•
•
•
Most often, the comparison of interest is the difference
μ1 − μ2.
Let μ1 and μ2 denote means two populations.
In many situations one wishes to compare the means of two
different populations.
INFERENCES ABOUT μ1 - μ2
•
1
where σ12 and σ22 are the variances of each of each population.
σȲ1−Ȳ2 =
The mean of the random variable Ȳ1 − Ȳ2 is μ1 − μ2 and
standard deviation is
σ12 σ22
+
n1 n2
We will make the comparison based on a random sample
from each population. Suppose samples of sizes n1 and n2
are drawn.
•
•
σ2 σ2
+
=σ
n1 n2
1
1
+
n1 n2
However, under the assumption that σ12 = σ22 ≡ σ 2, the
standard deviation becomes
σȲ1−Ȳ2 =
3
•
•
•
For large sample sizes, the random variables Ȳ1 and Ȳ2 are
approximately normal .
Also assume that the samples are drawn independently from
each population, and that the populations have the same
variance σ 2.
Let Ȳ1 and Ȳ2 denote sample mean random variables and S1
and S2 be the sample standard deviation random variables
computed from each sample.
2
Thus the random variable Ȳ1 − Ȳ2 is also approximately
normal.
An estimator of σȲ1−Ȳ2 is
•
•
•
Sp2 is the pooled estimator of the common variance σ 2 of
the two populations.
1
1
+
n1 n2
•
This is obtained under the assumption that σ12 = σ22 ≡ σ 2,
the common variance .
SȲ1−Ȳ2 = Sp
•
Later we will talk about what to do if we can’t reasonably
make this assumption in a given situation.
4
•
Consider the random variable defined as:
(Ȳ1 − Ȳ2) − (μ1 − μ2)
SȲ1−Ȳ2
•
When sampling is from Normal distributions, the distribution
of the above statistic is distributed exactly as Student’s t
with df = n1 + n2 − 2.
Tn1+n2−2 =
•
n
1
1 =
(Y1j − Ȳ1)2
n1 − 1 j=1
S22
n
5
1
1 =
(Y2j − Ȳ2)2
n2 − 1 j=1
1
1
+
n1 n2
(n1 − 1)s12 + (n2 − 1)s22
n1 + n 2 − 2
Here df = n1 + n2 − 2 and
ȳ1 − ȳ2 ± tα/2,df · sp
Thus a 100(1-α)% Confidence Interval for μ1 − μ2 is
S12
Here S12 and S22 are sample variance random variables .
For small samples, however, we must verify if the samples
For large samples we may use the CLT and say that Tn1+n2−2
will be approximately distributed as Student’s t with df =
n1 + n 2 − 2
•
•
•
•
sp =
7
were actually drawn from Normal distributions, using tools
such as boxplots and normal probability plots
•
We shall do that before calculating confidence intervals for
μ1 − μ2, and for testing hypotheses using the t distribution.
− 1)S12 + (n2 − 1)S22
n1 + n 2 − 2
•
(n1
6
The pooled estimator of the common variance σ 2, Sp2, is
obtained using the weighted average
Sp2 =
Example 6.1
Stored
9.8 9.7
9.6 9.5
10.1 9.6
10.2 9.8
10.1 9.9
Company officials, concernerned about potency of a product
retained after storage, drew a random sample of n1 = 10
bottles from the production line and tested for potency.
Another random sample of n2 = 10 bottles was drawn and
stored in a regulated environment for 1 year and then tested.
The data obtained are:
Fresh
10.2 10.6
10.5 10.7
10.3 10.2
10.8 10.0
9.8 10.6
8
n1 = 10
ȳ1 = 103.7/10 = 10.37
2
n2 = 10
2
9 2
(s + s22)
18 1
ȳ2 = 98.3/10 = 9.83
]/9 = 0.105
s12 = [1076.31 − (103.7)
10
(n1 − 1)s12 + (n2 − 1)s22
=
n1 + n 2 − 2
s22 = [966.81 − (98.3)
10 ]/9 = .058
sp =
=
.105 + .058
= 0.285
2
9
11
1
10
1
+ 10
The t-percentile based on df = n1 +n2 −2 = 10+10−2 = 18
and α = .025 is t.025,18 = 2.101
Thus a 95% confidence interval for the difference in the
mean potencies μ1 − μ2 is:
(10.37 − 9.83) ± 2.102(.285)
10
.54 ± .268 or (.272, .808)
Thus, the difference in mean potencies for bottles from the
production line and those stored for one year, μ1 − μ2, is
estimated to be between .272 and .808 with 95% confidence.
It is important understand what we mean by the above
statement; this will be explained soon. See the JMP
Analysis of Example 6.1 also.
Tests of Hypotheses about μ1 − μ2
The types of hypothesis that may be tested are similar to
those on the mean of a single population. These are:
1. H0 : μ1 − μ2 ≤ D0 Ha : μ1 − μ2 > D0
2. H0 : μ1 − μ2 ≥ D0 Ha : μ1 − μ2 < D0
3. H0 : μ1 − μ2 = D0 Ha : μ1 − μ2 = D0
(where D0 is a specified number, often zero.)
1
n1
+ n12
Ȳ1 − Ȳ2 − D0
The test statistic for testing each of the above hypotheses is
T =
Sp
12
1
n1
+ n12
ȳ1 − ȳ2 − D0
The two-sample t-statistic is calculated using the sample
statistics: ȳ1, ȳ2 and sp:
t=
sp
The rejection regions for each test, respectively, are:
1. Reject H0 if t > tα, df
2. Reject H0 if t < −tα, df
3. Reject H0 if |t| > tα/2, df
13
Note that the degrees of freedom is df = n1 + n2 − 2
Exercise 6.8
Two different emission-control devices were being tested to determine the average
amount of nitric oxide being emitted by an automobile over a 1-hour period of time.
Twenty cars of the same model and year were selected for the study. Ten cars were
randomly selected and equipped with a Type 1 emission-control device, and the remaining
cars were equipped with Type II devices. Each of the 20 cars was then monitored for a
1-hour period to determine the amount of nitric oxide emitted.
Type II Device
1.01
0.96
0.98
0.99
0.95
0.98
1.02
1.01
1.05
1.02
Use the following data to test the research hypothesis that the mean level of emission for
Type 1 devices (μ1) is greater than the mean emission level for Type II devices (μ2). Use
α = .01.
Type 1 Device
1.35
1.28
1.16
1.21
1.23
1.25
1.20
1.17
1.32
1.19
15
Refer to Example 6.3: JMP Analysis also
ȳ2 = 0.997
n1 = n2 = 10
ȳ1 = 1.236
9
2
18 (s1
+ s22) = 0.0025
s12 = 0.004096 s22 = 0.0009
sp2 =
1.236−0.997
√
0.05 0.2
= 10.71
sp = 0.05
H0 : μ1 − μ2 ≤ 0 vs. Ha : μ1 − μ2 > 0
tc =
t0.01,18 = 2.552 implying R.R. is t > 2.552
Therefore reject H0 at α = .01 as tc is in the R.R.
14
Thus it appears that the mean level of emission for the Type I
device is greater than for Type II.
16
•
•
•
The above confidence interval and test
formulae are based on several assumptions
The two samples are drawn independently from the two
populations.
The two populations are such that Ȳ1 and Ȳ2 are
approximately normal. (We make use of the CLT if the
size of samples n1 and n2 are sufficiently large.)
The two populations have the same variance σ 2 (in order to
see if this assumption may not hold one looks at s12 and s22.)
17
Assumption 3. is the unusual one based on our previous
discussions. When n1 = n2 = n, unless studies indicate that
Welch’s t test
The hypotheses to be tested are as usual:
(ȳ1 − ȳ2) − D0
+ n22
s2
1. H0 : μ1 − μ2 ≤ D0 Ha : μ1 − μ2 > D0
2. H0 : μ1 − μ2 ≥ D0 Ha : μ1 − μ2 < D0
3. H0 : μ1 − μ2 = D0 Ha : μ1 − μ2 = D0
The test statistic is :
t =
s12
n1
Note that the two sample variances are NOT pooled to obtain
a pooled sample variance estimate.
19
σ12 and σ22 can differ by as much as a factor of 3, it won’t make
a difference in the inference about μ1 − μ2 based on the use of
given formulae for C.I.’s and tests.
When we find ourselves in a situation where Assumption 3.
seems to be seriously violated, we can use an an approximate
t test described below.
18
Assumption 1. requires that the samples from the two
populations are obtained in such a way that the elements of the
two samples are statistically independent. Read page 274 of
the text for a detailed discussion of examples of dependencies
that may occur due to experimental conditions.
df =
(round down to an integer)
(n1 − 1)(n2 − 1)
(n2 − 1)c2 + (1 − c)2(n1 − 1)
The percentile points of the t-statistic are approximated by
using the t-table with an adjusted degrees of freedom given by:
where
c=
s2/n1
1
s12
s22
n1 + n2
20
Welch’s t test (continued)
For specified α the rejection regions for the three hypotheses,
respectively, are given by:
1. Reject H0 if t > tα, df
2. Reject H0 if t < −tα, df
3. Reject H0 if |t| > tα/2, df
Oil Spill Case Study from Section 6.1
We shall follow the analysis in the text book fof this study.
The following two pages are reproduced from the text book.
22
Also, refer to the Oil Spill Case Study: JMP Analysis handed
out.
21
24
An approximate 100(1 − α)% confidence interval for μ1 − μ2
is:
s12 s22
+
(ȳ1 − ȳ2) ± tα/2, df ·
n1 n2
where tα/2 is the t quantile found from the t-table for df
computed using the above formula.
23
•
•
•
Inferences about μ1 − μ2 for Paired Data
(μ2, σ22),
Consider independent samples from two populations having
means and variances
and
respectively.
(μ1, σ12)
The mean and variance of the sampling random variable
Ȳ1 − Ȳ2 are:
E(Ȳ1 − Ȳ2) = μ1 − μ2
σ2 σ2
V (Ȳ1 − Ȳ2) = 1 + 2
n1 n2
s12
s2
+ 2 .
n1 n2
Point estimates of these we know are:
and
•
•
•
σ22
1
1
+
n1 n2
If the two populations have the same variances, so that
=
= σ 2 then
σ12
V (Ȳ1 − Ȳ2) = σ 2
s12+s22
2
(n1 − 1)s12 + (n2 − 1)s22
n1 + n 2 − 2
Then we estimate σ 2 by pooling the two sample estimates
of σ 2 as
sp2 =
If n1 = n2 = n then sp2 =
•
Instead of using independent samples from the two
populations, we form pairs of elements – one element from
each population, in an effort to achieve smaller variance for
Ȳ1 − Ȳ2
ȳ1 − ȳ2
Why variance is reduced by pairing data?
•
Then the random sample of n pairs of elements can be
viewed as having come from a population of pairs.
26
•
In either case, what this means is that if the variances of
the two populations is small , we can expect the variance of
Ȳ1 − Ȳ2 to be small.
•
25
•
If this is true, we can expect the sample values to be close to
the sample means and ȳ1 − ȳ2 to be very close to μ1 − μ2.
The random variable representing the difference in sample
means Ȳ1 − Ȳ2 defined on this population has
σ 2 σ 2 2σ12
1
+ 2−
n
n
n
•
V (Ȳ1 − Ȳ2) =
Thus even a small sample will be sufficient to get a good
estimate of μ1 − μ2 if the variances are small.
E(Ȳ1 − Ȳ2) = μ1 − μ2
•
28
But many times the population variances σ 2 are large, so
that we cannot estimate μ1 − μ2 accurately with a small
sample.
27
•
•
The quantity σ12 is called the covariance of the two
populations.
σ22
n
We see from the variance of Ȳ1 − Ȳ2 that if σ12 > 0 then
V
−
is less than +
σ12
n
•
That is, the variance of Ȳ1 − Ȳ2 for paired data is less than
it is for two independent samples, each of sample size n.
Ȳ2)
•
Thus we expect the differences of means for paired data to
have a smaller variance than when the difference of means is
from two independent samples.
(Ȳ1
•
For this to occur we need to pair the elements so that the
covariance of the observed data is positive. That is, the two
samples are positively correlated .
•
•
•
Those methods cannot be used when each measurement in
one sample is somehow matched or paired with a particular
measurement in the other sample.
So far we looked at methods for hypothesis tests and
confidence intervals when independent samples were taken
from the two populations.
If pairing is done so that paired elements respond more
alike when μ1 = μ2 than do two randomly selected elements
(one from each population), then σ12 > 0, i.e, we will have
achieved our goal of smaller variance when estimating μ1 −μ2
30
Example 6.6 in your textbook where 15 wrecked cars were
taken to each of two garages to get an estimate of the
cost of repair. The study was to see if the two facilities
gave different average estimates. Independent samples of
estimates would not have involved the same wrecked cars.
That is, to get 2 independent samples of sample size 15, we
would have to take 30 wrecks to the 2 garages. The variance
of estimates for repairs would be large because of the types
of repair involved would be very different for each car.
• Suppose a consumer testing organization wants to study
whether there is a difference in the wear rates of two brands
of work shoes.
(a) Suppose that workers selected for the experiment were
divided into two groups randomly. Members of one group
were assigned to wear Brand X to work while the members
of the other group wear Brand Y shoes.
(b) Population 1 consists of the wear rates for persons assigned
Brand X with the mean wear rate μ1, and Population 2,
wear rates for those assigned Brand Y with the mean wear
rate μ2.
(c) We are interested in estimating μ1 − μ2 and trying to test
whether μ1 − μ2 = 0.
29
•
Studies of response to a treatment vs. a control are often
done using siblings, or sometimes the same individual.
32
Examples: Paired Experiments
•
31
•
•
Independent Samples Kind of Study:(2 groups of size n)
Take a random sample of workers, randomly divide them
into two groups, one to receive each Brand, and measure the
wear rate for each person after 100 workdays. Then ȳ1 − ȳ2
estimates μ1 − μ2.
33
A Paired Data Kind of Study:(1 group of size n) Take a
random sample of workers. Assign Brand X to all workers in
the group and measure the wear rates following 100 workdays.
Now assign the same workers Brand Y and measure wear
rate after the next 100 workdays. ȳ1 − ȳ2 estimates μ1 − μ2.
•
•
•
•
Thus the variance of ȳ1 − ȳ2 is inflated by the variance among
the workers.
For the paired data case, differences in changes are also
computed and averaged as above. However, the worker is
the same in each pairs so in taking the difference we have
eliminated any effect due to each worker.
Members of a pair are selected so they respond more alike
than two arbitrarily selected individuals if the treatment had
no effect.
This reduces variation in the differences in response, hence
it allows us to better detect differences between μ1 and μ2.
35
•
•
•
•
•
Why is variance less for paired data?
Brand Y
y21
y22
y23
.
y2n
ȳ2
y1n − y2n
ȳ1 − ȳ2
Difference in Wear
y11 − y21
y12 − y22
.
Consider data from the independent samples experiment:
Brand X
y11
y12
y13
.
y1n
ȳ1
34
Note carefully that the difference ȳ1 − ȳ2. rates also include
differences in the workers (weight, kind of work, walking
habits etc.) who wore those particular shoes.
Paired t test for n pairs of data
di2 −
Suppose μd ≡ μ1 − μ2 denote the mean of the population of
differences.
Denote the differences in pairs of observations by di =
y1i − y2i
d¯ = ( di)/n be the sample mean of the differences of pairs
of data.
s be standard deviation of the differences of pairs of data
d
where
( di)2
/(n − 1)
n
sd2 =
36
:
Tests of Hypotheses about μd
μd
≤
D0
vs.
Ha
:
μd
>
D0
The types of hypothesis that may be tested are similar to those
on the mean of a single population. These are:
1.
H0
2. H0 : μd ≥ D0 vs. Ha : μd < D0
3. H0 : μd = D0 vs. Ha : μd = D0
d¯ − D0
√
sd/ n
The test statistic for testing each of the above hypotheses is
the paired t-statistic:
t=
Choosing Type I error rate to be α, the rejection regions are,
respectively,
1. Reject if: t > tα,(n−1)
2. Reject if: t < −tα,(n−1)
3. Reject if: |t| > tα/2,(n−1)
Confidence Interval for μd
A 100(1 − α)% confidence interval for μd is:
√
d¯ ± tα/2 · sd / n
where tα/2 is the tabulated t percentile based on n − 1 df.
• A 99% confidence interval for μd is:
√
d¯ ± t.005 · sd / n = 0.66 ± (3.25)(0.1701) giving (.10, 1.21)
40
• The p-value is obtained by looking up Table 2 with
tc = 3.88 with df = 9. It is seen that .001 < p < 0.005
Since t.005,9 = 3.25, R.R. is |t| > 3.25; Reject H0 : at α = .01.
The paired t-statistic is:
√
¯ d/ 10) = .66/0.1701 = 3.88
tc = d/(s
38
d2
0.49
0.64
1.69
0.04
0.16
0.64
0.04
2.89
0.01
0.36
di2 = 6.96
37
d = R1 − R2
0.7
0.8
1.3
0.2
0.4
0.8
0.2
1.7
-0.1
0.6
di = 6.6
• Let μd = μ1 − μ2 where μ1 and μ2 are the population
means for the two rations.
• Test H0 : μd = 0 vs. Ha : μd = 0 using α = .01
2
sd2 = [ di2 − ( ndi) ]/(n − 1) = (6.96 − 6.62/10)/9 = 0.2893
R2
9.9
10.2
9.3
9.6
8.8
7.8
6.4
8.3
8.0
7.8
Example: Pairs are animals from the same litter are randomly
assigned two different rations. Observed weight gain for each
animal is recorded. Test whether the population mean weight
gains for the two rations are different. Use α = .01.
R1
10.6
11.0
10.6
9.8
9.2
8.6
6.6
10.0
7.9
8.4
39
1
48.2
41.5
6.7
2
44.6
40.1
4.5
3
49.7
44.0
5.7
4
40.5
41.2
-0.7
5
54.6
49.8
4.8
6
47.1
41.7
5.4
7
51.4
46.8
4.6
41
Exercise 6.28: An agricultural experiment station was interested in
comparing the yields for two new varieties of corn. Because the investigators
thought that there might be a great deal of variability in yield from one
farm to another, each variety was randomly assigned to a different 1-acre
plot on each of seven farms. The 1-acre plots were planted; the corn was
harvested at maturity. The results of the experiment (in bushels of corn)
are listed here.
Farm
Variety A
Variety B
Difference
Use these data to test the null hypothesis that there is no difference in
mean yields for the two varieties of corn. Use α = .05.
43
Refer to Example 6.6 :
JMP Analysis
Test H0 : μd = 0 vs. Ha : μd = 0
=
4.43√
2.39/ 7
= 4.90
42
Calculate paired t-statistic: d¯ = 4.43
2 2
di −( di) /n]/(n−1) = (171.48−31.02/7)/6 = 5.7
sd2 = [
d¯√
sd / n
Thus sd = 2.39
Thus tc =
with α = 0.05, df = 6 → tα/2,df = t0.025,6 = 2.447
Thus the R.R. is: |t| > 2.447,
So H0 is rejected at α = 0.05 since 4.9 is in R.R.
The mean yields of the two varieties are different based on this
evidence.
44
Exercise 6.32 A study was designed to measure the effect of home environment
on academic achievement of 12-year old students. Because genetic differences may also
contribute tp academic achievement, the researcher wanted to control for this factor. Thirty
sets of identical twins were identified who had been adopted prior to their first birthday,
with one twin placed in a home in which academics were emphasized (Academic) and the
other twin placed in a home in which academics were not emphasized (Nonacademic). The
final grades (based on 100 points) for the 60 students are given below.
a. Plot the sample differences. Do the conditions for using the paired t procedure appear
to be satisfied for this data.
b. Estimate the size of the difference in the mean final grades of the students in academic
and nonacademic home environments.
Academic
Environment,
y1
66
75
90
89
73
61
76
81
89
82
70
68
74
85
97
95
78
Nonacademic
Environment,
y2
67
70
88
80
65
60
74
76
78
78
62
73
73
75
88
94
75
Difference
-1
5
2
9
8
1
2
5
11
4
8
-5
1
10
9
1
3
47
45
c. Examine whether there is a difference in the mean final grade between students
in an academically oriented home environment and those in a nonacademic home
environment. That is, test the null hypothesis H0 : μ1 − μ2 = 0 against the
alternative Ha : μ1 − μ2 = 0. Use α = .05. Also compute the p-value for this test.
Set of
Twins
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Set of
Twins
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Academic
Environment,
y1
78
75
68
92
55
74
65
80
98
52
67
55
49
Nonacademic
Environment,
y2
71
70
66
85
60
72
57
75
92
56
63
52
48
Difference
7
5
2
7
-5
2
8
5
6
-4
4
3
1
Continued on the next page
46
Solution:
a). The assumption on which the paired t is based is that
the population of differences is approximately normal. To
investigate this you look at the sample differences. We need,
as always, large n and not severe skewness, or indication of
approximate normality of differences. When differences are
highly skewed, one may use the nonparametric test.
b). d¯ = 3.8 sd = 4.205
Thus a 95% confidence interval for μd is
d¯ ± t.025,29 · √sdn
√
3.8 ± 2.045 · 4.205
30
giving (2.23, 5.37) as the required estimate.
48
c). The test statistic is:
3.8−0
√
= 4.95
t = (4.205/
30
Since t.025,29 = 2.045, R.R. : |t| > 2.045
Reject H0 because tc = 4.95 exceeds 2.045.
From t-table, p-value = 2 · P (T29 > 4.95) << 2 · .0001
Since the p-value is less than .005, which is certainly
less than .05, we reject H0 at α = .05
Refer to Exercise 6.32 :JMP Analysis
49