Exchange & Resource Theories
Sabatelli, R. M., & Shehan, C. L.
(1993). Exchange and resource
theories. In P. G. Boss, W. J. Doherty,
R. LaRossa, W. R. Schumm, & S. K.
Steinmetz (Eds.), Sourcebook of family
theories and methods: A contextual
approach (pp. 385-411). New York:
Plenum Press.
Metatheoretical Issue: Collectivism
Versus Individualism
 Collectivism (a/k/a structuralism): the
social system influences the behavior of
individuals in interaction. This
emphasizes the influence of social norms
on individual behavior.
 Individualism: social structures develop
based on behaviors of individuals to meet
their own needs.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Core Assumptions
 Humans seek rewards and avoid
punishment.
 Based on their expectations, humans
seek to maximize rewards and minimize
costs.
 Humans calculate rewards, costs, and
consider alternatives before they act.
 The standards that are used to evaluate
rewards and costs vary between
individuals and may change over time.
 The importance attached to the behavior
of others in relationships vary between
individuals and may change over time.
 If a reward exceeds it’s anticipated value,
it’s future value will diminish.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Assumptions About the Nature of
Relationships:
 Social exchanges are interdependent: the
ability to obtain profits is based on the
ability to reciprocate by providing
rewards.
 Experience in relationship influences
subsequent exchanges.
 Social exchanges are regulated by norms
of reciprocity.
 Social exchanges are regulated by norms
of fairness.
 Levels of attraction and dependence
influence
 relationship dynamics,
 stability of relationships over time.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Limitations
 Not all social behavior is based on
rational decision-making, a critique that
has also been directed toward
behaviorism.
 Tautology: it is difficult to make an
operational distinction between
 what people value,
 what people perceive as rewarding,
 and how they behave.
 Radical-feminist critique:
 Underlying assumptions value separation of
people rather than connection. This is
problematic for explaining the behavior which
values connectedness.
 Exchange theory fails to explain or at least
undervalues altruistic behavior.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Major Contemporary Concepts
 Overview of Concepts:
 Concepts are defined and interrelationships
are outlined and modeled graphically.
 Concepts are classified into four general
categories:
Individual characteristics (e.g., resources,
expectations, perception of alternatives).
Norms and rules that regulate relationships
(e.g., norms of reciprocity and equity).
Characteristics of the exchange which
emerge as a result of interactional
experiences that influence the decision to
remain or depart.
Relationship dynamics (e.g., decision
making, power, control).
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Rewards, Costs, and Resources
 Rewards: sources of positive
reinforcement including pleasures,
satisfactions, gratifications. They occur
on a continuum from concrete to
symbolic. Blau (1964) suggested six
types of social rewards:
 personal attraction,
 social acceptance,
 social approval,
 instrumental services,
 respect/prestige,
 compliance/power.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Rewards, Costs, and Resources
(cont.)
 Costs: punishments or lost rewards. Blau
suggested three types:
 Investment: time and effort devoted to
developing skills which will be used to reward
others.
 Direct costs: resource given to another in
exchange for something else.
 Opportunity: loss of rewards which would have
been available elsewhere.
 Resources: anything that can be
transmitted through interpersonal
behavior, including commodities,
material, or symbolic matter.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Satisfaction with Exchange
Relationships
 See Figure 16-1 for graphic
representation of factors mediating
relationship satisfaction.
 Comparison level (CL): a personal
subjective standard used to evaluate a
relationship which is based on previous
experience and expectations.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Relationship Stability
 See Figure 16-2 for graphic
representation of factors which influence
relationship stability.
 Comparison level for alternatives (Clalt):
 Construct developed to explain a person’s
decision to remain or terminate a relationship.
 Defined as the lowest level outcome a person
will accept from a relationship in light of
available alternatives.
 Determined by the comparison of the current
relationship to the perceived best available
alternative.
 It is a subjective assessment.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Relationship Stability (cont.)
 Dependence: degree of perceived
reliance on the relationship.
 Barriers: discourage terminating a
relationship by fostering dependence
even if attraction is negative. There are
two:
 Internal: feelings of obligation or indebtedness
which increase the psychological cost of the
relationship.
 External: group membership, community
pressure, legal pressure, and economic
concerns which increase the social and/or
economic cost of terminating the relationship.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Typology of Marital Quality and
Stability
 See Figure.
 Four possible combinations of marital
quality and stability.
 Assumption: location in a quadrant is
dependent on the balance between
rewards and costs so relationships may
change over time.
 Family violence: research on women as
victims has revealed that those who are
more likely to leave are
 more likely to be employed,
 view themselves as having personal
resources,
 have shorter duration marriages,
 less invested in their relationship.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Norms Regulating Exchange
Relationships
 See Figure 16-3 which integrate norms
with trust and commitment.
 Normative orientation (e.g., gender roles):
internalized and modified by experience.
 Distributive justice: perceived fairness
which is based on ratio of costs/benefits
to expectations. Degree of allowable
deviation is influenced by social norms.
 Reciprocity: level of responsiveness
between exchanges. Motivation is
influenced by feelings of indebtedness.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Trust and Commitment
 See Figure 16-3 which integrates trust
and commitment with norms.
 Trust: belief that partner will not exploit.
Norms of reciprocity and fairness
influence feelings of trust.
 Commitment: willingness to participate in
a relationship over a long period of time.
It builds stability by increasing
dependence.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson
Exchange Dynamics
 See Figure 16-4
 Power: ability to control another; this is
distinguished from authority, the ability to
legitimately extract compliance.
 Assumption: dependence and power are
inversely related.
 Assumption: resources and power are
positively and linearly related.
 Exchange relationships are characterized
by attempts to balance dependence and
power.
Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson