 12 or 16 bit pixels. seek_event() starts by saving Al (the next word to be compared in the proc_n_word() routine) and the R3 pointer, for clean return into the threshold-comparison loop. It then moves R3 back by N3, so it points to the pixel which exceeded its threshold and prompted the call to seek_event(). It loads this word into Al, shifting it one bit to the right if necessary. It then masks only the bits belonging to this pixel - note that since both greater-or-equal and strictly-greater tests need to be performed, the "extra bits don't matter" trick can't be used - and prepares to compare the pixel in question (hereafter referred to as the Center pixel) to its Right neighbor by setting N3 to 4. The core of the seek_event() procedure is the compare() routine, which assumes A contains the Center pixel, N3 contains the offset from R3's present location to the pixel against which it should be compared, and YOand the SHIFT flag are set to reflect the position of the pixel in the word. compare() moves R3 by N3, loads B1 with the word found at this new location, shifts it one bit to the right if necessary, and masks out the relevant bits. It then compares B with A, setting the status bits accordingly, and returns. Status bits report the Center pixel with respect to the neighbor: if the status indicates "greater-than", then the Center pixel is strictly greater than the neighbor; conversely a status indicating "less-than-or-equal" indicates the Center 89 pixel is not strictly greater than the neighbor. seek_event() then proceeds around the Center pixel's eight neighbors as indicated in Figure 5-2, adjusting N3 to move from one pixel to the next, and calls compare() each time. After each compare() call, seek_event() checks if this neighbor precludes the Center pixel from being a local maximum, and if so, it restores R3 and Al and returns to the threshold-comparison loop that called it. If the Center pixel passes all eight comparisons, it is deemed an event, and all relevant data is passed to record_event() in FEPvid.c. First order of business in record_event() is to determine the in-image coordinates of the event. get_coords() checks how far into the image-pixel portion of the line the event is, by comparing it to vbp->this_linestart. It then checks how many packagesof-four this represents, and which word within the package-of-four held this pixel (and for Mode 3, whether it is the high or low pixel in this word). With this information, plus the transmission mode and submode, the X coordinate and camera number may be calculated. The Y coordinate is two less than the number of lines received: for instance, when three lines have been received, the line being processed is the line Y=l. This number is offset by the startrow given by the GPP. This coordinate is compared to the bad column and pixel lists; if it is deemed a valid event, the pixel value is right-justified, and the event information is saved in compressed form. Each event takes two words to save: the first word contains the coordinate and camera number, the second word the pixel value. The camera number is saved in bit 0 of the first word, the X coordinate in bits 1-11, and the Y coordinate in bits 12-22: thus coordinates from (0,0) on camera 0 to (2047,2047) on camera 1 may be saved (which far exceeds the possible range). The pixel value takes up at most the lower 16 bits of the second word. Figure 6-1 shows this format. The event is saved in X: memory space, vbp->numevents incremented and tested against its maximum, and control returns to seek_event in FEPproc.asm. Note that this algorithm relies heavily on the projected characteristic of HETE UV camera images: specifically, only around 1% of the pixels should exceed threshold, and only a portion of these should actually be locally-maximal events. In this vein, 90 the threshold-comparison loop is very tight and time-optimized, the local-maximum check almost as dense (though it sacrifices some speed for program space and ease of readability, by jumping to the compare() routine instead of doing the comparison in-line), and the event-recording is much less time-optimized for relative ease of readability. Thus setting of the thresholds is crucial to the operation of the FEP. A threshold set too low will generate far too many calls to seek_event(), and with a new word arriving over the video channel every 6/ts, the FEP could easily lose ground to the incoming data. It will most likely report this by experiencing a row sync error, as the row sync would have been overwritten by new data as the FEP fell behind. Hence a row sync error reported by the FEP but not the BEP, is the first hint that the background thresholds ought to be changed. The FEP reports the events it has found in a frame to the GPP using dump_events() in FEPcom.c, which sends the information - including or excluding the pixel in- tensities, as previously requested by the GPP and noted in vbp->sendz - in a series of IPP messages. 91 Chapter 7 Back-End Processor Functionality The engineeringtask involves trading off among various alternatives until a solution is identified which fits within the various constraints and still satisfies the functional requirement. - Robert M. McDermott Computer-Aided Logic Design 7.1 The Frame Buffer Integral to the BEP's work is its interaction with the 4 Megaword (12 Megabyte) Frame Buffer. It is into this frame buffer that video data is saved and from it retrieved according to the wishes of the GPP. Very little can be traded off to conform to the optimization constraints the BEP needs to follow: * Writing to the Frame Buffer must be fast, to keep up with the data arriving over the video channel * Frame Buffer space must be used efficiently, to maximize the number of individual frames that can be held simultaneously * Reading from the Frame Buffer must be simple to use, because other developers will be adding capabilities to the BEP that rely heavily on this function 92 * Reading from the Frame Buffer must be fast, because this function will be used very frequently With time, storage space, and ease of interface all claiming optimization priority, program space becomes the only readily apparent resource that can "give way" to these concerns. The end result is a relatively large set of small, very fast low-level routines, to which more general-purpose (and hence more flexible, easier to interface with) routines dispatch. Another optimization step is pre-computation: useful values (the total number of pixels in an image, for instance) which are derivable from basic parameters (number of pixels per slice row, number of slices, number of rows) are calculated once when new parameters arrive, and stored for quick access as the various routines require them. The BEP interacts with the Frame Buffer on two levels. At a low level, read/write operations are performed on the Frame Buffer via eight independently oriented 4kiloword windows. At a higher level, the Frame Buffer is considered to be composed of a set of regions within which a number of same-parameter frames are stored. 7.1.1 Low-Level Frame Buffer Interaction: Windows The Frame Buffer is evenly divided into 1024 4-kiloword pages. The BEP assigns eight 4-kiloword regions of memory to be windows into the Frame Buffer: each of these windows may be set to view a single page. Read and write operations to a window then become read and write operations to that page in the Frame Buffer. Example: a window that extends from $8000 to $8FFF in BEP X memory space is set to page $555. I/O to this window is therefore I/O to Frame Buffer addresses $555000 to $555FFF. Let's say you write $123456 to X:$8111: now Frame Buffer address $555111 holds $123456. Now let us set another window, say Y:$AOOO0-$AFFF, to page $555 as well. Reading Y:$A111 would produce the value $123456. As Figure 8-1 shows, four windows are placed in the BEP's X memory space, starting at $8000, $9000, $A000, and $B000, and the remaining four are in Y space, starting at the same addresses. The adjacency of the windows within a memory space 93 allows larger aggregate windows to be formed: setting the X:$8000 region to page $555 creates a 4-kiloword window; setting the X:$9000 region to page $556 expands this to an 8-kiloword window; then setting the X:$A000 region to page $557, a 12-kiloword window; and finally setting the X:$B000 region to page $558, a 16-kiloword window. The BEP uses this ability when dealing with a block of data. A single line of video data, for example, is no more than two kilowords in length. If the BEP wishes to dump this data directly into the Frame Buffer, the write will involve at most two pages: so the BEP can set window w to page p where it wishes to start writing, and then window w + 1 to page p + 1; it may now perform a memory copy with no further concern about Frame Buffer pages and windows. Similarly a multi-word read (spanning under 4 kilowords) will require at most three windows: if it starts in page p, it can either need to move forward into page p + 1, or backward into page p - 1, or neither. Setting three adjacent windows accordingly allows for these eventualities without the actual read operation being concerned about crossing from one window to the next. 7.1.2 High-Level Frame Buffer Interaction: Regions The BEP divides the Frame Buffer into a number of regions (presently three), wherein frames are stored. Each of the frames within a region has a similar structure - the same size, shape, storage mode, et cetera - and differ only in starting point, frame identification number, and sequential order within the region. The sequential order of frames is kept by organizing them as a linked list, whereby each frame points to a "next" frame, in such a way that following the next-frame pointers from one frame to the next eventually forms a closed loop. When the BEP completes saving one frame, it proceeds to that frame's next-frame in the Frame Buffer and saves the new incoming frame's pixels there, thereby proceeding around the closed loop with the newest data overwriting the oldest. Frames only point to next-frames within the same region. Note that this linked-list organization allows frames to be "skipped over" in the closed loop. Let us suppose a four-frame region, where upon initialization frame 1 points to frame 2, frame to 2 to 3, frame 3 to 4, and 4 to 1: the closed loop 94 then proceeds 1 - 2 -- 3 -- 4 -+ 1 -... , as expected. If frame 1 were now to point to frame 3, frame 2 would be skipped, as the closed loop would proceed 1 - 3 -, 4 -, 1 --.... Now frame 2 will not be overwritten by incoming frames: i.e., if all of the frames which point to frame n are made to point to frame n's next-frame, frame n is made inviolate. Note that the wording "all of the frames which point to frame n" insures that every frame's next-frame will point to a frame within the closed loop for its region. This simplifies reinsertion of inviolate frames into the closed loop: let us say we now want to allow frame n to be overwritten. We start at frame n and proceed to its next-frame, frame z - which we know is in the closed loop. We continue following the next-frame pointers until we encounter a frame a which points to frame z. We change frame a to point to frame n, and frame n is once again in the closed loop. Normally, the BEP will be storing full frames of data, frame after frame around a region's closed loop, until the GPP has reason to change the frame-save parameters - presumably shrinking the field of interest, possibly increasing the pixel resolution, to identify a transient event. The GPP will send the BEP the new parameters, along with the region to which these new frames should be saved. The BEP then saves the incoming data according to the new parameters in this new region, frame after frame, until the GPP again has reason to change the parameters, or simply revert back to the normal full-frame mode. This is the scenario for which the BEP region system is optimized. Two notes regarding region switches and parameter-changes: the BEP keeps track of which frame it had been writing to in each region, so that it may return to that point and "pick up where it left off" should the GPP instruct it to switch to that region. If the GPP commands a parameter-change, however, all of the data previously in that region is discarded - closed-loop frames, inviolate frames, everything. The BEP reconstructs this region with the new parameters, fitting as many frames in as it can, and by default assigning the closed loop to include all of these frames. If the modified region is the region into which incoming frames are currently being written, the presently incoming frame is discarded, and the BEP goes into wait-for-frame-sync 95 mode to start afresh with the next frame. 7.2 Frame Buffer I/O It is here that most of the optimization constraints presented in the previous section are addressed. The primary issue is when to "deal" the pixels: that is, when to take the jumbled pixel order that arrives over the video channel and reorganize it to create usable line-by-line raster data. Ought it be done as soon as possible, when the pixels are being written to the Frame Buffer? This way read operations are simple, and therefore fast. Or ought it be done when data is being read from the Frame Buffer, assuming that many fewer pixels will be read than the total written? The BEP is in fact capable of doing both, as the specifics of the frame parameters will dictate which is more optimal. 7.2.1 Deal on Write vs. Deal on Read Taking the BEP as a whole, dealing is dealing, wherever it happens; to a broad approximation, it takes the same time either way. If we then make the assumption that the total number of pixel-read operations per frame is on average less than the total number of pixels per frame, deal-on-read is the way to go. There is a snag, however, in the case where you would like to store a subarray of the total camera image. While the Lasagna Box sequencer can be programmed to transmit a subset of the total number of rows in a camera, it cannot send a subset of columns. A deal-on-read system, which would deposit the pixel stream as it appears on the video channel into the Frame Buffer, could waste an inordinate amount of Frame Buffer space - imagine the region of interest is a tall, thin box: deal-on-read would save a tall and fully-wide box. With 1024-column cameras, a region of 100pixel-wide images would be over 90+% wasted space. Or, to put it worse, the BEP would be able to save less than one-tenth as many frames as it ought to. So now we consider deal-on-write the better option. Unfortunately, even a highly time-optimized deal-on-write system requires up to 140js of overhead computation 96 per slice to orchestrate the write, plus up to 0.25ts per pixel: in normal operation, with 512x512 images coming in transmission mode 3 (all eight slices operating), we are faced with (140 * 8) + (0.25 * 512 * 2) = 1376ps of time to deal a single line. With 2 pixels arriving every 6pts, a new line will be arriving every 6 * 512 * 2 = 3072s - so 45% of the BEP's time will be spent in the very basic task of writing normal-mode frames into the Frame Buffer.' And note that in this case, the deal-on-write is not saving any Frame Buffer space, because we want all of the pixels to be saved anyway. The solution is a hybrid. When we want to save entire lines, we follow deal-onread; when we are interested only in a portion of the columns, we deal-on-write. The BEP deal-on-write system is able to skip the undesired columns in the pixel stream en masse, instead of considering the utility of each pixel individually: so in our hundredcolumn case, at least two of the slices per camera can be skipped entirely, and only the relevant pixels in the remaining slices undergo the 0.25ps copy loop. This results in a (140 * 4) + (0.25 * 100 * 2) = 610ps write time per line. This example was for a 1024-column image, which takes * 1024 * 2 = 6144ps per line to transmit - so now our deal-on-write is swallowing only 10% of the BEP's time, for a 90% improvement in Frame Buffer space utilization. Note that this hybrid scheme necessitates that the Frame Buffer read system be able to identify how a frame was saved - dealt or not and respond to both possibilities. This means that there are two patterns that frames in the Frame Buffer may follow. Each region is declared either deal-on-read or deal-on-write: therefore all of the frames within a region will either be a set of lines in pixel-stream order, or several sets of lines in a more raster-like order. The former is relatively simple - or rather, it is no more complex than the video stream, as described in section 4.4 and Figure 5-1. The latter is also simple, in its own way. A deal-on-write frame is divided into an image pixel portion and a non-image pixel 1For comparison, dumping a full line into the Frame Buffer without dealing takes 20/Lsof overhead per line plus 0.2ps per word, which is two pixels in this case: 20 + (2 * 512 * 2) = 122.4/Ls,or 4% of the time it takes the line to arrive over the video channel. For more details on this, as well as an indication of the fallacy of our assumption that dealing takes the same time no matter where you do it, see section 8.4. 97 portion (underclocks and overclocks); these portions are duplicated for each camera which has data in the pixel stream. Each portion is meant to be read out in a raster fashion, pixel after pixel, line after line. An image pixel portion may be thought of as: all of the image data for the first line of this camera; followed by all of the image data for the second line of this camera; and so on, up to the last active image row. A non-image pixel portion is divided a little further: consider it, The horizontal underclocks followed by the horizontal overclocks of the first line of slice A; then the horizontal underclocks followed by the horizontal overclocks of the first line of slice B; same for slice C; same for slice D; then the horizontal underclocks followed by the horizontal overclocks of the second line of slice A; and so on, up to the last active image row. This pile of horizontal non-image pixels is followed by all of the available data for the first vertical overclock line, then the second, up to the last. Figure 7-1 illustrates this. Note that the two-pixel-per-word space optimization present in the video channel is not abandoned when the BEP sorts pixel data on write. When unpacking each slice in Mode 3, it grabs two pixels from that slice and re-packs them into a single 24-bit word before saving them in the Frame Buffer. Note that all relevant horizontal parameters - the number of underclocks, image pixels, and overclocks per slice, as well as the start and end columns for an image - are required to be even numbers to allow this unpacking routine always to grab two pixels at a time. However the Lasagna Box hardware cannot send an odd number of any type of pixel (image pixel, horizontal underclock, horizontal overclock, or vertical overclock), so this requirement boils down to extending the set of columns defined by the start and end columns to ensure that every slice contributes an even number of pixels to the image. 7.2.2 Frame Buffer Write Operations As with the FEP, the BEP uses a circular video buffer to store data arriving over the video channel. A BEP in wait-for-frame-sync mode searches this video buffer for a frame sync pattern, indicating the start of a new frame. If this frame is not to be saved, the BEP simply reverts back into wait-for-frame-sync mode. 98 IncreasingFrameBuffer Addresses Frame I Frame 2 Frame 3 fb_start fb_start fb_start ok ! {~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I Pixel Pixel Pixel Pixel (0,1) (1,1) (2,1) (3,1) Ist value 2nd value read from read from Slice B Slice B lNext-to Last valu last value last value read fron Slice B Slice B e Figure 7-1: Deal-on-Write Frame Organization 99 If the GPP has commanded that this frame be saved, however, the BEP begins to search for row-sync patterns in the video buffer. If a full row's worth of new information has arrived, the BEP checks for a row sync at the beginning of it. If it is absent, the BEP warns the GPP of the error and abandons this frame. If the row sync is present, however, the BEP saves the row in the Frame Buffer. If this frame is deal-on-read, the words in the video buffer corresponding to this row's pixel data - underclocks, image pixels, and overclocks alike - are copied verbatim into the Frame Buffer. A deal-on-write frame, of course, is a rather more involved procedure. Horizontal underclocks, image pixels, horizontal overclocks, and vertical overclocks, for each of the eight slices, must be considered and potentially saved for every new line of data. The actual pixel-save routine is remarkably similar for each of these combinations. It relies on the observation made in subsection 5.2.1 and illustrated in Figure 5-1 that horizontally adjacent pixels in a slice are always four words apart in the pixel stream (assuming the slice is present in the given Lasagna Box transmission mode). The routine is given a start and an end address within the video buffer, and copies all of the pixels from the desired slice that are within this address range into the Frame Buffer. That is: * Deal and Save Slice 1. Calculate offset, the location of the slice's data within a package-of-fourwords (see Table 7.2.2). If the slice is absent from the pixel stream, return. 2. Calculate numpof4, the number of packages-of-four between start_address and end_address. 3. If the slice is B or D and the data being copied are image pixels, begin at end_address - 4 in the video buffer and go backward; otherwise begin at start_address and go forward. 4. Add offset to the beginning address. 5. Copy this word into the Frame Buffer. (Note that 16-bit data is written left-justified, as it is sent by the Lasagna Box; see section 4.4.) 6. Go 4 words forward or backward in the video buffer; go 1 word forward in the Frame Buffer. 7. Repeat numpof4 times from step 5. 100 Mode, Submode 0,0 0,1 AO offset 0 N/A BO offset 1 N/A CO offset 2 N/A DO offset 3 N/A Al offset N/A 0 B1 offset N/A 1 1,0/1 2,0/1 3, 0/1 N/A 0 () 0 N/A 0(lo) N/A 1 1h) 1 N/A 1(lo) N/A 2 2(h) 2 N/A 2(lo) Table 7.1: Calculation of offsets Cl fset N/A 2 N/A 3 D1 offset N/A 3 3 N/A 3(l) Given Transmission Mode If the pixel data is in the compressed Mode 3, num-pof 4 is halved, and step 5 is modified to read: 5a If the slice is A or C: mask the top 12 bits of this word; go four words forward or backward 2 in the video buffer; move the top 12 bits of this word into the bottom 12 bits (zeroing the top 12) and combine it with the first pixel; save this two-pixel word in the Frame Buffer. 5b If the slice is B or D: move the bottom 12 bits of this word into the top 12 bits (zeroing the bottom 12); go four words forward or backward in the video buffer; mask the bottom 12 bits of this word and combine it with the first pixel; save this two-pixel word in the Frame Buffer. The deal-on-write routine thus considers in order each of the eight slices that may be represented in the pixel stream: AO - BO -- CO-- DO -, Al -* B1 - C1 - D1. For each slice, the following tests are done: 1. Is this row composed of vertical overclocks? If so, and if non-image pixels are to be saved, save all of the pixels for this slice in the non-image pixel portion and return; if not, continue. 2. Are non-image pixels to be saved? If so, save the underclocks, followed by the overclocks, for this slice in the non-image pixel portion. 3. Save the segment of this slice's image pixels which is within the region of interest defined by the GPP in the image pixel portion. Or put another way, with abbreviations as in subsection 5.2.3, * If saving vertical overclocks: 2 Actually, always forward; but this part of the algorithm doesn't need to know that. 101 start-address= rowstart end_address = startaddress + [4x (HUCS + IMPS + HOCS)] NIP3 = TRUE * If saving horizontal underclocks: startaddress = rowstart end_address= startaddress + (4 x HUCS) NIP = TRUE * If saving horizontal overclocks: startaddress = row_start + [4x (HUCS + IMPS)] end_address= start-address+ (4 x HOCS) NIP = TRUE * If saving image pixels: startaddress = row_start+ start_offset (precalculated value) end_address = row_start + end_offset (precalculated value) NIP = FALSE The "precalculated values" for the image pixel option is how the BEP discards unwanted columns, saving only the portion of the incoming data that is of interest to the GPP. When the BEP receives new video parameters from the GPP, it compares the range of columns governed by each slice to the range of desired columns defined by the GPP. If a slice is entirely outside the declared save region, its startoffset and endoffset are set to zero; otherwise its start_offset is set to HUCS, and its end_offset to HUCS + IMPS. If the start_column or endcolumn lies within a slice's domain, start_offset is increased or end_offset decreased (or both) so that the range of addresses offered to the pixel-save routine for this slice includes only the pixels that are in the desired columns. 7.2.3 Frame Buffer Read Operations There are two general-purpose read functions at the lowest level of I/O: one handles 16-bit data, the other 12-bit data. Each of them are given a start location in the 3 Abbreviation for "Non-Image Pixel" 102 Frame Buffer, the step in pixels between the values desired, and the total number of pixel values that should be read. These functions set up three adjoining windows to adjoining pages, where the middle page contains the start location; they then read the first pixel, move the specified number of steps (forward or backward) in the Frame Buffer - note that for 16-bit data, a pixel is a word, whereas a 12-bit pixel is half of a word - and read again, repeating until all the desired values have been acquired. Both routines right-justify the pixel values. With these functions in hand, the higher-level read functions can read from a single pixel up to an entire slice for deal-on-read frames, and up to an entire line for deal-on-write frames. There are two general-purpose read utilities, Read IMPs 4 and Read NIPs. The read system divides each single-camera frame into 13 areas, each a connected region with its origin in the lower-left corner: the image area; a horizontal underclock area for each of the four slices; a horizontal overclock area for each slice; and a vertical overclock area for each slice. So (0, 0) in the image area is the lower-left corner of the camera image, i.e., the first image pixel in slice A; (0, 0) in the slice B HUC area is the first horizontal underclock in slice B; (0, 0) in the slice D VOC area is the first slice D pixel from the first vertical overclock row. Read IMPs takes coordinates that define the corners of a box within the image area, and information on the frame to be read. Read NIPs takes the same type of information, plus an indication of the non-image pixel area in question. Read NIPs calculates the parameters needed by the low-level read utilities for the first line to be read, reads the first line, increments the start location in the Frame Buffer by one line, reads the second line, and continues until the entire box of data is read. Because reads in the image area can cross slice boundaries, Read IMPs is a little more complex. It is also optimized slightly for faster operation on deal-on-read frames, since it is assumed that most frames will be of this type. Read IMPs first calculates what slices are spanned by the box to be read. Then it calculates the parameters needed by the low-level read utilities for the leftmost slice's contribution to the first line, and performs the read. 4IMage Pixels 103 It increments the start location in the Frame Buffer by one line and reads again, placing the data appropriately in the return array. It continues up the box, reading all the information contributed by this leftmost slice. It then begins again with the second-to-leftmost slice, reading all the data from this slice that contributes to the entire box; and so on until it has read from all the contributing slices. This line-by-line, slice-by-slice order takes advantage of the observation that it is time-consuming to calculate all of the parameters needed by the low-level routines (taking into account transmission mode, deal-on-write vs. deal-on-read, et cetera), but once these parameters are calculated, it is easy to use them repeatedly for successive lines. Unfortunately, this general-purpose read system is not sufficiently fast to perform all of the reads the BEP ought to perform per frame. The most common read is a 3-by-3-pixel square in the image area, which for a normal-operation frame (Mode 3, deal-on-read) takes either 94.5ps if the square is contained in a single slice, or 124.71ts if the square spans two slices. A normal-operation frame, 512x512 pixels for each of two cameras with two pixels arriving every 6ps, takes * 512 * 512 * 2 = 1,572, 864ps = 1.57s: so the BEP would be able to perform at most 1572864 = 16,644 3x3 reads per frame. This may appear to be a large number, but recall that the BEP needs to have time to perform calculations on the data it reads, as well as take care of its myriad other functions - writing to the Frame Buffer and communication with the GPP and the like. In keeping with the principle that program memory may be sacrificed for speed, another read routine was created: a fast single-slice 3x3 read for normal-operation frames. This function does not have to check for transmission mode, or deal-on-write vs. deal-on-read, or how many slices it spans, or any of the other concerns that slow down the general-purpose system: its calculations are thus vastly simplified, and it performs its task in no more than 19.8ps. 104 7.3 Command & Response List The BEP responds to the following commands from the GPP: PROCESSVIDEO The BEP is instructed to save the next frame to arrive along the video channel. A parameter indicates whether the BEP should save only this next frame, or to begin saving frame after frame until told to stop. DONTSPROCESS VIDEO The BEP is to stop saving frames until told to start again. If a frame is currently being processed, the BEP is to finish doing so, but then ignore frames that follow it. There are no parameters. SWITCHREGION The BEP is told to switch into a new Frame Buffer region. REALLOCATESFB The GPP defines the starting Frame Buffer address for each region. Each region ends where the next one starts; the GPP sends an explicit ending address for the last region. CCDCONFIGURATION The BEP is informed of: the transmission mode and cameras used (submode) by the Lasagna Box; the number of horizontal underclocks, active image columns, and horizontal overclocks per slice; the number of active image rows and vertical overclocks per frame; the on-camera row numbers of the first and last rows to arrive over the video channel; the range of columns the BEP should save for each camera; whether to deal on write or deal on read; whether or not to save non-image pixels in deal-on-write mode; and the region to which these parameters apply. The BEP may 105 be instructed to abort processing the current frame in favor of these new parameters; if the region to be changed is the region currently being saved to, this abort happens automatically. SAVE-FRAME The GPP wishes a frame to be marked inviolate. The frame ID is sent. DUMPFRAMERAW The GPP wishes to receive an entire frame from the BEP, exactly as it appears in the Frame Buffer. The frame ID is sent. DUMPSFRAME_DEAL The GPP wishes to receive a frame's image data from the BEP, in raster format. The frame ID and camera number are sent. DUMP IMP ARRAY The GPP wishes to receive a box-shaped portion of a frame's image data from the BEP, in raster format. The frame ID, camera number, and coordinates of the box corners, are sent. DUMP_TBTARRAY The GPP wishes to receive a 3-by-3-pixel array from a frame's image data. The frame ID, camera number, and coordinates of the lower-left corner of the 3x3 region, are sent. The BEP generates the following messages for the GPP: DSPFRAMESTARTED The BEP reports that a frame sync has been found. The frame ID is included. 106 Message goes to the most recent sender of PROCESS_VIDEO. DSPSFRAME_ENDED The BEP reports that all of the rows of this frame, including vertical overclocks, have been received. The frame ID is included. Message goes to the most recent sender of PROCESSVIDEO. DSPFRAMEERROR The BEP reports that there has been some error (such as an absent row sync) while processing a frame. The frame ID and a number indicating the type of error are included. Message goes to the most recent sender of PROCESS_VIDEO. BEP_UNKNOWNID The BEP has received a request concerning a frame which is not present in the Frame Buffer. Message goes to the sender of the request. BEPRAWSRAME One of a set of messages containing frame data exactly as it appears in the Frame Buffer. The frame ID is included, as well as a set of flags indicating whether this message is the first, last, or in the middle of the set. Message goes to the sender of the DUMPFRAME.RAW request. BEP DEALT IMPS One of a set of messages containing image data from a frame, in raster format. The frame ID; camera number; a set of flags indicating whether this message is the first, last, or in the middle of the set; and the coordinates of the corners defining the box of data requested are included. Message goes to the sender of the DUMPIMPARRAY or DUMPFRAME_DEALrequest. BEPTBT 107 A 3-by-3-pixel array of image data. The frame ID, camera number, and the coordinates of the lower-left corner of the array are included. Message goes to the sender of the DUMP_TBT_ARRAYrequest. DSP_EXCEPTION The BEP warns of a hardware exception, such as a video channel receive overrun. For errors relating to the video channel, messages go to the most recent sender of PROCESS_VIDEO. 108 Chapter 8 Back-End Processor Implementation Memory All alone in the Moonlight I can smile at the old days I was beautifulthen - T.S. Eliot & A.L. Webber The BEP C code is compiled to use the 56001 's Y: data space, not to use register R5, and to employ parallel move operations when possible. BEP Assembly code uses parallel move operations heavily. Although efforts have been made in this chapter to point out when the BEP uses some subtle aspect of the compiler or the processor, readers unfamiliar with the Motorola 56001 or its GNU C compiler are referred to the documents on these cited in the Bibilography.[5, 6] This chapter also uses terms such as "video buffer" and '"package-of-four" de- fined in the previous chapter. Readers unfamiliar with the algorithms that this code implements are referred there. 109 Variables related to set beginnings are inclusive, and those related to set endings, exclusive. That is, startcol = 5 and endcol = 10 defines columns 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 as included in a set. This means that the number of members in the set is always the difference between the end and the beginning values. Numeric indices - coordinates,array references, bit locations, et cetera - start with 0. Cardinal references start with "first". Hence the '"first bit" of a 24-bit word is "bit 0", and the most significant "twenty-fourth" bit is "bit 23". Confusing as this appears, I believeit is a reasonablynatural pattern, and consistent with related literature. 8.1 Functional Breakdown The BEP software is composed of the following modules: * BEPmain.c: Performs initializations (with BEPsetvars.c), engages mainloop (see section 4.3). Also contains simulation- and memory-related test routines. * BEPsetvars.c: * BEPcom.c: Contains initialization routines. Handles high-level (i.e. above Assembly-level) communications with the GPP. * BEPvidin.c: Sets up copying from video buffer into Frame Buffer, including deal-on-write. * BEPvidout.c: Mid-level pixel-read routines, used by high-level procedures when they wish to read information from the Frame Buffer. * BEPframe.c: Functions related to frames and Frame Buffer regions: finding a frame in the Frame Buffer by its ID; marking a frame inviolate; setting up a region; and dumping frame data upon request. * BEPasmsupport.asm: Contains various small support routines which are best implemented in Assembly language, such as serial communications hardware control, interrupt vector initialization, et cetera. 110 · BEPfb.asm: Lowest-level Frame Buffer I/O routines. Highly time-optimized. * BEPwindow.asm: Fast routine for making a Frame Buffer window point to a specified page; similar routines for making two or three adjacent windows point to two or three adjacent pages. * BEPintr.asm: Long interrupt handlers, currently only for video receive ex- ception. * crtrzp.asm: Startup file which controls the DSP's behavior on reset. Initializes the stack pointer, DMA communications with the host GPP, and the like; then passes off to BEPmain.c. * BEPincl.h: Contains constants, type and structure definitions, and external function declarations used by the above C modules. #include's other infrastructure .h files, such as BEPwindow.h and those related IPP communication. * BEPwindow.h: Constants related to Frame Buffer windows. * BEPglobals.h: Global variable declarations. #include'd once by BEPmain.c. * BEPequ.asm: Constant definitions and variable allocations for the above As- sembly modules. * machspec.asm: Constant definitions for Assembly modules, specific to HETE hardware (as opposed to the NeXT development system). * ioequ.asm: Constant definitions for communications hardware. BEPincl.h defines several structures which contain vital information on the state of the BEP, in particular on the frames stored in the Frame Buffer and the status of incoming video data. The former is governed by an all frames-struct,the latter by a vidbufparam-struct 1 . The allframes-struct contains the following arrays: 1 "vidbuf" is an abbreviation for the VIDeo BUFfer. The values in this structure relate either directly to the video buffer, or to the processing of the data in it. 111 * regionparam-structrp, one for each region. The parameters defining the characteristics of the frames within a given region. * frame-specs-structfs, one for each frame that can be kept track of. Small structure to keep track of only the parameters which change from frame to frame. * fbptr regionstart, one for each region, plus one. Defines the floor address of the region; the next region's floor is the present region's ceiling, so the extra region-startis the ceiling of the last region. * int current-framenum,one for each region. Keeps track of the last frame number written to in each region, to facilitate region-switches. A regionparam-struct is composed of the following: * ccd, a structure representing the Lasagna Box parameters * deal, a flag indicating whether frames in this region are deal-on-write * savenips, a flag for deal-on-write frames indicating whether non-image pixels are saved * start-row and endrow, one for each camera, indicating the on-camera number of the first and last image rows which arrive over the video channel * start-col and endcol, one for each camera, indicating the first and last image columns which are saved in deal-on-write mode * imp-startoffset, nip-startoffset, and vocstart-offset, one for each camera, indicating the offset from the base of the frame where the image pixels, non-image pixels, and vertical overclocks are stored in deal-on-write frames (see Figure 7-1) * linelen, one for each camera, indicating the number of Frame Buffer words comprising a single line of (image) data - endcol-startcol for deal-on-write frames for deal-on(half this number for Mode 3), 4*(num_hocs+num_cols+numhocs) read frames (which use only linelen[O]) 112 * size, the total number of Frame Buffer words used to store a single frame ccd, a ccdparam-struct,contains the transmission mode and cameras used; the number of horizontal underclocks, image pixels, and horizontal overclocks per slice; the total number of columns per slice; the number of rows containing image pixels, and vertical overclocks; and the total number of rows per image. A framespecs.struct contains a pointer to the regionparam-structthat represents this frame's parameters, the frame ID, the frame's base Frame Buffer address, and the number of the next-frame in the region's closed loop. In its present implementation, 1000 frames are reserved for each of three regions. The array of framespecs-structs in the allframesstruct thus has 3000 elements: indices 0-999 are for region 0, 1000-1999 are for region 1, and 2000-2999 are for region 2. See chapter 9 for other possible allocations of frames to regions. The vidbufparamstruct holds the following information on the incoming video data being placed in the video buffer: * region: The number of the region where the frame is to be saved. * saveframe: Flag telling the BEP whether or not this frame ought to be saved into the Frame Buffer. * single-frame:Flag telling the BEP whether it is in single- or multi-frame mode, i.e., if only this frame should be saved, or if frames should be continually saved until further notice * oneline-delta: The number of words a single row occupies in the pixel stream. If you are standing on a word in the pixel stream which corresponds to coordinate (c, r), going oneline-delta words downstream (toward earlier-arrived data) puts you on (c, r - 1), and going oneline-delta words upstream (toward later-toarrive data) puts you on (c, r + 1). See subsection 5.2.1 for a discussion of this phenomenon. * leftoff: Pointer into the video buffer indicating the next word to be read. (The "receiver runner" from section 4.3's description of circular buffers.) 113 * lines-rcvd: The number of lines confirmed to have been received into the video buffer for this frame. When a full row's worth of data (oneline-delta words) has been read into the video buffer since the end of the last row, the BEP checks for a row sync at the beginning of these new data; if found, linesrcvd is incremented by one. * waitingforframe-sync: Flag indicating whether the BEP is currently searching the incoming video data for a frame sync, or whether it is processing a frame. When all of the rows in a frame have been received (including vertical overclocks), waitingforframe-sync is set to search for the next frame's sync. Note that setting waiting-for-frame-sync while the current frame's rows are still being received effectively aborts processing of this frame. * Iobounddelta[slice], one for each of the eight slices - the startoffsets from subsection 7.2.2. * hibounddelta[slice], one entry for each of the eight slices - the endoffsets from subsection 7.2.2. * impleftoff[camera], one entry for each of the two cameras. Marks where writing into the Frame Buffer left off at the last row, i.e., the word immediately past the last word of the (image) line most recently written. Deal-on-read frames use imp-leftoff[O] to keep track of its location in the Frame Buffer. * nipleftoff[camera], one entry for each of the two cameras. Marks where writing into the non-image pixel portion of a deal-on-write frame left off at the last row, i.e., the word immediately past the last non-image pixel written. Two variables of type vidbufparam-struct are kept: the vidbufparams of the current frame (where a frame lasts from its frame sync to the next frame's sync), and the nextvidbufparams which become current upon the arrival of the next frame sync. When the GPP sends a command to change any of the parameters in this structure, the BEP modifies nextvidbufparams; thus changes in the region to be written to, and 114 the character of frame saving, result in modification of region,and saveframe and singleframe, respectively within nextvidbufparams. In addition, within nextvidbufparams, linesrcvd and waiting-forframe-syncare zero. Then when a new frame sync comes along, the leftoff pointer in vidbufparams is copied to nextvidbufparams, and then nextvidbufparamsis simply transferred en masse into vidbufparams, reflecting that these values are now current. If the GPP has changed any of the parameters, these new parameters now take effect; otherwise, the result is simply the resetting of linesrcvd and waitingforframe-sync. parameter-switching The xxleftoff pointers are reset at this as well. This bears repeating: vidbufparamscontains the parameters applicable to the current frame; nextvidbufparams contains the parameters applicable to the nezt frame to come along the video channel, parameters which go into effect upon the next frame sync. When the GPP wishes to reconfigure a region - most likely because it has re- configured the Lasagna Box parameters - it sends the parameters needed for the regionparamstruct, along with the number of the region to be changed. The BEP then reconfigures this region, effectively erasing any frames which were previously stored there by making them unreadable (the parameters for the region no longer match the parameters for the frames previously stored there). The frame IDs in the framespecs-structs within this region are zeroed to reflect this. If the region modified is the region currently being written to, saving of the current frame is aborted, and the BEP waits until the next frame sync to begin saving frames under the new parameters. 8.1.1 Memory & Resource Allocation The DSP's three memory spaces - X:, Y:, and P:, each spanning 32 kilowords - are divided by the BEP into definite regions, shown in Figure 8-1. P: space has reset and interrupt vectors from P:$0000 to P:$003F, short-addressable space from P:$0040 to P:$01FF, and long-addressable space from P:$0200 to P:$7FFF. In addition, P:$0000-~$OAAA is initially set to point to boot ROM, so the loader cannot 115 $COOO- $C000 Frame Buffer Frame Buffer Window WX3 Window WY3 $BOOO- $BOO0 Frame Buffer Frame buffer Window WX2 Window WY2 $AOOO- $AOO Frame Buffer Frame Buffer Window WXI Window WY $9000 - $9000 - $8000 - .[--..- Frame Buffer Frame Buffer Window WXO Window WYO $8000 - $8000 - Stack / Heap $34FE - $30C - .--- Rest of BEP Code $0AD6 $OAAB - Global C variables crtrzp.asm $1000 - $01FF - Video Short-addressable space: Buffer BEPfb.asm, BEPintr.asm $0019 $0013 $0000 $0040 Reset & Interrupt Vectors $0000 - P: space $0000 '---- X: space . Quick-access variables for Assembly routines Y: space Figure 8-1: BEP RAM Memory Map 116 crtrzp.asm variables access this area.2 So the majority of the code lies in P:$OAAB-$7FFF, crtrzp.asm with the reset code starting at P:$OAAB. Since short-addressable space allows for faster jump instructions, time-critical code and BEPfb.asm - specifically, that in BEPintr.asm is placed in this space. Because of the ROM boot area cover- age, however, the code for these routines, as well as the interrupt vectors, must be explicitly written to this area by the BEP itself. X: space currently consists only of IPP variable storage and the video buffer. Since the video buffer can be as small as -two maximum-size lines - and the longest expected line is 2K, when all 1024 columns of both cameras are read out in Modes 1 or 2 - and only a few words are allocated for IPP, the vast majority of X: space is available for future expansion. Y: space is heavily divided. The first bunch of words are allocated in BEPequ.asm to be short-addressable variables for Assembly routines; these variables must end up in Y:$0000-+$00FF to be short-addressable, or preferably --$003F for short-addressable internal RAM (faster access times than short-addressable external RAM when external P: RAM is being used). After this comes compiler variables (memory limit, stack safety margin, et cetera), allocated in crtrzp.asm, and then C global variables. The declaration of allframes.struct fb in BEPglobals.h takes up 12,091 words in global space, 12,000 of which are the 3000 4-word frame.specs-structs. There is still almost 20K of usable stack / heap space above this, and the stack pointer R6 is initialized to start immediately above global space. Since the C compiler is not allowed to use register R5, this register is allocated to the video channel receive interrupt routine. R5 is declared the video buffer write pointer (the "sender runner" from section 4.3's description of circular buffers). Hence the SSI receive interrupt (indicating a new word received over the video channel) is a short interrupt which simply reads movepx:<<m_rx,x:(R5)+, that is, "Take the word just received, put in X: space at the address indicated by R5, and then increment R5 in anticipation of the next word". The modulus register M5 is set once to keep R5 within the video buffer; after that, the 56001 hardware takes care of the behavior of 2 Future versions of the spacecraft hardware may change this. 117 R5 automatically. The Frame Buffer is divided into regions of adjustable size, as described in subsection 7.1.2. Each region is in turn divided into as many frames as will fit into it, given the characteristics of the region's frames (in this case, the size parameter in this region's regionparam.struct), up to 1000 frames per region. By adjusting the first region's floor, or the last region's ceiling, space may be reserved at the beginning or the end of the 4 Megawords of Frame Buffer memory for uses other than frame storage. 8.2 Initialization and Normal Function Upon reset, the BEP starts running at address P:$0000. A jump instruction here pushes program flow to P:$OAAB, above the ROM boot area, governed by crtrzp.asm. Hardware initialization - resetting the DSP stack pointer (SP), C code stack pointer (R6), peripheral hardware - is performed, and program flow is then switched to the main() routine in BEPmain.c. main() declares vidbufparams and nextvidbufparams; they are generally passed by reference (i.e. pointers to these structures are used by most other routines), not only to allow for modification, but also to save calling time. The former is generally abbreviated vbp, and the latter vbpnew. Note that since these two structures are declared in main(), onetimeinit() this space will not been overwritten. in BEPsetvars.c, Control passes to which performs the following initializations: 1. Initialize P:$40-AAA 2. Register the BEP with the Constellation Name Server, and get default destination addresses 3. Set up variables for buddy-check (the regular reports to the GPP stating the FEP is still alive) 4. Make R5 point to the beginning of the video buffer, and set M5 to keep R5 within the video buffer 118 5. Initialize serial communications variables (SSI control registers) 6. Initialize serial communications interrupt vectors: SSI receive and exception (video channel) 7. Turn the serial communications interrupts off or on, according to whether we are or are not in simulation mode, respectively 8. Set up the regions to reflect sensible default values. Make sure the regionstarts are consecutive, so the ceiling of one is the floor of the next; divide the Frame Buffer equally among the regions by default. (For more information on setting up a region, see subsection 8.2.2.) 9. Set up vbpnewto sensible default values: in particular, ensure linesrcvd and waiting-forframe-sync are zero. Set vbp->leftoff to the beginning of the video buffer, and "abort the incoming stream" (set vbp->waiting-forframesync) to set the BEP looking for the next frame sync to come over the video channel, at which time these default parameters in vbpnewwill become current. Back in main(), control passes into the mainloop. The mainloop performs the following steps in repeated succession forever: 1. check_buddy_time(): 2. tryget_message(): 3. simulate_x(): Tell the GPP the BEP is alive See if an IPP message has arrived, and if so, process it If the BEP is in simulation mode, fabricate pixel data and place it in the video buffer as though it arrived over the video channel 4. try_copyline(): Try to sync with the data which arrived during the previous mainloop; copy a single row of data into the Frame Buffer if possible 5. try-relay_errors(): If any exceptions have occurred during the previous main- loop (such as an overrun in the serial communications system), warn the GPP 119 Note that for testing purposes, the BEP can be instructed to skip steps 3 through 5, effectively freezing much of the state of the BEP while letting it continue to report its live status and receive commands. The user can then instruct the BEP to execute a single mainloop (i.e. run through steps 3-5 once), and then observe how the state of the BEP has changed. 8.2.1 Serial Communication Interrupts As outlined in section 4.3, the BEP works under a "interrupt-plus-main-code" system; thus, operating concurrently with the mainloop described above, is a set of interruptdriven processes. Aside from the interrupts used by the underlying IPP system (host interface, direct memory access, and the like), the BEP has only two other hardware interrupts: one regular and one exceptional interrupt for the video channel (SSI receive). For information on the electronic signals involved in this channel, see table 4.1. Two interrupt vectors are initialized by init_intr_vectors() port.asm. in BEPasmsup- As described above, the SSI receive interrupt is the faster, as it is assumed to be the one called most often (once every 6As). It reads simply movepx:<<mx,x:(R5)+, that is, "Take the word just received, put in X: space at the address indicated by R5, and then increment R5 in anticipation of the next word". The exception handler for this channel simply reads the appropriate status register into a variable, clearing the 56001's exception flag, and then performs the movepx:<<m_rx,x:(R5)+ instruction to try to re-establish normal operation. main-code routine tryrelay_errors() The checks if any of this or any other exception status variables are non-zero, and if so, sends a warning message to the GPP stating that the error occurred and including the status register value. It then zeros the exception status variable to make sure only one message is sent per error. 8.2.2 Region Configuration When a region is reconfigured GPP - most likely as a result of a command from the a great many computations take place, not only to reallocate the use of 120 this portion of the Frame Buffer, but to precalculate values that will be of use in time-critical portions of the code. Thus when the BEP receives a message such as CCD_CONFIGURATION, it collects the fundamental parameters such as transmis- sion mode and the number of active columns per slice and the like, and then calls filloutparams() in FEPframe.c. The first thing fill_outparams() is in compressed format or not - does is checks if the the incoming video data that is, whether or not the Lasagna Box is using transmission mode 3. If it is in Mode 3, and these frames will be deal-on-write, then the BEP ensures that the write routine will always be able to grab two pixels at a time by (1) using the fact that the Lasagna Box hardware forces numihucs, num_cols, and numlhocsto be even numbers, (2) decrementing startcol if it is odd, and (3) incrementing endcol if it is odd. The BEP has now guaranteed that there will always be an even number of pixels read from any slice into the Frame Buffer. fillout_params() - then calculates size parameters - linelen,size, and the xxzstartoffsets and here we see how deal-on-write frames are more complex than deal-on-read. Deal-on-read frames are simple: since rows are copied verbatim from the video buffer into the Frame Buffer, the length of a line in words is just four times the number of columns per slice, no matter the transmission mode or anything else; the z:_startoffsets are all zero, again, since there is no separation of NIPs from IMPs; and the size of a frame is just the total number of rows times linelen. A deal-on-write frame, however, has to worry about distinguishing NIPs from IMPs, and seeing what pixels the GPP wants saved versus thrown away. It uses the size parameter as a running count of how many words it has used so far. For each camera, the routine first checks how many actual rows will be saved3 , and then checks to make sure this camera's data is okay, i.e., whether it is to be saved at all. It then computes linelen, the number of image columns stored per line, which is simply the number of columns the GPP asked to be stored, endcol - start_col, divided by compression,the number of pixels per word. fill_out_params() then decides whether or not it should keep this value, according to whether or not this camera is okay. It 3 Presently assumed to be equal to the number of rows arriving 121 then allocates space for this camera's image pixels by setting imp-startoffset to size, the running count of how many words have been allocated so far. If this camera's data is not okay, imp-startoffset is reset to zero. size is incremented by the number of words taken up by the image pixels for this camera. In a similar fashion, if the GPP has instructed that non-image pixels are to be saved, space is allocated for the horizontal NIPs and the vertical overclocks by setting their zzstart offsets to size and then incrementing size by the number of words these pixels will take up. Once these values have been computed, the region itself must be configured that is to say, the frame-specsstructs that are associated with this region must have their contents reset. set_up_region() takes care of this by deciding how many frames can fit into this region (up to 1000), and what frame-specs.structindices are involved. It then sets up the first frame's framespecsstruct: rp points to this region's regionparamstruct,frame-startis at the region's floor, the nextframe is the second frame in the region, and the ID is reset to reflect that this frame has not been filled with video data yet. These values are copied to all of the other frames in the region, changing only the frame-start and next-frame parameters. The last frame in the region has its nextframe set to point to the first frame in the region; and the rest of the 1000 framespecs-structs allocated for this region are set to be identical to this last entry. The region now has a definite single-closed-loop linked-list character. The current-framenumfor this region is set to the first frame in the region, and the region is ready to receive frame data. Note again that all video data previously stored in this region is effectively erased when the region is reconfigured. When the GPP orders the BEP to switch to a new region, several parameters in the nextvidbufparams need to be modified. The regionnumber itself is changed first, and then the set_vbp_new_config() routine in FEPsetvars.c takes care of the rest. For each of the eight slices, the lobounddelta and hibounddeltas are set to reflect which image pixels in a given slice are to be saved. If all of a slice is to be saved, lobounddelta is set to skip the packages-of-four containing horizontal underclocks, and hibounddelta set to stop copying before the packages-of-four containing horizontal overclocks. If only a portion of the slice is to be saved, however, these values need to be modified, as 122 If you're in Slice... And start-col is in this slice... And endcol is in this slice... A or C Increase lobound-delta Decrease hibounddelta B or D Decrease hibound-delta Increase lobounddelta Table 8.1: Modification of zxbound-deltasfor Deal-on-Write Frames indicated in Table 8.1. Note the discrepancies with respect to slice are due to Slices B and D being read out "backwards", as described in section 4.4; Figures 4-1 and 5-1 may be useful in determining what the xzbounddeltas are interested in. When the sizes of regions are modified by a REALLOCATEFB command from the GPP, the setupregion() function is called for each region. This means that all of the frames previously stored in the Frame Buffer are renderedinaccessible. 8.2.3 Assembly Language Techniques There are quite a number of Assembly routines to write to and read from the Frame Buffer. However the tricks they use to save time, and the pratfalls they must watch out for, are very similar: * The 56001 assumes 24-bit data are in 2's-complement format, so calculations and more importantly comparisons are conducted accordingly. To ensure sensible calculations with unsigned data (23 bits or less) that occupy the most significant bit, the data is right-shifted by one bit, forcing the MSB to zero. * Fast multiple-bit shifts may be accomplished using the 56001's MULtiply (and Multiply-ACcumulate) instructions. Note that, as above, the MSB must be set to zero by shifting or masking for this operation to work consistently with unsigned data. This allows data in the top 12 or 16 bits of a 24-bit word to be placed in the bottom bits of Al or B1, or conversely the bottom 12 bits to be placed in the top bits of AO or BO, in a single instruction. * For parallel moves involving a variable used in the primary instruction, such as clr A Al,y:(R6)+ or cmp XO,A x:(R3)+,A1, sources are taken beforethe primary 123 instruction, while destinationsare modifiedafter the primary instruction. Hence in these two examples, Al would be saved to y:(R6) before A is cleared, but Al is loaded with the value from x:(R3) after it is compared to XO. * Since DO loops cannot end in a jump instruction, loops that logically ought to end with one are "rotated" so that the logically first instructions in the loop is "pulled around" to be the last instructions encountered. This means that these "pulled around" instructions need to be repeated before entrance to the loop for the first iteration, and that when the final in-loop instructions are encountered for the last time, they must have no ultimate effect. 8.3 Frame Data Storage Processing of data in the video buffer has two components: synchronization, and pixel storage. Both functions are performed by BEPvidin.c, in BEPfb.asm. with the core copy routines Synchronization is handled in the same fashion as described in subsection 6.4.1. try_copyline() is the center of video storage, being the mainloop routine which calls the rest of the synchronization and pixel-save routines. This procedure begins by checking if the BEP is in waiting-for-frame-sync mode. If so, it calls syncframe() to see if the frame sync has arrived in the video buffer yet; if the new frame is synced, the nextvidbuf-params are made current, and the ID encoded in the frame sync is recorded; if this frame is to be procesed (i.e. saved), the GPP is informed of the frame sync's arrival. switch_params() takes care of making nextvidbufparams current. It first notes whether the frame just past was saved, and if so, the currentframenum is set to this frame's nextframe. vbp->left_off is preserved, and then all the values in vidbufparams are set to the corresponding values in nextvidbufparams. The new parameters are now current, and nextvidbufparams now represent the nezt frame's parameters. switch_params() now sets the zzleftoff parameters in vidbufparams, and then checks for the kind of processing this frame entails: if this is a one-frame124 only processing situation, then clear the nezt frame's save-frameflag; if the present frame is not to be saved, revert immediately back into waiting-for-frame-sync mode. If the BEP is not in waiting-for-frame sync mode, it is in save-lines mode. try_copydline() checks if there is a full row's worth of new words in the video buffer. If so, it checks for a row sync at the beginning of this new data, warning the GPP and aborting processing if the sync is absent. Assuming the sync is found, however, vbp->linesrcvd is incremented, and the line is saved into the Frame Buffer by copyline(). Once the line is saved, vbp->left_offis updated to point just past the end of this line. If all of the rows have been received and saved, including vertical overclocks, the BEP informs the GPP that it has completed processing this frame, and returns to waiting-for-frame-sync mode. Note that while processing a frame, vbp->left_off is in one of two positions in try_copyline(): it is either immediately before the expected position of the next row's row sync, including preceding blank words (i.e. one word beyond the previous row's last pixel word, or one word beyond the frame sync); or immediately after the row sync just located (i.e. at the first word of the first package-of-four for this row). BEPvidin.c buffer - uses the same basic utilities as FEPvid.c to move around the video vb_add(), vb_distance(), read_vb(), and have_words() - although the first two are implemented as functions in this release. They may be replaced with the macros found in FEPvid.c for a substantial improvement in speed, as long as the "relevant bits" orchestration of the video buffer is followed. See section 6.4 for further information. The copyline() procedure must first decide whether this frame is deal-on-write or not. If not, it simply sets up two consecutive Frame Buffer windows from X:$8000--$A000 (windows WXO and WX1) such that the first window includes the address where writing in this frame left off after the last row was written. The Assembly routine copy_words() is then called to copy the entire line verbatim from the video buffer into the Frame Buffer. A deal-on-write frame, of course, takes quite a bit more work. The algorithm governing this operation is offered in subsection 7.2.2. copyline() 125 checks each camera to see if its data is to be saved, and if so, it cycles through each of the four slices in that camera. It then checks if non-image pixels are to be saved: if so, and if the line in question is composed of vertical overclocks, save the whole slice in the non-image pixel area; or, if the line in question is below the vertical overclocks, save the horizontal non-image pixels. Then, save the desired image pixels from this slice, where "desired" is defined as the pixels in this slice contained in the video buffer between vbp->left_off + vbp->lobound_deltaand vbp->left_off + vbp->hibound_delta. copyline() passes off to deal_intofb() Assembly copy routines. deal_intofb() to set up the variables required by the performs steps 1 through 4 in the Deal and Save Slice algorithm from subsection 7.2.2, and updates the zxleft-off values in vidbufparams to reflect the number of words written into the Frame Buffer. deal_into_fb() in turn passes off to copy_words() for 16-bit data, or copy_hi_pixels() or copylo_pixels() for 12-bit compressed data; these are the lowest-level pixel-write routines, found in BEPfb.asm. copy_words() is relatively simple. It relies on the calling function to have set up two X: Frame Buffer windows in consecutive order, and to pass as arguments the starting point in the video buffer (placed in R2) and the starting point in the lower X: Frame Buffer window (placed in R1). Another parameter tells copy_words the "skip" distance, i.e., how many words and in which direction R2 should move in order to point to the "next" word to be copied. This number will be -4 for dealing image pixels from slices B or D, +4 for dealing all other pixels, or +1 for a straight verbatim copy. The final parameter indicates how many words are to be written into the Frame Buffer. With these parameters in hand, copying into the Frame Buffer takes a two-line loop: the first line reads the value from the video buffer into Al, and moves R2 by the skip distance N2; the second line writes Al into the Frame Buffer window and increments R1. copyhi_pixels() and copylo_pixels() take the same arguments, but dispatch with two pixels at a time, grabbing two consecutive same-slice pixels and combining them to form a single 24-bit word before saving to the Frame Buffer. Note that the final argument is words saved to the Frame Buffer, which in this case would be half 126 the number of pizels saved. Again, reference to the Deal and Save Slice algorithm in subsection 7.2.2 is useful, especially steps 5a (for copyhi_pixels()) and 5b (for copylo_pixels()). 8.4 Frame Data Retrieval Subsection 7.2.3 describes in relative detail the methods followed by the Frame Buffer read functions in BEPvidout.c and BEPfb.asm. readimp() takes the start and end column and row defining the box of image pixels desired, the frame.specsJstruct and the camera number indicating where this box should be taken from, and a pointer to an array into which the pixels (read out left-to-right, bottom-to-top, one rightjustified pixel per word) should be written. It determines which slices are included in this box, and the image columns contained in these slices. It then calculates bls, the frame buffer address of the beginning of the image pixels in the bottom line in the desired box (srow). At this point readimp() enters a loop which cycles through the slices included in the box, counting by columns. That is, it starts with the first image column of the first slice involved, and increments by numcols until it reaches the first image column of the last slice involved. It determines the columns within this slice which are included in the box, and dispatches to getimp_offset() parameters needed by the FEPfb.asm to get the rest of the read utilities: the offset (in words) from bis where reading should start, a flag startlo indicating whether the read should start with the low pixel in this word, and the step (in pixels) from this pixel to the next one to be read. getimp_offset() calculates these values using compressed calculations based on the transmission mode of the frame, and whether it is deal-on-write or deal-on-read. These calculations must take the following concerns into account: * If there is no data saved for this slice, the read is invalid. * If the frame is deal-on-write, step is +1; if the frame is deal-on-read, step is +4 (+8 if Mode 3) for slices A and C, or -4 (-8 if Mode 3) for slices B and D. 127 * If Mode 3 and deal-on-write, offset is half of the number of pixels between the beginning of the slice and scol, and startlo is 1 if that number of pixels is odd. * If Mode 3 and deal-on-read, startlo is 1 for slices B and D. It is notable that the actual calculations for offset are sufficiently compressed for both deal-on-read and deal-on-write frames, that there is not a significant time advantage to reading from the latter. The largest difference is in Mode 3, where the offset, step, and startlo calculations take 15 instructions for deal-on-write, and 70 for deal-on-read. Since the remainder of the getimp_offset() routine, common to both types of frames, takes 122 instructions, this is an improvement of only 100 - 122+1 = 29% - compared to a 3072" = 2510%nloss during the write stage (using the numbers 122.4/us calculated in subsection 7.2.1). With these values, readimp() reads all of the pixels that this slice contributes to the desired box, using read_fbl2() for Mode 3, or readfbl6() for other Modes. These two utilities from BEPfb.asm take the Frame Buffer address fbstart at which point the read should start, the flag startlo, the pixel-to-pixel step, the number of pixels to be read dist, and a pointer after which the right-justified pixels should be written consecutively. Note that readfbl6() does not use the startloflag, but accepts it so that its calling sequence is the same as for read_fbl2. time improvement, as readimp() This allows for a small need only decide once which of these two routines it will use, storing its address in readfunc;calls to the read routine are then made indirectly. The read_fbnn() routines use setup_triple_window() to make three consecutive X: windows (WXO, WX1, and WX2) point to three consecutive Frame Buffer pages, with fbstart "visible" through WX1. The readfbl6() read loop is preceded by one pulled-around instruction, which reads the first word from the Frame Buffer into Al, and increments R1 by step (in N1). The loop begins by shifting Al to clear the MSB, then using the multiply-as-shift trick to right-justify the pixel value. It saves this value, increments the save pointer, and gets the next word from the Frame Buffer. read_fbl2() has a somewhat different system. It holds the current offset in pixels 128 from fb.start in Al - so an even value in Al means the next pixel to be read is in the high 12 bits of the word ' words away from fbJstart, and an odd value in Al means the next pixel to be read is in the low 12 bits of that word. The read loop first saves the pixel offset, then right-shifts Al by one, putting the LSB (indicating an odd or even offset) in the Carry bit, and leaving half of the pixel offset (i.e. the offset in words) in Al, which is then copied to N1. Program flow branches depending on the state of the Carry bit: for a low pixel, the value in fbstart + offsetinpixels (Rl+N1) is read into B1, and the top 12 bits zeroed; for a high pixel, this same value is read, but it is shifted-and-multiplied to place the high pixel in the low 12 bits of B1. The right-justified single-pixel value in B1 saved, the pixel offset is restored to Al and incremented by step, and the loop repeats. The readfbnn() utilities can thus read an entire line's worth of one slice's con- tribution to the box desired. To use this effectively, readimp() reads the first line of the first slice's contribution; it then increments the fb start passed to read_fbnn() by one full line, and increments the pointer into which the pixels will be saved by one "box line" (i.e. the number of columns in the box to be read, pixsnc). This allows the next line to be read into the correct location of the return array. The two pointers are again incremented, repeating for the height of the box. Once the first slice's contribution has been read into the correct portions of the return array, the pointers and other variables are reset to receive the first line of the second slice's contribution to the box, and the line-by-line loop repeats. the time-consuming getimp_offset() Again, this is advantageous because routine is only called once for each slice that contributes any data to the box. As noted in subsection 7.2.3, a separate routine is available for highly optimized 3-by-3-pixel reads from a single slice saved as a Mode 3 deal-on-read frame. tbt() in BEPvidout.c may be called to perform this task: it takes the (X, Y) coordinate defining the lower-left corner of this 3x3 square, the framespecs-struct and camera number to find the desired data, and a pointer to the nine-element return array. tbt() first calculates ad, the Frame Buffer address of the beginning of the line containing the lower-left corner; it then decides whether this 3x3 region is in slice A, B, C, or D. 129 When it has determined the slice, it increments ad to point to the address containing the lower-left pixel, and calls tbt_hi() for slices A or C, or tbtlo() D. These Assembly routines in FEPtbt.asm for slices B or perform the rest of the work. They are both written completely sequentially, not using any jumps or loops, to save time. They accept ad, the pointer to the return array, and the number of words per line linelen, as arguments. tbthi() orients WX1 to the page which includes ad, and WX2 to the following page: since the routine must increase Frame Buffer addresses both to go "right" and "up" for slices A and C, the preceding page need never be accessed. Further, since three lines fit comfortably in a single 4K window (the longest expected Mode 3 line is around 1K of data), these two adjoining windows contain all the data necessary for the 3x3 read operation. With R1 containing the Frame Buffer window address of the lower-left corner, the read operation begins: the lower-left corner is read, rightjustified, and saved; R1 is incremented by 4 to get to the next pixel; this lower-center pixel is read, right-justified, and saved; R1 is incremented by 4 again; the lower-right pixel is read, right-justified, and saved; R1 is incremented by linelen-8, to point to the center-right pixel, and this middle line is read; similarly for the top line. tbtJo() is very similar, except that it must also set WXOto the page preceding the one containing the lower-left corner, because although Frame Buffer addresses must increase to get to higher lines, they must decrease to go "right" in an image-region sense, due to the "backward" readout of slices B and D. So now when a pixel is read, R1 is decremented by 4 to get to the next pixel horizontally, and then incremented by linelen+8 to get to the left side of the next line. If the GPP requests a frame dump, or a portion of one raster-format array of image pixels - dumpimp_array() in either event a in BEPframe.c is used. This function simply grabs the tallest fully-wide box that will fit in an IPP message, collects pixel values from the following line to fill the rest of the message, and sends the message;it then puts the rest of the partially-read line into a new message, and again fills this new message with a box of data plus a portion of the following line. This process repeats until all of the data the GPP requested has been downloaded. 130 Chapter 9 Future Possibilities For I dipt into the future, far as human eye could see, Saw the Vision of the world, and all the wonder that would be. Alfred, Lord Tennyson Locksley Hall This chapter outlines possible improvements and expansions to the included FEP and BEP code. If the algorithms and principles outlined in the preceding chapters are followed - use of the mainloop; ignorance of specifics concerning IPP recipients; utilization of the 56001's time-optimization capacities such as parallel move operations - augmenting the software should be a simple operation, keeping the DSPs both efficient and robust. Both of these software suites have been moderately tested; far more extensive testing is called for to ensure proper operation before launch. The FEP as written performs all the functions it was designed for. The single largest augmentation I can see is optimization of the routine which compares an event to the bad-column and bad-pixel lists. If the lists were sorted when received, so that they were numerically ordered (by increasing column, let's say), comparisons need only be done until the member of the list being compared had a column greater than the event, instead of searching the entire list. That's an immediate 50% average improvement in searching speed. If the comparison proceeded in a binary-search fashion, there is a theoretical improvement from O(n) operation to O(ln n), but the 131 specifics of implementing this scheme mean that it could well take more time for lists with less than several thousand members. The BEP included here provides only the infrastructure for further capabilities - astrometry, photometry, and attitude determination. This infrastructure itself, however, bears improvement. The synchronization of frames and rows could be sped up, to match or even exceed the FEP's optimizations; the read functions, though they are optimized to a substantial level, are still uncomfortably slow; and there are still big question marks about deal-on-write, specifically: * Do the startrowand end-rowdefine the limits of what interests the GPP within the data that arrives over the video channel, or the limits of what actually does arrive over the video channel (i.e. the GPP commands the Lasagna Box not to transmit uninteresting rows)? The latter is currently assumed, but the former allows for more flexibility. * Similarly, does used-camerasdefine the cameras that have data present on the video channel, or the cameras whose data we want to save if present? * Is deal-on-write really necessary? If the science team determines that the BEP is never going to be requested to save a tall, narrow box of data, then the advantage of this scheme disappears, and both the read and the write system become greatly simplified. The most benefit, though, would I believe result from a revamping of the Frame Buffer region system. To wit, most of the constants used ought by right be variables, specifically * The number of regions. Currently fixed at 3, but why not make it adjustable to suit changing needs? Note that allowing for some large number of regions, say ten or more, and then only allocating Frame Buffer space to a portion of them, can accomplish this; but this would require that the number of frames, or more to the point the number of frame-specsstructs, alloted to a region must also be made variable, as noted in the next item. 132 * The number of frames per region. Definitely the biggest potential advantage lies here, but also possibly the biggest can of worms. Theoretically, since regions are orchestrated as closed-loop linked lists with some occasional offshoots (inviolate frames), it shouldn't matter what the actual indices into the frame specifics structures fb->fs[framenum] are. Hence instead of 1000 consecutive indices being allocated to each successive region, the BEP could go out into fb>fs and grab as many free frame-specsstructs as it needs when a region is being configured. And then when a region is reconfigured such that it holds fewer frames, it can release its claim on these structures, to be used as other regions become reconfigured. With this dynamic form of frame allocation, region 0 could hold 4 frames while region 1 holds 2000, without wasting space unnecessarily by allocating two thousand frames to every region. Hence the 12,000 words of global space taken up by 3000 frame-specs.structscould be drastically reduced. The problem here lies in changing all of the simple calculations, especially in BEPframe.c, that rely on an absolute assignment of frame indices to regions. * The parameters governing regions. Some more intelligent way to reconfigure regions, especially their floors and ceilings, that does not render the frames within them unreadable, would be nice. Note that each framespecs-struct points to a regionparams-struct,and these two structures are all that is needed to pull information out of a frame. The trick would lie in saving this previous-configuration information, while still responding to the GPP's new-configuration command; and from there, to keep track of which frames have been overwritten by new data, and which are still valid. Again I stress that the first order of business is exhaustive testing of the current system; and I encourage future developers to follow the patterns established in this document and in the software it describes. 133 Chapter 10 Conclusion If we shadows have offended, Think but this - and all is mended That you have but slumber'd here While these visions did appear. And this weak and idle theme, No more yieldling but a dream. - William Shakespeare A Midsummer Night's Dream, V.ii Software for the Front End Processor and the Back End Processor, the two Digital Signal Processors in the HETE spacecraft UV system, has been created. The design questions and implementation concerns encountered have been presented in this document, and the code itself is appended. To understand the environment within which these Processors will work, the responsibilities of the UV system, and the architecture of the HETE computer system (both on-board and ground-based), were described. As the DSPs functioned as a computational buffer between the low-level charge-coupled device camera electronics and the high-level General Purpose Processor, the specifics of each of these devices were offered as they relate to and impact on the DSPs and their software. 134 To put the endeavour in context, the history of the HETE mission was recounted, including a description of what gamma-ray bursts are, why they are of scientific interest, and how the HETE satellite is intended to assist in the understanding of these phenomena. Sources for further research in this area are cited in the bibliography. HETE is scheduled for launch on a Pegasus rocket on 30 April 1995, and will serve the scientific community by gathering data for one to two years. The uniquely wide data-dissemination characteristics of the mission will ensure that many researchers are able to make use of the information HETE will gather. It was an honor to contribute to the HETE project. 135 Appendix A IPP Messages Associated with the FEP GPP <--> FEP COMMUNICATION GPP -> FEP MESSAGES Commands: PROCESSVIDEO DONTPROCESSVIDEO Parameter-changes: BADCOLUMNLIST BADPIXELLIST CCDCONFIGURATION EVENTTHRESHOLDS LB-direct: LBCOMMANDS 136 Test routines: TDB_COMMAND VIDDSP_COMMAND FEP -> GPP MESSAGES Video-related: (Responses to sender of PROCESSVIDEO) DSP_FRAME_STARTED DSP_FRAME_ENDED DSP_FRAMEERROR FEP_XY_EVENT_LIST FEP_XYZ_EVENTLIST LB-related: LB_RESPONSES (Responses to sender of LB_COMMANDS) Errors & Exceptions: DSP_EXCEPTION (LBox cmd/HK errors to sender of LB_COMMANDS, video errors to sender of PROCESS_VIDEO) Test routines: (Responses to sender of any Test routine message) TDBRESPONSE VIDDSP_RESPONSE Message array associations 137 Format: IPPMESSAGETYPE 0: What the value in message[O] means 1: What the value in message[I] means 2-3ff: "Same as 0-1:" indicates the continuation of a list Values which are greater than 16 bits are send LSB-first, i.e. the low 16 bits in message[n], the high 16 bits in message[n+1]. PROCESSVIDEO 0: 0 for a single frame with Z values, sans for continuous frames Z DONTPROCESSVIDEO No parameters BADCOLUMNLIST 0: to append previous list, 2 to replace it 1: Number of bad columns in list 2: Bad column number, with camera # in bit 15 (Ox8000) 3ff: Same as 2: BADPIXELLIST 0: 1 to append previous list, 2 to replace it 1: Number of bad pixels in list 138 2: Bad pixel X, with camera # in bit 15 (Ox8000) 3: Bad pixel Y 4-5ff: Same as 2-3: CCDCONFIGURATION: 0: to install config immediately, 2 to wait until next frame 1: Transmission mode (0-3) 2: Cameras used (Oxi for Cam 0, Ox2 for Cam 1, Ox3 for both) 3: Number of horizontal underclocks per slice 4: Number of active columns per slice 5: Number of horizontal overclocks per slice 6: Number of active rows 7: Number of vertical overclocks 8: Number of first row read out EVENTTHRESHOLDS: 0: Event-check threshold for Slice A, Camera 0 1: Event-check threshold for Slice B, Camera 0 2: Event-check threshold for Slice C, Camera 0 3: Event-check threshold for Slice D, Camera 0 4: Event-check threshold for Slice A, Camera 1 5: Event-check threshold for Slice B, Camera 1 6: Event-check threshold for Slice C, Camera 1 7: Event-check threshold for Slice D, Camera 1 LBCOMMANDS: As-yet undefined TDB_COMMAND 0: Low 16 bits of command 139 1: High 8 bits of command VIDDSPCOMMAND O: VIDDSP command type lff: Parameters specific to command DSPFRAMESTARTED 0: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High 8 bits of Frame ID DSPFRAME_ENDED 0: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High 8 bits of Frame ID DSP_FRAMEERROR 0: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High 8 bits of Frame ID 2: Reason for error FEPXY EVENTLIST 0: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High 8 bits of Frame ID 2: Ox1 if first list for this frame, Ox2 if last (OxO if neither, Ox3 if both, i.e. only one list for this frame) 3: Event X, with camera # in bit 15 (Ox8000) 4: Event Y 5-6ff: Same as 3-4: FEP_XYZ_EVENT_LIST 140 0: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High 8 bits of Frame ID 2: Oxl if first list for this frame, Ox2 if last (OxO if neither, Ox3 if both, i.e. only one list for this frame) 3: Event X, with camera # in bit 15 (Ox8000) 4: Event Y 5: Event Z 6-8ff: Same as 3-5: LBRESPONSES Off: Housekeeping word received from Lasagna Box DSPEXCEPTION 0: Exception type (hk receive error, command transmit error, etc.) 1: Exception status code (reason) TDBRESPONSE As-yet undefined VIDDSPRESPONSE 0: VIDDSP response type lff: Parameters specific to response 141 Appendix B IPP Messages Associated with the BEP GPP <--> BEP COMMUNICATION GPP -> BEP MESSAGES Commands: PROCESSVIDEO DONT_PROCESS_VIDEO Parameter-changes: SWITCH_REGION REALLOCATE_FB CCD_CONFIGURATION SAVE_FRAME Data-requests: DUMP_FRAME_RAW 142 DUMPFRAMEDEAL DUMPIMPARRAY DUMPTBTARRAY Test routines: VIDDSPCOMMAND FEP -> GPP MESSAGES Video-related: (Responses to sender of PROCESSVIDEO) DSPFRAMESTARTED DSPFRAMEENDED DSPFRAMEERROR Dump-related: (Responses to sender of dump request) BEPUNKNOWNID BEPRAWFRAME BEPDEALTIMPS BEPTBT Errors & Exceptions: (Responses to sender of PROCESSVIDEO) DSPEXCEPTION Test routines: (Responses to sender of any Test routine message) VIDDSPRESPONSE 143 Message array associations Format: IPPMESSAGETYPE O: What the value in message[O] means 1: What the value in message[i] means 2-3ff: "Same as 0-1:" indicates the continuation of a list Values which are greater than 16 bits are send LSB-first, i.e. the low 16 bits in message[n], the high 16 bits in message[n+1]. PROCESSVIDEO 0: 0 for a single frame, 1 for continuous frames DONT_PROCESSVIDEO No parameters SWITCHREGION O: FB region in which succeeding frames should be stored REALLOCATEFB O: Region 0 start address (FB space): low 16 bits 1: Region 0 start address (FB space): high 8 bits 2-3ff: Same as 0-1: CCDCONFIGURATION: 144 0: 1 to install config immediately, 2 to wait until next frame 1: Transmission mode (0-3) 2: Cameras used (Oxi for Cam 0, Ox2 for Cam 1, Ox3 for both) 3: Number of horizontal underclocks per slice 4: Number of active columns per slice 5: Number of horizontal overclocks per slice 6: Number of active rows 7: Number of vertical overclocks 8: Number of first image row read out, cam 0 9: Number of last image row read out, cam 0 10: Number of first desired image column, cam 0 11: Number of last desired image column, cam 0 12-15: Same as 8-li: for cam 1 16: 1 to deal pixels on input, 0 otherwise 17: 1 to save non-image pixels in deal-on-input mode, 0 otherwise 30: FB region to which these parameters apply SAVEFRAME 0: ID of frame to mark inviolate: low 16 bits 1: ID of frame to mark inviolate: high 8 bits DUMPFRAMERAW 0: ID of frame to dump: low 16 bits 1: ID of frame to dump: high 8 bits DUMPFRAMEDEAL 0: ID of frame to dump: low 16 bits 1: ID of frame to dump: high 8 bits 3: Camera 145 DUMP_IMP_ARRAY O: ID of frame to dump: low 16 bits 1: ID of frame to dump: high 8 bits 3: Camera 4: Start column 5: End column 6: Start row 7: End row DUMP_TBT_ARRAY O: ID of frame to dump: low 16 bits 1: ID of frame to dump: high 8 bits 3: Camera 4: Lower-left X 5: Lower-left Y VIDDSP_COMMAND O: VIDDSP command type lff: Parameters specific to command DSP_FRAMESTARTED O: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High of Frame ID 8 bits DSPFRAME_ENDED O: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High 8 bits of Frame ID DSP_FRAME_ERROR 146 O: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High 8 bits of Frame ID 2: Reason for error BEP UNKNOWNID O: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High 8 bits of Frame ID BEP_RAW_FRAME O: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High 8 bits of Frame ID 2: Oxi if first list for this frame, Ox2 if last (OxO if neither, Ox3 if both, i.e. only one list for this frame) 3: Low 16 bits of the first word in this packet 4: High 8 bits of the first word in this packet 5-6ff: Same as 3-4: BEP_DEALTIMPS O: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High 8 bits of Frame ID 2: Oxi if first list for this frame, Ox2 if last (OxO if neither, Ox3 if both, i.e. only one list for this frame) 4: Start column 5: End column 6: Start row 7: End row 8: Low 16 bits of the first word in this packet 9: High 8 bits of the first word in this packet 10-11ff: Same as 8-9: 147 BEP_TBT O: Low 16 bits of Frame ID 1: High 8 bits of Frame ID 3: Camera 4: Lower-left X 5: Lower-left Y 6ff: Pixel values (left to right, bottom to top) DSP_EXCEPTION O: Exception type (video receive error, etc.) 1: Exception status code (reason) VIDDSP_RESPONSE O: VIDDSP response type lff: Parameters specific to response 148 Bibliography [1] Tye Brady. Lasagna Boz User's Guide. Center for Space Research CCD Lab, 1993. [2] George R. Ricker et al. The high energy transient experiment (hete): An international multiwavelength mission. Proposal, 1990. [3] K. Hurley. Gamma ray burst positions. Gamma Ray Transients and Related Astrophysical Phenomona (AIP), 1981. [4] K. Hurley. Astronomical issues: Optical flashes. Gamma-Ray Bursts (AIP), 1984. [5] Motorola Inc. DSP56000/DSP56001 User's Manual. Motorola Inc., 1989. [6] Motorola Inc. G56KCC User's Manual. Motorola Inc., 1991. [7] Edison P. Liang and Vahe Petrosian. Foreword. Gamma-Ray Bursts (AIP), 1984. [8] R.W. Klebesadel; I.B. Strong; R.A. Olson. L85. Astrophysics Journal 182, 1973. [9] Laurence E. Peterson. Gamma-ray spectroscopy: An historical perspective. Nu- clear Spectroscopyof Astrophysical Sources (AIP), 1987. [10] Stanford E. Woosley. Foreword. High Energy Transients in Astrophysics (AIP), 1983. [11] Stanford E. Woosley. The high energy transient explorer. 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