Urban Ecosyst
DOI 10.1007/s11252-012-0273-0
Temporal and spatial dynamics of a “Rust-Belt” urban
stream: Metabolic and water quality responses
to hardened land
K. E. Limburg & D. P. Swaney & M. H. Hall
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012
Abstract Highly resolved (30-min period) measurements of dissolved oxygen, temperature,
conductivity, and turbidity in streams over 2–6 days during dry and wet periods within and
outside the heavily urbanized city of Syracuse, NY are used to calculate gross primary
production (GPP), total ecosystem respiration (ER) and total and net ecosystem production
(NEP). Based on results, it is proposed that a city’s stream metabolism and water quality may
be regarded in a “Jekyll–Hyde” analogy, i.e., under dry conditions, this stream behaved
much like a headwater system (Jekyll), but had far greater discharge as well as rapid swings
in conductivity, turbidity, temperature, and oxygen concentrations during storm events
(Hyde). Such dynamics could be damped by increasing soft, absorbent surfaces (green
infrastructure) within the city.
Keywords Urban streams . Storm water . Dissolved oxygen . Conductivity . Temperature .
Turbidity . Ecosystem metabolism
Introduction
“The urban stream syndrome” identified by Walsh et al. (2005) has become a generally
accepted paradigm to describe urban stream ecology. Driven by impervious surface cover,
urban streams typically exhibit “flashy” hydrology and accompanying sediment loads,
incised channels, reduced riparian zones, and diminished biodiversity (Walsh et al. 2005).
More recently, Kaushal and Belt (2012) expanded the paradigm to describe the “urban
watershed continuum” or continua in longitudinal, lateral, vertical, and temporal alterations
of natural watersheds by urban infrastructure, noting among other things that the artificial
K. E. Limburg (*) : M. H. Hall
College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York,
Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
e-mail: klimburg@esf.edu
D. P. Swaney
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 12545, USA
Urban Ecosyst
drainage network (stormwater and sewersheds) can be more complex than the original
stream network, increasing the drainage density considerably in many cases.
The Onondaga Creek watershed in central New York State (301 km2) drains a postglacial landscape characterized by a fragmented mix of forested and agricultural uplands,
small villages, and the city of Syracuse (population 145,170; US Census Bureau 2011). This
exists within a larger region, spanning much of the northeastern US, referred to as the “Rust
Belt,” due to the nature of the depressed, post-industrial economic conditions, and Syracuse
is indeed a typical “Rust Belt city.”
Incorporated in 1848 following the completion of the Erie and Oswego Canals that
connected the major catchments within the state, Syracuse was already an industrial and
trading hub that grew atop an inherently wet landscape of marshes and swamps. The region
is characterized by salt deposits and numerous salt springs which provided early economic
opportunities for salt production and related industries (Effler 1996; Kappel 2000). Additionally, mud volcanoes or “mud boils” located roughly mid-watershed are a current source
of turbidity, although remediation efforts have curbed sediment discharge to some extent
(Kappel 2009), and a flood control dam regulates peak flows (Effler 1996). Today the city of
Syracuse covers 66.4 km2, much of it impervious, with its wetlands drained, river bends
straightened, and many small tributaries covered and/or piped. Within the city the Onondaga
Creek is lined with a concrete sleeve extending nearly 20 km to its terminus at the Inner
Harbor of Onondaga Lake. Access is restricted in much of the city due to the dangers of flash
flooding during storm events, so society has generally turned its back on the waterway in the
city. In many respects, Onondaga Creek in Syracuse is a model of the “urban stream
syndrome.”
On the other hand, there are aspects of this stream reach that suggest behavior more
similar to a headwater. Much of the canopy is closed above Onondaga Creek within the city,
in contrast to the more open suburbs and farmlands upstream. Investigations of fish
communities reveal a surprisingly diverse fauna within parts of the urban reach (KL,
unpublished data). However, during storm events the hydrograph responds quickly and
the character of the stream is greatly altered. We suggest that a different analogy, akin to a
bi-polar “Jekyll–Hyde personality” as in R.L. Stevenson’s classic tale (see Results and
discussion) may be another useful metaphor for communicating to stakeholders. The “Dr.
Jekyll” behavior is quiescent whereas the “Mr. Hyde” behavior can be violent indeed.
We illustrate these differences in a brief study undertaken in the summer of 2011,
contrasting the urban reach of Onondaga Creek with a site just upstream, outside the city
limits. We used multi-parameter, data-logging sondes to characterize dynamical behaviors of
water quality parameters with fine-scale (30-min) temporal resolution. We also computed
diel oxygen metabolism as part of the overall metabolic activity of the Syracuse urban
ecosystem. Stream metabolism, consisting of production and respiration, is a fundamental
ecosystem property that indicates whether a stream reach is autotrophic or heterotrophic.
One can use this property, along with others, to interpret a stream reach within the context of
the River Continuum Concept (Vannote et al. 1980).
The basics of stream metabolism can be summarized by defining a few key terms that
characterize the components of ecosystem-level primary production and respiration. Here,
we follow the recent review by Staehr et al. (2012). Gross primary production (GPP) is the
conversion of inorganic carbon into organic forms by autotrophic organisms. Ecosystem
respiration (ER) is the oxidation of organic carbon to inorganic carbon by both heterotrophic
and autotrophic organisms. Net ecosystem production (NEP), the difference between GPP
and ER, reflects the balance between all anabolic and catabolic processes in the system of
interest. If NEP00, ecosystem respiration over a 24-h period (also referred to as R_24)
Urban Ecosyst
exactly balances gross primary production, so GPP/ER01. If NEP is positive, GPP/ER >1
and production exceeds respiration (net autotrophy) and if negative, the opposite is true
(GPP/ER <1, net heterotrophy).
Measuring metabolism in a well-mixed volume of water using diel methods such as the
one- or two-station approaches depends on the basic stoichiometry between oxygen and
carbon in the (simplified) conceptual equation describing the uptake of CO2 (the main
inorganic carbon source) to produce organic matter and O2, and the reverse process which
releases CO2 in respiration (CO2 + H20 ↔ CH20 + O2). One molar unit of oxygen is
assumed to be produced in the water column for every unit of organic matter, and similarly
consumed for every unit consumed in respiration. Evaluating temporal changes in O2 during
daylight hours reveals the effect of NEP; evaluating the change during the night shows the
effect of respiration alone. Correcting the O2 measurements for atmospheric exchange
associated with oxygen deficits or surpluses relative to saturation, and assuming that, unlike
autotrophic production, ER occurs at the same rate during the daytime as at night, allows
direct estimation of diel metabolism from a regular series of O2 measurements.
Methods
Site selection
Three sites were chosen for measurements (Fig. 1, Table 1). Everingham, the southernmost
site, is in a residential neighborhood upstream of Syracuse, with low impervious cover.
Onondaga Creek here is channelized and straightened, having emerged 1 km upstream from
a forested area within the Onondaga Indian Nation Territory. The riparian zone consists of
steep, grassy banks with sparse tree cover. This reach is largely exposed to sun. Two urban
sites with impervious cover >50 % were used (CSO-31 and Franklin Square, Fig. 1; Table 1).
The former is just downstream of a numbered combined storm-sewer overflow (CSO) and
the latter is in a similar reach 3 km downstream. Initial sampling took place below CSO-31,
City of Syracuse
Franklin Sq.
CSO 31
1 km
Everingham
Fig. 1 Left: map of the Onondaga Creek watershed showing position of the City of Syracuse. Right: close-up
showing city boundaries and sampling locations, from north: Franklin Square, CSO 31, and Everingham.
Maps modified from K. Hyde and Google Maps
Urban Ecosyst
Table 1 Characteristics of sampling sites. Catchment drainage areas, land cover, and impervious surface
percentages are calculated from LiDAR-based maps (UVM-ESF-USFS 2011). Number of combined stormsewer overflows are from Onondaga Environmental Institute (www.onondagaenvironmentalinstitute.org)
Site
Catchment
Stream
Riparian zone
drainage (km2) width (m)
Everingham
233.4
10
CSO-31
275.2
8
Franklin
Square
321.4
9
Grass, sparse trees
Mixed deciduous trees and
shrubs, rubbish, buildings
Concrete walls topped
with grass
Local %
Number of Local %
urban land impervious
CSOs
surface
upstream
0
10.4
15.0
27
96.8
61.0
38
100
57.5
but access was difficult due to having to scale a fence; hence sampling was moved to a site
with access but still somewhat protected from casual observation.
Data collection
Two multi-parameter sondes (YSI Environmental) were equipped with dissolved oxygen
(DO), temperature/conductivity probes, and pressure/depth sensors as well as data-loggers.
Additionally, one of the sondes had a turbidity probe. The sondes were cross-calibrated so
that comparable data were collected. At all sites, the sondes were deployed in July and
August 2011 by submersing them near the stream bank and tying them by ropes to poles or
trees. Sondes were programmed to sample every 30 min; deployments were 2.5 to 7 days in
duration, depending on conditions. Data selected for presentation here span 2–3 day periods
that cover base flow and rain event conditions, respectively. Additionally, stream discharge
data covering the same periods were obtained from nearby US Geological Survey stream
gauges (Dorwin Avenue, close to Everingham: USGS code 04239000; Spencer Avenue,
near Franklin Square, USGS code 04240010). Sampling occurred during three time periods
that are representative of summer discharge conditions (Fig. 2). Dissolved oxygen and
conductivity were temperature-corrected to obtain DO as percent of saturation and specific
conductance (μS/cm), respectively.
Data analysis
Stream metabolism was computed using the method for a single station (Bott 2007), using
the energy dissipation model (EDM) described therein for computing the reaeration coefficient. Bernot et al. (2010) demonstrated that there is good agreement for gross production
estimates between one-station and two-station approaches; and although gas evasion methods are preferred for reaeration estimates, the EDM is sufficient for our purpose.
Results and discussion
During base flow conditions, water quality parameters were similar upstream of and within
the CSO reach of Onondaga Creek (Fig. 3). Discharge was greater downstream as the
watershed is larger and includes more contributing sources (Fig. 3a), and thermal regimes
were very similar (Fig. 3b). Conductivity is somewhat higher as well downstream (Fig. 3c),
Urban Ecosyst
Discharge, m3/s
a
5.0
4.0
3.0
Dorwin
Spencer
2.0
1.0
b
8/30/2011
8/20/2011
8/10/2011
7/31/2011
7/21/2011
0.30
0.25
Fraction
7/11/2011
7/1/2011
0.0
(2 x 3,864 records)
0.20
Dorw in
0.15
Spencer
0.10
0.05
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
13.5
14
14.5
15
More
0.00
3
Daily discharge, m /second
Fig. 2 Discharge characteristics of study sites are bracketed by Dorwin (upstream) and Spencer (downstream). a hydrograph for July–August 2011, with study dates marked with ellipses. b June–August flow
frequencies, 1971–2012 show that the 2011 study period is typical. “Dorwin” refers to the Dorwin Avenue
USGS gauging station, (near Everingham site) station code 04239000; “Spencer” refers to the Spencer
Avenue station, near Franklin Square, station code 04240010
perhaps due to leaky sewers or other groundwater sources. On the other hand, both dissolved
oxygen and turbidity (Fig. 3d and e) were lower in the CSO region. A particularly striking
pattern was observed in turbidity, which fell and rose in diel patterns roughly inversely to
dissolved oxygen (Fig. 3d and e). Gillain (2005) and Loperfido et al. (2010) observed similar
diel turbidity fluctuations. Loperfido et al. (2010) used an exclusion experiment to demonstrate that no fluctuations occurred if animals could not access the stream reach. They
concluded that the nightly rise in turbidity was due to animals stirring up fine sediments.
This also appears to be the case here, and animal (fish) activity corresponds well with a
draw-down in dissolved oxygen, reflecting the contribution of heterotrophic activity to ER.
A very different picture presents itself during rainfall events (Fig. 4). The first flush of
rain produced a spike in discharge in the CSO region as the impervious surfaces and
drainage network routed surface runoff into the creek; a second rainfall event a day later
did the same thing (Fig. 4a). In contrast, discharge in the upstream reach did not respond to
the first rainfall, and only gradually increased in response to the second event. Similar
“spiky” and smooth responses occurred in all other parameters (Fig. 4b–d). Of particular
note is the immediate warming and freshening (reduced conductivity) in the CSO region
when surface runoff entered the stream. Dissolved oxygen was suppressed at both sites
during these cloudy, rainy days, and was undersaturated the entire period in the CSO region.
This could in part have been due to a biochemical oxygen demand from organic matter
Urban Ecosyst
Discharge, m3s
2.5
a
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
Turbidity, NTU
DO, % saturation
Conductivity, µS/cm
Temperature, C
30
25
b
20
15
Above CSOs
10
CSO region
5
1800
c
1400
1000
600
200
d
140
100
60
20
e
60
50
40
30
20
10
18:00
12:00
6:00
0:00
18:00
12:00
6:00
0:00
18:00
12:00
6:00
0
Fig. 3 Stream discharge and water quality parameters collected over 2 days during a dry period (above CSOs 0
Everingham, 8/01–8/02; CSO region 0 CSO 31, 7/20–7/21). a discharge. b stream temperature. c specific
conductance. d dissolved oxygen. e turbidity. Light gray bars indicate dark period
brought in by the storm sewers, along with transport from upstream and sediment resuspension.
To illustrate the differences in turbidity response to storm events (Fig. 5), we use the CSO
region’s turbidity from the events illustrated in Fig. 4 and a storm event upstream that was
captured during a 7-day monitoring of the creek at Everingham. Not only is discharge
response much lower upstream of the CSOs, but the turbidity response, though elevated, is
much attenuated when compared to turbidity in the CSO region (Franklin Square, Fig. 5b).
In the first rain event, turbidity at Franklin Square shot up immediately in response to the
first runoff flush. This was likely due to resuspension, as well as accumulated matter washed
from roads, sidewalks, and other impervious surfaces. The second and third runoff pulse
events are also followed by turbidity spikes, but the latter are delayed by several hours.
Urban Ecosyst
Discharge, m3/s
12
Above CSOs
a
10
CSO region
8
6
4
Temperature, C
2
21.0
b
20.5
20.0
19.5
19.0
18.5
Conductivity, µS/cm
18.0
c
2000
1500
1000
500
DO, % saturation
130
120
d
110
100
90
80
70
60
0:00
12:00
0:00
12:00
0:00
12:00
0:00
Fig. 4 Stream discharge and water quality parameters collected over 2 days during a wet period above the
CSOs (Everingham) and in the CSO reach (Franklin Square), 8/14–16. a discharge. b stream temperature. c
specific conductance. d dissolved oxygen. Light gray bars indicate dark period
GPP (g O2/m2/day) over these brief observations was higher during the dry period and
also was consistently higher upstream of the CSOs (Table 2). This site was more open and
received more light. Nevertheless, respiration exceeded gross production indicating the
dominance of heterotrophic metabolism as indicated by the GPP/R ratio<1. Within the
CSO region, extensive shading was due to a combination of overhanging canopy as well as
Urban Ecosyst
a
10
Turbidity
Turbidity, NTU
b
8
Discharge
300
6
200
4
0:00
12:00
0:00
12:00
0:00
12:00
0:00
12:00
0:00
0
12:00
0
0:00
2
12:00
100
500
12
400
10
8
300
6
200
4
100
2
0
0:00
Discharge, m 3/s
400
Discharge, m 3/s
12
0:00
Turbidity, NTU
500
0
12:00
0:00
12:00
0:00
12:00
0:00
Fig. 5 Comparison of turbidity responses to precipitation events at a the upstream site (Everingham, 8/01–8/06)
and b one of the downstream sites (Franklin Square, 8/14–8/16) within the CSO region. Gray bars on (b) indicate
darkness
buildings that shaded parts of the stream during some times of the day. The net result was an
attenuation of photosynthesis; we also observed at times that temperatures were actually
lower in the CSO region (data not shown). The negative GPP at Franklin Square during the
Table 2 Ecosystem metabolism as estimated from diel oxygen measurements
Site
Stream
reach
Date
Mean Q Mean Z NEP (g O2/ R_24 (g O2/ GPP (g O2/ GPP/R
m2/day)
m2/day)
m2/day)
(m)
(m3/s)
Base flow conditions
Everingham Above CSOs 20-Jul
0.85
0.46
−0.79
3.25
2.46
21-Jul
0.76
0.45
−0.64
2.93
2.29
0.78
1-Aug
1.87
0.79
−1.40
2.30
0.90
0.39
2-Aug
1.74
0.77
−1.29
2.13
0.84
0.39
CSO-31
CSO region
0.76
High flow conditions
Everingham Above CSOs 14-Aug
0.87
0.46
−1.78
2.30
0.52
0.22
15-Aug
1.07
0.48
−1.86
2.22
0.36
0.16
Franklin
Square
CSO region
14-Aug
2.38
0.72
−0.59
0.14
−0.45
–
15-Aug
2.88
0.75
−0.47
0.22
−0.26
–
Key: Q discharge; Z depth; NEP net ecosystem production; R_24 daily respiration; GPP gross primary
production
Urban Ecosyst
storm events (Table 2) is an artifact of the calculations, and it is likely that daytime
respiration was underestimated, possibly due to conditions not met by the assumptions for
the EDM reaeration calculation. As a result, the site estimates of GPP, NEP and R_24 are not
considered reliable for this period, but are qualitatively indicative of oxygen consumption.
Erickson (2011), who studied stream metabolism over a range of Lake Superior tributary
streams with different amounts of impervious surface (IS), observed a positive relationship
between IS and community respiration, and a negative one between IS and NEP during the
summer, but not during the autumn. In an inter-regional comparison of stream metabolism
comprised of 72 streams in 8 regions, Bernot et al. (2010) found highest GPP in agricultural
areas (3.89±0.17 s.e. g O2/m2/day) and lowest in reference (natural vegetation, low human
impact) systems (1.15±0.02 g O2/m2/day). Urban streams averaged 3.32±0.12 g O2/m2/day
and were not statistically different from agricultural streams. NEP was negative for all land
use types, being most negative in reference systems (−5.71±0.32 g O2/m2/day), least so in
agricultural streams (−1.98±0.12 g O2/m2/day), and intermediate in urban streams (−3.15±
0.2 g O2/m2/day), again indistinguishable statistically from agricultural streams. Compared
to that study, the Onondaga Creek suburban site is most similar to Bernot et al.’s mean
values for urban areas, and within the CSO region of Syracuse, it is more similar to reported
reference stream values. We note however that we are reporting “snapshots,” and more
comprehensive sampling would be required to estimate seasonal patterns (including spring
and fall, during leaf-off). Also, whereas urban streams are consistently elevated in turbidity
and conductivity relative to those in typical forested catchments (Paul and Meyer 2001),
Onondaga Creek is already elevated in these due to the presence of upstream “mud boils”
and salt springs (Kappel 2000, 2009).
Vannote et al. (1980) predicted a “river continuum” of ecosystem processes and ecological communities driven by the geophysical template of streams. As streams widen into
rivers and estuaries, increased light as well as receipt of upstream nutrients (particularly from
agricultural lands) and allochthonous matter set up conditions for elevated primary production relative to ecosystem respiration. In this regard, the CSO region of the Onondaga Creek
deviates from expectations, and under low flow conditions it is more similar to a headwater
stream reach.
The urban stream as “Dr. Jekyll” and “Mr. Hyde”
Those familiar with Robert Louis Stevenson’s classic tale of “The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and
Mr. Hyde” know that the protagonists were actually one and the same person, with a bi-polar, split
personality. In many ways, we feel that many urban streams could be matched to this metaphor.
Within the city of Syracuse, the Onondaga Creek is quiescent during low flow conditions, but its
“Mr. Hyde” behavior emerges quickly when rainstorms occur. In the past, such pulsed events
brought not only stormwater and turbidity, but also increased pulses of nutrients. Syracuse is
gradually separating storm and sewer lines, so much of the time urban nutrient fluxes are similar to
or even lower than is the case in up-catchment agricultural areas (Gehl 2010).
The “Jekyll–Hyde” metaphor may be a useful one for communicating with stakeholders
about the urban stream. Comparisons such as presented here demonstrate clearly the strong
effects of impervious surfaces and stormwater drainage networks. Like many Rust-Belt
cities, Syracuse is beginning to engage its residents in strategies to soften the hardened urban
surfaces (Barnhill and Smardon 2012; Baptiste et al. in press). Demonstration projects (N.
Sun and D. Daley, SUNY ESF, personal communication) and models that can quantify the
effects of reducing urban stormwater impacts are underway (Sun and Hall in press).
Urban Ecosyst
Ecologists familiar with urban hydrology and ecosystem responses may rightly feel that
the information here is a recapitulation of the “urban stream syndrome” (Walsh et al. 2005).
However, by focusing on vignettes of ecosystem behavior, we hope to draw attention to the
importance of impervious surfaces and the need to reduce them in cities that receive high
amounts of precipitation, such as in the Northeastern US. The specter of climate change is an
important consideration, as this region will likely receive more rainfall in shorter bouts
(NECIA 2006). Positioning Syracuse and other “Rust Belt” cities faced with similar climate
projections to reduce stormwater runoff is a key priority, reducing “Mr. Hyde” behaviors to
achieve a system that can provide a fuller suite of ecosystem services.
Acknowledgments We thank A. Boslett for assistance in the field, J. Loperfido for discussions about diel
turbidity cycles, and P. Groffman for comments on an earlier draft. This work was sponsored by the National
Science Foundation (awards GRS-0648393 and BSC-0948952).
References
Baptiste A, Barnhill K, Owusu-Ansah F, Smardon R (in press) Green infrastructure attitudes and perceptions:
a comparative analysis in Syracuse, New York
Barnhill K, Smardon R (2012) Gaining ground: green infrastructure attitudes and perceptions from stakeholders in Syracuse, NY. Environ Pract. doi:10.1017/s1466046611000470
Bernot MJ et al (2010) Inter-regional comparison of land-use effects on stream metabolism. Freshw Biol
55:1874–1890
Bott TL (2007) Primary productivity and community respiration. In: Hauer FR, Lamberti GA (eds) Methods
in stream ecology, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 663–690
Effler SW (ed) (1996) Limnological and engineering analysis of a polluted urban lake: prelude to environmental management of Onondaga Lake, New York. Springer, New York
Erickson JM (2011) Stream metabolism along an urban to rural gradient in Lake Superior tributary streams.
Master’s thesis, University of Minnesota, Duluth, MN
Gehl KL (2010) Multi-scale analysis of synoptic streamwater chemistry and seasonal nutrient limitation in a
mixed use catchment (Onondaga Creek, NY). Master’s thesis, State University of New York College of
Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse
Gillain S (2005) Diel turbidity fluctuations in streams in Gwinnett County, Georgia. Proc 2005 Water Resour
Conf April 25–27, 2005. University of Georgia, Athens
Kappel WM (2000) Salt production in Syracuse, New York (“The Salt City”) and the hydrogeology of the
Onondaga Creek Valley: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 139-00, 8 p. http://ny.water.usgs.gov/pubs/fs/
fs13900/
Kappel WM (2009) Remediation of Mudboil Discharges in the Tully Valley of Central New York. U.S.
Geological Survey Open-File Report 2009-1173
Kaushal SS, Belt KT (2012) The urban watershed continuum: evolving spatial and temporal dimensions.
Urban Ecosyst. doi:10.1007/s11252-012-0226-7
Loperfido JV, Just CL, Papanicolaou AN, Schnoor JL (2010) In situ sensing to understand diel turbidity
cycles, suspended solids, and nutrient transport in Clear Creek, Iowa. Water Resour Res 46. doi:10.1029/
2009WR008293
Northeast Climate Impacts Assessment (NECIA) (2006) Climate change in the U.S. northeast. Union of
Concerned Scientists, Cambridge
Paul MJ, Meyer JM (2001) Streams in the urban landscape. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 32:333–365
Staehr PA, Testa JM, Kemp WM, Cole JJ, Sand-Jensen K, Smith SV (2012) The metabolism of aquatic
ecosystems: history, applications, and future challenges. Aquat Sci 74:15–29. doi:10.1007/s00027-0110199-2
Sun N, Hall M (in press) Coupling human preferences with biophysical processes: modeling the effect of
citizen attitudes on potential urban storm water runoff
UVM-ESF-USFS (University of Vermont Spatial Analysis Laboratory, State University of New York College
of Environmental Science and United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service) (2011) Syracuse
High-Resolution Land Cover 2010: LiDAR data. Online: http://www.uvm.edu/~joneildu/downloads/
FOS/Syracuse/
Urban Ecosyst
US Census Bureau (2011) State and County QuickFacts: Syracuse (city), New York, available at http://
quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/36/3673000.html [accessed 6 March 2012]
Vannote RL, Minshall GW, Cummins KW, Sedell JR, Cushing CE (1980) The river continuum concept. Can J
Fish Aquat Sci 37:130–137
Walsh CJ, Roy AH, Feminella JW, Cottingham PD, Groffman PM, Morgan RP (2005) The urban stream
syndrome: current knowledge and the search for a cure. J N Am Bentholl Soc 24:706–723