JFS C: Food Chemistry and Toxicology
Effects of Dietary Functional Ingredients
and Irradiation on the Quality of Cooked
Turkey Breast Meat during Storage
H.J. YAN, E.J. LEE, K.C. NAM, B.R. MIN, AND D.U. AHN
C: Food Chemistry & Toxicology
ABSTRACT: Patties were prepared using the breast meat from 15-wk-old turkeys fed one of the 8 dietary treatments
[Con, control; VE, 200 IU/kg vitamin E; Se, 0.3 mg/kg selenium; CLA, 2.5% conjugated linoleic acids; VE + Se, 200
IU/kg vitamin E + 0.3 mg/kg selenium; VE + CLA, 200 IU/kg vitamin E + 2.5% CLA; Se + CLA, 0.3 mg/kg selenium
+ 2.5% CLA; VE + Se + CLA, 200 IU/kg vitamin E + 0.3 mg/kg selenium + 2.5% CLA] for 4 wk. Patties were vacuumpackaged in oxygen-impermeable bags, and then irradiated with 0 or 1.5 kGy. Irradiated breast meats were cooked
and vacuum-packaged or aerobically packaged, and the quality of meat was evaluated after 0 and 7 d of storage at 4
◦
C. Dietary VE + Se, VE + CLA, Se + CLA, and VE + Se + CLA treatments reduced lipid oxidation of cooked irradiated
(1.5 kGy) turkey breast meat by 24%, 29%, 26%, and 40%, respectively, compared to that of the control after 7 d
of storage under aerobic conditions. Dietary treatments had no influences on the color of nonirradiated cooked
∗
turkey breast. However, dietary VE and Se decreased the internal a value of irradiated meats in vacuum packaging
at days 0 and 7, and the effect was even greater when VE and Se were combined with CLA. Dietary VE, Se, and CLA
combinations significantly reduced the production of volatiles, especially those related to lipid oxidation. Dietary VE
+ Se, VE + CLA, and VE + Se + CLA reduced the difference in sulfur-containing compounds between irradiated and
nonirradiated meat. Aerobic packaging was more effective than vacuum packaging in reducing sulfur-containing
compounds. Therefore, dietary VE, Se, and CLA combinations plus aerobic packaging were effective in reducing the
odor problems induced by irradiation.
Keywords: CLA, cooked turkey breast, irradiation, quality, selenium, vitamin E
Introduction
I
rradiation is effective in eliminating pathogens from meat but
may influence lipid oxidation, color, and odor of meat (Gants
1996). Pinking from irradiation is a critical color change that consumers may associate with contamination or undercooking in
turkey breast meat (Ahn and Maurer 1990). Nam and Ahn (2002a)
characterized the compound responsible for pinking in irradiated
turkey breast meat as CO-myoglobin. Significant amounts of CO
were produced in meat by irradiation and changes in oxidation–
reduction potential by irradiation played an important role in the
formation of pink pigments (Nam and Ahn 2002a, 2002b). Liu and
others (2003), on the other hand, suggested that an increase in the
relative amount of oxymyoglobin by irradiation was responsible for
the color changes in irradiated meat. They reported that ratios of
R 1 = A 485nm /A 560nm and R 2 = A 635nm /A 560nm, which are related to
the absorbance of visible bands at 485 nm (metmyoglobin), 560 nm
(oxymyoglobin), and 635 nm (sulfmyoglobin), changed as a result
of irradiation and storage. Both of these research groups, however,
agreed that increased redness of irradiated light meat is related to
the oxidation–reduction potential of meat.
Huber and others (1953) reported that irradiated meat developed
a characteristic odor, which was described as metallic, sulfide, wet
dog, wet grain, or burnt. The compounds responsible for irradiation off-odor are mainly sulfur compounds such as methylmercaptan, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, dimethyl sulfide, methylMS 20060379 Submitted 7/11/2006, Accepted 9/22/2006. Authors are with
Dept. of Animal Science, Iowa State Univ., Ames, IA, 50011. Direct inquiries
to author Ahn (E-mail: duahn@iastate.edu).
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JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Vol. 71, Nr. 9, 2006
thioethane, methylethyl disulfide, dimethyl disulfide, and dimethyl
trisulfide, which are produced by radiolytic degradation of sulfurcontaining amino acids (Batzer and Doty 1955; Patterson and
Stevenson 1996; Ahn 2002; Ahn and Lee 2002) and characterized irradiation off-odor as “bloody and sweet” (Hashim and others 1995)
or “barbecued corn-like” (Ahn and others 2000). The aroma of irradiated meat could be distinguished easily from nonirradiated meat
and consumers considered it as an off-odor (Ahn and others 2000).
Therefore, strategies that can control irradiation-induced pinking
and off-odor production in cooked meat are important to improve
the acceptance of irradiated poultry meat by consumers.
The primary component of meat is water (75%), and the radiolysis
of water produces hydrated electrons (e s − ), hydrogen radical (H •),
hydroxyl radicals (• OH), and other free radicals that can react with
meat components such as unsaturated fatty acids, thiol or disulfide
bonds in protein, and iron in the porphyrin ring of meat myoglobin
(Taub 2001) to produce various compounds that can affect the quality of meat. Therefore, if the levels of endogenous free radical scavengers are increased and the fatty acid composition is modified by
dietary treatments, the side effects of irradiation on meat quality
may be decreased. The objective of this study was to determine the
effects of dietary supplementation of supranutritional levels of vitamin E, selenium (Se), and conjugated linolic acid (CLA) on the
quality of irradiated cooked turkey breast meat.
Materials and Methods
Dietary treatments
A 23 factorial design was used for the animal experiment.
The 3 factors involved were 3 functional ingredients: vitamin E,
C 2006 Institute of Food Technologists
doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2006.00185.x
Further reproduction without permission is prohibited
selenium, and CLA at 2 levels each. The 8 dietary treatments included
control (Con), 200 IU/kg dl-α-tocopherol acetate (VE), 0.3 mg/kg
selenium (Se), 2.5% conjugated linoleic acids (CLA), 200 IU/kg dlα-tocopherol acetate and 0.3 mg/kg selenium (VE + Se), 200 IU/kg
dl-α-tocopherol acetate and 2.5% conjugated linoleic acids (VE +
CLA), 2.5% conjugated linoleic acids and 0.3 mg/kg selenium (CLA
+ Se), 200 IU/kg dl-α-tocopherol acetate, 2.5% conjugated linoleic
acids, and 0.3 mg/kg selenium (VE + CLA + Se). Each treatment
included 4 replications.
The animal experiments were performed in the Poultry Research
Center of Iowa State Univ. A total of 480 0-wk-old male Large White
turkeys were randomly assigned to 32 pens and raised on a cornsoybean-based diet (Table 1) for 11 wk. At the beginning of the 12th
week, 4 pens of turkeys were randomly assigned to one of the 8
dietary treatments (Table 2) and fed until 15 wk of age.
Sample preparation
At the end of the feeding trial, all birds were slaughtered and
inspected following the USDA guidelines (USDA 1982). Carcasses of
birds from the same pen were pooled and chilled in ice water for
3 h, then drained, in a cooler (0 ◦ C) until the internal temperature
was 4 ◦ C, for further processing. Breast muscles were deboned, and
skin and visible fat were removed. All breast samples of birds from
Table 1 --- Turkey diets from week 0 to 12
0–3 wk
Corn (%)
Soybean meal (%)
Fish meal (%)
Dicalcium phosphate (%)
Limestone (%)
Soy oil (%)
Mineral premixa (%)
Vitamin premixb (%)
Salt (%)
L-lysine (%)
DL-methionine (%)
BMD (%)
Total amount (%)
43.67
47.71
3.00
1.92
1.28
1.46
0.30
0.30
0.11
0.01
0.21
0.03
100.00
4–6 wk
48.39
45.24
0.00
2.13
1.32
1.83
0.30
0.30
0.14
0.14
0.20
0.03
100.00
7–9 wk
52.72
40.15
0.00
2.01
1.29
2.68
0.30
0.30
0.14
0.14
0.20
0.03
100.00
10–12 wk
53.30
37.06
0.00
1.93
1.22
5.41
0.30
0.30
0.15
0.11
0.19
0.03
100.00
a
Contains sodium 33%, chloride 58%, zinc 13300 mg/kg, manganese 2300
mg/kg, iron 12300 mg/kg, copper 2000 mg/kg.
b
Contains vitamin A 2688333 IU/kg, vitamin D 3 526667 IU/kg, vitamin E 5000
IU/kg, vitamin K (MSBC) 1200 mg/kg, riboflavin 2600 mg/kg, pantothenic acid
4267 mg/kg, niacin 25000 mg/kg, choline 169667 mg/kg, folic acid 540 mg/kg,
biotin 90 mg/kg, pyridoxine 2025 mg/kg, thiamine 675 mg/kg, vitamin B 12 5333
mg/kg.
the same pen (4 pens per treatment) were pooled, ground twice
through a 9-mm plate, and treated as a replication. Four replications
of patties were prepared.
Patties (about 50 g) were prepared from the ground breast,
vacuum-packaged in oxygen-impermeable bags (nylon/
polyethylene, 9.3 mL O 2 /m 2 /24 h at 0 ◦ C; Associated Bag Co.,
Milwaukee, Wis., U.S.A.), and then irradiated with 0 or 1.5 kGy
using an electron accelerator facility (Surebeam Corp., Chicago,
Ill., U.S.A.). The energy level of the linear accelerator was 10 MeV
and the power level was 10 kW, resulting in an average dose of 1.47
kGy. Alanine dosimeters placed on the top and bottom surfaces of
a sample were read using a 104 electron paramagnetic resonance
instrument (Bruker Instruments Inc., Billerica, Mass., U.S.A.) to
determine the absorbed doses. After irradiation, both irradiated
and nonirradiated meats were stored at 4 ◦ C for 3 d before cooking.
Patties were cooked in an electric convection oven at 225 ◦ C to an
internal temperature of 78 ◦ C to simulate the state of the meat in
the hands of the consumer immediately before ingestion. Cooked
patties were either vacuum-packaged in oxygen-impermeable bags
(nylon/polyethylene, 9.3 mL O 2 /m 2 /24 h at 0 ◦ C; Koch, Kansas
City, Mo., U.S.A.) or aerobically packaged in oxygen-permeable
zipper bags (polyethylene 4 × 6, 2 mil; Associated Bag Co.). Lipid
oxidation, volatiles, and color change of cooked turkey breast were
determined after 0 and 7 d of storage. Concentrations of vitamin
E, selenium, and fatty acid composition were determined before
and after irradiation, but the results were reported in the raw meat
study (Yan and others 2006).
TBARS analysis
Lipid oxidation of meat was determined by measuring 2thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) (Ahn and others
1998a). Minced cooked breast sample (5 g) was placed in a 50-mL test
tube and homogenized with 15 mL deionized distilled water (DDW)
and 50 µL 7.2% BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) using a Brinkman
Polytron (Type PT 10/35; Brinkman Instrument Inc., Westbury, N.Y.,
U.S.A.) for 5 s at high speed. Meat homogenate (1 mL) was then transferred to a 13 × 100 mm disposable test tube, and 2 mL of TBA/TCA
solution (20 mM thiobarbituric acid/15% [w/v] trichloroacetic acid)
was added. The sample was vortex mixed and then incubated in a
90 ◦ C water bath for 15 min. After cooling for 10 min in ice water, the samples were vortex mixed and centrifuged at 3000 × g for
15 min at 4 ◦ C. The absorbance of the resulting upper layer was
read at 531 nm against a blank prepared with 1 mL DDW and 2 mL
Table 2 --- Experimental turkey diets from week 12 to 15
Ingredient
Corn (%)
Soybean meal (%)
Soy oil (%)
CLA source (%)
Vitamin E premixa (%)
Mineral premix1b (%)
Mineral premix 2c (%)
Vitamin premixd (%)
Dicalcium phosphate (%)
Limestone (%)
DL-methionine (%)
L-lysine (%)
Salt (%)
BMD (%)
Total (%)
Con
62.50
29.10
4.36
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.30
0.30
1.72
1.27
0.17
0.13
0.15
0.03
100
VE
62.40
28.20
4.33
0.00
1.00
0.00
0.30
0.30
1.72
1.27
0.17
0.13
0.15
0.03
100
Se
62.50
29.10
4.36
0.00
0.00
0.30
0.00
0.30
1.72
1.27
0.17
0.13
0.15
0.03
100
CLA
62.50
29.10
1.86
2.50
0.00
0.00
0.30
0.30
1.72
1.27
0.17
0.13
0.15
0.03
100
VE ± Se
62.40
28.20
4.33
0.00
1.00
0.30
0.00
0.30
1.72
1.27
0.17
0.13
0.15
0.03
100
VE ± CLA
62.40
28.20
1.83
2.50
1.00
0.00
0.30
0.30
1.72
1.27
0.17
0.13
0.15
0.03
100
Se ± CLA
62.50
29.10
1.86
2.50
0.00
0.30
0.00
0.30
1.72
1.27
0.17
0.13
0.15
0.03
100
VE ± Se ± CLA
62.40
28.20
1.83
2.50
1.00
0.30
0.00
0.30
1.72
1.27
0.17
0.13
0.15
0.03
100
a
Contains
b
Contains
c
Contains
d
20000 IU /kg vitamin E.
100 mg/kg selenium plus sodium 33%, chloride 58%, zinc 13300 mg/kg, manganese 2300 mg/kg, iron 12300 mg/kg, copper 2000 mg/kg.
only sodium 33%, chloride 58%, zinc 13300 mg/kg, manganese 2300 mg/kg, iron 12300 mg/kg, copper 2000 mg/kg, without selenium.
Contains vitamin A 2688333 IU/kg, vitamin D 3 526667 IU/kg, vitamin K (MSBC) 1200 mg/kg, riboflavin 2600 mg/kg, pantothenic acid 4267 mg/kg, niacin 25000
mg/kg, choline 169667 mg/kg, folic acid 540 mg/kg, biotin 90 mg/kg, pyridoxine 2025 mg/kg, thiamine 675 mg/kg, vitamin B 12 5333 mg/kg.
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Vol. 71, Nr. 9, 2006—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE
C557
C: Food Chemistry & Toxicology
Dietary ingredients on cooked meat quality . . .
Dietary ingredients on cooked meat quality . . .
Color measurement
TBA/TCA solution. The amounts of TBARS were expressed as milligrams of malonedialdehyde (MDA) per kilogram of meat.
Cooked breast patties were sliced carefully into 2 pieces, and internal color was measured by reading L∗ , a∗ , and b∗ values of each
piece (4 different locations/piece) under a Hunter LabScan color
meter (Hunter Associated Labs Inc., Reston, Va., U.S.A.) that had
been calibrated against black and white reference tiles covered with
the same packaging materials as used for samples. Light source was
illuminant A. Area view and port size were 6.4 mm and 10 mm, respectively. Four readings from each sample were averaged and used
as color values for the sample.
Volatile analysis
C: Food Chemistry & Toxicology
A dynamic headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
(GC/MS) method (Nam and others 2003) was used to determine
the volatile compounds of cooked patties. The instrumental system included a Solatek 72 Multimatrix vial autosampler, a Purge
& Trap Concentrator 3000 (Tekmar-Dohrmann, Cincinnati, Ohio,
U.S.A.), and a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry unit (GC/MS;
Hewlett Packard Co., Wilmington, Del., U.S.A.). Minced cooked sample (3 g) was placed in a 40-mL sample vial flushed with helium
gas (40 psi) for 3 s and capped airtight with a Teflon∗fluorocarbon
resin/silicone septum. The meat sample was purged with helium
(40 mL/min) for 13 min at 40 ◦ C. Volatiles were trapped using a
Tenax/charcoal/silica column (Hewlett Packard Co.), desorbed for 2
min at 225 ◦ C, then focused in a cryofocusing module (90◦ C; Hewlett
Packard Co.), and finally desorbed into a column for 60 s at 225 ◦ C
for GC analysis.
Three different HP columns, HP-624 column (7.5 m, 0.25 mm
i.d., 1.4 µm nominal), HP-1 column (52.5 m, 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 µm
nominal), and HP-Wax column (7.5 m, 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 µm nominal; Hewlett Packard Co.) connected using zero dead-volume column connectors (J&W Scientific, Folsom, Calif., U.S.A.) were used
for volatile compounds separation. Ramped oven temperature was
adopted to improve separation. The initial oven temperature of 0 ◦ C
was held for 2.50 min. After that, the oven temperature was increased
to 15 ◦ C at 2.5 ◦ C/min, increased to 45 ◦ C at 5 ◦ C/min, increased to
110 ◦ C at 20 ◦ C/min, and then increased to 220 ◦ C at 10 ◦ C/min and
held for 2.25 min at that temperature. Constant column pressure
was maintained at 20.5 psi.
A mass-selective detector (Model 5973; Hewlett Packard Co.) was
used for volatile identification. The ionization potential was 70 eV,
and the scan range was 29 to 450 m/z. Volatiles were identified by
comparing mass spectra with those of the Wiley Library (Hewlett
Packard Co.) and confirmed by comparing with the spectra profiles of standards when available. The area of each peak was integrated using the HP ChemStationTM , and the total peak area (total
ion counts × 104 ) was reported as an indicator of volatiles generated
from the meat samples.
Statistical analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted by the procedure
of General Linear Model using SAS software (SAS Institute 1995).
Tukey’s multiple range test was used to compare the differences
among mean values (P < 0.05). Mean values and standard error of
the means (SEM) were reported. Volatile data from each treatment
were combined and analyzed using the multivariate (YX) PRINCOP
program of SAS to determine principal components and correlations. Correlations between lipid oxidation and color change, and
lipid oxidation and volatile production, were analyzed using the regression model. Correlation coefficients and their significance (P <
0.05) were reported.
Results and Discussion
Lipid oxidation
At both day 0 and day 7, irradiation, packaging methods, and
all 3 dietary factors (VE, Se, and CLA) had significant effects (P <
0.01) on lipid oxidation of cooked breast patties (Table 3 and 4).
There were significant differences between lipid oxidation of meats
in vacuum packaging and in aerobic packaging, which also had
significant interactions with irradiation. Lipid oxidation of cooked
meats was increased by storage (P < 0.05) and exposure to aerobic conditions (P < 0.01). With aerobic packaging, the TBARS value
of the control meat increased 5.4 and 7.1 times after 7 d of storage, respectively, in nonirradiated and irradiated samples. Although
lipid oxidation of cooked irradiated meats was higher (P < 0.05)
than that of nonirradiated meats in vacuum packaging, TBARS values were always lower than 1.0. This means that irradiation was an
Table 3 --- Statistical significance of effects of dietary factors and processing factors on lipid oxidation and color
change of cooked turkey breast
∗
TBARS
0d
Dietary factors (P value)
VE
<0.0001
Se
<0.0001
CLA
<0.0001
Processing factors (P value)
Irradiation
<0.0001
Pkg
<0.0001
Interactions of factors (P value)
VE∗ irradiation
0.70
Se∗ irradiation
0.03
CLA∗ irradiation
0.75
VE∗ Pkg
<0.0001
∗
0.03
Se Pkg
CLA∗ Pkg
<0.0001
Pkg∗ irradiation
≤0.0001
a∗ value
L value
b ∗ value
7d
0d
7d
0d
7d
0d
7d
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.89
0.09
0.89
0.0006
0.0027
0.99
0.87
0.21
0.85
0.048
0.0039
0.05
0.29
0.41
0.26
0.46
0.99
0.12
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.04
0.45
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.47
<0.0001
0.55
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.04
0.63
0.01
<0.0001
0.0008
<0.0001
≤0.0001
0.06
0.63
0.39
0.85
0.69
0.12
0.099
0.68
0.85
0.12
0.70
0.06
0.40
0.036
0.047
0.004
0.014
0.42
0.30
0.89
0.004
0.87
0.14
0.40
0.62
0.3
0.69
0.06
0.17
0.11
0.07
0.39
0.25
0.96
0.14
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.0056
0.84
0.10
0.0007
0.02
0.34
0.54
VE = vitamin E; Se = selenium; CLA = conjugated linoleic acid; Pkg = packaging.
C558
JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Vol. 71, Nr. 9, 2006
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Dietary ingredients on cooked meat quality . . .
Table 4 --- TBARS values of cooked turkey breast patties as affected by dietary, packaging, and irradiation treatments
0d
Diet
0 kGy
TBARS value (mg MDA/kg meat)
Con
0.43ay
VE
0.29by
Se
0.35by
CLA
0.28by
VE + Se
0.15cy
VE + CLA
0.12cy
Se + CLA
0.16cy
VE + Se + CLA
0.09c
SEM
0.02
Aerobic packaging
7d
1.5 kGy
0.65ax
0.40cx
0.57bx
0.43cx
0.36cdx
0.21efx
0.27dex
0.14f
0.02
0 kGy
0.65ay
0.40cy
0.47by
0.43cy
0.36cdy
0.21efy
0.27dey
0.14fy
0.02
0d
1.5 kGy
0.72ax
0.55bcx
0.62abx
0.57cdx
0.48cdx
0.36cdy
0.47dex
0.33ex
0.03
0 kGy
0.56ay
0.38by
0.51a
0.23bcy
0.25bc
0.19c
0.22bc
0.17c
0.07
7d
1.5 kGy
0.61ax
0.43bx
0.51ab
0.32bx
0.29b
0.21c
0.24c
0.20c
0.06
0 kGy
3.48ay
2.89by
2.89by
2.84by
2.87by
2.84by
2.82by
2.22cy
0.11
1.5 kGy
5.13ax
4.33abx
4.77ax
4.01bx
3.87bcx
3.61cx
3.76bcx
3.08cx
0.07
a–d
Means
x–y
within a column with no common superscript differ significantly (P < 0.05); n = 4.
Means within a row within the same package and storage day with no common superscript differ significantly (P < 0.05).
VE = vitamin E; Se = selenium; CLA = conjugated linoleic acid; SEM = standard error of the mean.
enhancer of lipid oxidation of cooked meat, especially under aerobic
conditions.
Ahn and others (1999) indicated that lipid oxidation was a significant problem in irradiated meat only when meat was stored under
aerobic conditions. Without oxygen, lipid oxidation of cooked meat
did not progress even with added prooxidants. Concerning dietary
factors, most of the treatments reduced TBARS values with reference
to the control. Under vacuum packaging, the interest of their action
was of little relevance because also in the control values of TBARS
value did not vary during storage. Instead their effect was very important in samples stored under aerobic conditions that showed a
relevant increase of oxidative processes during storage. Dietary VE,
Se, or CLA alone was effective in decreasing lipid oxidation of cooked
turkey breast at day 0, but the decrease was greater when VE was
combined with Se, CLA, or Se + CLA. Lipid oxidation in irradiated
cooked turkey breast meats from turkeys fed diets containing VE +
Se, VE + CLA, Se + CLA, and VE + Se + CLA were lower than that of
the control (24%, 29%, 26%, and 40%, respectively) after 7 d of storage under aerobic conditions. The TBARS values of nonirradiated
cooked meats from turkeys fed VE + CLA or VE + Se + CLA were not
different from those from control diet, indicating that VE + CLA and
VE + Se + CLA were the most effective in preventing lipid oxidation
in cooked irradiated turkey breast under aerobic packaging conditions. Other researchers also showed that dietary vitamin E at > 200
IU was highly effective in preventing oxidative changes in irradiated
and nonirradiated raw chicken and beef (Galvin and others 1998;
Poon and others 2003). However, Ahn and others (1998b) reported
that dietary vitamin E was not strong enough to control lipid oxidation in irradiated and nonirradiated cooked meat stored under
aerobic conditions. Raw and cooked chicken meats from birds fed
CLA-enriched diets had lower TBARS values than the control because dietary CLA decreased the content of polyunsaturated fatty
acids in meat lipids (Du and others 2000, 2001, 2002). Addition of
vitamin E or other antioxidants during processing of meat was also
effective in reducing lipid oxidation caused by irradiation (Du and
Ahn 2002; Jo and others 2002; Rababah and others 2006).
Color
Irradiation had significant effects on internal color a∗ (redness)
(P < 0.01) and L∗ values (lightness) (P < 0.05) of cooked turkey
breast at day 0 (Table 3 and 5). After 7 d of storage, the influence
of irradiation on redness (pinking) still existed, but the intensities
decreased in both vacuum and aerobically packaged meats.
Normal cooked poultry color is light brown or grayish white
due to thermal denaturation of the meat pigments myoglobin and
hemoglobin. Presence of pinking in uncured cooked poultry might
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be a quality problem because consumers may associate it with undercooking. Irradiation induces bright pink color in raw poultry
(Nanke and others 1998, 1999), and the increased redness remained
after cooking in aerobically packaged chicken (Du and others 2002a).
Tappel (1957) attributed the formation of this red pigment to a reduction of denatured pigments. Further study (Tappel and others
1958) found precooked irradiated chicken, beef, and pork showed a
typical hemochrome spectrum with a maximum peak at 560 nm and
a second at 540 nm, which is similar to the spectra of cooked meats
treated with the reducing agents hydrosulfite and carbon monoxide
(CO). Nam and Ahn (2002a, 2002b) assumed that the red pigment in
irradiated raw turkey breast was CO-myoglobin and that denatured
CO-myoglobin was responsible for the pink color of precooked light
meat. In addition, the reduction of oxidation–reduction potential
due to irradiation played an important role in the formation of the
pigment. The reduction of oxidation–reduction potential was considered to be caused by a hydrated (or aqueous) electron (e s − ), one of
the radiolysis radicals from water (Whitburn and others 1982), and
was the active species reacting with ferrimyoglobin (Satterlee and
others 1971). Irradiation is not the only reason for interior pinking
in cooked poultry. Ahn and Maurer (1989) reported that the reducing conditions plus ligands with a strong affinity for heme iron were
required for pink color in fully cooked meats.
In our study, dietary antioxidant vitamin E and selenium decreased the internal a∗ value of irradiated meats in vacuumpackaged meats at days 0 and 7, and the effect was even greater
when VE and Se or CLA was combined. In aerobic packaging conditions, dietary treatments showed an effect (P < 0.05) on the a∗ value
of irradiated meats only at day 0, and irradiated meat from dietary
VE + Se + CLA treatment still had the lowest a∗ value. After 7 d of
storage in aerobic packaging, the a∗ value of irradiated meat from
control decreased while those from treatments containing VE and
Se increased. Romero and others (2005) reported that 100 or 200
IU/kg dietary vitamin E significantly improved color stability (lightness and redness) of irradiated breast meat during aerobic storage.
Vitamin E is a strong free radical scavenger in cell membranes and
Se is an important component of intracellular antioxidant enzymes
such as glutathione peroxidase. Both of them can react and absorb
free radicals induced by irradiation. These results indicated that the
reduced interior pinking of irradiated cooked turkey breast from dietary supplementation of antioxidants provided evidence that the
pink color of irradiated cooked meat is related to the oxidation–
reduction potential.
Dietary CLA affected redness of both nonirradiated and irradiated
breast meat. At day 0 in vacuum packaging, nonirradiated samples
from CLA treatment had significantly lower a∗ values (P < 0.05) when
Vol. 71, Nr. 9, 2006—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE
C559
C: Food Chemistry & Toxicology
Vacuum packaging
Dietary ingredients on cooked meat quality . . .
compared with other treatments. The lower a∗ value of meats from
CLA treatment also existed after 7 d of storage in aerobic packaging.
Similar effect of CLA on irradiated and nonirradiated turkey breast
color was reported by Du and others (2002b).
Volatiles
C: Food Chemistry & Toxicology
Seven hydrocarbons (butane, pentane, hexane, 1-heptane, heptane, octane, 2-octane), 9 aldehydes (acetaldehyde, propanal,
butanal, 3-methyl-butanal, 2-methyl-butanal, pentanal, hexanal,
heptanal, nonanal), 6 alcohols (2-methyl-propanol, ethanol, 2propanol, 1-pentanol, 1-hexanol, 1-octen-3-ol), 4 ketones (2propanone, 2-butanone, 2-pentanone, 2,3-octanedione), and 4
sulfur-containing compounds (methanethiol, carbon disufide,
dimethyl disulfide, dimethyl trisulfide) were detected in cooked
turkey breast samples. Two principal components (Pc1 and Pc2)
Table 5 --- Color changes of turkey breast patties as affected by different diets and processing methods
L∗ value
Diet
Vacuum, day 0
Con
VE
Se
CLA
VE + Se
VE + CLA
Se + CLA
VE + Se +
CLA
SEM
Vacuum, day 7
Con
VE
Se
CLA
VE + Se
VE + CLA
Se + CLA
VE + Se +
CLA
SEM
Aerobic, day 0
Con
VE
Se
CLA
VE + Se
VE + CLA
Se + CLA
VE + Se +
CLA
SEM
Aerobic, day 7
Con
VE
Se
CLA
VE + Se
VE + CLA
Se + CLA
VE + Se +
CLA
SEM
0
kGy
1.5
kGy
77.35
77.07
77.66
77.89
77.63
77.94
79.55
77.81
78.52
77.64
78.42
78.57
78.32
77.46
77.99
77.37
0.26
a∗ value
0
kGy
b ∗ value
1.5
kGy
0
kGy
1.5
kGy
2.12ax
2.48a
2.38a
2.06bx
2.39a
2.08bx
2.19bx
2.22a
3.30ay
2.80ab
2.64b
3.01ay
2.89ab
3.09ay
3.06ay
2.84ab
13.36
13.13
13.52
13.15
13.42
13.14
13.08
13.47
12.66
12.87
13.03
12.66
12.44
12.69
12.53
13.02
0.23
0.08
0.07
0.13
0.13
75.02
73.98
74.74
74.27
73.72
74.45
73.96
73.96
75.60
75.14
76.21
76.00
75.16
75.28
75.53
75.66
2.42x
2.27
2.64
2.44
2.48
2.49
2.65
2.33
3.06ay
2.40b
2.71a
2.80ab
2.27b
2.57ab
2.75b
2.43ab
13.99
14.13
14.05
13.88
14.04
13.62
13.61
13.56
13.12
13.73
13.33
13.20
13.24
13.59
13.85
13.46
0.49
0.43
0.11
0.12
0.17
0.24
76.69
76.64
77.01
76.84
75.19
74.59
78.19
77.08
76.94
76.64
77.17
78.15
76.65
75.99
77.80
77.75
2.18x
2.30
2.41
2.27
2.35
2.32
2.22
2.42
3.41ay
2.76b
2.91ab
2.76b
2.85b
2.76b
2.72b
2.65b
13.27
13.80
13.35
13.83
13.10
13.59
13.63
13.28
12.89a
13.20ab
13.15ab
13.32ab
13.05ab
13.57ab
13.09ab
13.25ab
0.34
0.31
0.03
0.09
0.13
0.15
76.60
76.87
76.76
77.30
76.47
76.28
77.07
76.46
77.26
78.02
77.50
77.73
76.65
76.50
77.44
76.84
2.36x
2.88
2.72
2.25
2.70
2.47
2.84
2.79
3.01ay
2.90ab
2.92a
2.43b
2.99ab
2.66ab
3.03ab
2.86ab
13.63
13.69
13.31
13.72
13.71
13.38
13.18
13.32
13.19
13.34
13.37
12.97
13.19
13.48
12.99
13.58
0.43
0.36
0.15
0.13
0.18
0.09
a–d
Means within a column within the same package and storage day with no
common superscript differ significantly (P < 0.05); n = 4.
x–y
Means within a row within the same color attribute with no common
superscript differ significantly (P < 0.05).
VE = vitamin E; Se = selenium; CLA = conjugated linoleic acid; SEM =
standard error of the mean.
C560
JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Vol. 71, Nr. 9, 2006
explained 84% (71% and 13%, respectively) of the total variability
due to irradiation and storage (Table 6). The purposes of principal component analysis are (1) to derive a small number of independent linear combinations (principal components) that retain
as much of the information in the original variables as possible,
and (2) to explore polynomial relationship. Thus, principal component analysis (PCA), a multidimensional modeling method, provides an interpretable overview of the key information through the
loading plot. In the loading plot, components (so-called principal
components) that are close together are positively correlated, while
those lying opposite to each other tend to have negative correlation
(Næs and others 1996). The 1st component (Pc1) suggested that the
production mechanisms of sulfur compounds were different from
those of other compound groups. All 4 individual sulfur-containing
compounds weighed similarly in Pc1. The Pc1 weights of all other
compounds, except for ethanol, hexane, 2-methyl-propane, and 1propanol, were between 0.1249 and 0.1818, and were similar to those
of sulfur compounds (Table 8).
Further ANOVA of effects of irradiation, packaging method,
and storage time as well as dietary functional ingredients on the
amounts of hydrocarbons, aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, and sulfurcontaining compounds indicated that irradiation at 1.5 kGy increased (P < 0.05) their production except for ketones (Table 7
and 8). The effects of packaging on volatile compounds were not
the same: after 7 d of storage, the amounts of total aldehydes,
alcohols, and ketones in vacuum-packaged meat decreased while
Table 6 --- The principal volatile components for volatile
production from cooked turkey breasta meat
Variable
Total hydrocarbons
Total aldehydes
Total alcohols
Total ketones
Sulfur compounds
Acetaldehyde
Pentane
Propanal
Propanone
Ethanol
Hexane
Propanol
Butanal
Butanone
2-Methyl butanal
Heptane
Dimethyl disulfide
Octane
Hexanal
Heptanal
Dimethyl trisulfide
1-Octen-3-ol
Nonanal
2-Methyl-propane
Butane
Methanethiol
Carbon disulfide
2-Methyl-propanol
2-Methyl-butanal
1-Heptane
1-Propanol
2-Pentanone
2,3-Pentanedione
2-Octane
1-Pentanol
1-Hexanol
a
Principal
components 1
Principal
components 2
0.1753
0.1801
0.1780
0.1713
−0.1519
0.1771
0.1749
0.1749
0.1591
0.0772
0.0616
0.1328
0.1818
0.1700
0.1442
0.1802
−0.1497
0.1652
0.1775
0.1333
−0.1524
0.1766
0.1713
0.0412
0.1497
−0.1685
−0.1317
0.1756
0.1715
0.1249
0.0959
0.1309
0.1581
0.1736
0.1669
0.1623
−0.0845
−0.0888
−0.0471
−0.0333
0.0800
−0.0161
−0.0604
−0.0788
0.0436
0.2363
−0.3929
0.0397
−0.0432
−0.0699
0.2890
−0.0947
0.0520
−0.0136
−0.0925
−0.0892
0.0774
−0.0612
−0.1449
0.2048
−0.1808
0.1015
−0.0389
0.0417
0.1601
0.3313
0.3534
0.3505
0.2274
−0.0099
−0.0651
−0.1129
Principal volatile components.
URLs and E-mail addresses are active links at www.ift.org
Dietary ingredients on cooked meat quality . . .
those in aerobically packaged increased. Hydrocarbons, aldehydes,
alcohols, and ketones are lipid oxidation-dependent volatiles. Thus,
the decrease of total aldehydes, alcohols, and ketones in vacuumpackaged meat indicates lower oxidative changes occurred in the
vacuum-packaged meat (Ramaswamy and Richards 1982; Wu and
Sheldon 1988).
Sulfur-containing compounds were considered to be responsible for irradiation off-odor. In this study, sulfur-containing compounds appeared in both nonirradiated and irradiated cooked meat
at 0 d after cooking, but their amounts were increased threefold to
fivefold by irradiation. After 7 d of storage, sulfur-containing compounds of nonirradiated cooked meat in vacuum packaging increased 3 times compared to day 0 while those in irradiated meat
decreased. The amounts of sulfur-containing compounds in aerobically packaged cooked turkey breast was lower (P < 0.05) than
those in vacuum packaging. This is in accordance with other reports that showed sulfur-containing compounds are highly volatile
and can easily evaporate under aerobic packaging conditions
Total hydrocarbons
Diets
0 kGy
Area∗ (ion count × 10000)
Vacuum-packaging
Con
8567ay
VE
4833cy
Se
8056ay
CLA
7034by
VE + Se
5331c
VE + CLA
3683d
Se + CLA
5985cy
VE + Se + CLA
3646d
SEM
1528
Aerobic packaging
Con
9403ay
VE
4445c
Se
5539bc
CLA
3472cy
VE + Se
4887c
VE + CLA
2641d
Se + CLA
5126bc
VE + Se + CLA
2551d
SEM
1508
Total aldehydes
Total alcohols
Total ketones
Total S-compounds
1.5 kGy
0 kGy
1.5 kGy
0 kGy
1.5 kGy
0 kGy
1.5 kGy
0 kGy
1.5 kGy
9248ax
6061bx
9437ax
7673abx
5574b
3548c
7249abx
3941c
1235
22857ax
15672b
22459a
16460ab
15581b
10700b
17486ab
10450b
4599
27804ay
17714b
23318a
18314b
16034b
9943c
18253b
10540c
6127
5012ay
4500aby
4041cy
4960a
3868c
3439cy
2980dy
3440cy
989
6081ax
5764abx
4952bx
4792b
4123b
4029cx
3338dx
4049cx
925
8476c
9538b
8656cy
8049c
11450ab
15587a
8755c
14283ax
2891
8331bc
9435b
10136abx
6075c
10751ab
12568a
9332b
11263ay
1970
484by
444by
471by
731ay
770ay
682aby
568by
509by
128
1905ax
2258ax
2090ax
1318bx
1596bx
1506bx
1298bx
1478bx
360
10240ax
4719c
5751b
4401cx
5079b
3255d
5122b
3156d
830
28290ay
21184by
26674ay
14174cy
20246b
11656c
15932cy
14720c
6328
33389ax
27723bx
30192ax
23600bx
20986bc
14415d
25658bx
14442c
6136
4168ay
2826cy
3069aby
2324cy
2188cy
2020cy
2218c
2173cy
718
4713ax
3857bx
3671bx
3388bx
3953bx
3439bx
2746c
3784bx
414
7144bx
6738b
9456abx
5603c
11045ax
12025ax
11896ax
12873ax
2782
5052cy
6522bc
7701by
4990c
9026ay
11342ay
8747aby
9856ay
2273
787ay
600by
552by
596by
1082aby
694by
1011aby
844by
295
1782ax
1619abx
1607abx
1411bx
1565bx
1323bx
1385bx
1111bx
163
a–d
Means with no common superscript within a column with
x–y
Means with no common superscript within a row with the
∗
the same package differ significantly (P < 0.05); n = 4.
same compound group differ significantly (P < 0.05).
The numerical values denote integrated mass-spec peak areas.
VE = vitamin E; Se = selenium; CLA = conjugated linoleic acid; SEM = standard error of the mean.
Table 8 --- Volatile compounds of cooked turkey breast as affected by diet, irradiation, and package after 7 d of
storage
Total hydrocarbons
Diet
0 kGy
Area∗ (ion count × 10000)
Vacuum-packaging
Con
7555ay
VE
5097by
Se
5858aby
CLA
4337by
VE + Se
4277by
VE + CLA
4064by
Se + CLA
5600aby
VE + Se + CLA
3052cy
SEM
2372
Aerobic packaging
Con
41753a
VE
36705b
Se
38272b
CLA
35747b
VE + Se
23806c
VE + CLA
29978bc
Se + CLA
31583bc
VE + Se + CLA
22701c
SEM
5816
Total aldehydes
Total alcohols
Total ketones
Total S-compounds
1.5 kGy
0 kGy
1.5 kGy
0 kGy
1.5 kGy
0 kGy
1.5 kGy
0 kGy
1.5 kGy
10800ax
8993bx
11036ax
8241bx
6266cx
5830cx
9202abx
4935cx
1376
15979ay
14993by
16738ay
10998cy
14904b
12037cy
14682by
12740cy
3793
24631ax
19539bx
20000bx
17440cx
14927c
15012cx
24345ax
16928cx
2000
2669ay
2299aby
2125aby
2210aby
2197aby
1994by
1568cy
1877by
445
3059ax
3151ax
2535bx
2508bx
2695bx
2251bx
1823cx
2189cx
322
4848c
5832c
6629b
4364c
8998ax
8538ab
8391ab
9370ax
1959
4866b
5285b
6149ab
4466b
7731aby
8392a
7350ab
7833aby
1436
1833ax
1673b
1777a
1535b
1125c
1251b
1295b
1296b
360
1716ay
1617a
1753a
1493b
1267b
1274ab
1370b
1208c
393
42782a
33595b
38220b
30730bc
24165c
30038bc
33850b
27791c
5138
365475a
317613b
343284a
327699b
270013cy
285011cy
304975b
234560cy
39910
374863a
339497ab
351870ab
338924ab
338999abx
334516abx
325490ab
275511bx
44275
24235a
22682a
24233a
22912a
19168b
17861b
21797b
19157b
3705
27335a
23114ab
28252a
23593ab
19891b
18955b
23321ab
21013b
3277
16008bc
18885b
16083bc
14999c
18722b
23592a
20884a
21002a
3323
16453c
19170bc
16819c
15268c
20918b
25694a
22094ab
21721
3583
1047y
988
944
1067
979
985
927
984
243
1303x
1226
1217
1063
1203
1198
1045
1049
273
a–d
Means with no common superscript within a column within
x–y
Means with no common superscript within a row within the
∗
the same package differ significantly (P < 0.05); n = 4.
same compound group differ significantly (P < 0.05).
The numerical values denote integrated mass-spec peak areas.
VE = vitamin E; Se = selenium; CLA = conjugated linoleic acid; SEM = standard error of the mean.
URLs and E-mail addresses are active links at www.ift.org
Vol. 71, Nr. 9, 2006—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE
C561
C: Food Chemistry & Toxicology
Table 7 --- Volatile compounds of cooked turkey breast as affected by different diet, irradiation, and packaging at
day 0
Dietary ingredients on cooked meat quality . . .
C: Food Chemistry & Toxicology
(Ahn and others 2000; Du and others 2002a; Nam and others 2003).
However, a significant oxidation of these volatile sulfur compounds
to nonvolatile compounds may also occur. Sulfur-containing compounds are not only involved in irradiated meat flavor but also
responsible for cooked turkey flavor. Schutte (1976) found that
dimethyl disulfide and dimethyl trisulfide could be formed by
Strecker degradation of methionine and cysteine during cooking.
Wu and Sheldon (1988) attributed desirable flavor of turkey breast
roll to dimethyl disulfide. Irradiation before cooking seemed to
enhance the release of cooked turkey flavor compounds—sulfurcontaining compounds. If this is true, then optimization of irradiation doses, packaging method, and other strategies might increase
the acceptance of irradiated turkey meat.
Dietary antioxidants—VE, Se, and their combinations with
CLA—significantly (P < 0.05) reduced the production of total hydrocarbons, total aldehydes, and total alcohols in aerobically packaged meat. However, total ketones were increased by dietary antioxidants. Dietary CLA reduced the production of hexanal and pentanal
in irradiated raw chicken meat and the decrease was proportional
to the level of dietary CLA (Du and others 2000). The difference
in total sulfur compounds between irradiated and nonirradiated
cooked meat was shown in all dietary treatments at day 0. After 7 d
of storage, sulfur-containing compounds of irradiated control meat
with aerobic packaging were still significantly (P < 0.05) different
from those of nonirradiated meat, but this difference was not significant in dietary treatments, especially in treatments of VE + Se,
VE + CLA, and VE + Se + CLA. The reduction of volatiles by dietary
VE, Se, and CLA can be explained by correlation analysis with lipid
oxidation.
In aerobically packaged turkey breast meat, the amounts of total
hydrocarbons, aldehydes, alcohols, and ketones were highly correlated (P < 0.05) with lipid oxidation. Their correlation coefficients
were higher in irradiated meat than nonirradiated meat. Lipid oxidation was correlated with all individual aldehydes, ketones, benzene
derivatives, alcohols (except ethanol), and some hydrocarbons (butane, pentane, and 2-octane), indicating that these compounds were
directly or indirectly produced from lipid oxidation. Unlike other
compounds, sulfur-containing compounds such as methanethiol,
carbon disulfide, and dimethyl trisulfide in irradiated meat were
negatively correlated with TBARS values while dimethyl disulfide
was positively correlated with the TBARS values of cooked turkey
breast (Table 9).
Conclusions
mong the dietary treatments, VE + Se, VE + CLA, and VE +
Table 9 --- Correlation coefficients of TBARS values and
Se + CLA were the most effective in reducing lipid oxidation in
volatile production of irradiated and nonirradiated cooked
aerobically packaged irradiated cooked turkey breast. Aerobic packturkey breast in vacuum and aerobic packaging
aging of irradiated meat was more effective than vacuum packaging
Vacuum
Aerobic
in reducing the presence of sulfur-containing compounds. Therepackaging
packaging
fore, combinations of VE + Se, VE + CLA, or VE + Se + CLA with
0 kGy
1.5 kGy
0 kGy
1.5 kGy aerobic packaging would be the most effective in reducing quality
Hydrocarbons
0.64∗∗
0.64∗
0.91∗∗
0.91∗∗ defects in irradiated cooked meat.
2-Methyl-propane
------0.54∗
Butane
0.395
0.43
0.87∗∗
0.64∗∗
Acknowledgement
Pentane
0.56∗
0.38
0.91∗∗
0.89∗∗
Hexane
−0.60∗
−0.58
0.54∗
0.22
This work was supported by the National Integrated Food Safety
1-Heptane
------0.12
Initiative/USDA (USDA Grant 2002-5110-01957), Washington D.C.
0.93∗∗
0.06
0.06
Heptane
0.81∗∗
Octane
0.27
0.24
0.32
0.12
0.98∗∗
2-Octane
0.33
0.27
0.95∗∗
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0.72∗∗
0.57∗
0.96∗∗
0.97∗∗ Ahn DU. 2002. Production of volatiles from amino acid homopolymers by irradiation.
∗∗
∗∗
Acetaldehyde
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0.27
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0.96∗∗
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0.97∗∗
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∗∗
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0.76∗∗ Ahn
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0.60∗∗
0.49∗
0.99∗∗
0.98∗∗
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∗
∗
∗
∗∗
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0.47∗
0.56∗
0.71∗
∗
∗∗
∗∗
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−0.52
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2-Pentanone
------0.93∗∗ Dupared
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∗∗
∗∗
2,3-Octanedione
----0.93
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Methanethiol
0.03
0.24
−0.84
−0.97∗∗
Sci 80(2):235–41.
Carbon disufide
0.32
0.51∗
−0.40
−0.88∗∗ DuPoultry
M, Hur SJ, Ahn DU. 2002a. Raw-meat packaging and storage affect the color and
Dimethyl disulfide
−0.22
0.19
−0.75∗
−0.53∗
odor of irradiated broiler breast fillets after cooking. Meat Sci 61(1):49–54.
Dimethyl trisulfide
0.14
0.01
−0.38
−0.88∗∗ Du M, Nam KC, Hur SJ, Ismail H, Ahn DU. 2002b. Effect of dietary conjugated linoleic
A
n = 16 for each column. ∗ Significant at P < 0.05, ∗∗ significant at P < 0.01.
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JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Vol. 71, Nr. 9, 2006
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