Contents ________________________________________________
Page
Page
Woody Plant Invasions...............................................42
Preventing or Mitigating Altered Fire Regimes ...................44
Summary Recommendations .............................................45
Chapter 1: Fire and Nonnative Invasive
Plants—Introduction ................................................1
by Jane Kapler Smith
Kristin Zouhar
Steve Sutherland
Matthew L. Brooks
Scope of This Volume...........................................................2
Fire Behavior and Fire Regimes ..................................3
Organization and Use of This Volume..........................5
Chapter 4: Use of Fire to Manage Populations
of Nonnative Invasive Plants .................................47
by Peter M. Rice
Jane Kapler Smith
Introduction.........................................................................47
Use of Fire Alone to Control Nonnative Invasive Plants .....48
Prevention of Reproduction by Seed .........................48
Induced Mortality and Prevention or Delay
of Resprouting............................................................51
Burning to Favor Native Species................................52
Fire Combined with Other Treatments................................53
Treatments that Increase Effectiveness of
Prescribed Fire .......................................................53
Prescribed Fire to Enhance Efficacy of
Other Treatments ...................................................54
Altering Fire Severity, Uniformity, Extent, and
Frequency to Control Nonnative Invasive plants ............56
Prescribed Fire Severity and Uniformity in
Relation to Season..................................................56
Prescribed Fire Severity and Uniformity in
Relation to Fuel Beds..............................................57
Extent and Uniformity of Burns ..................................58
Fire Frequency ..........................................................58
Management of a Human Process: Constraints on
Use of Prescribed Fire...............................................59
Conclusions ........................................................................60
Chapter 2: Effects of Fire on Nonnative Invasive Plants
and Invasibility of Wildland Ecosystems ...............7
by Kristin Zouhar
Jane Kapler Smith
Steve Sutherland
Invasion Ecology ..................................................................7
Ecosystem Properties and Resource Availability .........8
Properties of Native and Nonnative Plants ..................8
Nonnative Propagule Pressure ....................................9
Influence of Fire on Invasions...............................................9
Influence of Fire on Resource Availability
and Interactions Between Plant Species.................10
Influence of Fire Severity on Postfire Invasions .........12
Influence of Fire Frequency on Postfire Invasions .....17
Influence of Spatial Extent and Uniformity of
Fire on Postfire Invasions........................................18
Influence of Fire Season and Plant
Phenology on Postfire Invasions.............................18
Influence of Weather Patterns on
Postfire Invasions....................................................19
Generalizations About Fire Effects on Nonnative
Invasives.........................................................................19
Question 1. Does Fire Generally Favor
Nonnatives Over Natives? ......................................20
Question 2. Do Invasions Increase
With Increasing Fire Severity? ................................22
Question 3. Does Additional Disturbance
Favor Invasions?.....................................................22
Question 4. Do Invasions Become Less
Severe With Increasing Time After Fire?.................25
Question 5. Do Invasions Increase With
Disruption of the Presettlement Fire Regime? ........27
Question 6. Are Postfire Invasions Less
Common in High Elevation Ecosystems? ...............28
Conclusions ........................................................................28
Variation .....................................................................29
Changing Atmosphere and Climate ...........................29
Management in a Changing World.............................31
Chapter 5: Fire and Nonnative Invasive Plants in the
Northeast Bioregion..................................................61
by Alison C. Dibble
Kristin Zouhar
Jane Kapler Smith
Introduction.........................................................................61
Fire History in the Northeast Bioregion ......................61
Nonnative Plants in the Northeast Bioregion .............62
Interactions of Fire and Invasive Plants in
the Northeast Bioregion ..........................................63
Forests................................................................................66
Deciduous and Mixed Forests ............................................66
Background ................................................................66
Role of Fire and Fire Exclusion in Promoting
Nonnative Plant Invasions in Deciduous
and Mixed Forests...................................................68
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuel
Characteristics and Fire Regimes in
Deciduous and Mixed Forests.................................74
Use of Fire for Controlling Nonnative Invasives in
Deciduous and Mixed Forests.................................75
Coniferous Forests .............................................................76
Background ................................................................76
Role of Fire and Fire Exclusion in Promoting
Nonnative Plant Invasions in Coniferous Forests ...77
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on
Fuel Characteristics and Fire Regimes
in Coniferous Forests ..............................................78
Chapter 3: Plant Invasions and Fire Regimes ...............33
by Matthew L. Brooks
Fire Behavior and Fire Regimes.........................................33
Biological and Physical Factors that Affect
Fire Regimes...........................................................34
Effects of Plant Invasions on Fuels ....................................35
The Invasive Plant Fire Regime Cycle .......................37
Predicting the Effects of Plant Invasions on
Fire Regimes ..........................................................38
Herbaceous Plant Invasions ......................................39
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Role of Fire and Fire Exclusion in Promoting
Nonnative Plant Invasions in Woodlands..............105
Effects of Plant Invasions on Fuel and Fire
Regime Characteristics in Woodlands ..................106
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in
Oak-Hickory Woodland .........................................106
Tropical Hardwood Forest Habitat....................................107
Background ..............................................................107
Role of Fire and Fire Exclusion in Promoting
Nonnative Plant Invasions in Tropical
Hardwood Forest...................................................107
Cypress Swamp Habitat ...................................................108
Conclusions and Summary...............................................109
Role of Fire and Fire Exclusion in Promoting
Nonnative Plant Invasions.....................................109
Effects of Plant Invasions on Fuel and
Fire Regime Characteristics..................................110
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants ....................110
Additional Research Needs......................................110
Emerging Issues ...................................................... 111
Use of Fire to Control Nonnative Invasive
Plants in Coniferous Forests ...................................78
Grasslands and Early-Successional Old Fields..................78
Background ................................................................78
Role of Fire and Fire Exclusion in Promoting
Nonnative Invasives in Grasslands and
Old Fields ................................................................79
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on
Fuel Characteristics and Fire Regimes
in Grasslands and Old Fields ..................................80
Use of Fire to Control Nonnative Invasive Plants in
Grasslands and Old Fields......................................81
Riparian and Wetland Communities ...................................82
Background ................................................................82
Role of Fire and Fire Exclusion in Promoting
Nonnative Invasives in Riparian and Wetland
Communities ...........................................................84
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuel
Characteristics and Fire Regimes in Riparian
and Wetland Communities ......................................85
Use of Fire to Control Nonnative Invasive Plants
in Riparian and Wetland Communities....................86
Emerging Issues in the Northeast Bioregion ......................87
Fuel Properties of Invaded Northeastern Plant
Communities and Influences on Fire Regimes .......87
Vulnerability of Forest Gaps to Invasion ....................87
Global Climate Change ..............................................88
Interactions Between Nonnative Invasive
Plants, Fire, and Animals ........................................88
Conclusions ........................................................................88
Resources Useful to Managers in the
Northeast Bioregion ................................................89
Chapter 7: Fire and Nonnative Invasive Plants
in the Central Bioregion.............................................113
by James B. Grace
Kristin Zouhar
Introduction.......................................................................113
Geographic Context and Chapter Organization .......114
Fire Regimes............................................................115
The Conservation Context .......................................115
Overview of Nonnative Plants that Impact or Threaten the Central Bioregion .............................115
Plant-Fire Interactions ..............................................117
The Mesic Tallgrass Prairie Subregion .............................117
Northern and Central Tallgrass Prairie Formation....119
Southern Tallgrass Prairie Formation.......................125
The Great Plains Subregion .............................................130
Northern Mixedgrass Prairie Formation ...................131
Southern Mixedgrass Prairie Formation...................136
Shortgrass Steppe Formation ..................................136
Riparian Formation...................................................137
Conclusions ......................................................................140
Chapter 6: Fire and Nonnative Invasive Plants in the
Southeast Bioregion................................................91
by Randall Stocker
Karen V. S. Hupp
Introduction.........................................................................91
Fire in the Southeast Bioregion..................................92
Fire and Invasive Plants in the
Southeast Bioregion................................................93
Wet Grassland Habitat ......................................................94
Background ................................................................94
Role of Fire and Fire Exclusion in Promoting
Nonnative Plant Invasions in Wet Grasslands ........96
Effects of Plant Invasions on Fuel and Fire
Regime Characteristics in Wet Grasslands.............97
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in Wet
Grasslands ..............................................................98
Pine and Pine Savanna Habitat........................................100
Background ..............................................................100
Role of Fire and Fire Exclusion in Promoting
Nonnative Plant Invasions in Pine and Pine
Savanna ................................................................101
Effects of Plant Invasions on Fuel and Fire Regime
Characteristics in Pine and Pine Savanna ............102
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in Pine
and Pine Savanna.................................................104
Oak-Hickory Woodland Habitat ........................................105
Background ..............................................................105
Chapter 8: Fire and Nonnative Invasive Plants in the
Interior West Bioregion .........................................141
by Peter M. Rice
Guy R. McPherson
Lisa J. Rew
Introduction.......................................................................141
Grasslands .......................................................................145
Desert Grasslands ...................................................145
Mountain Grasslands ...............................................145
Effects of Fire and Fire Exclusion on Nonnative
Plant Invasions in Interior West Grasslands .........146
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuels
and Fire Regimes in Interior West Grasslands .....148
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in
Interior West Grasslands.......................................152
Shrublands .......................................................................154
Sagebrush Shrublands.............................................154
Desert Shrublands and Shrubsteppe .......................155
Chaparral-Mountain Shrub.......................................156
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Fire and Nonnative Invasives in Wetland
and Riparian Communities....................................192
Conclusions ......................................................................192
Effects of Fire on Nonnative Plant Invasions in
Interior West Shrublands.......................................156
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuels
and Fire Regimes in Interior West Shrublands .....158
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in Interior
West Shrublands...................................................160
Piñon-Juniper Woodlands ................................................161
Effects of Fire on Nonnative Plant Invasions
in Interior West Woodlands ...................................162
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuels
and Fire Regimes in Interior West Woodlands......163
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in
Interior West Woodlands.......................................163
Open-Canopy Forest ........................................................164
Effects of Fire on Nonnative Plant Invasions
in Interior West Open-Canopy Forest ...................164
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuels
and Fire Regimes in Interior West OpenCanopy Forest.......................................................166
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in
Interior West Open-Canopy Forests .....................166
Closed-Canopy Forests....................................................166
Effects of Fire on Nonnative Plant Invasions
in Interior West Closed-Canopy Forests ...............167
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuels
and Fire Regimes in Interior West ClosedCanopy Forests.....................................................168
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in
Interior West Closed-Canopy Forests ...................168
Riparian Communities ......................................................168
Effects of Fire on Nonnative Plant Invasions in
Interior West Riparian Communities .....................169
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuels
and Fire Regimes in Interior West Riparian
Communities .........................................................170
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in
Interior West Riparian Communities .....................171
Conclusions ......................................................................171
Chapter 10: Fire and Nonnative Invasive Plants in the
Northwest Coastal Bioregion ...............................197
by Dawn Anzinger
Steven R. Radosevich
Introduction.......................................................................197
Coastal Douglas-fir Forests ..............................................198
Role of Fire in Promoting Nonnative Plant
Invasions in Coastal Douglas-fir Forests...............199
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on
Fuels and Fire Regimes in Coastal
Douglas-fir Forests................................................203
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in
Coastal Douglas-fir Forests...................................204
Upper Montane Conifer Forests and Meadows................204
Role of Fire in Promoting Invasions of Nonnative
Plant Species in Upper Montane Communities.....205
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuels and
Fire Regimes in Upper Montane Communities .....205
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in Upper
Montane Communities ..........................................205
Riparian Forests ...............................................................206
Role of Fire in Promoting Nonnative Plant
Invasions in Riparian Forests................................206
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuels
and Fire Regimes in Riparian Forests...................207
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in
Riparian Forests....................................................208
Oregon Oak Woodlands and Prairies...............................208
Role of Fire in Promoting Nonnative Plant
Invasions in Woodlands and Prairies ....................209
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuels
and Fire Regimes in Woodlands and Prairies.......212
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in
Woodlands and Prairies ........................................212
Alaska...............................................................................215
Coastal Hemlock-Spruce Forests.....................................215
Role of Fire in Promoting Nonnative Plant
Invasions in Coastal Hemlock-Spruce Forests .....215
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on
Fuels and Fire Regimes in Coastal
Hemlock-Spruce Forests.......................................217
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in
Coastal Hemlock-Spruce Forests .........................218
Boreal Forests ..................................................................218
Role of Fire in Promoting Nonnative Plant
Invasions in Boreal Forests...................................218
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuels
and Fire Regimes in Boreal Forests......................220
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in
Boreal Forests.......................................................220
Tundra ..............................................................................220
Role of Fire in Promoting Nonnative Plant
Invasions in Tundra ...............................................220
Effects of Nonnative Plant Invasions on Fuels
and Fire Regimes in Tundra..................................221
Use of Fire to Manage Invasive Plants in Tundra ....221
Chapter 9: Fire and Nonnative Invasive Plants
in the Southwest Coastal Bioregion ....................175
by Rob Klinger
Robin Wills
Matthew L. Brooks
Introduction.......................................................................175
Grasslands .......................................................................177
Fire and Nonnative Invasives in Grasslands............180
Chaparral and Coastal Scrub ...........................................182
Chaparral .................................................................182
Coastal Scrub...........................................................183
Fire and Nonnative Invasives in Chaparral
and Coastal Scrub.................................................184
Mixed Evergreen Forests .................................................187
Fire and Nonnative Invasives in Mixed
Evergreen Forests.................................................188
Conifer Forests .................................................................188
Coastal Conifer Forests ...........................................189
Klamath and Cascade Range Conifer Forests.........189
Sierra Nevada Conifer Forests.................................189
Fire and Nonnative Invasives in Conifer Forests .....190
Wetland and Riparian Communities .................................191
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Mixed-Severity Historic Fire Regime ................................263
Low-Frequency, High-Severity Historic Fire Regime........264
Altered Fire Regime..........................................................265
Unaltered Fire Regime .....................................................266
Summary ..........................................................................266
Summary of Fire-Invasive Plant Relationships
in Alaska................................................................221
Conclusions ......................................................................222
Chapter 11:Fire and Nonnative Invasive Plants in
the Hawaiian Islands Bioregion............................225
by Anne Marie LaRosa
J. Timothy Tunison
Alison Ainsworth
J. Boone Kauffman
R. Flint Hughes
Introduction.......................................................................225
Description of Dry and Mesic Grassland, Shrubland,
Woodland, and Forest ..................................................226
Lowlands ..................................................................226
Montane and Subalpine ...........................................229
Fire History and the Role of Nonnative Invasives
on Fire Regimes in Dry and Mesic Ecosystems....230
Fire and Its Effects on Nonnative Invasives in
Dry and Mesic Ecosystems......................................233
Lowland and Montane Wet Forests..................................237
Fire History and the Role of Nonnative Invasives
in Wet Forest Fire Regimes ..................................237
Fire and Its Effects on Nonnative Invasives in
Wet Forests...........................................................238
Use of Fire to Control Invasive Species and Restore
Native Ecosystems .......................................................239
Conclusions ......................................................................240
Chapter 14: Effects of Fire Suppression and Postfire
Management Activities on Plant Invasions .........269
by Matthew L. Brooks
Challenges of Identifying Postfire Plant Invasions............269
The Invasion Process .......................................................270
Effects of Fire Suppression Activities on Plant
Invasions ......................................................................271
Resource Availability ................................................271
Propagule Pressure .................................................273
Effects of Postfire Management Activities on Plant
Invasions ......................................................................274
Resource Availability ................................................276
Summary ..........................................................................279
Chapter 15: Monitoring the Effects of Fire on
Nonnative Invasive Plant Species........................281
by Steve Sutherland
Vegetation Monitoring.......................................................282
Objectives ................................................................282
Stratification .............................................................283
Controls....................................................................284
Random Sampling....................................................284
Sample Size .............................................................285
Statistical Analysis....................................................285
Field Techniques ......................................................285
Other Elements of an Effective Monitoring Program ................................................................288
Fire Monitoring..................................................................290
Fire Behavior............................................................290
Fuel Loading ............................................................290
Fire Severity .............................................................291
Success and Failure in Monitoring Programs...................292
Chapter 12: Gaps in Scientific Knowledge About
Fire and Nonnative Invasive Plants .....................243
by Kristin Zouhar
Gregory T. Munger
Jane Kapler Smith
Introduction.......................................................................244
Methods............................................................................244
Results..............................................................................247
Discussion ........................................................................254
Basic Biology............................................................255
Impacts, Invasiveness, and Invasibility ....................255
Distribution and Site Information ..............................256
Ecological Information..............................................256
Responses to Fire, Heat, and Postfire Conditions ...257
Field Experiments Addressing Fire Effects ..............257
Representing Information Quality in Literature
Reviews: Potential for Illusions of Knowledge.......258
Monitoring, Data Sharing, and Adaptive
Management .........................................................259
Conclusions ......................................................................259
Chapter 16: Fire and Nonnative Plants—
Summary and Conclusions ..................................293
by Jane Kapler Smith
Kristin Zouhar
Steve Sutherland
Matthew L. Brooks
Nonnative Invasive Species and Wildland Fire ................293
Management Implications ........................................294
Use of Fire to Control Nonnative Invasive Species ..........295
Management Implications ........................................295
Questions .........................................................................296
Chapter 13: Effects of Fuel and Vegetation
Management Activities on Nonnative
Invasive Plants ......................................................261
by Erik J. Martinson
Molly E. Hunter
Jonathan P. Freeman
Philip N. Omi
Introduction.......................................................................261
High-Frequency, Low-Severity Historic Fire Regime........262
References ......................................................................297
Appendix A: Glossary ....................................................345
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