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FOREST SERVICE HANDBOOK
ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION (REGION 2)
DENVER, CO
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 – REFORESTATION
Supplement No.: r2_2409.17-2002-1
Effective Date: April 29, 2002
Duration: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
Approved: RICK D. CABLES
Regional Forester
Date Approved: 04/22/2002
Posting Instructions: Supplements are numbered consecutively by Handbook number and
calendar year. Post by document; remove entire document and replace it with this supplement.
Retain this transmittal as the first page(s) of this document. The last supplement to this
Handbook was 2409.17-2001-1 to 2409.17_8.5_Ex.01-02.
New Document(s):
Superseded Document(s) by
Issuance Number and
Effective Date
2409.17_2.1-2.5
2409.17_2.11_ex.02
2409.17_2.6-2.9
None
97 Pages
2 Pages
76 Pages
Digest:
2409.17 – Issues new direction for reforestation programs in Regions 1, 2, 3, and 4. Obsolete
direction on this subject was previously found in FSH 2409.26b.
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This chapter provides reforestation personnel with basic information for reforestation programs
in Regions of 1, 2, 3, and 4.
2.01 - Authority
The National Forest Management Act of 1976 (P.L. 94-588; 90 Stat. 2949; 16 U.S.C. 1600)
guides all management of National Forest System lands in conjunction with other laws.
1. Section 4 of the National Forest Management Act (NFMA) states that the policy of
Congress is that all forested lands in the National Forest System should be maintained in
appropriate forest cover. Appropriate forest cover is described as "species of trees, degree of
stocking, rate of growth, and conditions of stands designed to receive maximum benefits of
multiple use sustained yield management in accordance with land management plans."
2. Section 6 of NFMA states that lands will not be planned for timber harvests unless
there is assurance that such lands can be adequately reforested within five years after final
harvest. This has been interpreted to apply to final harvest of regeneration cuts.
2.03 - Policy
See FSM 2470 for silvicultural activities policy. Reforestation and nursery practices are covered
in FSM 2472 and 2473, respectively.
Regions shall meet Congressional direction through the implementation of the Forest Plan and
Silvicultural Prescription. Species composition and desired stocking needed to meet objectives
are stated in general terms in Forest Plans. Treatments undertaken to meet these objectives are
specified in the silvicultural prescription.
2.05 - Definitions
R-1 Certified Culturist. A certified culturist is a person with a high degree of technical
knowledge in reforestation and timber stand improvement. This person meets requirements in
section 2.11 and may prepare reforestation or TSI prescriptions for review by the certified
silviculturist.
2.06 - References
1. The following are essential companion references to this Handbook:
a. FSH 2409.21e, Timber Management Control Handbook (Region 1).
b. FSH 2609.22, Animal Damage Control Handbook (Region 1).
c. FSH 2409.26f, Seed Handbook.
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d. Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage, Timm, Robert M. Editor. 1983.
(Region 3).
e. Rocky Mountain Resource Information System (RMRIS) User Guide,
(Regions 2, 3, 4).
2. The following list contains important references and should form the basic library for
reforestation programs. As new literature becomes available, libraries should be updated.
a. Primary References.
Burns, R. M. and B. H. Hinkle. 1990. Silvics of North America. Volume 1,
Conifers. Agriculture Handbook 654. USDA Forest Service.
Cleary, B. D., R. D. Grieves, and R. K. Hermann. 1978. Regenerating Oregon's
Forests. Oregon State University Extension Service, Corvallis, Oregon. 286 pp.
Hobbs, S. D., S. D. Tesch, P.W. Owston, R. E. Stewart, J. C. Tappeniner, G. E.
Wells, eds. 1992. Reforestation practices in southwestern Oregon and northern
California. Forestry Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis,
Oregon. 465 pp.
Lavender, et al. 1990. Regenerating British Columbia forests. University of British
Columbia Press. Vancouver, British Columbia. 372 pp.
Lawrence, W. H., N. B. Kvorno, and H. D. Hartwell. 1961, reprinted 1987. Guide to
wildlife feeding injuries on conifers in the Pacific Northwest. Western Forestry and
Conservation Association, Portland, Oregon. 44 pp.
b. General References.
Hallman, R. 1993. Reforestation Equipment. USDA Forest Service, Missoula
Technology and Development Center, Publication 2400-Reforestation. Montana
Technology Development Center 9324-2837, Missoula, Montana.
Larson, J. E., D. L. Campbell, J. E. Evans, and G. D. Lindsey. 1979. Plastic tubes for
protecting seedlings from browsing wildlife. USDA Forest Service, Missoula
Technology Development Center, Missoula, Montana.
McDonald, P. M. 1994. Seedling regeneration and seedling development in group
selection openings. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Berkeley, California. Research Paper PSW-RP-220. 15 pp.
Sathers, R. J. 1989. Summer frost in young plantations. Forestry Canada Pacific
Forestry Center, British Columbia, Canada. FRDA Report 155 N 0835-0752:073
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Schubert, G. H., L. J. Heidmann, and M. M. Larson. 1970. Artificial reforestation
practices in the Southwest. USDA Forest Service. Handbook 370. 25 pp.
Turner, G. T., R. M. Hansen, V. H. Reid, H. P. Tietjen, and A. L. Ward. 1973.
Pocket gophers and Colorado mountain rangeland. Colorado State University, Fort
Collins, Colorado. Bulletin 5545.
c. Reforestation Textbooks.
Daniel, T. W., J. A. Helms and F. S. Baker. 1979. Principles of silviculture, second
ed., McGraw & Hill, New York, New York. 500 pp.
Daubenmire, R. F. 1974. Plants and the environment. John Wiley, New York, New
York. 422 pp.
Geiger, R. 1966. The climate near the ground. Harvard Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts. 611 pp.
Kramer, P. J. and T. K. Kozlowski. 1960. Physiology of trees. McGraw-Hill, New
York, New York. 642 pp.
Smith, D. M. 1997. Practice of silviculture-applied ecology. 9th edition. John Wiley
& Sons, New York, New York.
Spurr, S. H. and B. V. Barnes. 1973. Forest ecology. Ronald Press, New York, New
York. 571 pp.
d. Other General References.
Baumgartner, D. M. and R. J. Boyd. 1976. Tree planting in the Inland Northwest.
Washington State University Coop. Ext., Pullman, Washington. 311 pp.
Cochran, P. M. 1979. Thermal properties and surface temperatures of seedbeds.
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Experiment Station, Portland,
Oregon. 19 pp.
Dahlgren, A. K., R. A. Ryker and Johnson, D. L. 1974. Snow cache seedling
storage: successful systems. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Ogden Utah. General Technical Report INT-17. 12 pp.
Daubenmire, R. and J. B. Daubenmire. 1968. Forest vegetation of Eastern
Washington and Northern Idaho. Washington Agricultural Experimental Station.
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington. Technical Bulletin 60. 104 pp.
Deyoe, D.R. 1986. Guidelines for handling seeds and seedlings to ensure vigorous
stock. Oregon State University, Corvallis. Special Pub. 13.
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Rietveld, W. J. 1989. Transplanting stress in bareroot conifer seedlings: its
development and progression to establishment. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry
6 (3).
Seidel, K. W. 1979. Regeneration in mixed conifer clearcuts in the Cascade Range
and Blue Mountains of Eastern Oregon. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest
Research Station, Portland, Oregon. Research Paper PNW-248. 24 pp.
VanEerden, E. and J. M. Kinghorn. 1978. Root form of planted trees in Symposium
Proceedings. British Columbia Ministry of Forests/Canadian Forestry Service,
Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Joint Report No. 8. 357 pp.
e. Habitat Type and Potential Vegetation. The following habitat type and potential
vegetation references are specific to certain portions of the Rocky Mountain Regions.
(1) Montana and Northern Idaho (Region 1).
Cooper, S. F. K.E. Neiman, D.W. Roberts. 1991. Forest habitat types in Northern
Idaho: a second approximation. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research
Station,Ogden Utah. General Technical Report INT-236. 143 pp.
Pfister, R. D., B. L. Kovalchik, S. F. Arno and R. C. Presby. 1977. Forest habitat
hypes of Montana. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report INT-34. 174 pp.
Schmidt, W. C., R. C. Shearer, and A. L. Roe. 1976. Ecology and silviculture of
western larch forests. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Technical Bulletin 1520. 96 pp.
(2) Central and Southern Rocky Mountains (Regions 2-4).
Auk, R. L., and J. A. Henderson. 1984. Coniferous habitat types of northern Utah.
USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden
Utah. General Technical Report INT-170. 143 pp.
Cooper, S. V. 1975. Forest habitat types of northwestern Wyoming and contiguous
portions of Montana and Idaho. Ph. D. Dissertation. Washington State University.
Pullman. 190 pp.
DeVelice, R. L., J. A. Ludwig, W. H. Moir and F. Ronco. 1986. A classification of
forest habitat types of northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. USDA Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. General
Technical Report RM-131. 59 pp.
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Girad, M. M., H. Goetz and Bjugstad, A. J. 1989. Native woodland habitat types of
southwestern North Dakota. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research
Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-281. 36 pp.
Hess, K., and R. R. Alexander. 1986. Forest vegetation of the Arapaho and
Roosevelt National Forests in central Colorado: a habitat classification. USDA Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper
RM-266. 48 pp.
Hoffman, G. R., R. R. Alexander. 1976. Forest vegetation of the Bighorn
Mountains, Wyoming, a habitat classification. USDA Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-170. 38 pp.
Hoffman, G. R., R. R. Alexander. 1980. Forest vegetation of the Routt National
Forest in northwestern Colorado: a habitat classification. USDA Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-221.
41 pp.
Hoffman, G. R. and R. R. Alexander. 1983. Forest vegetation of the White River
National Forest in western Colorado: a habitat classification. USDA Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-249.
36 pp.
Hoffman, G. R., R. R. Alexander. 1987. Forest vegetation of the Black Hills
National Forest of South Dakota and Wyoming: a habitat classification. USDA
Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research
Paper RM-276. 48 pp.
Moir, W. H. and J. A. Ludwig. 1979. A classification of spruce-fir and mixed
conifer habitat types of Arizona and New Mexico. USDA Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper, RM-207. 47 pp.
Steele, R., S. V. Cooper, D. M. Ondov, and R. D. Pfister. 1983. Forest habitat types
of eastern Idaho, western Wyoming. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report INT-144.
122 pp.
Steele, R., R. D. Pfister, R. A. Ryker, and J. A. Kittams. 1982. Forest habitat types
of central Idaho. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report INT-114. 138 pp.
USDA Forest Service. 1997. Plant associations of Arizona and New Mexico.
Volumes 1 and 2.
Wirsing, J. M. and R. R. Alexander. 1975. Forest habitat types on the Medicine Bow
National Forest, southeastern Wyoming, preliminary report. USDA Forest Service,
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Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. General Technical Report,
RM-12. 11 pp.
Youngblood, A. P. and R. L. Mauk. 1985. Coniferous forest habitat types of central
and southern Idaho. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report INT-187. 89 pp.
f. Tree Species.
(1) Aspen.
Adams, R. D. 1989. Aspen symposium proceedings. USDA Forest Service, North
Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, Minnesota. General Technical Report
NC-140.
DeByle, N. V. and R. P. Winokur. 1985. Aspen: ecology and management in the
western United States. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fort Collins, Colorado. General Technical Report RM-119. 283 pp.
(2) Douglas fir.
Hatch, C. R. and J. E. Lotan. 1969. Natural regeneration of Douglas fir in central
Montana. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Ogden, Utah. Resource Note INT-85. 4 pp.
Jones, John R. 1974. Silviculture of southwestern mixed conifer and aspen: the
status of our knowledge. USDA Forest Service. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experimental Station, Ft. Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-122.
Lindquist, J. L. 1977. Plant moisture stress patterns in planted Douglas fir: a
preliminary study of the effects of crown and aspect. USDA Forest Service, Pacific
Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California. Research
Note PSW-325. 5 pp.
Owens, J. N. 1973. Reproduction cycle of Douglas fir. Pacific Forest Resource
Center, Victoria, British Columbia. 23 pp.
Ryker, R. A. 1975. A survey of factors affecting regeneration of Rocky Mountain.
Douglas Fir. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper INT-174.
Strothem, R. O. 1972. Douglas fir in northern California: effects of shade on
germination, survival and growth. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station Research, Berkeley, California. Research Paper
PSW-84. 10 pp.
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(3) Engelmann Spruce.
Alexander, Robert, R. 1984. Natural regeneration of Engelmann spruce after
clearcutting in the central Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
Research Station, Ft. Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-254.
Alexander, Robert R. 1987. Ecology, silviculture and management of Engelmann
spruce-subalpine fir type in the central and southern Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ft. Collins, Colorado. General
Technology Report, RM-115. 29 pp.
Day, R. J. 1963. Spruce seedling mortality caused by adverse summer microclimate
in the Rocky Mountains. Canada Department of Forest Research Branch, Ottawa..
Report 1037. 35 pp.
Fiedler, C. E., W. W. McCaughey and W. C. Schmidt. 1985. Natural regeneration in
Intermountain spruce forests: a gradual process. USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. Resource Paper INT-343.
12 pp.
Noble, D. L. 1973. Age of Engelmann spruce seedlings affects ability to withstand
fire temperature. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Note RM-232.
Noble, D. L. and R. R. Alexander. 1977. Environmental factors affecting natural
regeneration of Engelmann spruce in the central Rocky Mountains. Forest Science.
23:420-429.
Roe, A. L., R. Alexander, and M. Andres. 1970. Engelmann spruce regeneration
Practices in the Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experimental Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper INT-174. 18 pp.
Ronco, Frank. 1972. Planting Engelmann spruce. USDA Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research
Paper RM-89. 24 pp.
(4) Lodgepole Pine.
Baumgartner, D. M. et al. 1985. Management of lodgepole pine ecosystem, in
Lodgepole pine, the Species and its Management, Symposium Proceedings.
Washington State University Extension, Pullman. 381 pp.
Cochran, P. H. 1973. Natural regeneration of lodgepole pine in south central
Oregon. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experimental
Station, Portland, Oregon. Research Paper PNW-204. 18 pp.
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Lotan, J. E. and D. A. Perry. 1983. Ecology and regeneration of lodgepole pine.
USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C. Agriculture Handbook 606. 51 pp.
Lyon, L. J. 1976. Vegetal development on the Sleeping Child Burn in western
Montana. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Ogden Utah. Research Paper INT-184. 24 pp.
Murry, M. 1983. Lodgepole pine: regeneration and management. USDA Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, Oregon.
General Technical Report PNW-157. 52 pp.
Nairn, L. D. and K. Froning. 1977. Grasshopper damage to pine container seedlings
in southeastern Manitoba. Northern Forest Research Center, Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada. Information Report, NOR-X-191. 12 pp.
Owens, J. N. and M. Molder. 1984. Reproductive cycle of lodgepole pine. British
Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, British Columbia. Information Brochure. 29
pp.
Tackle, D. T. 1961. Ten year results of spot seeding and planting lodgepole pine.
USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Ranger Experiment Station, Ogden,
Utah. Research Note INT-83. 6 pp.
Tackle, D. T. 1964. Regenerating lodgepole pine in central Montana following clear
cutting. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station,
Ogden, Utah. Research Note INT-17. 7 pp.
(5) Ponderosa Pine.
Baumgarther, D. M. 1988. Ponderosa pine: the species and its management.
Washington State University Extension, Pullman. 281 pp.
Foiles, M. W. 1973. Regeneration of ponderosa pine in the northern Rocky
Mountain - Intermountain Region. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experimental Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper INT-145. 44 pp.
Harrington, M. G., R. G. Kelsoy. 1979. Influence of some environmental factors on
initial establishment and growth of ponderosa pine seedlings. USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest Range Experimental Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper 230.
26 pp.
Heidmann, L. J., T. N. Johnson Jr., O. W. Cole, and G. Cullum. 1982. Establishing
natural regeneration of ponderosa pine in central Arizona. Journal of Forestry 80 (2)
77-79.
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Larson, M. M. and G. H. Schubert. 1969. Root competition between ponderosa pine
seedlings and grass. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experimental Station Research Paper, Fort Collins, Colorado. RM-54. 12 pp.
Megahan, W. F. and R. Steele. 1988. A field guide for predicting snow damage to
ponderosa pine plantations. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Note INT-385
Shearer, R. C. and W. C. Schmidt. 1970. Natural regeneration in ponderosa pine
forests of western Montana. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Research Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper Int-86. 19 pp.
Rietveld, W. J. 1975. Phytotoxic grass residues reduce germination and initial root
growth of ponderosa pine. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-153. 15 pp.
Vogl, J. V. and C. Ryder. 1969. Effects of slash burning on conifer reproduction in
Montana's Mission Range. Northwest Science Vol. 43:135-147.
(6) Western Larch.
Schmidt, W. C. 1969. Seedbed treatments influence seedling development in
western larch forests. USDA Forest Service Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Note INT-93. 7 pp.
Schmidt, W. C. 1995. Ecology and management of Larix forests: A look ahead.
proceedings of an international symposium. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain
Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. GTR-INT-310. 521 pp.
Schmidt, W. C., R. C. Shearer and A. L. Roe. 1976. Ecology and silviculture of
western larch Forests 1976. USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC. Technical
Bulletin-1520. 96 pp.
Schmidt, W. C. and J. A. Schmidt. 1979. Recovery of snow-bent young western
larch. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station,
Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report INT-54. 13 pp.
Shearer, R. C. 1967. Insolation limits initial establishment of western larch
seedlings. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental
Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Note INT-64. 7 pp.
(7) Western White Pine.
Haig, I. T. , K. P. Davis and R. H. Weidman. 1941. Natural regeneration in the white
pine type. USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C. Technical Bulletin 767. 99 pp.
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Hoff, R.J., J.I. Qualls, D.O. Coffen. 1987. Western white pine: an annotated
bibliography. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report-232. 137 pp.
(8) Whitebark Pine.
Schmidt, W. C. 1989. White bark pine ecosystems: ecology and management of a
high-mountain resource, symposium proceedings. USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General
Technical Report INT-270. 366 pp.
g. Specific Practices.
(1) Animal Damage.
Barnes, V.G. 1973. Pocket gophers and reforestation in Pacific Northwest. USDI
Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Special Science Report, Wildlife No.
55. 18 pp.
Baumgartner, D. M. and J. Caslick. 1987. Animal damage management of the
Pacific Northwest forests. Washington State University Coop Ext., Pullman,
Washington. 163 pp.
Black, H. C. ed. 1992. Silvicultural approaches to animal damage management in
the Pacific Northwest Forests. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research
Station, Portland, Oregon. General Technical Report PNW-287. 422 pp.
Campbell, D. L. and J. Evans. 1975. Vexar seedling protectors to reduce wildlife
damage to Douglas fir. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Leaflet
508. 11 pp.
Heidman, L. J. 1972. An initial assessment of mammal damage in forests of the
Southwest. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Note RM-219. 7 pp.
Karsky, Richard. 1999. Fences. USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and
Development Center, Missoula Montana. 210 pp.
Larson, J. E. et al. 1979. Plastic tubes for protecting seedlings from browsing
wildlife. USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology Development Center,
Missoula, Montana. 19 pp.
Lawrence, W. H., N. B. Kucrno, and H. D. Hartwell. 1987. Guide to wildlife feeding
injuries on conifers in the Pacific Northwest. Western Forestry and Conservation
Association, Portland, Oregon. 7 pp.
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Loucks, D. M., H. C. Black, M. Roush, and S. Radosevich. 1990. Assessment and
management of animal damage in Pacific Northwest Forest: an annotated
bibliography. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland,
Oregon. General Technical Report PNW-262.
Teipner, C. L. et al. 1983. Pocket gophers in forest ecosystems. USDA Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical
Report INT-154.
Timm, Robert M. 1983. Prevention and control of wildlife damage. Nebraska
Cooperative Extension Service, University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
Turner, G. T. et al. 1973. Pocket gophers and Colorado mountain rangeland.
Colorado State University Experimental Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Bulletin
55YS. 90 pp.
Willard, E. D. Bedunah, and W. Hann. 1983. Forage and livestock in western
Montana in Management of Second-Growth Forests: the State of Knowledge and
Research Needs. School of Forestry, University of Montana, Missoula.
(2) Insect and Disease.
Beatty, Jerome S. 1986. Forest insect and disease field guide. USDA Forest Service,
Southwestern Region, Albuquerque, New Mexico. R3-TP-1.
(3) Site Preparation.
Buckman, R. E. 1974. Environmental effects of forest residues management in the
Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station,
Portland, Oregon. Technical Report PNW-24.
Geier-Hayes, Kathleen; Hayes, Mark A.; Basford, Douglas D. 1995. Determining
individual tree shade length: a guide for silviculturists. USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical
Report. INT- 324. 59 pp.
Graham, R. T. 1994. Managing course woody debris in the forests of the Rocky
Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper INT-RP-477.
Heavilin, D. 1977. Conifer regeneration on burned and unburned clearcuts on
granitic soils of the Klamath National Forest. USDA Forest Service, Pacific
Southwest Forest and Range Experimental Station Research, Berkeley, California.
Note PSW-321. 8 pp.
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Leaf, A. 1979. Impact of intensive harvesting in forest nutrient cycling systems
symposium. State University of New York, School of Forestry, Syracruse. 421 pp.
2.1 - General Reforestation Organizational Structure
The organizational structure of the Region, Forest and District determines where the
reforestation program functions. It varies widely at each level and each Region. Typically, it is
part of the Vegetation Management Program and coordinated closely with the Silviculture
Program. It is one of the necessary programs for implementing a wide array of forest objectives
regardless of the organizational structure.
Implement reforestation practices according to silviculture prescriptions that are written to meet
objectives in Forest plans. All treatments require prescriptions that have been written or
reviewed and signed by a certified silviculturist. All Rocky Mountain Regions have
Silviculturist certification programs and have trained reforestation personnel. All reforestation
personnel shall maintain current training. A list of suggested courses useful when developing an
individual’s training plan are listed in section 2.12, exhibit 01. These courses are required for
R-1 culturists.
Each Region should maintain a Skills List of individuals with specific skills in reforestation and
timber stand improvement activities. Units needing assistance with a specific skill may refer to
these lists to determine where assistance may be obtained. Maintained the list and make it
available from the Regional silviculturist/reforestation specialist or on an accessible web site.
2.11 - Region 1 Culturist Certification Program
This program is unique to Region 1. Culturists are certified by the Regional Forester based on
the requirements listed below along with the recommendation of the District Ranger and the
Forest silviculturist.
1. Certification. Foresters or technicians can be recommended by their District Ranger
and Forest silviculturist if they have met the minimum training and general work experience
qualifications listed in this section.
Certificates are issued by the Regional Office, and a list of certified culturist is issued each year.
Forests must submit their candidates for certification or recertification prior to December 31 each
year. A letter from the Forest Supervisor is required, stating that the candidate has met or
maintained the general requirements and has been recommended for certification or
recertification by the District Ranger and Forest silviculturist. Direct to the letter to the Director
of Forest and Rangeland Management.
a. Required Training. The minimum training requirements are listed in exhibit 01.
Candidates may submit substitutions for required training. For example, a formal
course in insect and disease identification at a university or vocational school may
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substitute for the 2-day session offered by the Forest Service. Contact the Regional
Reforestation Specialist for questions about the availability of courses.
b. General Work Qualifications. Prior to recommending an individual for
certification, the Ranger and Forest Silviculturist should ensure that the candidate has
the following experience:
(1) Has responsibility for independently organizing and implementing reforestation
and thinning programs. This includes all phases of seed collection, site preparation,
contract or force account planting, contract or force account thinning, reforestation
surveys, animal damage identification, and protection. As a culturist, the incumbent
is expected to be able to train and supervise subordinate technicians and seasonal
employees in these phases of work.
(2) Is familiar with the logistics of the databases including Timber Stand
Management Record System (TSMRS), FSVeg and others that pertain to
reforestation/Timber Stand Improvement programs.
(3) Is capable of writing basic reforestation/TSI prescriptions under the direction and
review of certified silviculturists.
(4) Has maintained successful ratings in his/her performance appraisal items relating
to reforestation, TSI and Tree Improvement (TI) work.
2. Recertification. Recertification is required every 4 years. The Regional Office sends
out reminders for those needing recertification annually.
3. Certified Culturist List. Certified culturists in Region 1 are listed in Exhibit 02. These
individuals have been recognized by their Forest as meeting the training and general
qualification requirements for certification as described above. These people are considered
capable of writing prescriptions for reforestation and TSI projects for review by certified
silviculturists.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: Effective until superseded or removed
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2.11 - Exhibit 01
REQUIRED TRAINING COURSES
Course
Given by
Length
Required Frequency
Planting Contract Administration
SO or RO
2 days
Once every 3 years
TSI Contract Administration
SO or RO
1 day
Once every 5 years
Tree Planting Workshop
SO or RO
2 days
Once every 3 years
Reforestation - TSI
Workshops
RO - Forest & Range
Forest Insect and Disease
Detection
RO - Forest Health
Skills for Tree Improvement
Workers
RO - Forest & Range
Variable
Once every 2-4 years
WSU, OSU, States
Variable
Once every 3 years
Pesticide Training
1/
Seed Collection Training
3-5 days
2 days
As they occur
Once every 6 years
Protection
Nursery or tree
2 days
Seed crop years
2 days
As needed
improvement
Timber Stand Management
3/
Record System
RO - SO
Habitat Type Identification
Training
University of Montana
1-2 days
As needed
Animal Damage Identification
USDA, APHIS (Animal
Plant Health Inspection
Service), RO
1-2 days
As needed
Animal Damage Management
USDA, APHIS
1-3 days
As offered
Genetics Education for
Northwestern Ecosystems
(G.E.N.E)
Variable
Once
Genetics Training
2/
1/
Pesticide training may be waived if the Forest silviculturist and District Ranger agree that the culturist has no
responsibilities in this area.
2/
Required every 2 years for culturist responsible for maintaining intensive tree improvement programs, every 4
years for other culturists.
3/
Formal Timber Stand Management Record System training may be waived if the culturist has a working
knowledge of the system and others have responsibilities for maintenance of the system.
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DURATION: Effective until superseded or removed
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2.11 - Exhibit 02
2.11 - EXHIBIT 02 IS A SEPARATE DOCUMENT
2.2 - Reforestation Practices
Document all reforestation practices in a silvicultural prescription. The prescription must
address desired species, stocking levels, time frames, and other technical aspects. Also address
feasibility and cost efficiency of the reforestation treatment. Prescriptions are generally stand
specific, but may also be written for large landscape treatments. Section 2.3 describes
prescription requirements in detail.
1. Reforestation Time Frames.
a. Reforestation Needs Resulting From Timber Harvest. Timber suitability of
particular lands is identified in the Forest Plan.
(1) Lands Suitable for Timber Production: In accordance with FSM 2470.3, design
regeneration harvests and reforestation practices to assure that lands are satisfactorily
restocked within 5 years of final harvest. Final harvest means 5 years after clear-cut,
final overstory removal in shelterwood cutting, seed tree removal cut in seed tree
cutting, or selection cutting. When all seed or shelter trees will be retained through
the rotation, the seed tree seed cut with reserves harvest is also considered the final
harvest. When final removal is not planned, time frames shall be stated in the
silvicultural prescription and shall be consistent with land management objectives.
(2) Lands Unsuitable for Timber Production. Regenerate in a manner consistent with
land management objectives and the NEPA decision; document time frames as well
as species in the silvicultural prescription. When regeneration is required, regenerate
promptly to avoid further site preparation costs and regeneration delays.
b. Reforestation Needs Resulting From Fire and Other Natural Causes. Conduct an
analysis after fire or other disturbances to determine long-term objectives of the land
based on the forest plan. Developing site-specific reforestation requirements is part
of the analysis. The silvicultural prescription shall explicitly state time frames.
Where reforestation is required, design treatments to achieve satisfactory stocking
promptly. Delays in treatment may result in long regeneration time frames or
excessive costs.
2. Species and Stocking. Document species and desired stocking levels in the
silvicultural prescription. Species and stocking guides are generally provided in forest plans or
regional guides. Chapter 9, Stocking Guides and Growth Predictions, and FSM 2470 provide
guidance on development of stocking levels. Stocking levels are based on the objective for the
landscape and should be used in conjunction with an analysis of vegetation successional
requirements for specific sites. Vegetation (tree) succession is well defined in silvics and
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ecological literature. Final species selection requires a site visit to review existing and
surrounding vegetation, and recognition of the target condition considering both biological and
management requirements.
Species stocking and other regeneration considerations are discussed in greater detail in sections
2.3 and 2.4.
3. Reports. Use the regional activity database for activity reporting. Specific regional
reforestation reports are described in section 2.7, Reforestation Surveys and Monitoring.
National reports are covered in FSM 2490.
4. Natural Regeneration. Natural regeneration treatments should be utilized when
appropriate seed sources or reproductive materials are available. Natural regeneration offers
tremendous cost savings compared to artificial regeneration methods. Natural regeneration is
covered in section 2.34.
5. Artificial Regeneration Seed Sources. Seed banks for Regions 1, 2, 3, and 4 are
maintained at these Forest Service nurseries: Coeur d'Alene, Lucky Peak, Bessey, and
Placerville. All seed in these inventories is source identified. Seeds banks should be managed
based on information in the 10-year Seed Needs Plans for each Forest.
Utilize genetic guidelines and ecological principles such as aspect, topography, and habitat type
groups for identifying seed sources. See FSH 2409.26f, Seed Handbook for direction on seed
collection and use.
6. Priorities and Funding. Funding and reforestation priority policies are described in
FSM 2472. Districts can meet these requirements by scheduling reforestation project needs at
least two years in advance in TSMRS or RMRIS. Districts shall review and adjust needs and
planting schedules prior to submitting out-year budget requests and annual sowing requests.
Review and update restoration needs, site preparation plans, and planting schedules at least
annually.
Maintain accurate schedules to facilitate Washington Office, Regional Office, and Supervisor’s
Office reviews of reforestation programs from both fiscal and program management aspect.
Knutsen-Vandenburg (K-V) funds may be used as the primary source of reforestation funding on
timber sale areas. Follow K-V policies when scheduling work (refer to FSH 2409.19,
Renewable Resource Use for Knutsen-Vandenberg Fund Handbook). Use appropriated funds for
reforestation activities where K-V funds are not available.
2.21 - District Reforestation Plans
Districts should develop a logistical plan each winter prior to the upcoming planting year.
The plan is a tool to assure all logistical aspects of the program have been arranged and to assure
people know what is planned and understand their responsibilities. The Ranger should review
and approve the plan displaying concurrence and support of the program. An example of a plan
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for a district with a large program is presented in exhibit 01. Districts with smaller programs
may not need this amount of detail, but they should have a well thought-out and welldocumented plan covering the key points of their operation.
Key items to include in the Reforestation Plan are identified below:
a. Program Overview. Size of program and expected start plant date. Identify
special programs associated with planting including Plant-A-Tree, Arbor Foundation
funds or other special funds.
b. Personnel. Responsible persons including contracting officer, silviculturist,
project coordinator, Contracting Officer’s Representatives (CORs), inspectors,
wrapping shed leader, coordinator of snow plowing, and other logistics persons.
Include brief description of responsibilities and expected work schedule.
c. Stock Inventory. List seed lot and assigned units.
Sub Item
Acres
Elevation
Species
Seed Lot
Estimated Quantity
Actual Quantity
Notes (Is a stake row needed?)
d. Stock Shipment. Identify when stock will be shipped, where will it be stored, and
any special consideration. Specify who will monitor stock once it is stored and who
will coordinate shipping.
e. Equipment. Provide specifics on the type of equipment to be used.
f. Coolers. Identify what coolers will be used, equipment for maintaining humidity,
and checking temperatures. Specify how often coolers will be monitored and who is
responsible. Identify where and how trees will be thawed.
g. Wrapping. Identify major equipment needed and if available.
h. Vehicles. Specify what vehicles will be used, and personnel assignments.
i. Camps. Identify any other accommodations, for example, trailers, camps, or
administrative sites. What bid items will use them? What special requirements are
required? Identify any special equipment that needs to be taken to camp.
j. Field Administration. List equipment available for field monitoring such as soil
thermometers, pressure bomb, pressure jack, belt weather kits, planting weather
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guides, towels, planting hoes, bolt cutters, and hand calculators. Identify who will
have them or where they will be located.
k. Communication. Give radio assignments. Identify radio contacts after office
hours. Assure all employees have emergency contact at all times when they are in the
field. List phone numbers of employees, Ranger Stations and other key contacts.
l. Contract. Identify contractor and contract price. Add any additional known
information, for example, size of crew, expected work schedule. Most of this,
however, is not known until closer to plant-start date.
m. Training/Meeting. Identify training or meetings to prepare for planting. Identify
who is responsible for planning and who should attend.
n. Program Specifics. Use as much detail as needed to outline procedures. Consider
these aspects:
(1) Tree wrapping and dispensing.
(2) Transport and storage at planting sites.
(3) Field inspection - Basic inspectors guide.
(4) Government Inspection Process.
(5) Documentation.
o. Stake Rows. Identify procedure; when trees will be staked, how reference points
will be marked, who will do the installation.
p. Road Management. Identify any specific road management requirements or
permissions that are needed. Identify to which units and restrictions. Identify
coordinator if plowing or cutting of wind throw is needed.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: Effective until superseded or removed
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2.32 - Exhibit 01
Three Rivers Ranger District
1998 SPRING REFORESTATION PLAN
JIM F.
REFORESTATION TECH
Date: February 20, 1966
REVIEWED BY
RUSS G.
SILVICULTURIST
Date: February 20, 1966
RECOMMENDED BY
CHRIS R.
SUPERVISORY FORESTER
Date: February 20, 1966
APPROVED BY
MIKE B.
DISTRICT RANGER
Date: February 20, 1966
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2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
PLANNING
Statement of Logistics
Our reforestation program for 1998 is 1,414 acres.
Actual planting is anticipated to begin around April 13 and be completed by mid June.
An additional 17 acres of Plant-a-Tree target and dollars has been requested, but not yet confirmed.
The district will also be establishing a White Pine progeny test area (cycle 11) this spring on about 11 acres. It is
anticipated that these 4,300 trees will also be contract planted.
Personnel
1. Contracting Officer (CO): Val V.
2. Vegetation Supervisory Forester. Chris R. is responsible for within District coordination, funding,
planning, and project completion.
3. Project Leader. Jim F. is responsible for the overall direction and success of the program. This includes
the following:
a. Task assignment for personnel.
b. Stock coordination with SO and nursery.
c. Receipt, storage, and handling of stock.
d. Silvicultural implementation of the program.
e. Data collection, monitoring stock, and site conditions.
f. Finances
4. COR. Shauna S.
The COR will be responsible for:
a. Personnel and the contract assigned. This individual will conduct the pre-work and be on site as
determined necessary. (Actual on site time may vary according to the contract, weather and site
conditions, stock changes, experience level of inspectors, and any unusual problems).
b. Keeping the project leader informed on the progress of the work, along with discussions of any real
or anticipated problems associated with the contract.
c. Ensuring that all seasonally or permanently restricted roads that are required to be opened for
accessing the planting units are properly posted and then returned to their original status in a timely
manner.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
d. Ensuring scheduling and implementation of the planting activity is accomplished, while avoiding
other resource damage.
e. Ensuring the quality control, quality assurance is reflective of the job being done, and that payments
are current and accurate.
f. Ensure that accurate documentation is kept on access behind closure devices. Follow the district
management policy.
5. Silviculturist: Russ G. Will provide silvicultural recommendations and relate professional feedback to
the Vegetation Forester and Project Leader.
6. Inspectors: Larry T., Justin H. Larry T. will be the main inspector on this contract and will be
responsible for communicating with the contractor in the absence of the COR. Justin will assist Larry in inspecting
around mid-May.
a. Inspector tasks include observing adherence to contract requirements, such as planting spot
selection, spacing, root orientation, species mixing, tree handling, taking both formal and informal
inspection plots, weather monitoring, obtaining tree requests, maintaining planting records, tree counts,
maintenance of daily diary, and restricted road access log.
b. There will usually be an inspector on site while any contract work is being performed.
Administration for excessive or unusual hours by the contractor will be handled on a case-by-case
basis.
c. Formal inspection plots will be completed within 3 days after planting is accomplished.
d. The inspector will record his/her own time and report it to the COR on a daily basis.
7. Stock and wrapping coordinator: Larry T. Larry will be responsible for the seedling storage, and
preparation at both Troy and Sylvanite. Betty J. will assist Larry. These duties include the following.
a. Set up wrapping areas for a safe and efficient operation.
b. Receive tree orders and ensure that proper handling and processing techniques are employed in
acclimatization, wrapping, and transportation. (Quality control)
c. Monitor and document quality of trees received by the district from the nursery supplier.
d. Reports pertinent data on all seed lots, including date and condition of seedlings when wrapped, and
the amount of each seed lot sent to a bid item.
e. Ongoing inventory summaries at both storage facilities.
f. Daily monitoring of environmental factors affecting storage and acclimatization.
h. Keep project leader informed and up-to-date on progress, potential shortages, stock quality, and so
forth.
i. Supervise tree-wrapping crew.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
8. Tree Wrappers. Betty J., Loni S., Faye H.
These folks will be hired on a CWN basis, from April through most of June.
9. Tree planters. Spring = Contract 100 percent
10. Snow plow, open roads. Contract and force account.
As needed, a grader will be contracted to plow snow for access to the planting units.
Depending on the size of the job and availability, Steve Y. and the district backhoe will be used for barrier removal
and follow-up installation.
NOTE: It can be anticipated that long work days and weeks will be required of personnel, however, attempts will be
made to break up work schedules to allow adequate time off. Employees will plan work schedules up to 10 hours a
day, 6 days a week. Comp time (up to 40 hours) may be accrued by an individual in lieu of overtime, if desired.
1. Stock Inventory (see 2.32 - 1988 Spring Stock Inventory/Seedlot Grouping Table).
2. Stock Shipment. Most of the Troy stock and was delivered on February 12. The balance for Troy and
all of the Sylvanite stock will be delivered in April.
3. Stock Assignments. All stock has been matched to individual units according to the silvicultural
prescriptions, habitat type, site productivity, and stock availability (see 2.32 – Stock Assignments Table).
Equipment - Tree Storage
a. The three walk-in coolers, the portable in Troy and four of the ice culverts will be utilized for
storing this year's stock. As in the past, each culvert has a 10-inch to 12-inch ice floor to reduce
artificial refrigeration needs and assist in maintaining adequate humidity.
b. Environmental monitoring.
Culverts. All have minimum/maximum thermometers.
Coolers. Air temperature and humidity will be monitored daily in all four coolers.
A minimum of two tree boxes per unit have been outfitted with probes to monitor root mass temperatures.
Objectives for storage conditions are temperatures at 33 degrees F., humidity over 90 percent and rootmass
temperatures between 33 and 35 degrees F.
NOTE:
1. To facilitate the thawing process, the frozen stock will be segregated as follows: Container- Troy C1,
Sylvanite C, C2, Troy portable Bareroot- Sylvanite C3, C4, C5, Troy C2.
2. To better control the storage temperature range, only one refrigeration unit per cooler will be utilized at
a time. (Odd number in FY98)
3. Environmental monitoring will be done daily in all active storage units. Ensure that any abnormal
temperatures and humidities or equipment performance is immediately reported to the project leader.
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DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
4. Tree Wrapping. All supplies are currently on hand. Bareroot stock will be jelly-rolled in Kimtex after
being dipped in water.
5. Vehicles
Vehicle Number
Type
Supplier
Radio/phone
4550
4X4 Chev Pickup
Refo/TSI
4514
3427
4X2 Ford Pickup
Refo/TSI
1231
6609
4X4 Ford Pickup
Refo/TSI
4511
5118
4X2 Dodge Pickup
Refo/TSI
6. Camps. The living facilities at the Upper Yaak Work Center may be utilized by personnel while
administering the contract.
7. Field Administration. Non-recording soil thermometers, recording soil thermometers, pressure bomb,
pressure jack, belt weather kits, planting weather guides, towels, hoedags, bolt cutters, and hand calculators are all
on hand and will be available to the inspector.
8. Communication. All inspectors and COR will be issued a forest net radio. Additionally, the
radio/phones in 3427, 4550, 6609 are available to aid in communications in the upper Yaak. Some of the other
vehicles have radio/phone capabilities from the field, by using one of the three radio/phone numbers listed above.
However, contact from the base to the field via the phone is not available. (Priority use will be radio, then phone.)
Both of the wrapping facilities have phones.
Title
Personnel
COR
Shauna S.
4150
Inspectors
Larry T.
Loni S.
4110
Wrappers
Off Duty Phone
R.S. Extension
Betty J.
Faye H.
Silviculturist
Russ G.
4119
Project Leader
Jim F.
4331
Mountain Communications
Troy Ranger Station
Sylvanite work center
Directions for dialing direct before 8:00 a.m. or after 4:30 p.m. and weekends.
1. Dial 297-1234 - it will ring twice before you hear a dial tone.
2. Dial 66 when you hear the dial tone.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
3. Dial extension to ring the person you want to speak with.
4. If, after 4 rings no one answers, try later.
Contract: The negotiated solicitation for the 1998 planting (with an option to renew in 1999) was opened
in Mid February, and after technical and business proposal evaluations, was awarded to Forests, Inc. for
$143,357.00. Final copies of the contract and proposal will be distributed to all overhead and to each inspector.
Training/Meeting/Special Projects
a. April 7 (0900 Three Rivers Conference Room) KNF Revegetative Workshop, Kootenai National
Forest personnel. General discussion on FY 97 stake row and indices results and the FY 98 planting
contracts. The majority of this workshop is scheduled to address seedling physiology, (from nursery to
the field) tree care, and stock type selection.
b. Mid-April. Three Rivers Conference room. Three Rivers Reforestation Meeting for Project leader,
COR, Inspector, Wrappers). An overview of our 1998 program. Intentions are to review the
reforestation plan and the contract, and to address specific operational items such as:
(1) Administrating with self-inspection clause.
(2) Communications.
(3) Tree storage, delivery and care of stock.
(4) Overtime.
(5) Documentation.
(6) Safety.
(7) Road access and management.
(8) Tree Physiology.
c. Mid-April, Troy W., tree preparation training and culling specs. Larry T., Betty J., Loni S., Faye H.
d. Mid-May. Spread creek white pine progeny test establishment. The cycle 11 white pine project
should occur at this time, and last 7-10 days. With the exception of the project leader, impact on the
operational program personnel should be minimal.
Program
1. The Three Rivers program of 1,414 acres, and 557,000 seedlings is again one of the larger programs in
Region 1.
2. Our $126,189 stock inventory for completing the program is approximately 13 percent above our
projected needs. This excess appears mainly in the mid elevation DF, plus some PP and LP. The PP will be used
for the P.A.T. planting, if approved. The DF excesses will be used in adjusting for unit overruns and will allow us to
be more discriminate of the quality of DF seedlings sent to the field.
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2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
3. A few of this year's units are replants and have shown a history of being difficult to successfully
establish regeneration. We need to maximize our reforestation and contract administration efforts on these units.
4. As in most years, the blow down and road damage could have a significant impact on access to some of
the units. As a result, consider the following:
a. Adequate preview time prior to planting should be allowed.
b. Ensure the vehicles are equipped with a sharp workable saw, bolt cutters and the necessary safety
equipment is available and used.
c. When a salvage opportunity may exist, saw the material into merchantable lengths, if possible.
d. Be aware of what you are doing, don't exceed your sawing comfort level. People must be qualified
and have a card to operate a chain saw.
e. Don't rush in an attempt to get to the units where road damage may present an unsafe access for the
contractor or us.
NOTE. We need to avoid damage to roads and other resources. If you or the contractor is going to cause damage to
the road, back off. We can come back sometime after the road has dried up.
Whether you are reconning or actively planting, look at how the road is being affected and act accordingly. If you
see runoff, don't just drive by and report it. Often times, 10 minutes with a shovel, or pulaski is all that is needed to
correct the problem.
Increased emphasis on better overall land management, especially in water quality and wildlife security has made
road access a major item. Proper posting and use of closed roads for planting access and the minimizing of road
surface damage is required. Any significant rutting occurring as a result of our activities will need to be identified
and documented for necessary repair.
1. Tree wrapping and dispensing. The contractor will submit a written tree order to the inspector 43 hours
in advance of the time that the seedlings are desired. The inspector will notify Betty J., at wrapperville, who will be
responsible for preparing the shipment of trees. No trees will leave without documentation.
The COR is responsible for getting the tree orders to Betty J. on time. In the event that tree orders are not received
43 hours in advance, the COR will be called and can expect any of the following: late tree order, no trees for that
day, or short tree order.
Upon receipt of a tree order, bareroot will be removed from storage, counted out 50 to a bundle, pruned to 10-11
inches (unless noted otherwise in appendix D) dipped in water and rolled in wet kimtex.
Container stock will be shipped in the original plastic baggies. Depending on medium condition each baggie may be
given a light spray of water and then stapled shut.
Thawing frozen stock
1. Open boxes to facilitate air exchange.
2. Protect trees from wind and direct sunlight.
3. Maximum thawing temperature is 50.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 27 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
Wrapped trees will be returned to original shipping containers and the boxes labeled with seedlot group, bid item,
quantity, and date wrapped.
Acclimatization Method
a. Day 1 - tree order received by 1200.
Day 2 - trees pulled from cooler, pruned and rolled.
Day 3 - trees shipped and planted.
As site temperatures begin climbing into the low seventies and humidities drop below 35 percent, initiate
acclimatization method b.
b. Day 1 - tree order received by 1200, trees pulled from cooler.
Day 2 - trees pruned and rolled.
Day 3 - trees shipped and planted.
Slight variation of acclimatization time in "b" may occur but will never exceed 72 hours (cold storage removal to
plant).
4. Transport and storage at planting sites.
After wrapping and acclimatization the trees will be transported to the appropriate planting sites.
Betty J., with the assistance of the COR, will be responsible for coordinating tree transportation to the units. The
government has opted to accept the contractor's proposal for tree handling. He proposes to haul the seedlings from
the storage facility to the planting units in a trailer, with boxes stacked no more than 2 rows deep and the bottom row
will be on pallets to allow for air circulation. A space blanket will cover all seedlings while in or out of the trailer,
the temperatures will be monitored and the appropriate measures taken to prevent root temperatures from exceeding
40 degrees F. It is anticipated that some supplemental hauling by us will take place. Throughout transportation, the
seedlings will be protected from ultraviolet rays and desiccation by reflective tarps. On site, the trees must be
protected from direct heat and wind. The trees may be kept in the truck placed in a protected, shady area, or covered
by a reflective tarp if they must be left in the open. Shipping boxes and bags will be returned to the wrapping
facility.
3. Field inspection - Basic inspectors guide. Ensure that you, as an inspector, are familiar with all the
contract requirements including those submitted in the contractor's proposal. If you are asked to clarify or interpret,
but don't know or understand, say so. Don't try to wing it, but follow up and search out the answers.
Be aware and reactive to the planting quality at all times. Waiting for the results of the formal plots is not the correct
approach to dealing with less than acceptable work. The end result as shown by these plots should be positive and of
no surprise. Anything less, should have been identified, documented and corrected long before the final survey is
reviewed. It is extremely important to pay attention to what the "real" and present planting is telling you and not
become so reliant on plots as to become oblivious to what is actually taking place. Observe real adherence to
requirements and enforce. When work is not acceptable, it is important for you to not only identify these problems
early, but to get them corrected immediately. Ensure that the contractor and the COR are aware, and
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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Page 28 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
that corrective measures are being implemented. Should corrective action not occur after a verbal notice of
noncompliance, follow it up with a written notice. Adherence to all specifications is important and required.
Nevertheless, seedling root damage or planting below ground deficiencies are most damaging to the tree. Root
alteration and improper handling and placement are not to be tolerated.
4. Government Inspection Process
a. A government inspector will work with the contractor’s inspector initially, to ensure and verify the
competency and validity of the contractor’s inspection system, to come to common ground on
inspection calls.
b. During and after the above, the government inspector will be on site daily to:
(1) Monitor proper tree care and field handling.
(2) Perform random informal sampling of actual planting and identify problems.
(3) Observe contractors inspection process for accuracy.
(4) Ensure planting weather conditions are satisfactory.
(5) Deliver trees and receive tree orders.
(6) Check rate of progress.
(7) Perform general administrative duties associated with the contract.
c. Upon unit completion of the planting and receipt of the contractor’s inspection results, the
government will "cold" inspect the unit at a one percent sample using 1/50 acre plots. Each unit
sampled will be gridded for sample accuracy, with the plots marked and numbered with a wire flag at
each plot center. A map of the plot locations will be maintained.
d. Each unit will be treated in this manner until sufficient confidence is obtained by the COR, that the
contractors inspection process is fair and unbiased. A minimum of 10 percent of the total contract
acreage will be examined using this method.
Should the COR be comfortable with the results and a variation of less than 3 percent exist between the
government and the contractor's inspection, then the government's formal process will be modified as
follows:
(1) Select additional units as needed to be fully inspected by the government based on the following:
(2) A confidence level for continued standard performance by the contractor.
(3) Major variations in contract specs, stock types, and so forth, which may interrupt the previous
acceptable patterns of work. (It is recommended that the final unit be government inspected).
If, on the other hand, the level of confidence by the COR in the contractors work has not been reached
by this time, the government will continue to fully inspect as long as necessary.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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Page 29 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
Documentation. Planting reports, diaries, tree request and road logs will be handled on a daily basis, and all
problems will be carefully and completely documented as they arise. This year’s category pricing contract will
require accurate documentation by the inspector with regard to the amount of various stock types planted in both per
acre and per thousand units Only the COR will have the authority to issue work orders, require rework and to issue
suspend/resume work orders if conditions become unfavorable for planting.
Stake Rows. Pat B. will be installing the stake rows for each planting unit. (see stock assignment notes in Exhibit
05) and recording the appropriate information on the stake row survey form. Every fifth tree on the row will be
measured from the ground line, to the terminal bud, to the nearest 1 inch, and the caliper shall be measured at the
root collar to the nearest mm.
MTR Units. Accuracy in plotting any of the MTR units is critical. Besides planting quality, the plots are used to
determine the overall number of trees planted. On these units, any error in tree count, plus a number of other factors
can greatly skew end results for payment.
Road Management. The use of seasonally or fully restricted roads for our management activities continues to be a
high profile item. If we hope to maintain the ability to reasonably access the majority of our work areas, adherence
to the following is important:
1. Tank trap and gate openings should be limited to the least amount of time necessary to complete the
project.
2. Keep a daily record of opening and closing gates on each road.
3. Road access authorization needs to be properly posted, accurate, and then removed immediately upon
completion of the project.
4. Observe all restrictions in the access authority, not only by us but the contractor as well.
The following is a list of roads that will need to be opened for the spring planting program.
Road numbers and approximate days of use:
Road number
1055
14357A
4425
2391D
4651E
5840
394
393(rocks)
5955
6031(EB)
6045
6045B
Days
3
4
6
3
8
6
8
8
3
3
6
4
Road Number
4444
14357
2201C
4651
14741
757
14153
902B
5932E
6064
4419B
14736
Days
8
4
2
8
4
3
5
3
5
3
7
3
Regeneration Surveys. Surveys will be run in September to determine first year survival success.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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Page 30 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
REFORESTATION ACTION PLAN
The purpose of this exhibit is to incorporate the tree planting contract administration requirements outlined in R-1
dated February 20, 1996. The letter outlines four basic organizational needs to be addressed.
1. Contracting officer must understand the tree planting contract specifications. They must assure that
competent COR are assigned to administer the contract, and they must spend enough time on the planting sites to
have confidence that the contract requirements are being accomplished. The contracting officer on the contract, Val
V., has hands-on experience, and knows the planting specifications. The COR assigned to this contract is well
qualified with years of experience and formal training. Shauna S., COR, has 15 years’ experience. The contracting
officer will spend a minimum of one day per week on each contract during the life of the contract. (More often if the
need arises)
2. COR must be silviculturists, culturists, or people working under or in very close organizational contact
with silviculturists, or culturists. COR will be working closely with Jim F., culturist, and Russ G., silviculturist and
each individual will visit the planting sites not less than every week and a half. The first visit will be day 2 or 3 of
the planting.
3. The traditional involvement of the Forest Silviculturist with tree planting must be maintained. Forest
Silviculturists (or their assistant) must be involved with the contracting officers and assist with the selection of COR
on planting contracts, and they, like the contracting officer, must spend enough time on the planting sites to ensure
that the government needs are being met. If the Forest Silviculturist delegates these duties to an assistant, it must be
clear that the assistant has responsibilities to ensure that the planting contract standards are met.
4. The District Ranger is responsible for the completion of the work. They should be aware of the award
process and to whom the contract is being awarded. They are required to recommend qualified individuals for COR
to the contracting officer. They should take some time to review the work progress in the field.
Jim F. will provide the District Ranger with a weekly summary of all activities on the tree-planting contract. An
award letter was sent out to the Ranger at the time of award.
District Ranger
Contracting Officer
Date
Date
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
Activity
Due Date
Responsibility
1. Refo plan
4/1
F.
2. Revegetation workshop
4/7
D.
3. Initiate stock thawing
F.
Container-Troy
4/1
Bareroot-Troy
4/15
Container-Sylvanite
4/15
Bareroot-Sylvanite
5/1
4. Organize wrapping facility
Mid-April
J.
5. Tree Wrapper training
Mid-April
T./J.
6. Begin spring planting
4/15
District
7. Road plowing
4/15
F.
8. Refo activity review
TBA
District
9. End spring planting
Mid- June
District
10. Regeneration surveys
9/1
S.
Reforestation Assignments
Assignment
Project leader
Stock coordination to district
Storage Monitoring
Tree wrapping facilities
Road plowing
Tree wrapping
Culling and pruning
Transportation to planting sites
Name
Jim F.
Jim F.
Betty J.
Betty J.
Jim F.
Betty J.
Betty J.
Shauna S.
Contract Administration
COR
Inspector
Monitoring (weather, soil, tree physiology)
Time keeping
Inspector training
Tree wrapper training
Shauna S.
Larry T.
Jim F.
Jim F.
Shauna S.
Larry T.
Jim F.
Larry T.
Betty J.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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Page 32 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued
1998 Spring Stock Inventory/Seedlot Groupings
Seedlot group
A
B
C
TOTAL PP
D
E
F
Seedlots, groups
PP 6668
PP 6731
PP 673
Stock type
S9
S9
V6
Elevation
3200
4200
4200
Supplier
C
C
C
DF 7276
DF 7279
DF 4454
DF 4498
DF 7386
B2
B2
B2
B2
B2
3400
4000
4700
4700
4700
C
C
C
C
C
WL 2780
WL 7283
WL 7283
WL 7283
WL 6629
WL 6135k
WL 7284
B2
B2
S9
V6
B2
B2
B2
3600
4000
4000
4000
4500
5000
5500
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
WP CDA
V6
ES 6461
ES 6459
ES 6459
ES 0344
B2
B2
V6
B2
4400
4900
4900
6000
C
C
C
C
LP 6252
LP 7165
V6
V6
4800
5500
C
C
G
TOTAL DF
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
TOTAL WL
O
TOTAL WP
P
Q
R
S
TOTAL ES
T
U
TOTAL LP
STOCK TOTALS
Quantity (M)
5.4
11.5
14.4
31.3
8.0
58.0
20.0
59.0
25.0
170.0
7.0
58.0
5.0
7.0
24.0
81.0
17.0
199.0
C
138.0
27.0
42.0
4.0
10.0
83.0
4.0
9.0
13.0
634.3
Stock Notes
1. The following lots come in a variety of stock types as shown.
Lot
PP 6731
WL 7283
ES 6459
V6
C
K
R
S7
B
J
B2
I
Q
2. The presence of Botrytis in the ES 6459 (v6) stock has been identified. A quick thaw, prior to the plant,
and a visual inspection is recommended. This stock will be isolated in culvert 2 at Sylvanite prior to its use in Troy.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.32 - Exhibit 01—Continued
Stock Assignments 1998
(The original of this table contains 11 pages)
Subitem
Seedlot
Acres Elevation Species Group
Est.
Quantity
1.1
24
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.2
8.9
4600
WL
DF
ES
WP
I
E
P
O
Actual
TPA Quantity TPA Notes
Replant. mix evenly
1 row of 50 stakes.
371
Razed Ruby 1
1.2
2
4600
WL
WP
K
O
China Salvage 20
1.3
38
4700
WL
DF
WP
PP
DF
I
E
O
B
F
.2
.2
.4
14x14 Mix evenly.
1 Row of 25 stakes.
200
5.7
3.4
2.8
1.9
5.2
19.0
DF(E), WP(O) 4:3:3
Upper half Mix DF(F),
WL(I), PFP(B) 3:1:1
2 rows 50 stakes.
500
China Salvage 23
1.4
China Sheep 11
11
4200
PP
B
1.4
125
1.5
6
4400
PP
WP
WL
DF
B
O
I
E
.8
.8
.8
.6
3.0
500
China Salvage 22
1.6
8
4500
WL
ES
DF
WP
K
P
F
O
China Salvage 12
1.7
22
5000
.9
.8
.8
.9
3.4
WL
L
2.7
ES
DF
P
F
2.7
2.7
WP
O
2.7
3x3 Replant Shade
clause5; 1 row 25
stakes.
Mix evenly; 12" scalp
1 row of 25 stakes.
Mix evenly; 1 row of
50 stakes
425
Mix evenly, except
keep
WP and ES off ridge
1 row of 50 and 1 row
of
25 stakes.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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Page 34 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.3 - Reforestation Prescription
A silviculture prescription that is reviewed and signed by a certified silviculturist is required for
all reforestation treatments. The prescription may be prepared by a culturist in Region 1 or
trained reforestation personnel in Regions 2, 3, and 4. Identify reforestation objectives and
vegetation treatments as a part of the landscape analysis and environmental assessment for the
area in question. Prescriptions will generally meet multiple objectives and must consider all
vegetation. The identification and integration of limiting factors and their impacts on tree
seedling establishment and growth throughout the rotation is key to developing a biologically
feasible prescription.
When management objectives make reforestation success questionable, the objective of
obtaining regeneration must be reconsidered. If regeneration is still desired, then constraints that
make it unlikely must be changed.
1. Prescription Elements. Address the following elements in silvicultural prescriptions
for reforestation practices.
a. Species preference based on ecological succession and management
considerations.
b. Reliance on natural regeneration for desired stocking including species and
condition.
c. Type of planting stock, method of planting to be used, and numbers of trees to
plant.
d. Site preparation requirements including fuels treatment.
e. Initial stocking requirements that consider early mortality expectations.
f. Seedling protection requirements with regard to both animals and physical
environment.
g. Seedling growing space requirements considering both understory and overstory
vegetation layers.
h. Potential fire, insect, disease, and weather related hazards.
2. Reforestation Practices. Incorporate the following practices into prescriptions.
a. Site Disturbance. Achieve only the minimum site disturbance necessary to
provide an adequate seedbed or planting site. This includes leaving organic matter
and debris on sites. Cooler prescribed burns, minimal mechanical site preparation
and less site disturbance during logging are beneficial to site productivity and
seedling establishment.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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On some sites, there is potential to achieve too little site disturbance resulting in poor
seedling establishment and growth. Disturb the site sufficiently to remove plant
competition and thick duff to assure seedling establishment. Consider both the need
to protect soil and needs of tree regeneration.
b. Mixed Species. Where appropriate, mixed species should be emphasized. Natural
regeneration can be utilized to complement species mix. Manage for one species only
where ecologically appropriate.
c. Emphasize Microsites. Plant in microsites, as they are the best sites for tree
establishment. As a result of microsite selection, trees will not appear to be planted in
rows. Planted areas will not be easily distinguishable from naturally regenerated
areas.
2.31 - Desired Stocking and Species
State desired stocking and species in the silvicultural prescription. Generally, all areas needing
reforestation treatment, whether created by harvest or natural disturbance, must receive prompt
treatment to ensure objectives in Forest Plans are met. Objectives for sites will vary, but early
seral species are generally preferred where regeneration is necessary. Many western landscapes
are outside the natural range of variability. There has been a shift to more shade-tolerant species
as a result of past selective logging practices and reduction of wildfire across the landscape. The
prescription should address all vegetation through various stages of succession.
The number of trees (stocking) required for a satisfactorily regenerated site is variable depending
on objectives and varying site capabilities.
2.32 - Considerations for Reforestation Prescriptions
Consider critical factors listed in the following table prior to initiating a regeneration harvest or
reforestation project. Failure to consider these factors may result in regeneration failure and
waste of funds.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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Factors to be considered for Reforestation Projects
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Aspect
a.
General relief
Soils
b.
Elevation and latitude
Climate factors
c.
 Precipitation patterns
d.
e.
Habitat type/plant
associations
Species characteristics,
and stand composition
Animal use impacts
 Domestic
 Wildlife
Natural regeneration
potential
Insect and disease
potential
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Site preparation
Artificial seed source
availability
Treatment priority
 Site quality
 Accessibility
Management
constraints
Natural versus
artificial regeneration
Desired stocking
levels
Stock type
Planting season
Contract versus force
account planting
1. Physical Factors.
a. Aspect. Aspect or direction of exposure of mountain slopes is one of the most
important factors affecting reforestation success. South- and west-facing exposures
present a hotter, drier environment than north and east exposures and may be difficult
to regenerate. Insolation varies tremendously with slope exposure during summer
months when moisture becomes limited. Many south and west un-shaded slopes may
fail to regenerate unless every step in the artificial reforestation project is done
correctly. Shade-tolerant climax species, even when planted, will often not succeed
in these aspects initially. Shade and planting of early seral species are generally
required for survival on highly insolated south and west exposures. Animal use and
animal damage to seedlings often occur on these exposures in the winter when other
exposures are snow covered.
North and east slopes are rarely a reforestation problem when silvicultural systems
are properly applied. These slopes are often overstocked. If there is an adequate mix
of seed available, shade-tolerant species may become established at the onset of
regeneration and compete with the shade-intolerant species.
b. General Relief. Slope steepness accentuates the effects of aspect. Insolation
becomes critical on south and west slopes that are greater than 30 percent. Slope also
influences site preparation methods, seed dispersal, and the ability to plant.
Topographical features influence air movement. Dips or depressions of only a few
feet can affect the amount of cold air settling and can result in seedling mortality.
Address potential problems from cold air drainage and frost prior to harvesting. The
shelterwood system can reduce effects of cold air drainage or frost pockets. If
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
clearcuts are used in frost pockets and areas of cold air drainage, species may be
limited to lodgepole pine or blue spruce. Frost resistance by species is discussed in
detail under 2. Biological Factors.
Topographical features also have a major effect on wind patterns and seed dispersal
and subsequently affect regeneration success. Mountain saddles that create wind
funnels are often very difficult to regenerate.
c. Soils. Improper site preparation techniques can damage soils. Consult with Forest
and Regional soil scientists to ensure soil protection standards are met. If not done
carefully, site preparation and reduction of hazardous fuels can seriously degrade the
site and cause reforestation failures or future growth reductions.
Site degradation can result from:
(1) Displacement and movement of topsoil or loess caps into slash piles.
(2) Soil compaction from use of heavy equipment, especially when soils are wet and
easily damaged.
(3) Alteration of soil structure.
(4) Alteration of soil surface by extremely hot burns.
(5) Excessive removal of organic matter.
Design site preparation practices to stay within Regional soil protection standards.
Keep roads, trails, and landings to a minimum in logging units. Ripping may be
necessary to reduce effects of compaction. Keep disturbance of the soil profile to the
minimum necessary to assure seedling survival. Use excavator equipment on fragile
ground. Avoid bulldozers where soil damage will occur. Maintain large woody
debris to enhance nutrient cycling.
d. Elevation and Latitude. Consider elevation and latitude when selecting species
and seed sources for artificial reforestation. Effects can be magnified by topography.
Frost pockets and cold air drainages can be worse in higher elevations or more
northern latitudes.
Elevation is particularly important when transferring seed in the Rocky Mountains
primarily due to a response to cold temperatures. The affects of latitude are also
important particularly in the lower elevation ponderosa pine forests.
e. Climate Factors.
(1) Precipitation Patterns. In the Rocky Mountains, precipitation patterns and
summer drought potential can vary tremendously on sites only a few miles apart.
Correctly identified habitat types are good indicators of these differences. Ensure
species selections meet habitat type group guidelines.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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(2) Snow Load and Movement. Consider snow load and movement when selecting
planting stock. Snow movement can damage seedlings and cause heavy mortality.
Snow creep is most prevalent on steep clearcuts. Shelterwood trees provide some
protection. Some species are more susceptible to snow damage. Previous attempts to
plant ponderosa pine in areas of heavy snow accumulation on steep slopes resulted in
stem breakage due to snow movement down the slope. Both ponderosa pine and
Douglas fir are susceptible to damage. Lodgepole pine, spruce, larch, and subalpine
fir are more resistant to snow damage. Off-site trees are also more susceptible to
snow damage. Species selections that meet habitat type group and elevation/latitude
guidelines will have less potential for damage.
(3) Frost Heaving. Consider the potential for frost heaving when selecting cutting
methods, planting stock, and planting seasons. Alternating freezing and thawing of
the soil causes frost-heaving results, which lifts seedlings partially or totally out of the
ground. Container-grown seedlings are especially susceptible. Fall planted container
stock suffers most because it has little time to establish root systems outside of the
plug. Therefore, container stock should not be fall planted in areas where adequate
snow cover is not anticipated. Other potentially severe problem sites are where there
is high silt content in the soils and on south- and west-facing slopes at certain
elevations.
2. Biological Factors.
a. Habitat Type/Plant Associations. The importance of habitat type is interrelated to
aspect, elevation, and climate. Ecological plant succession can be predicted if the
habitat type is known. Failing to consider plant succession can result in failure or
poor tree performance over the rotation. Refer to section 2.06. for references dealing
with species preference by habitat types/plant association.
b. Species Characteristics and Stand Composition. Specify the acceptable tree
species and tree health and condition in the prescription.
Apply these general rules when selecting species for regeneration:
(1) Species Preference. Select species that fit natural ecological succession patterns
specific to habitat types. Utilize cutting systems and site preparation techniques to
emphasize the preferred species. Do not plant species inappropriate for the
successional stage of the stand in an attempt to obtain species diversity.
(2) Seral Species. Give preference to early seral species, but not exclusive of
intermediate and late seral species. Generally, early seral species have better form,
faster initial growth rates, and higher resistance to frost and insolation damage, as
well as to insect and disease problems. Tolerant species will usually become
established over time.
(3) Multiple species. Utilize practices that favor two or three species, where
ecologically appropriate, as opposed to those that favor single species. There are
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situations where single species management is desired. For example, if lodgepole
pine is the only choice due to cold or ponderosa pine due to drought conditions, then
a single species is acceptable.
(4) Advanced Regeneration. Established regeneration may be retained if
intermediate and climax species are desired. Preserve quality residual trees free of
defect, and exhibiting potential for good growth if they fit ecologically into the newly
created site conditions. This is often easy to prescribe, but difficult and expensive to
logistically achieve. Logging often damages or destroys residual seedlings even
when considerable effort is made to protect them.
(5) Seed Trees. Select appropriate residual trees including those for a seed source for
natural regeneration. Failure of sites to regenerate naturally is frequently due to
absence of a species seed source necessary to match ecological conditions on site.
(6) Site Preparation. Vegetative competition will affect the ability of some species to
become established and grow. Site preparation must be sufficient to reduce the
vegetation that will compete for moisture or light. Competition is discussed more in
section 2.4.
(7) Shade Tolerance. Consider shade tolerance in species selection. Species are
listed in the following order from intolerance to tolerance to shade.
Western larch, Quaking aspen
Ponderosa pine
White pine
Lodgepole pine
Whitebark pine, limber pine, Southwestern white pine
Douglas fir
White fir
Blue spruce
Engelmann spruce
Subalpine fir, Corkbark fir
Grand fir
Western hemlock
Western redcedar
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DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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(8) Cold Tolerance. Frost and cold tolerances affect survival and growth. The
following list identifies species listed in order of their general tolerance to cold and
frost. Quaking aspen occupies a broad range of climatic conditions; therefore, cold
tolerance is variable.
Lodgepole pine
Blue spruce
Subalpine fir, Corkbark fir
Engelmann spruce
Western white pine
Western larch
Ponderosa pine and Southwestern white pine
Douglas fir
White fir
Western hemlock
Grand fir
Western redcedar
Lodgepole pine is the most frost- and cold-resistant species. On many cold problem
sites, species including Engelmann spruce regenerate only under a sheltering
overstory. The cold tolerance of western larch and aspen comes from the ability to
flush again following frost damage. New growth is not frost tolerant.
There is considerable variance within species and between seed lots to frost and cold
damage. Cold tolerance is a major factor determining seed transfer rules.
c. Animal Use Impacts. Plantation failures can result from animals such as big game,
cattle, pocket gophers, voles, or hares. Do not implement reforestation treatments on
areas with historically heavy animal use unless the reforestation plan includes
changing this pattern of use or providing for seedling protection.
(1) Domestic. Unmanaged livestock can destroy plantations and keep stands in the
grass-sod phases of succession for years. The total effect of cattle grazing on the site
is often more damaging to reforestation efforts than the direct damage they cause to
trees by trampling. Overgrazing causes soil compaction and removes food supplies
normally available to other animals. Both big game and rodents will browse trees
when preferred vegetation becomes absent or scarce.
Coordinate with range specialists during the environmental assessment and planning
stage of a project to reduce potential damage problems. Evaluate the most costeffective way to coordinate grazing and regeneration.
Apply the following guidelines to minimize livestock damage:
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(a) Do not plan regeneration harvest units in areas with known livestock
concentrations, or where future concentrations are expected unless protective
measures are included and will be effective.
(b) Protect seedlings when regeneration harvests are planned and livestock damage is
likely to occur. Fencing or using a rest rotation grazing rotation can be effective. In
some cases, a minor shift in the location of a harvest unit may avoid livestock
concentrations.
(c) Unless other protection measures are applied, avoid grazing for at least 3 to 5
years after planting or until seedlings can withstand grazing without substantial
damage. Grazing systems, such as deferred rotation and rest rotation on grazing
allotments provides grazing and tree regeneration at minimum costs.
(d) Additional range riding, or range improvements may be useful in controlling
livestock. Fencing, both permanent and temporary, can be successful when it is
properly maintained. Both K-V and appropriated reforestation funds can be used for
protective fencing.
(e) Do not place salt or mineral blocks within or adjacent to regeneration areas.
(f) Do not permit cattle in regeneration areas until new tree leaders have hardened
and become woody. Bulls occasionally cause rubbing damage to sapling trees and
should be removed from the range by mid-season or as soon as breeding is
completed.
(g) Use tree stock and species that are most tolerant to wounding when reforesting
units where other means of protection measures are not possible. All species are
susceptible to death or damage by trampling during the first few seasons after
planting, although some species are more tolerant than others. Any scarring to the
bole of the tree is an entry point for disease-causing organisms that may kill it
promptly or spread throughout the tree later in its development. Tree species that are
able to produce higher levels of pitch may be more resistant to wounding. Large,
woody stock is more resistant. Container stock or young bareroot stock is most
susceptible and should be used only when sufficient debris is left for protection.
As trees become established and develop root systems, they become more tolerant to
minor damage. By the time trees are 2½ feet in height, trampling damage does not
occur since branches tend to keep cattle away from the tree bole.
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Tree Species Tolerance to Wounding
Western white pine.
Slightly tolerant.
Western larch, Douglas fir, grand fir,
Engelmann spruce, white fir, blue
spruce, and quaking aspen.
Least tolerant. Highest level of
mortality when damaged. These
species should not be planted in
grazing areas without specific
provision for protection.
(h) Natural regeneration, like artificial, is intolerant to grazing until trees are 2½ feet
in height. Germinating natural seedlings are completely intolerant to trampling.
Unless protective measures are taken along with proper livestock management,
chances of obtaining prompt natural regeneration sufficient to meet objectives are
unlikely.
(i) Utilize appropriate site preparation to meet regeneration, fuels management, and
livestock grazing needs. Retain down woody debris for seedling protection. Refer to
Graham reference in section 2.06g (3) Site Preparation, for appropriate levels of
woody debris. Acceptable regeneration of the site requires appropriate spacing and
size of debris to provide protection.
Broadcast burn and piling prescriptions should include provisions for retention of
woody debris for seedling protection. During tree planting, planters must utilize the
debris left for protection. Plant seedlings as close to stumps and logs as possible.
Debris retention is one of the most cost-effective means of dealing not only with
cattle damage, but big game damage as well.
(j) Other animal such as deer, elk, and gophers will often prefer areas used by cattle
as well. Seedlings may need protection from these animals, as well as from the
livestock.
(k) Monitor plantations frequently to determine when and if damage is occurring.
For example, elk and deer damage tends to occur in winter and spring on transitional
range. Livestock damage typically occurs during summer grazing periods. Staked
trees can be useful in monitoring damage. Check staked trees, or conduct other
monitoring, at the end of summer and again in spring to help identify whether damage
is attributable to domestic livestock or wildlife.
(l) Develop site-specific management regimes for both forage and tree regeneration.
Timing of livestock entry and exit from the range is critical, as is controlled and
timely movement of livestock. Adhere to range readiness standards. These regimes
must be carefully coordinated, reviewed, funded, and monitored by both range and
reforestation managers.
(2) Wildlife. Wild animal damage to seedlings in the Rocky Mountains is generally
localized and predictable under certain conditions. Big game damage can be
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expected in winter range and some early spring ranges. Heavy levels of site
preparation can increase damage by rodents, especially pocket gophers. For specific
problems refer to appropriate animal damage references in section 2.06, item g(1).
Field personnel need to be able to identify animal damage causal agents. Refer to
section 2.06, item g(1) for identification keys. The Guide to Wildlife Feeding Injuries
on Conifers in the Pacific Northwest (Lawrence et al.) is a useful photographic key.
Animal damage patterns change over time. Be alert to these changing patterns in
order to anticipate problem areas. For example, in recent years, big game populations
have generally been increasing and damage to regeneration has increased
correspondingly. Patterns of use have also changed with the increase in populations.
On sites where the pattern of use is of a short seasonal duration, manipulation of
debris, planting extra trees, and planting in stationary microsites can be effective.
Netting or vexar tubes may be effective for protection from big game browsing.
Commercially available repellents should be considered for gopher control. These
types of protection require repeated treatments and can be quite expensive. Thus
indirect methods that avoid animal damage control are preferred.
On sites where animals remain in the area for long periods of time, and repeatedly
browse plants almost to the point of obliteration, reforestation will be difficult and
expensive. Alternatives can include fencing or coordinated effort to reduce animal
use, or amend management objectives so that prompt regeneration is not a goal. This
may result in re-classification of the land from suitable for timber production to
unsuitable.
Other animals, especially rodents, have populations that cycle rapidly and their
damage to regeneration can vary over short periods of time. Be alert for these
changes.
Consider methods to avoid animal damage when preparing prescriptions.
(a) Piling and Burning Slash. Steps taken during site preparation are often the most
prudent way of preventing animal damage available to land managers. Piling and
burning of logging slash, if too intensive, facilitates big game and cattle trampling
damage to seedlings and can create pocket gopher problems. Broadcast burning or
piling that leaves large scattered debris and brush for protection of seedlings is
beneficial.
Scatter or promptly burn concentrations (piles) of slash. Piles of slash created by
dozer piling or hand piling can provide habitat for small seed-eating and seedlingdamaging rodents.
(b) Tubing. Plastic tubing can provide effective, but expensive, early protection from
animal feeding damage. Refer to the reference in section 2.06 item g(1) on plastic
tubes. Tubing is not a one-time expense. Tubes must be maintained yearly from 1 to
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4 years after they are installed. They should be removed prior to causing damage to
the seedling if they do not degrade in sunlight.
(c) Netting. Plastic netting treatments are also effective under some conditions.
Netting is cheaper to apply and maintain than tubes.
It is critical that netting has the ability to stretch in areas of tree growth and at the
same time hold tight near the base of the tree. Some netting is a heavier gauge and
may be useful for protecting larger seedlings. Products that do not have the stretching
capability may actually constrict the seedling and distort growth. Netting should have
a photo degradation period long enough to protect the seedlings for 2 to 3 years. To
determine the best product, districts planning to net for the first time should contact
other districts that have had experience. Refer to the Regional Skills List (sec. 2.1)
for a list of experienced people.
Like tubes, netting must be maintained annually for 2 to 3 years following initial
application until they are removed or they photo-degrade. Netting and tubes have
provided good to excellent control, primarily in areas of temporary seasonal use. In
areas of very heavy or concentrated animal use, neither tubing nor netting is effective.
(d) Fencing. Fencing can exclude both cattle and big game although specially
constructed fencing is required for big game. Big game fences should only be used to
protect high value areas from big game due to the high costs involved. Electric
fencing has generally not proven to be cost effective because of maintenance costs.
Refer to the reference by Karsky, under section 2.06 item g., Special Practices, for
designs and more information.
(e) Repellants. There are commercially available chemicals that have repellant
qualities that cause some animals to avoid seedlings. Species respond differently to
various chemicals. Success is variable and the chemical must be repeatedly applied
as it provides protection for about 60 days on most areas. It is preferable to apply the
chemical just prior to expected animal damage.
(f) Poison Baits. Baiting with rodenticides can be highly effective in reducing pocket
gopher populations. Gopher tunnels are baited with a poison such as strychninetreated oats. Hand baiting may be done in late summer or fall but it may be preferable
to bait in spring before breeding. Repeated treatments are generally required until
vegetation progresses and no longer supports gopher populations or until trees reach a
size where gophers cause little damage. Pre-and post-treatment surveys are required.
Refer to references in section 2.06 item g(1) Special Practices and R1 FSH 2609.22
Animal Damage Control Handbook for additional information.
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(g) Species Selection. Some species are more prone to browse damage. Make
species selections considering animal use in conjunction with other ecological
considerations.
(h) Microsites. Selecting appropriate microsites during planting are discussed in
sections 2.4 and 2.6 on Site Preparation and Planting.
Select planting spots (microsites) in protected areas, for example, next to stumps or
along logs. Use protection clauses in reforestation contracts when planting in areas of
potential animal damage.
(i) Planting Densities. In areas of light or occasional use it is often effective to
increase planting densities to compensate for anticipated losses. For example, plant at
8 feet by 8 feet spacing rather than 9 feet by 9 feet spacing. Often, increased stocking
density, and leaving debris for protection, is effective in abating animal damage.
However, in areas of heavy use, this has little effect and allows more trees to be
damaged.
(j) Stock Size. Bareroot 2-0 stock can withstand some light browsing, trampling, and
clipping, thus, is the best stock to use in animal-damage areas. Containerized stock
and 1-0 bareroot is less able to withstand browse damage and should not be used
unless there are sufficient protective measures.
d. Natural Regeneration Potential. Consider the following factors when preparing a
reforestation prescription for natural regeneration.
(1) Seed Source. The seed source needs to be available either as a seed wall or as
residual trees within the unit. Trees that are considered as a seed source must be
phenotypically acceptable. Consider wind patterns, as they will affect seed dispersal.
(2) Seed periodicity. Periodicity of the cone crop will affect availability of seeds.
Time site preparation with production of seed crops when possible. Recognize
factors that affect cone crop production unique to your area. For example, western
larch is frequently a poor seed producer in northern Idaho due to cold problems.
Ponderosa pine cone crops are typically inconsistent in the higher elevations of its
range.
(3) Insect and Disease. Consider current or potential insect and disease infections
that can reduce cone production. For example, spruce budworm previously
eliminated most Douglas fir seed crops over a wide area in western Montana for
almost 10 years.
(4) Serotiny. Determine the level of cone serotiny for lodgepole pine stands, as it
will affect regeneration patterns. Serotinous cones left on the ground after site
preparation will be a good seed source, but a poor source if left on standing trees.
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(5) Coppice Sprouting. Assess sprouting potential for species such as aspen to assure
adequate numbers of sprouts can be expected.
e. Insect and Disease Potentials. All Rocky Mountain species have both resistance
and susceptibility to native pests that can attack them throughout their rotation. It is
generally unwise to base species selection on resistance or susceptibility to one pest
Keeping the stand in a healthy condition via stocking control will improve resistance.
It is necessary to select the species or group of species best adapted to the site, as they
will best endure the physical drought, frost, and stresses of the site. Trees that thrive
in spite of these stresses will be more resistant to the diseases and insects that may
attack them later in the rotation.
Consider selecting for resistance in cases like the following:
(1) On sites known to be infected with root pathogens, gains can be expected with
careful species manipulation. Species chosen must fit the ecological requirements of
the site; otherwise, the situation will persist.
(2) On sites being managed for a mixture of age or size classes, some insects and
diseases can be more of an impact than in single-storied stands. Older trees have the
potential to harbor insects and disease and affect smaller trees. Mistletoe, rusts, and
spruce budworm are examples of many potential insects and disease problems that
can be worse in a multi-storied stand.
(3) Due to white pine blister rust, western white pine must be managed differently
from other species. Use only rust-resistant planting stock that is produced at tree
improvement orchards. Seedlings have varying levels of resistance. Consider
resistance levels (if known) of planting stock and hazards of the site when
determining planting densities needed to meet management objectives. Utilize
breeding programs and resistant stock for whitebark pine and other white pines when
it is available.
3. Logistical Factors.
a. Site Preparation. Site preparation is often the most crucial part of the reforestation
prescription for both natural and artificial regeneration. Maintenance of coarse,
woody debris is beneficial for trees. Seedlings often require dead material, logs, and
stumps for shade and wind protection as well as protection from animals. This
material is also necessary to maintain organic matter on the site for both physical and
biological soil enhancement.
Site preparation must be adequate to assure that established competing vegetation is
reduced and microsites for new tree regeneration are created. Generally, mineral soil
must be exposed and competing vegetation removed so that trees can be established
in the early successional stages. However, excessive site preparation can damage
soils. For example, bulldozer work to clear the site may cause soil compaction or
disrupt the physical structure of the soil, reducing moisture retention and nutrient
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regimes. Excessive clearing of south and west slopes can remove essential microsites
necessary to protect seedlings from insolation and animals. Site preparation that
leaves debris and scattered plants of all types is preferable. On some sites,
regenerating brush can be beneficial for shade and protection of seedlings as long as
the site is still acceptable for tree establishment. However, once brush has fully
occupied the site, it is difficult for trees to become established. Animal damage to
tree seedlings is often less on sites with adequate (alternate) preferred browse.
Damage from pocket gophers is less on sites that have not been excessively cleared
and are more similar to natural successional conditions.
Consider probable vegetative response of the habitat type during the prescription
phase of the project. Refer to the publication by Seidel in section 2.06 d. and
information on habitat types in section 2.06 e. for information specific to habitat
types. Some habitat types should only be burned lightly or not at all. Subalpine fir
habitat types respond poorly to intense burning if lodgepole pine seed sources are not
available. Engelmann spruce may not regenerate without site protection from an
overstory; it also requires a thin layer of organic matter and litter for healthy
regeneration. The natural fire history described for habitat types are good indicators
of appropriate treatment. For example, if hot ground fires are not part of the natural
fire cycle, they should generally not be prescribed.
Document the amount of site preparation necessary to meet reforestation objectives in
the site-specific prescription. Follow the prescription during logging and site
preparation.
b. Seed Source Availability. Evaluate both natural and artificial seed sources for the
site for genetic quality. Seed from the site or from nearby sites is usually adapted to
the site. However, the species must match the successional stage of the site. For
example, early seral species require an open-grown, early successional condition and
may not establish and grow in later successional stages. Seed source of planted
seedlings shall be consistent with seed transfer guidelines described in FSH 2409.26f,
Seed Handbook.
Evaluate the history of old plantations before considering them as a suitable seed
source. Some older plantations were planted with off-site trees and are now of seedbearing age. Off-site trees may have been from sources hundreds of miles away or
they may have been from a local area but the wrong elevation zone. Off-site trees
should be removed (harvested) whenever possible to avoid further seed and pollen
contamination of the area.
c. Treatment Priority. Laws and policies guiding reforestation timeframes, described
in section 2.2, shall influence priorities. Priority should also consider factors such as
need for timely reforestation, site quality, seed availability, site preparation,
accessibility, economic efficiency, and logistics.
Each district shall assess reforestation needs and establish a priority list for
reforestation projects. This should be done by keeping planned activity needs
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updated in the R-1 Timber Stand Management Record System (TSMRS) or the
Rocky Mountain Region Information System (RMRIS).
Schedule treatments considering all factors. Reforestation of current harvests or
recent wildfire usually takes precedence over older work because the site preparation
is fresh. Inaccessible sites do not justify expensive reforestation practices if
assessable sites go unattended. Plan reforestation efficiently by grouping units that
are logistically easiest to accomplish, such as their proximity to each other and
closeness to roads.
d. Management Constraints. Management objectives can influence reforestation
work. Some management objectives can result in reforestation that is more costly or
difficult to achieve. For example, if elk-feeding stations are near harvest areas, the
prescription and supporting documents must include costs for seedling protection or
that associated with delayed regeneration. It is preferable, however, to utilize
integrated approaches that avoid conflict from the onset and eliminate the need to
mitigate after the fact.
e. Natural Versus Artificial Regeneration. Select silvicultural systems that favor
natural regeneration if proper seed source is available after considering species,
genetic quality, and ecological succession patterns. Plan artificial regeneration after
fully considering natural regeneration opportunities.
There are situation when artificial reforestation should be the selected alternative.
Some examples are:
(1) Lack of proper species or genetic quality seed sources in adjoining stands or
residual overstory.
(2) Low probability of seed production in quantities to regenerate the site within
required time frames.
(3) Logistical problems in cutting or site preparation practices that will not allow for
proper seedbed preparation for natural seedlings.
f. Desired Stocking Levels. Determine desired stocking levels for the stand based on
resource objectives. The prescription must consider needs and priorities of that site
for 80 to 200 years or more into the future. It is common to have desired stocking
during the regeneration phase of the stand at 125 to 400 trees per acre. Dry
ponderosa pine stands may be below 100 trees per acre, however, and aspen stocking
may be as high as 40,000 stems per acre initially. These numbers will vary
considerably across the full spectrum of specific sites due to varying objectives.
Specify desired and minimum stocking levels in the prescription. Initial planting
densities should reflect anticipated mortality and natural fill in. Do not set planting
densities based on the desired stocking at maturity alone. Consider trajectory of
stocking throughout the life of the stand.
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g. Types of Stock. Tree stock, bareroot or container, differs in tree size (caliper and
height), root length, and other physiological characteristics. The stock size and type
has an affect on regeneration success.
Assuming the stock is in good physiological condition, stem caliper is more important
than height. Bareroot stock with 4 to 6 mm caliper and root systems 10 to 12 inches
long will out perform tall, spindly stock. In general, trees planted on severe sites or
on slopes with south and west exposure should have a 4 mm caliper; shade may also
be required. Caliper is directly related to amount of bark insulating cambial tissue
and water conducting tissue within the stem. Caliper also is generally related to the
amount of reserve carbohydrate in nursery grown seedlings.
Tree age also is important as it affects the amount of secondary tissue. Seedlings with
more secondary tissue can withstand harsher conditions.
Growing seedlings in larger containers should result in better root-to-shoot ratios;
however, there is little or no secondary tissue. Thus, the seedling is still vulnerable to
high insolation. Careful selection of microsites for container stock is generally better
than increasing stock size.
(1) Bareroot Stock. Refer to section 2.95 for stock specifications. Information on
bareroot stock types is described below:
SRING BAREROOT AND TRANSPLANT STOCK
1-0 Bareroot 1-0 stock is a year old seedling grown for one season in the seedbed
prior to shipping. It is bigger than container stock and has more
woody structure, but it is still a 1-year- old seedling physiologically.
1-0 does not have characteristics such as thicker bark, secondary
needles, and thicker roots that 2-year old seedlings have.
2-0 Bareroot 2-0 stock is grown for two growing seasons in a seed bed and no
years in a transplant bed. In general, 2-0 bareroot will perform
adequately on almost all planting sites assuming tree handling and
planting quality standards are met. This stock has the sturdiness and
reserve power to withstand animal damage, heat damage at ground
line, drought, frost, and other factors better than 1-0 stock or
container stock. Bareroot can only be spring planted. Container
stock may be better on shallow soils.
3-0 Bareroot Bareroot 3-0 is grown for 3 years in a seedbed and is needed when
large enough stock cannot be grown in 2 years.
Transplants Transplant stock is bareroot stock that was grown in the seedbed and
then moved to transplant beds for an additional growing year prior to
shipment. Stock that was grown 2 years in the seedbed and one year
in the transplant bed is 2-1 stock. Stock grown one year in the seed
bed and one year in the transplant bed is 1-1 stock. The general
result is sturdier stock with more fibrous roots and better initial
growth than a 2-0 or standard container grown tree.
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SRING BAREROOT AND TRANSPLANT STOCK
Transplant stock is recommended for good sites where intense
vegetative competition is expected. Roots will be more massive
with a proliferation of fibrous roots, and the trees will be larger.
Soils must be deep and have little rock. Shovel planting is often
preferred over augers, mattocks or bars. Initial growth response is
usually better than other stock. Transplants are not recommended
for drought-prone or rocky sites.
Container stock grown in the green house and then extracted from
the container and grown in outside transplant beds for an additional
growing year is also considered transplant stock and is termed
“plug+1” transplants. Small containers are commonly used when
transplanting is planned. The plug+1 generally develops into a
larger seedling with more root development than it would as either a
container or 2-0 bareroot seedlings.
Problems unique to transplanting include root sweep and root rot
problems. Transplants are expensive in relation to other stock types.
Holding stock scheduled for planting the current year for another
year is not the same thing as scheduled transplant stock and is
generally not desirable. This stock is not cultured for transplanting
and should be called transplanted holdover stock.
(2) Container Stock. Containerized trees are grown under varying combinations of
enclosed greenhouses, shelter houses, and open outside conditions. In general, the
longer trees are grown out of the greenhouse, the less tender the seedlings are. These
seedlings respond to environmental extremes after planting much better than
greenhouse seedlings. Container trees have the advantage because their roots are
damaged only slightly, if at all, when extracted from the plug. Theoretically, tree size
can be more precisely controlled in containers in the greenhouse and trees can be
grown to specific size standards. However, all container stock is much like 1-0 stock.
Growing the seedlings in larger containers does not increase the secondary tissue.
However, container stock is best for good to moderate planting sites. Harsh,
droughty, and animal damage prone sites can be planted with container stock if the
trees are planted with good microsites.
Container stock expands planting windows beyond the traditional spring planting
window. In the northern and central Rockies, container-grown seedlings can be
planted in early summer (late June through early July) and in late summer-fall (midAugust through September) as well as in the spring. In the southern Rockies,
container stock can be planted to coincide with summer rainfall patterns. They are
especially useful on high-elevation sites that are snow covered in winter, are difficult
to reach in spring, and have high snow plowing costs. Container stock is useful in
rocky soils where it is difficult to open holes large enough for bareroot seedlings.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
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They can be used to take advantage of recent site preparation due to the short growing
time. Trees can be grown in 1 year instead of 2, and ordered in November for the
next summer and fall planting seasons.
There are a variety of container stock sizes that can be used to meet specific site
conditions. Work with the regional silviculturist/reforestation specialist and nursery
personnel to select appropriate containers and to grow seedlings of varying
specifications to accommodate specific site conditions. Seedlings produced at lower
densities generally have better caliper. Refer to section 2.95 for information on
standard stock size.
Characteristics of container stock grown are described below:
CONTAINER STOCK
Spring
Container
Stock grown for spring planting is sown the year prior to delivery. The
exact sowing date will vary, but is usually around mid-spring. The trees
complete a full growing season at the nursery. They set terminal buds and
are hardened off for winter freezer storage. The trees are normally freezer
stored from November or December until they are planted the next spring.
These trees will initiate new top and root growth after planting. Initial root
growth and overall performance has been better than fall-planted
containers, but may not quite as good as summer plants because of the root
growth and shoot growth patterns.
Summer
Container
Stock grown for summer planting is sown in February (occasionally
January). The early sowing date requires more heating and lighting at
early stages. Trees undergo a part of their growing season at the nursery,
but complete their growth after planting. When trees leave the nursery,
they have completed height growth, set a terminal bud and have undergone
some stem toughening. They are not frost hardy which is important to
consider when timing the planting activity.
These summer-planted trees will complete diameter and root growth in the
field. Growth and tree hardening proceeds normally during summer and
fall. This scenario very closely mimics the growth and hardening process of
natural seedlings. This stock will produce some very vigorous root growth
in the field in the first growing season. Summer stock on high-elevation
sites (usually lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce) will out perform fallplanted trees. They also do very well with other species on moist, midelevation productive sites.
Larger container sizes may require an early sow or special growing
conditions to assure the roots fill the plug.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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CONTAINER STOCK
Fall
Container
Fall stock is sown later and grown later into the season. Fall- planted
trees have undergone most of their diameter growth and root growth at
the nursery. Trees planted early in the fall season still have some
capacity for root growth, but there will be a large variance in the root
growth capacity, depending on how trees are grown, the nursery at
which trees are grown, when they are shipped, and when they are
planted. Fall- planted trees have often been stressed quite hard in the
nursery in late summer and early fall in an attempt to increase hardiness.
This stress often has a negative affect not only on fall root growth, but
also on the next spring's growth and has resulted in poor survival.
(3) Microsites and Container Planting. Microsites that shade the ground line to
prevent high soil temperatures can improve survival of all stock types, but are most
important when dealing with 1-0 or container stock. On harsh sites, acceptable
results have been obtained by shading the ground line or tree foliage and providing
protection from animal damage, solarization and wind. Plant the seedlings along
logs, stumps, and other protected microsites.
(4) Harsh Sites. Consider the cause of the harsh site, as well as degree of harshness
when selecting stock type. For example, a very dry site may require the use of 2-1
stock but small container stock may work better on a rocky site with good moisture.
The seedling foliage may need protection to reduce transpiration if high solarization
or wind is expected.
h. Season of Planting. There are three common planting windows for most of the
Rocky Mountains. Dates for planting will vary depending on site conditions.
(1) Spring. Mid-April to mid-June is the primary planting season. Some planting in
the southern Rockies is done as early as late February, however, planting should not
proceed until soil temperatures at a depth of 4 to 6 inches have reached a minimum of
40 degrees Fahrenheit. Spring planting season occasionally may extend into early
July during heavy snow pack years.
(2) Summer. Late June to late July. Plant only container stock specifically grown
for summer planting. This stock is grown under specially designed regimes that
differ from stock grown for spring and fall planting. Summer planting takes
advantage of soil moistures from late snow loads or summer monsoon rains typical of
the southern Rockies.
(3) Fall. Mid-August to late September. Plant only container stock in the fall. Fall
planting of bareroot stock results in poor survival. Trees planted earlier in the
window (August 15 to September 15) do much better than those planted later.
Planting after October 1 is risky and not recommended.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.33 - Synopsis of Common Reforestation Problems in the Rocky Mountains
Reforestation in the Rocky Mountains is achievable on all productive forested habitat types with
proper reforestation practices and when silvical requirements of trees are met. Problems in
reforestation occur when strategies are incompatible with requirements of the tree or where
prescriptions are not carried out promptly and correctly.
Some of the types of regeneration problems are:
a. Insolation and animal browsing on south and west slopes.
b. Sites with cold air drainage, frost, and wind funnel problems.
c. Delay in regeneration resulting in heavy brush or other vegetative competition.
d. Site preparation problems due to rocky soils or thin topsoils.
e. Animal damage caused by wild and domestic animals.
f. Prescriptions that do not meet silvical requirements of trees.
Appropriate silvicultural approaches reduce or avoid most problems. There are various options
for resolving problems that do arise however; some may either be very costly or administratively
not available.
Common regeneration problems are displayed in exhibit 01.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 54 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.33 – Exhibit 01
Common Regeneration Problems
Sites with Potential
Regeneration Problems
1. Southerly and westerly
exposure on slopes over 30
percent in ponderosa pine,
Douglas fir, and most grand
fir habitat type series.
Problems
Diagnosis of Needs and
Required Treatment to
Reforest Within 5 years
Timber SuitabilityAbility to Reforest
Insolation loads cause water
stress and solarization
damage. Plant competition
for moisture is high.
a. Existing forest cover.
Emphasize site preparation
that leaves debris for shade,
favor early seral species, and
use shelterwood systems.
Planting early seral species
may be required.
Suitable when harvest
prescriptions emphasize
early seral species and
provide for proper site
preparation, shade, and
protection. Shelterwood
systems or clear-cuts with
some debris left for shade
and protection from animals
are generally required.
b. Sod and/or low brush
cover. Generally Douglas
fir, white fir, and ponderosa
habitat types.
Site preparation required.
Plant early seral species,
provide shade and
protection. Herbicides may
be required for release from
sprouting shrubs
Suitable when costly hand
site preparation or herbicides
are applied to control
established competing
vegetation during seedling
establishment period.
c. High brush over 4 feet
high.
Site preparation required.
Suitable when herbicides or
Plant early seral species,
fire are used to control
provide shade and
competing vegetation.
protection. Herbicides may
be required.
d. High brush with seedling
understory.
Release required in many
cases.
2. North- and east-facing
slopes over 30 percent.
Alpine fir, mountain
hemlock, western hemlock,
and western red cedar
habitat types.
Moist sites make slash
Use summer burns and/or
removal and site preparation herbicides or site preparation
difficult. Plant competition tools.
from brush is often severe if
stands were previously
partial cuts.
Suitable when herbicide
release is applied to free
trees
Suitable except near yearround aboveground water
when herbicides and/or
summer burns for site
preparation and slash
reduction are applied.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 55 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.33 – Exhibit 01--Continued
Sites with Potential
Regeneration Problems
Problems
Diagnosis of Needs and
Required Treatment to
Reforest Within 5 years
Timber SuitabilityAbility to Reforest
3. Sites subject to cold air
and frost.
a. All lower subalpine fir
habitat types (Pfister p. 81106) and Daubenmire
vegetation guides. Some
blue spruce in or near
drainage bottoms.
Clearcuts with intensive site
preparation present harsh
environments to
regeneration due to high
elevation temperature
extremes.
Either shelterwood or group Suitable when prescriptions
selection favoring residual are written to avoid frost and
regeneration in openings
cold damage problems.
created must be employed to
maintain climax species or
lodgepole may be used as
early seral species. Delicate
site preparation techniques
must often be employed,
especially for natural
regeneration.
b. Upper alpine fir habitat
types ALBA/RIMO,
ABLA/LUHI, TSME/LUMI,
and timberline habitat types.
(Pfister p. 111 and
Daubenmires equivalent).
High elevation, harsh
environments, plus very
short growing season make
sites very slow to recover
from any disturbance.
Most sites in the habitat
types are very difficult to
harvest without lowering site
productivity below
acceptable levels. They can
be regenerated, but growth
on regeneration will lag for a
considerable time, often
beyond 5 years.
Generally unsuitable to
intensive forest management
although many sites could
provide some timber on
longer regeneration cycles
and through salvage
programs. Any logging
must be sensitive to fragile
ecosystems in these habitat
types.
c. All other habitat types
Cold air drainage and frost
pocket problems can
develop from poorly
designed cutting patterns or
due to topographic or air
movement patterns.
Potential problem sites must
be identified and either
harvested via a shelterwood
system, planted with the
appropriate cold- tolerant
species such as lodgepole
pine or blue spruce if
protective tree cover is
removed.
Areas are suitable and often
very productive forest land if
potential for frost and cold
air drainage is realized and
properly treated.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 56 of 97
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CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.33 – Exhibit 01--Continued
Sites with Potential
Regeneration Problems
4. Competing vegetation.
Sites where management
activities have or likely will
result in occupancy of
vegetation other than trees
for periods longer than 5
years.
Problems
Timber SuitabilityAbility to Reforest
Consider all site preparation
and release treatments. Sites
with soils that are damaged
by heavy machinery, those
with thin loess caps, very
rocky soils, and steep slopes
will most likely require
herbicide and/or manual
treatments along with fire.
Suitable when all available
treatments are applied.
Research is needed to
determine optimum
treatment in some cases. In
many situations, herbicides
are the only viable
alternative. In these cases,
assure suitability analysis
reflects tools available.
a. High (over 5 feet high) or
very dense brush fields
needing site preparation or
release. Typically found on
productive habitat types,
grand fir series and higher:
also white and ponderosa
pine (PIPO/QUGA) in
Southern Rockies.
Aerial herbicides will likely
be necessary on majority of
sites with slopes over 30
percent and soils where
machine site preparation will
reduce soil productivity.
Manual treatment will be
needed in areas near
permanent above-ground
water or significant western
larch component.
All area suitable when the
use of herbicide is available.
Area requiring herbicide use
should be identified and
clearly stated in the forest's
suitability analysis.
b. Low brush and sod
competition typically found
on alpine fir, Douglas fir,
and ponderosa pine series
habitat types.
Ground spot application of
herbicides will likely be
necessary on most sites with
slopes over 30 percent and
soils where machine site
preparation will reduce soil
productivity. Manual
treatment will be needed in
areas near permanent aboveground water.
All areas suitable when use
of herbicides is available.
Areas requiring herbicide
use should be identified and
clearly stated in Forest's
suitability analysis.
5. Rocky soils. All habitat
types.
Vegetative competition for
moisture can be very
intense. Once sites are lost
to brush or sod, they are
very difficult to regenerate
without proper vegetative
treatments.
Diagnosis of Needs and
Required Treatment to
Reforest Within 5 years
Sites with high rock content
that make bareroot planting
very difficult due to
problems with opening the
planting hole.
Soils with high percent of
All areas are suitable when
rock must be recognized
rocky soil problems are
prior to harvest. Harvest
anticipated in advance.
systems should favor natural
regeneration. If planting is
absolutely necessary,
containerized stock should
be prescribed.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 57 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.33 – Exhibit 01--Continued
Sites with Potential
Regeneration Problems
Problems
Diagnosis of Needs and
Required Treatment to
Reforest Within 5 years
Timber SuitabilityAbility to Reforest
6. Soils with thin loess caps On certain soils types, thin
over relatively
loess caps, duff, and litter
nonproductive subsoils.
cover unproductive subsoils.
When surface soil material is
removed, growth rates of
regeneration may be
affected.
Soils with thin productive
layers overlying
nonproductive sub-layers
must be identified prior to
harvest. Site preparation
should be minimal and
shelterwood or selection
system should be favored for
regeneration.
7. Soils high in silt content Potential frost heaving.
(Arizona, Southwest
Colorado, and New Mexico)
Use shelterwood system,
Suitable when cover and soil
keep disturbance of duff and structure are maintained.
litter to minimum, do not fall
plant.
8. Soils overlying volcanic
cinders (Arizona and New
Mexico).
Maintain soil structure to
avoid drought problems.
Minimum soil disturbance,
avoid mixing top soil with
underlying cinders.
9. Animal damage. All
habitat types.
Animal damage to
regeneration on localized
sites is a major cause leading
to regeneration failure and
favors establishment of
competitive vegetation
(brush and grass).
Where animal damage is
likely to occur, the trees
must be protected to ensure
success within 5 years.
Utilize integrated
management techniques to
avoid the problem.
a. Cattle.
Trampling young seedlings. Cattle should be kept off
regeneration areas until trees
are established, 2 1/2 feet
tall and then grazing should
be controlled to minimize
damage.
Suitable when cattle are kept
off regeneration until trees
are 2 1/2 feet tall and then
grazed under control to
minimize tree damage.
b. Deer and elk.
Browsing, especially on
winter range.
Most areas are suitable when
seedling protection measures
are followed. Some heavily
used areas are unsuitable.
o regenerate areas with
expected or traditional big
game damage, seedling
protection is required.
Netting, vexar tubes, fencing
or leaving debris on site for
seedling protection are
options. Planting density
increases are recommended.
All areas are suitable when
soil conditions are identified
and addressed in the
prescription prior to harvest.
Helicopter harvesting is an
option.
Unsuitable for regeneration
harvest. Cutting limited to
salvage.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 58 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.33 – Exhibit 01--Continued
Sites with Potential
Regeneration Problems
Diagnosis of Needs and
Required Treatment to
Reforest Within 5 years
Problems
Timber SuitabilityAbility to Reforest
c. Rodents (other than
pocket gophers).
Browsing, seed eating, and
gnawing.
Mice and voles can negate Suitable with planting and
regeneration by seed
protection where necessary.
consumption alone. Rabbits
browse young seedlings.
Planting large stock is an
option.
d. Pocket Gophers.
Browsing, clipping, and
gnawing.
Avoid site preparation
techniques that stimulate
gophers. Restrict cattle from
area. Poison baiting may be
required.
Suitable with preventative
and protective treatments.
Protection may be extremely
costly. Some areas are
unsuitable if baits cannot be
applied.
2.34 - Natural Regeneration
More acres in the Rocky Mountains are reforested with natural regeneration than artificial
planting and many plantations are partially stocked with natural regeneration.
The advantage of natural regeneration is that newly established stands are of progeny that are
adapted to the site assuming seed from appropriate species is available. It is also the most
economical reforestation method. The main obstacle in natural regeneration is lack of available
seed of desired species, or genetic quality of seed source. When desired seed is not available,
sites will regenerate with less desired tree species or species not suitable for succesional stage of
the site, or will not regenerate at all. Planting may be necessary in these situations to maintain or
restore early seral species such as ponderosa pine, western larch, western white pine, or other
desired species.
Do not rely on natural regeneration when genetically resistant stock is necesssary. For example,
white pine blister rust resistant stock should be planted versus relying on natural white pine
regeneration.
Nearly all forested sites in the Rocky Mountains can be reforested with natural regeneration,
however, it may not provide the desired species composition, nor be within the necessary time
frames. The ability to promptly reforest with appropriate species requires that many site-specific
factors be met. Consider the following factors when developing prescriptions:
1. Considerations for Successful Natural Regeneration.
a. The size and degree of disturbance.
b. The type of forest ecosystem disturbed.
c. The pattern of human and animal use following the disturbance.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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d. Species to be regenerated.
e. Seedbed conditions for seed germination and establishment.
f. Conditions for sprouting if coppice method is expected.
g. Number and distribution of microsites for tree seedlings.
h. Seed availability (or vegetative material for coppice regeneration) by species.
i. Changes in the macro and micro environment (climate and microsites).
Refer to section 2.3 Reforestation Prescriptions, and section 2.4 Site Preparation for guidance;
and to references specific to natural regeneration in section 2.06 2.a Primary References, and
specific by species in section 2.06 2.f Tree Species for additional information.
For natural regeneration to be successful, seed must be distributed to favorable seedbeds, and
microsites for seed germination must be present. The seedlings must then encounter conditions
that protect them from fungi, rodents, birds, cold, heat, and drought. Natural regeneration
success requires prescriptions and treatments that ensure that tree seedling needs are met in
harvest and site preparation treatments on the specific sites being treated.
2. Potential Problems. Historically, more areas in the Rocky Mountains have been
successfully reforested with natural regeneration than have failed. Some causes of failure are
listed below so they can be avoided in future activities.
a. Expectation of natural tree regeneration in the absence of appropriate species seed
sources. The residual seed source must be evaluated to determine if it is appropriate
to meet reforestation conditions. For example, if the planned treatment will create
harsh conditions that require cold-hardy seedlings, then seed from a source for a coldhardy species must be available.
b. Harsh site preparation that creates too much site and soil disturbance. Excessive
disruption of the soil profile will affect long-term productivity and regeneration
success. It can result in topsoil removal, soil compaction, mixing of organic matter
with mineral soil, and removal of material necessary to provide adequate microsites
for seedling establishment.
c. Disturbance followed by heavy domestic grazing practices. Heavy grazing after
disturbance will limit natural regeneration establishment and can cause site
conversions to brush or grass.
d. Use of improper management practices in alpine habitat types. Clearcutting,
followed by intense site preparation that removes all of advanced regeneration and
most of the microsites, can create heat, cold, frost heaving, snow, and excessive water
runoff problems.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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e. Harvest too close to non-conifer vegetation types. Cutting trees adjacent to nonforested areas can raise water tables or expand the area of animal use precluding
establishment of trees. Some examples of these areas include grassy knolls, alder
patches, bracken fern glades, and meadows, which may be indicators of rocky soils,
high moisture tables, frost pockets, or heavy animal use.
f. Cutting on excessively steep slopes. This can cause excessive soil, snow, and
water movement that can cover or wash seedlings away.
g. Heavy cutting on steep south- to west-facing slopes. Removing all or too much
overstory on hot, dry aspects will result in little or no shade for regenerating
seedlings. Soil temperatures exceeding 120 degrees Fahrenheit are lethal to
seedlings. Excessive site preparation and leaving no woody debris for microsites on
these sites magnifies this problem.
h. Reliance on natural regeneration where only poor phenotypes exist. There will be
regeneration problems if the only seed source is from potentially dysgenic trees left
from past logging. These trees are poor phenotypes, indicating they may be poor
genotypes and are not good seed trees for natural regeneration. Plant if there are
insufficient numbers of good seed trees available.
Physically damaged trees may be left on site since they can still provide good quality
seed if they have good genotypes. Do not confuse physical damage with genetic
qualities. It is more likely that older trees would have been damaged at some time in
the past, but they may still be genetically acceptable seed trees.
3. Use of Advanced Regeneration. Advanced regeneration present before the time of
disturbance may be suitable for restocking the site. To be successful, understory trees must not
be destroyed or damaged during harvest and site preparation activities. Although high-elevation
spruce/fir forests are prime examples of where advanced regeneration can be utilized, all forest
types have some potential to utilize advanced regeneration.
The health and potential for these young trees to develop as desired must be carefully evaluated
prior to depending on them as selected trees for the new forest. Terminal leader growth is often
the best indicator of potential development. However, some tolerant species have the ability to
generate new crowns after release from overtopping and may eventually resume good leader
growth. Prescriptions should describe the species and condition of the trees to be favored for
regeneration.
4. Evaluation of Natural Regeneration Success. Monitoring natural regeneration is
presented in the monitoring schedules in section 2.7, Reforestation Surveys and Monitoring.
However, these schedules allow only the determination of success or failure. Evaluation of the
cause of success or failure requires more frequent visits. For example, when germinates appear,
the site should be checked frequently to assess the occurrence of dampening off, frost, bird, or
rodent predation. As the season progresses into summer, sites again need to be checked for
losses due to drought and possible animal trampling.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.4 - Site Preparation
This section presents site preparation methods for natural and artificial reforestation. The
physical and biological elements that must be considered in silvicultural prescriptions are
described in section 2.32. Site preparation must be addressed in the harvest prescription.
Coordinate site preparation methods and timing with other resource objectives. Do not attempt
reforestation without adeqate site preparation.
Utilize research and operational field experience in planning site preparation activities. Local
people are often the operational experts in the use of fire and mechanical treatments for their
area. Units lacking specific expertise should work with nearby forests or districts and may use
the Skills List (see sec. 2.1) for experienced personnel.
2.41 - Methods
Site preparation methods are briefly discussed here. Refer to literature on fire, soils, silviculture,
mechanical equipment, and herbicide use for additional information. Older literature deals
primarily with equipment and methods; recent publications focus on effects of site preparation
on the land as well as advances in equipment. Modern treatments emphasize a broader
perspective for management.
Some site preparation methods that can be utilized are:
1. Mechanical.
a. Dozer scarification.
b. Dozer scarification and fuel hazard reduction.
c. Machine chop of small trees and or brush.
d. Dozer or excavator spot treatment alone or in conjunction with fuel hazard
reduction.
e. Disking.
f. Harrows and other scarifiers.
2. Chemical.
a. Aerial spray.
b. Aerial spray and burn.
c. Ground application broadcast treatments.
d. Ground application spot treatments.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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3. Fire.
a. Broadcast burning.
b. Wildfire.
4. Hand Scalping.
5. Timber Harvest Activities.
a. Log skidding.
b. Other machine operations.
2.42 - Equipment
1. Mechanical Equipment. Use of mechanical equipment is an effective means of
obtaining site preparation. Equipment used for site preparation is rapidly changing and
improving. Missoula Technology and Development Center (MTDC) is involved in development
and evaluation of new equipment. Refer to their literature for current information.
Avoid excessive soil disturbance when using mechanical equipment. Site preparation on some
sites must be timed to avoid compaction and other problems. Select the proper equipment and
provide good project administration to ensure the prescribed level of disturbance is achieved.
Generally, use of excavators is less damaging to soils and may be recommended over bulldozers
on some sites. Heavy disks are effective for controlling grass competition on gentle slopes. The
"Salmon" blade provides scarification for both natural and artificial regeneration and is effective
in minimizing site disturbance. Site preparation techniques must be sufficient to reduce
competing vegetation, which often is the limiting factor. Excessive site preparation, however,
creates major problems in soil compaction and animal damage.
Retain coarse woody debris scattered on the site for seedling protection during fuels abatement
and site preparation.
Levels of disturbance during site preparation activities can encourage establishment of weed
species. Clean mechanical equipment thoroughly between sites to avoid spread of noxious
weeds. Follow applicable county, state, and federal laws.
2. Herbicides. Use of ground-applied herbicides reduces vegetation without disturbing
the soil surface. It is especially useful in removal of established unwanted vegetation such as
grass and brush and is an option for partial site preparation for fill in planting. Contact the
Regional pesticide coordinator for assistance during planning stages.
3. Fire. During project development, design fire treatments considering ecological and
landscape principals. When used appropriately, fire is an excellent tool for fuel abatement and
site preparation. Use fire in site preparation in accordance with FSM 5150.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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Fire is one of the best tools for regenerating many species including aspen. It is a natural part of
many ecosystems. In addition to preparing the seed bed, it releases nutrients and reduces fire
hazards. Time fire treatments to coincide with natural seed fall as much as possible, or with
planting schedules. Prepare burn prescriptions recognizing that timing of the burn can affect
vegetative response, cone production, and insect resistance. Trees have varying resistance to fire
and it will differ by time of year and physiological processes occurring with the trees. For
example, when sap is flowing in spring, some species are at greater risk of being damaged.
When fire is used, results are more variable than other treatments. High treatment costs, risk
aversion, and smoke management problems can limit the use of fire.
Fire treatments, if properly done, have a beneficial effect in many Rocky Mountain ecosystems
and habitat types. Care must be taken to utilize fire only in appropriate situations. On some
habitat types, it may not be compatible with reforestation objectives. Fire treatments sometimes
stimulate other vegetation such as cheat grass, pinegrass, and ceanothus.
4. Hand Methods. Hand scalping planting spots is usually done as part of the tree
planting operation. Tools used include planting hoes, McLeod, and hazel hoes. The hoe has the
advantage in that scalping can be done with the same tool used to plant the tree. McLeod tools
are used to remove light vegetation, duff, and litter commonly in the auger planting operation.
Hazel hoes are used for heavier vegetation such as grass sod or small shrubs. The optimum hazel
hoe blade width is 7-1/2 inches. The term “scalping” can refer to cutting plants as well as the
scraping the soil surface. In this handbook, scalping is used in reference to removal of plants in
preparation of the planting spot.
a. Scalping Terminology. Use clearing and scalping, as defined below, in tree planting
operations and contracts.
(1) Clearing. Removal of the duff, litter, ash, dry surface soil, and debris to facilitate the
opening of a hole. Clearing of 6 to 8 inches is adequate on most sites.
(2) Scalping. Removal of competing vegetation prior to hole opening. Scalps are usually
done to remove only vegetation tops and root crown. Scalping removes competing
vegetation making more water and nutrients available to the tree seedling. Identify the
size of scalp in the planting prescription. Use scalps 18 to 24 inches in diameter on sites
with heavy competing vegetation. Scalps 12 inches in diameter may be suitable on other
sites. Where vegetation is very dense and scalps larger than 24 inches are needed, utilize
other treatments such as mechanical, herbicide, or burning. Scalps larger than 24 inches
in diameter are difficult to achieve and are very expensive.
b. Depth of Scalp or Clearing. Depth of the scalp or clearing will vary depending on the
site. Scalps of 1-2 inches are usually sufficient. Do not create pits during scalping.
Trees planted in deep depressions will suffer from cold and over-heating problems and
may collect excess water. Clearing depth will vary depending on amount of duff and
debris on sites. Require a sufficient depth to remove debris down to the soil surface.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
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CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.43 - Requirements for Reforestation
Achieve the following conditions during site preparation:
1. Remove excess logging slash and debris to remove fire hazard and prepare the site for
regeneration.
2. Retain adequate debris to protect seedlings from insolation, animal trampling, and
grazing.
3. Provide sufficient woody debris to ensure nutrient, organic matter, moisture retention,
and microbiological needs for healthy soil conditions (refer to Graham, section 2.06 item g(3)
Site Preparation references).
4. Provide sufficient mineral soil exposure to meet seedling establishment requirements
for the preferred species where natural regeneration is prescribed. Mineral soil exposure is
needed for optimum establishment of early seral species such as larch, lodgepole pine, ponderosa
pine, and white pine. Shade-tolerant Douglas fir, white fir, Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir,
western hemlock, and western redcedar seedlings can become established without mineral soil,
although thick duff is not suitable.
5. Remove competing vegetation to provide light and moisture to new seedlings. This is
especially critical on drier sites where brush and sod-forming grasses cause intense competition
for moisture.
6. Minimize habitat conditions that encourage rabbits, mice, gophers, and other small
animals to use the site. Slash piles harbor tree and seed-eating rodents. Excessive soil
disturbance in pocket gopher areas may result in habitat changes that result in increased
populations. Brush fields harbor rodents, especially rabbits. Grassy areas harbor mice and voles.
7. Protect long-term soil productivity by avoiding excessive compaction and
displacement of soil horizons. Compacted soils retard water percolation and root growth. Some
site preparation with dozer blades disrupts soil structure. Topsoil may be mixed with litter and
duff, and left in mounds. In between mounds, the stripped areas are left void of topsoil. The
resulting soil may be compacted or expose rocky subsoils. In situations such as these, it is
difficult to locate plantable spots.
2.44 - Additional Considerations
Successful site preparation depends on prescriptions that have considered physical and biological
factors for each specific site. Harvest methods and site-preparation activities have a major
environmental impact on any site. These activities must be coordinated with physical and
biological site factors to assure that selected tree species will successfully establish. These
activities also influence shrub and grass response in ways that are reasonably predictable.
Knowledge of succession specific to habitat type is essential in order to evaluate possible
vegetation responses that will result from harvest activities and site preparation. Treatments will
affect all plants, not just trees. The vegetative response from these activities will affect light,
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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temperature, moisture, chemical, and physical conditions of the site. Consider physical extremes
that can sometimes occur, and physiological tolerance of seedlings to withstand these limits.
1. Light. Know light requirements of desired species when considering treatment
alternatives. The amount and quality of light is related directly to the silviculture systems used.
The percent of residual canopy will affect quantity and quality of light, which affects amplitude
of air and soil temperature, and photosynthetic capability of trees. Manipulating (removing) the
overstory canopy causes the most significant change in light. Site preparation technique and
timing have additional effects by changing density and distribution of intermediate and
understory plants. Poor regeneration will result if insufficient light is provided, especially for
seral species.
2. Temperature (air, surface, and soil). The amount of daytime heat gain versus
nighttime heat loss is related to canopy closure and understory vegetation. Site preparation
techniques and residual overstory density will affect temperature fluctuations. Temperature is
also affected by slope, aspect, ground cover, air drainage, and soil color. Site preparation
techniques can drastically influence temperature regimes by the amount and distribution of duff
and woody debris. Temperature extremes, relative to heat energy and how it is distributed, can
cause significant mortality of seedlings during the first growing season.
Minimize potential for temperature extremes during site preparation activities. Extreme low
temperatures freeze plant tissue. Extreme high temperatures kill seedlings by direct injury, or by
depleting soil moisture that causes moisture stress. Soil temperatures of over 120 degrees
Fahrenheit are lethal to young natural regeneration and container stock due to heat girdling at
ground level. Site preparation can modify thermal properties that produce extreme high or low
temperatures by altering surface materials (such as, litter, burned soil layer, or mineral soil).
Maintaining adequate debris will produce favorable thermal properties and provide direct shade
for the seedling.
Harvest units should be designed so they do not create air drainage traps resulting in cold air
pockets. Where cold air drainage is a problem, reforest with frost-tolerant species.
3. Moisture. One of the most critical limiting factors affecting regeneration is
competition for available soil moisture. Utilize site preparation methods that effectively reduce
vegetative competition.
In many habitat types, grasses, forbs, and shrubs preclude plantation success by competing for
essential soil moisture. Some of the strongest competitors are elk sedge (Carex geyeri),
pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens), Arizona fescue (Festuca arizonica), screwleaf mulhly
(Muhlebergia virescens) and ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus). These species can fully exploit
available soil moisture to the exclusion of tree seedlings. Site preparation must sever the root
collar and invert the plant to expose and dry the root system, or otherwise kill the plant. Unless
fire is extremely hot, it is generally ineffective in killing some grasses, such as pinegrass.
Conservation of available soil moisture usually involves removal of unwanted competitive
vegetation while retaining debris and litter. Sometimes canopy shade can be utilized for site
protection but plants frequently use more water than is gained from a reduction due to
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 66 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
evapotranspiration loss. Also, roots of residual plants often reach into the soil well beyond
visible plant tops, so what appears to be an open spot is actually fully occupied with roots.
4. Nutrients. The nutrient base on forest sites is usually not important for initial seedling
establishment, but it is important for seedling growth and development throughout the rotation.
Nutrient depletion can result if the site preparation is done without consideration for nutrient
reserves. Many past practices that created excessive soil disturbance and removed the coarse
woody debris depleted nutrient reserves.
Impacts to the nutrient base are especially important on shallow soils. Maintain woody debris on
the site at recommended levels (refer to Graham, section 2.06 item g(3)) to avoid critical nutrient
losses. Excessive soil disturbance, compaction, and severe burn treatments, can significantly
reduce growth capability of forested sites. It is not essential to know exact nutrient levels for
forest sites when planning site preparation, but it is important to know the relative impacts that
may be caused by this activity.
Apply the following guidelines during site preparation:
a. Mechanical. Leave recommended amounts of coarse woody debris greater than 3
inches in diameter to support nitrogen-fixing organisms and mycorrhizae. Minimize
the amount of compaction.
b. Fire. Avoid hot fires that deplete organic matter and reduce nutrient reserves. Fire
should be sufficient to reduce competing vegetation and excess fuels but should not
leave the humus layer extensively charred or destroyed. The burn treatment is too hot
if the top 3 cm of the soil is dark brown to gray or pink to orange in the top 5 cm.
Avoid peak temperatures in excess of 200 degrees Centigrade, which is the point
where nitrogen can volatilize and become unavailable to plants. Maintain
recommended levels of large woody debris for nutrient cycling.
5. Soil Structure. Soil structure is affected by any site preparation activity. Shallow
soils are especially sensitive and are generally heavy in rock content. Machine site preparation
may have limited capabilities on shallow soils. Machine site preparation can further reduce soil
depth, and may displace nutrients, and potentially mix soil horizons depending upon the machine
used.
6. Duff and Litter. Duff and litter and the immediate soil horizon play a critical role in
nutrient cycling because most organic matter and nutrients are contained in this layer. Duff and
litter serve as a mulch to prevent or slow drying of soil. Micro flora/fauna and seed that occur in
this layer affects the total health of the ecosystem. Some seed may be from fire-adapted plants,
like ceanothus, that await disturbance for germination.
When duff and litter are mixed with underlying mineral layers, they can cause problems. Duff
and litter in planting holes causes air pockets and prevents seedling root contact with the mineral
soil. Excessive amounts of duff and litter can limit natural regeneration. If this layer is too
thick, it can act as a barrier to germinating seedlings.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 67 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
7. Logging Debris. Cull logs, stumps, and other debris shelter seedlings from solar
radiation, frost, heat, wind, rolling rocks, drifting ice and snow, and animal damage. This debris
retains organic matter for soil moisture and soil microorganisms. Favor these microsites during
tree planting. If site preparation or brush disposal removes most of this debris, the desired
microclimate for seedlings will be reduced.
Excessive debris can make hand site preparation and planting difficult. The amount of debris
desired on each site varies, but generally somewhere between 5 and 16 tons of well distributed,
large-diameter debris is recommended (refer to Graham section 2.06g(3)). Some sites may not
have sufficient debris available. In these cases, it is very important that debris is well distributed.
8. Competing Vegetation. Prediction and control of lower vegetation layers are essential
elements in regeneration, development, and growth of forest trees. Reducing competing
vegetation will improve initial survival and growth of tree seedlings, and improve long-term
performance.
Prepare a site-specific analysis of existing and potential species composition to accurately assess
the vegetative response and its capability to meet specific objectives. Species tend to respond in
predictable ways based on habitat types.
Understand the complex vegetation interactions of the site being regenerated. As an example,
snow brush ceanothus, can increase dramatically on some sites following burning, even when the
plant was not readily apparent. Seeds are stored in the soil. They have a have a wax coat which
is melted away by the heat of fire allowing subsequent moisture uptake and germination of seed.
Several decades of seed fall can lie buried awaiting the right sequence of events for seed
germination and plant development.
Consider the following factors relative to vegetative competition:
a. Desired species, its shade tolerance, and growth rate.
b. Kind and intensity of site treatment in terms of reducing competition.
c. Expected response of existing plant species to timber harvest and site preparation
treatment selected.
d. Potential reactions of buried and windblown seed to selected silvicultural
treatments.
e. Duration of potential competition in terms of height-age interactions of competing
species and tree seedlings.
f. Potential for animal damage.
A prescription for site preparation must include an assessment of existing and potential shrub,
forb, and graminoid competition on the site. The following table provides information for many
competing species.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 68 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.44 - Exhibit 01
List of Competing Vegetation in Rocky Mountains
Plant Name
(Genus Species)
Rocky Mountain
Maple
(Acer glabrum)
Seed Transport Reproduction Methods,
Tolerance, Rooting Habit
Wind transported; not soil stored; partial shade
germination, on scarified soil; Stumps re-sprout;
highly tolerant; non-rhizomatous; deciduous
Height
(Feet)
Dry
Moist
10
15
Notes
Allelopathic
Moderate
competitor,
wide crown
Sitka Alder (Alnus
sinuata)
Wind transported; not soil stored; germinates on
moist soil in full sun; stumps re-sprout; nonrhizomatous; slight shade tolerance; deciduous
6
13
Spreading crown
nitrogen fixer
Serviceberry
(Amelanchier
alnifolia)
Birds, mammal seed transport, seed soil stored;
germinates on soil litter in partial shade; nonrhizomatous; moderate shade tolerance,
deciduous
4½
8
Moderate
competitor
Big Sagebrush
(Artemesia
tridentata)
Wind dispersed seed; subspecies vaseyana stores
in soil; germinates on bare soil in full sun; nonrhizomatous; intolerant, evergreen
1
3
Major
competitor
Creeping Oregon
Grape
(Mahonia repens)
Sprouts; rhizomatous tolerant; evergreen
½
3
Moderate
competitor
Snowbrush ceanothus
(Ceanothus velutinus)
& Redstem ceanothus
(C. sanquineus)
Seed soil stored; no obvious transport;
germinates mainly from burning and partially
from scarification in full sun; intolerant; nonrhizomatous; evergreen
2½
6
(Lonicera utahensis)
Birds, mammals store seed; germinates on soil
litter beneath; shade tolerant; nonrhizomatous; deciduous
2
8
6
23
Mt. Mahogany
(Cercocarpus
montanus) Curlleaf
Mt. Mahogany
(C. ledifolius)
Birchleaf Mahogany
(C. betuloides)
Wind, birds; does not sprout; germinates on
soil; non-rhizomatous; partially shade tolerant;
evergreen
6
12
Oceanspray
(Holodiscus discolor
& Shallow ninebark
(Physocarpus
malvaceaus)
No obvious transport; seed soil stored;
germinates on bare soil in partial shade; resprout; shade tolerant; extensive root system;
deciduous
3
5
200-300 year
seed storage in
soil. Nitrogen
fixer major
competitor
Moderate
competitor
Major
competitors
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 69 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.44 - Exhibit 01—Continued
Plant Name
(Genus Species)
Seed Transport Reproduction Methods,
Tolerance, Rooting Habit
Height
(Feet)
Dry
Moist
Notes
Common juniper
(Juniperus
communis)
Bird-dispersed seed; shade tolerant; nonrhizomatous; evergreen
1
2½
Rusty menziesia
(Menziesia
ferruginea)
Sprouts from root crowns; shade tolerant;
extensive root system; evergreen
4
8
Major
competitor
Mountain lover
(Pachystima
myrsinites)
Sprouts from root crown & buds on taproot;
shade tolerant; evergreen
½
2½
Moderate
competitor
Choke cherry
(Prunus virginiana)
& Bitter cherry
(Prunus emarginatus)
Bird & mammal seed transport/seed soil
stored; germinates following burning or
scarification in full sun; semi-shade tolerant;
deciduous
4
15
Moderate to
major
competitor
Antelope bitterbrush
(Purshia tridentata)
Rodents primary transport; not soil stored;
very weak sprouter; germinates best on
mineral soil in full sun; non-rhizomatous; may
layer; moderate shade tolerance; evergreen
1
2½
Inhibitory fixes
nitrogen, major
competitor
Wax currant (Ribes
cereum)
Birds, mammals transport seed; seed soil
stored; weak sprouter from root crown;
germinates on scarified mineral soil in full sun;
non-rhizomatous; low shade tolerance;
deciduous
1½
3½
Moderate
competitor,
blister rust in
western white
pine,
allelopathic
Prickly currant (Ribes
lacustre)
Birds, mammals transport seed; seed soil
stored; sprouts from root crowns below soil
surface; germinates on scarified mineral soil in
full sun; non-rhizomatous; low shade
tolerance; deciduous
1½
4
Moderate
competitor,
blister rust
Sticky currant (Ribes
viscosissimum)
Birds, mammals transport seed; seed soil
stored; weak sprouts from root crowns;
germinates on scarified mineral soil in full sun;
non-rhizomatous; low shade tolerance;
deciduous
2
3½
Moderate
competitor,
blister rust
Thimbleberry (Rubus
parviflorus)
Birds, mammals transport seeds; seed soil
stored; germination conditions unknown;
increase by root crown & rhizomes; moderate
shade tolerance; deciduous
2
4
Moderate
competitor
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 70 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.44 - Exhibit 01—Continued
Plant Name
(Genus Species)
Scouler willow (Salix
scouleriana)
Seed Transport Reproduction Methods,
Tolerance, Rooting Habit
Wind transported; not soil stored; germinates on
moist mineral soil in full sun; stump re-sprout;
non-rhizomatous; slightly shade tolerant;
deciduous
Height
(Feet)
Dry
Seed 7
Moist
Seed
12
Sprts
Sprts
15
30
Notes
Extremely rapid
re-sprout
growth; sprout
growth from
very tall, narrow
crown, major
competitor
Russet buffaloberry
(Sheperdia
canadensis)
Birds, mammals transport seed; sprouts from
root crown & buds on taproot; nonrhizomatous; moderately shade tolerant;
deciduous
2
12
Nitrogen fixer
moderate
competitor
Mtn. Ash
(Sorbus scopulina)
Birds, mammals transport seed; sprouts from
root crown; slightly shade tolerant; nonrhizomatous; deciduous
7
12
White spirea (Spiraea
betulifolia)
Transport unknown; seed not stored in soil;
germination unknown; increases by deep
rhizomes in shade or sun; will root re-sprout;
moderately shade tolerant; deciduous
1
3
Very deep rooted,
moderate
competitor
Common Snowberry
(Symphoricarpos
albus)
Birds, mammals transport seed; not soil stored;
germination unknown; increases by deep
rhizomes in shade or sun; will root re-sprout
moderately shade tolerant; deciduous
1
2
Moderate
competitor deep
rooted
Mountain snowberry
(Symphoricarpos
oreophilas)
Birds, mammals transport seed; not soil stored
seed; germinates on bare soil in partial shade;
non-rhizomatous; moderately shade tolerant;
deciduous
1½
3½
Moderate
competitor
Rubber rabbitbrush
(Chrysothamnus
nauseosus)
Seed wind transported; requires bare soil; nonrhizomatous; shade tolerant; evergreen
1
2½
Major competitor
Mock orange
(Philadelphus lewisii)
No obvious transport; storage unknown;
germinates in full sun on mineral soils; stumps
re-sprout; non-rhizomatous; moderately shade
tolerant; deciduous
4
8
Blue huckleberry
(Vaccinium
globulare)
Birds, mammals transport; seed stored in soil;
germinates on moist soil in partial shade;
increases by shallow rhizomes; shade tolerant;
deciduous
2
3½
Withstands only
low intensity
fires
Grouse whortleberry
(Vaccinium
scoparium)
Birds, mammals transport; seed stored in soil;
germinates on moist soil in partial shade;
increases by shallow rhizomes; shade tolerant;
deciduous
1/2
1½
Withstands only
low intensity
fires
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 71 of 97
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CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.44 - Exhibit 01—Continued
Plant Name
(Genus Species)
Seed Transport Reproduction Methods,
Tolerance, Rooting Habit
Gambel oak
(Quercus gambelii)
Height
(Feet)
Dry
Moist
Notes
Birds, mammals transport seed; germinates on
bare ground in moist shade; reproduces from
soil surface adventitious buds, lignotubers and
rhizomes; deciduous
3
45
Major
competitor,
allelopathic
Mountain whitehorn
(Ceanothus
cordulatus)
Soil-stored seed; no obvious transport;
germinates mainly following fire or on bare
soil in full sun; intolerant; rhizomatous;
evergreen
2
8
Major competitor
thorns
Fendler ceanothus
(Ceanothus fendleri)
Seeds soil stored; no obvious transport;
germinates mainly following fire; slightly
tolerant; germinates on mineral soil in full sun;
rhizomatous; evergreen
½
3
Major competitor
Skunkbush sumac
(Rhus trilobata)
Birds, mammals transport seed; germinates
only after heat treatment or animal
scarification; re-sprout; intolerant deciduous
2
6
Bearberry
(Arctostaphylos uvaursi)
Birds, mammals transport seed; germinates on
moist soils; sprouts from stolons, root crowns
and lignotubers; moderately intolerant;
evergreen
1
½
Moderate
competitor, also
called
kinnikinnik
Greenleaf manzanita
(Arctostaphylos
patula)
Birds, mammals transport seeds; germinates
bare ground; sprouts from stolons, root
crowns; intolerant evergreen
1
6
Major competitor
Common beargrass
(Xerophyllum tenax)
No obvious transport; sprouts from surviving
stout surface rhizomes; moderately tolerant;
evergreen
Major competitor
Bluebunch wheatgrass
(Agropyron spicatum)
Wind disseminated, bare soil, full sun seed; nonrhizomatous bunchgrass in dry, steppe-like areas
may be rhizomatous spreading in forested areas;
intolerant
Competitor
Cheatgrass (Bromus
tectorum)
Animal transport of seed; non-rhizomatous
bunchgrass in dry, steppe-like areas may be
rhizomatous spreading in forested areas;
intolerant
Competitor
Bluejoint reedgrass
(Calamagrostis
canadensis)
Wind disseminated; rhizomatous; moist site
regeneration; moderate shade intolerance
Pinegrass
(Calamagrostis
rubescens)
Wind disseminated seed; rhizomatous; bare
soil, full sun to partial shade; relatively shade
tolerant
Competitor
Major competitor
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 72 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.44 - Exhibit 01—Continued
Plant Name
(Genus Species)
Seed Transport Reproduction Methods,
Tolerance, Rooting Habit
Height
(Feet)
Dry
Moist
Notes
Elksedge
(Carex geyeri)
Wind disseminated; bare soil, full sun; bunch
form rhizomatous mat more extensive than
above ground plant; moderately shade tolerant;
some soil stored seed
Major competitor
Ross sedge
(Carex rossii)
Wind disseminated; bare soil, full sun; tufted;
short rhizomes; seed stored in duff or soil
Moderate
competitor
Idaho fescue, Arizona
fescue (Festuca
idahoensis &
arizonica)
Wind disseminated; bunchgrass, nonrhizomatous; moderate shade tolerance
AZ fescue is
allelopathic, both
are competitors
Junegrass (Koeleria
cristata)
Wind disseminated seed; tufted form, nonrhizomatous; slightly tolerant
Woodrush
(Luzula hitchcockii)
Wind disseminated; rhizomatous, slightly
tolerant
Nerved bluegrass (Poa
nervosa)
Wind disseminated; rhizomatous; relatively
shade tolerant
Blue grama
(Bouteloua gracilis)
Wind disseminated; rhizomatous mat;
intolerant
Mountain muhly
(Muhlenbergia
montana)
Wind disseminated; non-rhizomatous
bunchgrass; intolerant
Indian ricegrass
(Oryzopsis hymenoids)
Wind disseminated; non-rhizomatous tufts;
intolerant
Smooth Brome
(Bromus inermis)
Seeded by man; bare soil full sun; wind
disseminated; rhizomatous moderately tolerant
Major competitor
Spotted Knapweed
(Centurea maculosa)
Seed that is persistent in soil for several years,
moderately tolerant, major increase with
disturbance, especially on dry sites.
Major competitor
introduced
noxious weed that
will take over the
site from native
vegetation.
Musk Thistle (Carduus
nutans)
Seed, increases with disturbance and cattle
grazing
Moderate
competitor
Canada Thistle
(Circium arvensis)
Seed, increases with disturbance and cattle
grazing
Major competitor
Wavyleaf oak
(Quercus X pauciloba)
Prolific sprouter
10
15-20
Strong competitor
Gray oak (Quercus
grisea)
Animals carry seeds
15
25-30
Competitor
Competitor
Competitor
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2.44 - Exhibit 01—Continued
Plant Name
(Genus Species)
Seed Transport Reproduction Methods,
Tolderance, Rooting Habit
Height
(Feet)
Dry
Moist
Notes
Arizona white oak
(Quercus arizonica)
Animals carry seeds
15
25
Competitor
Canyon live oak
(Quercus chrysolepis)
Animals carry seed, sprouts
5
15
Strong competitor
on dry sites
Emory oak (Quercus
emoryi)
Animals carry seed
15
35
Strong competitor
Silverleaf oak
(Quercus
hypoleucoides)
Animals carry seed, sprouts, forms clumps
15
35
Strong competitor
Netleaf oak (Quercus
rugosa)
Animals carry seed, sprouts
5
25
Strong competitor
Shrub live oak
(Quercus turbinella)
Animals carry seed, sprouts
5
15
Strong competitor
New Mexico locust
(Robinia
neomexicana)
Prolific sprouter
5
15
Very strong
competitor
Pointleaf manzinita
(Arctostaphylos
pungens)
Animals carry seed
5
20
Strong competitor
Kentucky bluegrass
(Poa pratensis)
Spreads by rhyzomes
3
6
Strong competitor
when well
established as a
sod
*Competitor, refers to potential competition with conifer regeneration. All species compete for
water and or light, but those noted, cause moderate to major problems in regeneration
establishment.
2.5 - District Seedling Care and Handling
A successful tree planting operation requires a multitude of sequential steps to be done correctly.
The foundation of success in these operations is quality seed and seedlings. Proper tree care
from the time seed is sown until the time it is planted is essential to success. Plantation failures
can result from a single major tree care error, or it may result from an accumulation of small
insults to trees as they pass through the sequence of steps. The guides that follow emphasize
basic principles of tree care and storage.
2.51 - Receipt of Tree Seedlings
Proper tree care during shipping is critical for tree survival. Forest Service nurseries usually
contract for tree shipping. When trees are grown at private nurseries, shipping must be
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contracted as well. The shipping contract shall assure proper conditions are maintaned during
shipping. Regardless of who is responsible for shipping, inspect for contract compliance.
Follow these guidelines when accepting delivery of trees.
1. Handling of Tree Boxes. Remove boxes from truck with care. Rough handling of
trees may result in a reduction of tree survival. This is especially important when handling
frozen stock. Frozen trees are full of ice crystals and they are very brittle.
2. Inspection of Trees. Open a sample of the boxes and inspect trees upon receipt.
People responsible for care and receipt of trees must have a basic understanding of tree quality
standards. Refer to section 2.9, Nursery Coordination for regional standards for stock quality. If
possible, report stock not meeting quality standards immediately, but it can also be done after
trees are thawed or when trees are prepared for planting. Districts are not responsible for costs of
poor-quality trees not meeting specifications. Do not plant trees that do not meet specifications
if it will affect survival.
Report to the nursery, and Regional silviculturist/reforestation specialist if trees do not meet
specifications or shipping was not done properly. Notify the Contracting Officer immediately if
contract violations occur. At the Forest level, notify the Forest stock coordinator or Forest
silviculturist of poor quality stock. Contact the nursery and reforestation specialist directly if the
stock coordinator is unavailable. Inspect for the following upon receipt:
a. Temperature problems (too warm or too cold).
b. Torn or damaged packages.
c. Incorrect District and lot numbers.
d. Mold or sour odors.
e. Incorrect number of trees.
Additionally, during tree preparation check the following:
a. Root lengths and root dormancy violations.
b. Height and caliper standard violations.
c. Lammas growth and top dormancy violations.
d. Tree counts shortages.
e. Dry trees, especially roots or plugs.
f. Excessive mud in bare root boxes.
g. Damaged, unhealthy or dead trees in boxes.
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h. Mold or sour odors.
3. Temperature of Delivered Tree Seedlings. Assure proper temperatures of the
delivered stock. The desired temperature may vary with the stock type and season of delivery.
a. Spring Delivered Trees. All bareroot stock and some container stock are delivered
in the spring. The stock may be shipped frozen or thawed.
If frozen, the inside tree box temperature should be between 28 to 31 degrees
Fahrenheit. Truck compartment temperatures should not be below the mid-twenties.
Temperatures below this can cause damage to trees. Check temperature of boxes next
to the refrigeration unit especially if cold air from the unit has been blowing directly
on the boxes. Trees that are shipped frozen should arrive frozen. If they are not, and
are only beginning to thaw, they can be stored as frozen trees in the cooler. However,
if they have thawed, there may be a problem with refreezing. It is generally best to
handle this stock as thawed stock to avoid potential problems. Notify the nursery
immediately that the stock has warmed.
If thawed stock is shipped, temperature inside the tree box should be 33 to 35 and not
exceed 36 degrees Fahrenheit at any time during shipment. This is imperative since
heat may begin to initiate respiration of trees inside the boxes. This will further
stimulate trees and any microbe activity in the boxes. Once these processes start, it
may increase at an exponential rate and be difficult to stop. This is very important in
bareroot pine stock. Lodgepole pine is very prone to increasing respiration at low
temperatures. If this happens, set your district coolers to draw down temperatures to
below 36 degrees Fahrenheit immediately, and get them to 32 to 34 degrees
Fahrenheit within 2 days.
Test a sample of the boxes on the load at delivery using soil probe type or digital
electronic probe thermometers. Probe thermometers 12 inches in length have been
used successfully. Insert thermometers into the center of box and leave for 2 to 3
minutes or until temperature stabilizes with temperature inside the box. Test sample
boxes throughout the load, including from top of the load. Usually 5 to 10 boxes will
give an adequate sample. If warm boxes are found, sample more boxes to ascertain
the problem fully. Prior to use, calibrate the thermometer for accuracy by checking it
against a good mercury thermometer or placing it in a glass of ice water (32 degrees
Fahrenheit). Several thermometers should be on hand as they need to be replaced
periodically.
Contact the nursery, reforestation specialist or regional silviculturist if there are any
questions or concerns about temperatures of delivered trees.
b. Summer- and Fall-Delivered Trees. Only container-grown stock is delivered in
summer and fall. Generally, this stock is ordered for delivery just prior to planting
and no long-term storage is needed. Temperature of delivered trees is not as critical
as for spring-delivered trees. Plant trees within 3 to 10 days of delivery for summer
planting and within about 2 weeks for fall planting. Temperatures of arriving trees to
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be planted in the fall should be 33 to 35 degrees Fahrenheit. Trees delivered in the
summer can be 38 o 42 degrees Fahrenheit. Both fall and summer must not be
frozen. Follow the same box sampling schemes as for spring-delivered trees.
Contact the nursery if trees are frozen, if they exceed 38 degrees Fahrenheit (fall) or
45 degrees Fahrenheit (summer) on arrival, or if other problems are detected. If they
are too warm, place them into the cooler until the temperature is reduced to desired
levels.
3. Assessing Stock Quality. When checking for stock quality, refer also to planting stock
standards in section 2.9, Nursery Coordination. Provide the nursery with information on the
quality of delivered stock. The Stock Quality Assessment Form, R1, 2, 3, 4-FS-2470-21, can be
used to document condition (see Exhibit 01) or a message specifically stating the problems. Be
sure to include the seed lot number, pack number, and pack date from the box label to aid the
nursery in determining specific problems. Check the following tree quality items:
a. Bareroot Stock (Seedlings).
(1) Root Length. Check root lengths to see if standards are met. At least 94 percent
of trees in the lot (or percent stated in contract) should meet the specified standards
listed, unless otherwise modified by prior agreement between district and nursery.
(2) Live Roots. Check roots by stripping outer layers of bark with a pocketknife or
fingernail to expose the cambial tissue. This tissue is white in healthy roots and
brown to yellow-tan in dead roots. Samples should be taken from the top, center, and
bottom of the box. It is normal for some roots to have died back a quarter of an inch
or less from the cut ends. In some species, especially Douglas fir, a portion of the
fine root system may die with no apparent adverse effect to the tree. However, if
more than 15 to 25 percent of the roots are dead more than one-half of an inch back,
there is reason for concern. Seek advice from the nursery, regional silviculturist or
reforestation specialist on the quality of the trees.
(3) Root Dormancy. Check roots for elongation of new white root tips. A dormant
root system will have little, if any, new elongating white growing tips. If new root
tips are longer than a quarter of an inch on more than just an occasional root, the trees
have broken dormancy prior to receipt. Trees with appreciable new root growth prior
to planting have a risk of reduced survival, except on moist sites. Grand fir, and to a
lesser degree western white pine, may exhibit a small amount of winter root growth
during mild winters. However, new root tips should be short and few in numbers.
(4) Top Caliper and Height. Nursery cull standards for both top height and stem
diameter are listed under Nursery Standards, section 2.9. Unless agreed to otherwise,
at least 94 percent (or as stated in the contract) of the stock packed should meet this
standard.
(5) Color. Foliage of healthy stock is various shades of green, however, the shade
can also be misleading. Yellow-green or gray-green tints are normal in dormant stock
but can also be a sign of a problem. If the off color is accompanied with other signs,
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such as dryness or discoloration of the cambial tissue of stems or roots, there is a
problem. A purple cast is acceptable in lodgepole pine.
(6) General Tree Health. Check for the following conditions if there is reason to
suspect tree problems.
(a) Root and Stem Cambium. Peel back exterior bark of roots and stems to check the
cambial tissue. The cambium underneath should be glistening white. If it is brown,
yellow, or creamy brown, trees have been damaged by freezing, poor storage, or
fungal attack. This may also be an indication of frost damage prior to packing.
(b) Buds. Slicing buds vertically should reveal green healthy internal tissue. Brown,
black, or yellowish internal tissue in buds is a definite sign that the bud is damaged.
If just the terminal bud has been damaged, trees are still plantable. If other buds are
also damaged, the stock should be destroyed.
(c) Needles. Dry or wilted foliage are signs of stress or damage. Spruce and
Douglas fir needles that fall off when brushed are dead. Pine needles that easily
break when bent are also dead, unless they are frozen.
(d) Plant Moisture Stress. Pressure bomb readings are a good measure of stress on
thawed non-dormant trees, although this is not required. If used, sample trees across
the load. Readings exceeding 15 atmospheres may indicate a problem. Contact the
nursery for assistance.
(7) Lammas Growth. Lammas growth is the abnormal late season growth of
terminals or buds. It can occur on all species, however, it tends to create problems in
pines. The late growth is often succulent and not hardened off properly. Trees in this
condition may not be fully dormant and will not store well. Experience has shown
that lodgepole with succulent lammas growth will spoil in storage conditions suitable
for dormant trees.
There are three types of lammas growth concerns:
(a) Lammas Shoots. Shoots that develop by bud bursting and then elongation of the
current year’s terminal bud. This will result in 2-0 stock having the appearance of 3-0
with the last growth whorl in varying degrees of hardening off, some of which may
not be cold hardy.
(b) Long buds. The current year’s terminal elongates with no corresponding bud
burst. Elongation may be from 0.25 to 5 inches. The result is often a long, skimpy,
succulent terminal with a soft, un-hardy terminal bud.
(c) Proleptic Shoots. Shoots that emerge from current year's lateral buds with the
terminal bud remaining dormant.
While these classes are clearly defined, lammas growth will vary in gradation and
some tree lots will exhibit growth that is a mixture of classes. The nursery should
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cull lammas shoots with succulent green stem growth and soft buds. Report to the
nursery if more than 10 percent of the tree lot (or as specified in the contract) are
included in shipment. Do not plant trees with lammas growth longer than 3 inches or
if soft buds are present.
(8) Top Dormancy. Top dormancy is exhibited by candle elongation or bud
swelling. With pines, it is often hard to distinguish candle elongation in the packing
box from elongation that occurred previously in the nursery bed. One way is to look
at curvature of the candle. Pine candles that are curved upward or curled in loops
(extreme situation) have broken dormancy in storage. As buds and candles break
dormancy, they also soften and turn green. A slight curvature is okay, but the more
the curvature, the greater potential for problems. If they are curled they should be
destroyed. Once green needles appear, trees should be destroyed. Root condition
(live or dead) should be closely checked in lots that are breaking dormancy.
(9) Dry Roots. Roots should feel moist to the touch. Roots that feel dry to the touch
may be damaged. If dry roots are suspected, check cambium condition by peeling
bark with your fingernail or a knife. If the tissue inside is white and has moisture
down to within a quarter of an inch of the end of the root, trees are in an acceptable
condition. Wrapping trees in polypropylene or similar towels and dipping roots in
water, can also be used to evaluate root health. Usually, within 12 hours, healthy
trees will take up water and moisture can be observed in the cambial tissue of the cut
roots and stem.
(10) Mold or Fungus Mycelium. Check for presence of visible mycelium. Presence
of visible mycelium (white or black threads or strands of fungal tissue) may be cause
for some concern. However, most molds on roots are either saprophytic (living on
dead substances) or mycorrhizal (symbiotic). Mats of mycelium on foliage are a
major concern. If dead or dying trees are packed in the box, mold will often spread
rapidly from these trees into healthy adjacent trees. Fungi associated with strong
odors, brown cambial tissues in roots or stem, or spotting of needles are a problem.
Keep tree boxes with developing mold as close to freezing as possible. Fine strands
of mycelium on foliage or tufts in the roots without other symptoms are not usually
harmful. When in question, request help from the nursery, reforestation specialist, or
forest pathologist.
(11) Mud or Dirt in Boxes. Trees packed in boxes should be relatively clean. Excess
mud and dirt, especially on foliage, will promote fungal problems and foliage
discoloration. Muddy trees are also an indication of lifting in soils that are too wet.
This can result in excessive root damage that results in tree mortality. Based on
experience, ponderosa pine is especially vulnerable.
(12) Tree Count. Count tree seedlings in at least 2 percent of the boxes.
b. Container Stock.
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(1) Adequate Root Mass. Root mass should be developed to the point where the plug
can be extracted from the container and still retain its original form. Excessive root
development (pot binding) is not acceptable. To check this, shake the plug until
medium pulls away from roots. Most of the roots should be pointing downward with
the exception of smaller lateral horizontal roots. Larger roots should not be circling
or spiraling around the plug. The tree is suffering from pot binding if there are large
horizontal roots that are spiraling, or if the roots stay in a thick net (the shape of the
original plug). Often pot bound trees will not develop into a normal tree.
(2) Root Media Moisture. Roots and plugs should generally be moist, however,
spring- delivered dormant stock may be frozen or relatively dry.
(3) Live Roots. Check roots for live tissue using the same technique as described for
bareroot stock.
(4) Top Caliper and Height. Ensure top height and caliper meet contract or nursery
standards. Refer to section 2.9, Nursery Coordination.
(5) Sturdy, Standing, and Erect. Individual trees must be capable of standing erect
without support.
(6) Top Dormancy. Only spring stock can be dormant. Summer and fall stock will
not be dormant.
(7) Color. Color standards described for bareroot stock are applicable to container
also.
(8) Mold. Any signs of strands or threads of mycelium on tree foliage or buds should
be noted. Light mold is generally correctable by proper handling at the district.
Heavy mold in foliage should be reported immediately.
(9) General Health. Check for general seedling health. Use guidelines described for
bareroot stock.
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2.51b - Exhibit 01
USDA – Forest Service
R4-FS-2470-21 (6/2001)
STOCK QUALITY ASSESSMENT FORM
(Ref. FSH 2409.26b and FSM 2742.62)
FOREST
SEED LOT NO.
Boise
1070
Cascade
PACK DATE
422
DISTRICT
PACK NO.
BAREROOT STOCK
95% OF TREES MEET STANDARD STANDARD
STANDARD
ROOTS
YES
NO
11/1/00
95% OF TREES MEET STANDARD
TOPS
YES
1. Length
4. Caliper
2. Live
5. Color
3. Dormant
6. No Lammas Growth
7. Dormant
8. Height
BAREROOT PACKAGING
12. Temperature
9. Packing Material &
Rppts Moist
10. Mold Absent
13. Tree Counts
11. Trees Free of
Excess Mud
14. Package Free
of Damage
CONTAINER STOCK
ROOTS
1. Root Mass Adequate
4. Caliper
TOPS
2. Media Moist
5. Sturdy
3. Live
6 Dormant
7. Color
8. Mold Absent
9. Height
BAREROOT PACKAGING
10. Temperature
11. Tree Count
12. Package Free of
Damage
NARRATIVE (Comments and reasons standards were not met).
Greater than 5% of trees exceeded 12” maximum root length and had to be
trimmed at the time of wrapping.
Pete Greenup
3/15/2001
Name & Signature
Date
NO
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2.52 - Tree Seedling Storage
The purpose of tree storage at the ranger district facility is to keep the trees in a healthy condition
from the time of receipt until planted.
1. Principles. It is essential to keep the seedlings in optimum conditions so that they
maintain normal functions, both physiological and phenological. Proper tree storage will keep
the tree's physiological activity to a minimum. Bareroot and spring-delivered container stock
should be kept as dormant as possible. Keep temperatures low in long-term cooler storage to
prevent heat build up and minimize tree respiration and minimize the activity of microorganisms,
especially fungi. Tree coolers must be in good operating condition must be properly calibrated,
and monitored daily to ensure proper temperatures and humidity are maintained.
Trees need air movement to reduce heat buildup. Provide space between boxes for adequate
airflow to permit removal of heat, carbon dioxide and other gases that build up from respiration.
The rate at which heat and gases are created is minimal at 33 to 35 degrees Fahrenheit, but
begins to increase slowly at 36 degrees Fahrenheit and exponentially around 40 degrees
Fahrenheit. If air space is not provided, tree packages can warm rapidly even when ambient
storage temperatures are ideal. Leave 3 to 4 inches between boxes initially so that at least 1 inch
of space is maintained between boxes after settling.
2. Storage by Stock Type and Season of Planting. Stock storage requirements vary with
the type of stock being planted and the season it is planted.
a. Bareroot Stock (spring planting only). Successful bareroot planting is dependent
upon trees being lifted from nursery bed while they are dormant and keeping them
dormant until planting in spring. Nurseries must wait until trees are dormant in the
fall to initiate lifting, or lift trees as soon as possible in the spring before trees break
dormancy. Fall lifting is preferable although early winter weather conditions may
occasionally delay lifting until early spring.
(1) Fall-Lifted Trees. Trees are lifted in the fall when they have reached a level of
dormancy that allows them to be stored frozen. The inside box temperature of trees is
maintained at 26 to 28 degrees Fahrenheit. Conifers in full dormancy and fully
hardened can withstand very low temperatures, but since the degree of hardening
cannot be guaranteed, storage temperatures should not drop below 26 degrees
Fahrenheit. Usually, coolers set at 28 Fahrenheit will maintain good frozen storage.
Fall-lifted trees are often shipped frozen to the districts as early as February or as late
as May, just prior to planting. Trees will be packaged in a bag and box combination
to prevent freezer drying. Do not use the humidifier when storing frozen stock
because the cooler will ice up. Thawing of trees prior to planting is covered in
section 2.53. Airflow between boxes of trees must be maintained even with frozen
trees.
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(2) Spring-Lifted Trees. Spring-lifted trees are shipped to districts a few weeks after
lifting. They are not frozen in storage at the nursery and are delivered unfrozen.
When these trees are lifted, they are in the process of initiating physiological activity,
so they must be kept as cold as possible without freezing them. Temperatures inside
the tree box must be maintained between 32 and 34 degrees Fahrenheit, but not
exceeding 36 degrees Fahrenheit. With pines, it is best to be as close to 32 degrees
Fahrenheit as possible. These storage temperatures may result in some ice crystals in
the box, but as long as trees are not frozen below 30 degrees Fahrenheit they will not
be damaged. If lodgepole and ponderosa pine are stored at 36 degrees Fahrenheit or
above for very long they may begin to create enough heat via respiration to rapidly
accelerate temperature increases in the boxes. This internal box heating will
stimulate fungi and toxic gas production that will result in tree spoilage. This is a
classic problem with pines, but can occur in all species under poor conditions.
Maintain humidity at 95 percent or more in coolers used for long- term, abovefreezing storage.
Do not mix fall-lifted frozen and spring-lifted trees in the same cooler if possible.
Spring-lifted trees cannot be frozen, nor can they be subjected to higher cooler
temperatures sometimes used to thaw frozen stock. Set the refrigeration unit to meet
spring stock requirements when only one cooler is available. This may require a
lengthy thawing period for frozen stock, or it may have to be thawed outside the
cooler.
b. Container Trees. Container trees can be planted during spring, summer, and fall
planting windows. Container stock is more tolerant of temperature variations than
bareroot stock.
(1) Spring Planting. Spring container stock can be delivered either frozen or thawed.
Refer to fall-lifted bareroot stock storage requirements for frozen stock and springlifted stock storage requirements for thawed stock.
(2) Summer Planting. Summer planting is done in a short planting window and
requires very short storage. Plant trees promptly after receipt. Storage can be done
either at local coolers or at planting sites. Request multiple deliveries to minimize
storage time.
If trees are held more than 7 to 10 days, the initial growth benefit of summer planting
will begin to decline. Trees for summer planting are not conditioned for long storage
periods. These trees are very active physiologically and have active root growth.
(a) District (Local) Coolers. Set cooler temperature to maintain inside tree box
temperatures at 34 to 38 degrees Fahrenheit. Temperatures above 38 degrees
Fahrenheit will stimulate respiration, mold, and gas build up in the closed boxes.
Although trees can take temperatures below 35 degrees, it is critical not to freeze
them as new root tips are easily damaged by freezing. Properly set and monitor
coolers to maintain low risk of freezing. High humidity levels in coolers are desirable
but not required due to the short storage time.
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(b) Planting Site Storage. Store trees in sheltered areas not exposed directly to sun
and wind. Open boxes so that trees are exposed to ambient air. Check trees every
day and water if necessary. Protect trees from freezing that may occur at high
elevations even in July. Cover tree boxes with space blankets, shiny side down, or
similar coverings to protect seedlings. Cover boxes and select a suitable storage site
to minimize possible animal damage.
(3) Fall Planting. Fall planting stock is also designed for short storage regimes, but it
is permissible to store it longer than summer stock. The best planting time is between
mid-August and late September. By this time the stock has completed most of its
seasonal growth and is entering the fall hardening off phase. Some root growth may
occur if stock is planted early. If planted late (after mid-September), trees will
resume growth the following spring.
Utilize coolers or on-site storage as described for summer planting. However, these
trees can be stored 10 to 20 days in coolers. Maintain inside box temperatures at 31
to 34 degrees Fahrenheit to prevent molding. Botrytis will develop rapidly, especially
in western larch if stored above 34 degrees Fahrenheit for any length of time.
Plant trees stored on site as soon as possible after delivery.
3. Tree Storage Coolers. For long-term storage of tree seedlings, refrigerated storage
units must maintain product temperatures of 32 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit and relative humidity of
over 95 percent. Specially designed tree storage cooler units are normally required. Ordinary
coolers are not acceptable for long-term stock storage due to long defrost cycles.
For short-term storage, refrigerated trucks, grocery, meat, or beverage coolers can be used. To
keep the storage period short, trees should be left at the nursery until right before planting starts
and should be stored 7 to 10 days at most. Use of these coolers for short-term storage is
discussed in Other Storage Options, section 2.55.
Some older refrigeration units can be modified to meet storage requirements by adjusting the
defrost system (hot air defrost) and providing a means to manipulate humidity. An experienced
refrigeration maintenance firm should make these adjustments.
a. Maintenance of Tree Coolers. Refrigerated tree coolers represent a substantial
initial investment. Proper maintenance is necessary to maintain its designed
capability. Qualified service representatives recommended by the manufacturer
should perform maintenance. Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for
operation, start-up, and shutdown.
b. Monitoring Storage Conditions. Monitor coolers frequently to ensure proper
temperatures are maintained and to prevent unintentional freezing or thawing of
seedlings. Some coolers have warnings devices such as alarms, telephone calls, and
flashing lights that indicate the cooler is not operating properly. Do not rely solely on
these devices. Assign a person to monitor the cooler at least twice daily when trees
are in storage.
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DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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c. Temperature. Monitor ambient air temperature and inside box temperature. To
determine the inside box temperature; use a probe thermometer with either a digital
readout or circular dial. Use a probe that is at least 12 inches long so it can reach to
the center of the box. Measure temperature of boxes in various parts of the cooler.
Measure ambient air temperature in various locations as well.
Calibrate the thermometer so that it reads 32 degrees Fahrenheit when inserted into a
container of water packed with ice. Some digital thermometers operate within a
certain temperature range and should not be left in the coolers. If the digital read out
unit gets too cold, it will give false readings. They should be calibrated occasionally
throughout the season.
d. Relative Humidity. Relative humidity is primarily a concern with long-term
storage of non-frozen trees. Relative humidity should be at least 95 percent for longterm storage of unfrozen trees. The nursery should package trees to provide
reasonable moisture barriers. Low humidity will cause trees to become desiccated as
moisture evaporates even through moisture barriers. Use sling psychrometers or
hygrometers with digital readouts to monitor humidity.
Check relative humidity of the cooler when it is empty to identify its initial capability.
Simply putting trees in a cooler can increase humidity in the ambient environment
because of moisture coming from trees. A general slow decline in humidity is an
indication that moisture is being lost and needs to be replaced. Humidity can also be
maintained by keeping wet sawdust on cooler floors.
e. Hygrothermographs. Hygrothermographs are used to measure and record
temperature and humidity over time. Recalibrate and maintain these instruments
annually to assure accuracy.
4. Stock Temperatures.
a. Frozen stock. Maintain frozen stock at 26 to 28 degrees Fahrenheit. Thaw it
slowly over a period of 1 or 2 weeks by setting cooler controls at 36 to 40 degrees
Fahrenheit. Reset temperature controls when stock reaches 33 to 34 degrees
Fahrenheit. Once stock thaws do not allow it to refreeze.
b. Non-frozen Stock. Keep trees at 32 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit. Do not allow trees
to freeze and do not allow temperatures to exceed 36 degrees.
Stock can be severely damaged if allowed to freeze depending on the physiological
condition of the stock at the time of freezing. Stock lifted early in the spring and kept
cold has a high probability of being dormant and relatively inactive physiologically.
This stock may not suffer damage if frozen. However, stock lifted later in the spring
or stock exposed to higher temperature during storage may have begun breaking
dormancy. This stock has a high probability of damage if frozen. Since it is not
possible to know the exact condition of trees, it is critical to assure stock does not
freeze.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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2.53 - Tree Care from Storage to Planting
During all aspects of tree handling, keep seedlings cool and roots relatively moist. Root hairs
can be damaged in minutes by exposure to dry wind and low humidity. Temperatures over 36
degrees Fahrenheit will increase respiration and cause depletion of food reserves. High
temperatures can also result in accumulation of gases in tree boxes. These gases can damage
trees severely and are a particular problem in pines that are coming out of dormancy. Trees
damaged or killed in this manner cannot be easily distinguished from healthy trees.
1. Thawing Frozen Stock. Frozen trees are brittle and will be damaged easily. Handle
boxes carefully to avoid damage. Do not handle trees before they are properly thawed. It may
take 10 to 14 days to properly thaw container seedlings. Begin the thawing process allowing for
adequate lead-time prior to the start of planting or the arrival of non-frozen tree shipments, which
ever comes first. Careful stock monitoring is required as rates of thawing may vary by species
and/or cooler location. Follow these practices when thawing trees:
a. Handle seedlings very carefully. They are full of ice crystals and very brittle.
Never attempt to separate frozen trees or bundles. Do not throw boxes of trees
around.
b. Let bundles thaw slowly at cool temperatures between 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit
and in an area protected from wind and direct sunlight. Thawing time will vary
depending on several variables. Allow sufficient time for thawing.
c. Never place trees in warm water to thaw.
d. Once thawed, handle as non-frozen stock. Reset cooler temperatures and maintain
optimum temperatures.
e. If it is necessary for the cooler to handle both frozen and thawed stock, frozen
stock should be removed by taking individual boxes or groups of boxes from the
cooler. The stock should be taken to a relatively cool storage area and allowed to
thaw slowly. Inside storage areas such as sheds or warehouses where temperature
ranges are generally 40 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit, are ideal. If outside areas are used,
space blankets or tarps should be used to protect the trees from nighttime low
temperatures. Never allow tree boxes to be exposed to direct sunlight. Rapidly
thawing trees is not advisable. Be aware that if inside box temperatures raise above
36 degrees Fahrenheit for more than a few hours, molds may develop rapidly. It is
best to keep them in the 32 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit range.
2. Bareroot Tree Preparation for Planting. There are two basic preparation systems, one
for early spring season planting when freezing temperatures may be a problem, and the other for
late spring season planting when warming temperatures are the problem.
a. Early Spring. (No Acclimatization needed). Handle seedlings as little as possible
during the early spring when seedlings will likely be exposed to freezing nighttime
temperatures. During this time of year, day temperatures are commonly below 70
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DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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degrees Fahrenheit for extended periods and warm temperatures are reached for only
a few hours in the afternoons. Soil temperatures do not warm in these conditions.
Completely thawed trees should be taken from boxes and prepared for wrapping.
Trees should be dipped briefly in water or misted and then wrapped in moist kimtex
type towels or clean burlap. If roots are sufficiently moist, dipping may not be
necessary. Details on wrapping are shown in exhibit 01. Wrapped trees should be
kept cool and planted within 48 hours of wrapping. If trees are wrapped ahead of
planting, they should be placed immediately back in cold storage (32 to 36 degrees
Fahrenheit) with the tops of the tree bundle up and exposed to air.
An alternate method is to remove trees from storage boxes at the planting site, dip
small bundles of trees briefly in water and place immediately in insulated planting
bags ready for planting. Ensure all roots are wet. Do not allow planters to carry too
many trees, as they will dry out if kept in bags for long periods of time. Regulate the
number of trees based on the temperature and humidity conditions on site.
It is critical to keep trees, especially pines, from becoming active physiologically and
transporting a lot of water to the stem and tree crown. Trees full of water may be
damaged after they are planted when temperatures drop below 28 degrees Fahrenheit.
Early season mortality in ponderosa and lodgepole pine can be partially attributed to
freeze damage from planting trees with excess water in stems and needles just prior to
temperature drops into the mid-twenties or lower.
b. Late Spring Season. (Acclimatization Needed). As the planting season progresses
and the days become warmer, it is advantageous to acclimatize trees coming out of
cold storage before planting. Wrap seedlings a day prior to planting and keep in a
shaded area such as the wrapping shed where temperatures are above 40 degrees
Fahrenheit and preferably 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit. Plant trees the following day.
Acclimatization is generally done at the storage unit and not at field sites. Place
seedlings upright in boxes or tubs with tops exposed to air. Wrapped bundles must be
kept moist. This can be done is several ways, such as, place upright bundles in 1 or 2
inches of water to maintain the wicking action to keep the wrap wet. Another way is
to periodically wet bundles with a hose. This provides moisture to keep the kimtex or
burlap wet.
Trees planted without acclimatization on days with temperatures that exceed 75
degrees Fahrenheit may suffer from shock, due to rapid water loss in tree crowns.
Water loss cannot be replaced in a tree that has just thawed, since water transport
functions are not yet fully physiologically active. The effect is similar to winter
physiological drought when crown temperatures are warmed to the point that
moisture demands cannot be met by their cold physiologically inactive roots and
stems.
Avoid problems by following these general guidelines:
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(1) Ensure frozen trees are completely thawed prior to preparation for planting, as
they are brittle and easily damaged. Never attempt to separate tree roots while they
are frozen.
(2) Do not allow sealed tree package temperatures to rise above 36 degrees
Fahrenheit for any appreciable time.
(3) Do not place trees that have warmed above 40 degrees Fahrenheit during
wrapping procedures back in boxes and seal or roll the bag closed. Once trees have
been wrapped and warmed, keep tops upright and exposed to fresh air.
(4) Do not acclimatize trees prior to planting if sub-freezing weather is in the
forecast. Trees full of moisture can be damaged as temperatures drop below the midtwenties. Consider suspension of planting if severe cold weather is expected.
3. Tree Wrapping Process. The wet wrap method is recommended for tree preparation.
Wrapping can be eliminated if other precautions are taken to ensure root systems are not exposed
to drying. However, wet wrap offers some insurance against root drying and may be more
efficient than increasing inspection time at planting during sunny weather to ensure trees are not
being abused.
Other methods, such as placing trees in insulated tree bags, are acceptable as long as monitoring
ensures roots are not drying. Cellulose products can be mixed with water before the trees are
dipped, however, if the slurry is too thick or rubbed on roots, it will harm the roots.
Conduct tree wrapping under full shade and in an area protected from wind. It is best to be
inside buildings or in canvas shelters with low temperatures and high humidities.
Remove trees from boxes in groups of 20 to 50. Roots may be briefly dipped in tubs of clean
fresh water, or misted prior to wrapping.
Wrap trees in wet kimtex-type towels pieces or clean burlap, about 15 by 30 inches in size
(ex. 01). Kimtex-type towels are lighter, easier to prepare, and are disposable (thus cleaner) at
the end of the planting season. Wrapping material must be clean to avoid spreading molds from
one bundle to the next.
Separate seedlings gently and place one layer on the wrap. Roots should not be tangled. The
wrap should extend about 6 inches below root ends. Fold the bottom 5 inches of wrap over
roots, ensuring roots are not folded. Roll the bundle and fasten with a nail or plastic wrap. The
planter must loosen the roll slightly prior to planting to prevent root stripping when extracting
seedlings. Indicate the seed lot and other information such as time of wrapping and wrapper
name, for bundles. Colored flagging or other tagging with this information marked on it will aid
in administration of the wrapping process.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.53 - Exhibit 01
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4. Root Pruning. Root systems are pruned at some nurseries according to specifications.
Report stock not meeting pruning specifications to the nursery and the regional
silviculturist/reforestation specialist.
Although root pruning at the district is generally not recommended, stock not pruned at the
nursery may need pruning before wrapping. District pruning should be coordinated with the
nursery. Any pruning must be done at the time of wrapping, never at the time of planting.
Scissors or paper cutters are recommended for root pruning while trees are laid on the wrapping
table. Long laterals may be snipped off at this time, but major alterations of the root system
should be avoided. Pruning taproots is not desirable.
Pruning just prior to planting can be detrimental because root ends do not have time to heal
(callus) over and to generate new growing centers prior to planting. Late pruning of trees,
especially ponderosa pine, can cause tree mortality. Long lateral root ends can be placed in the
bottom of the planting hole without compromising future tree development.
5. Storage of Wrapped Trees. Plant trees as soon after wrapping as possible. The
wrapping process can initiate warming that results in increased tree physiological and
microorganism activity. Microorganisms can damage wet, warm foliage in a short time.
Follow these practices:
a. Wrap trees as they are needed. Do not store wrapped trees for longer than 48
hours. It may be more expensive to wrap trees as needed but is necessary for survival
b. Do not store wrapped trees horizontally in the original shipping bags and then
reseal the bag. This will cause heating, aeration, and disease problems. Water may
also accumulate in the bottom of the bag and drown the trees.
c. Store wrapped trees with treetops upright and well aerated until ready for shipment
to the planting site. Stock temperature should be maintained at 33 to 36 degrees
Fahrenheit. Do not allow cold refrigeration air to blow on treetops as it can freeze the
trees.
6. Transport of Trees.
a. Wrapped trees. Protect tree bundles from drying wind during transport. Do not
transport them exposed in open trucks. It is best to transport bundles inside tree
shipping cartons with tops exposed to air in insulated tree transport units, covered
vans, canopied pickups, or trailers.
If it is necessary to stack boxes for transport, wrapped trees may be laid horizontally
in original nursery bags and then placed in boxes for short periods. Do not roll or seal
the bags. Once at the site, bags should be reopened and bundles placed upright. Air
exchange is important when trees are exposed to temperatures over 36 degrees
Fahrenheit.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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b. Unopened Tree Boxes. Trees in unopened boxes should be transported in
canopied trucks or vans. They can also be transported in open pickup beds providing
they are well covered with white or reflective tarps. Do not expose tree boxes to
wind or direct sunlight.
7. Tree Care While Planting.
a. Keep boxes in shade. Cover boxes at all times to keep them cool using reflective
tarps (shiny side down) such as space blanket type tarps. Stacked boxes of trees shall
be separated to provide free air movement between boxes. Punctured or torn
containers must be promptly resealed.
b. Planting bags for bareroot stock must have a minimum depth of 15 inches. Canvas
bags with a silver colored reflective material on the outside and an inside
compartment of neoprene and drain holes are preferred. This should be specified in
the contract.
c. Seedlings, whether individual, in bundles, or bags, must be protected at all times
from drying, heating, smothering, freezing, crushing, drowning, abrasion, rapid
temperature fluctuations, or contact with injurious substances.
d. Do not remove trees from shipping containers until they are to be placed in
planting bags. If water has accumulated in the bag, it must be emptied before being
filled with seedlings.
e. Plant tree seedlings without further root or top pruning, or culling. If pruning or
culling appears necessary, or if mold, dry roots, evidence of injury, or dying is seen,
the condition shall immediately be reported to the Contracting Officer or the Planting
Foreman.
f. Do not handle frozen stock until it is completely thawed.
g. Trees in planting bags shall have only their tops exposed. Loosen wrap from trees
just prior to planting to allow trees to be easily extracted from the roll.
h. Do not remove a tree from the planting bag until the planting hole has been
opened.
i. Remove seedlings gently from planting bag, one at a time, to prevent root stripping
or other injury, and quickly and gently insert it in the planting hole.
j. Seedlings carried in planting bags shall not exceed the amount that can be carried
and removed without injury, or which can be planted before critical heating or drying
occurs. Once trees are placed in bags they must be planted and not returned to
storage.
k. Container trees are extracted from tubes or blocks in which they are grown and
placed in plastic bags for shipment. Each bag contains a set number of trees, usually
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25 to 30 trees per bag depending on the grower. Some growers may wrap trees in
plastic wrap rather than bags. Spring-shipped trees may be frozen. They must be
thawed prior to planting.
l. Bagged trees go directly from the box to planting bags. Place trees vertically, with
tops up, in planting bags. Do not overload planting bags. Do not double stack
seedlings in planting bags, even if tops are only 6 to 8 inches high.
m. Summer-delivered trees should be planted as promptly as feasible, as they are not
conditioned for storage.
8. Weather and Soil Hazards During the Planting Operation. Refer also to section
2.82.3.c. for more detailed guidelines for planting in harsh weather conditions.
a. Cold Air Temperature Hazards.
(1) Spring Planting. Do not begin planting until the probability of severe cold events
has lessened to avoid freeze damage. Most planting windows in the northern Rockies
are not open until after mid-April. Planting may begin earlier further south. Monitor
the weather forecast once planting has started. Plan to suspend planting on days
when extreme cold events such as Canadian air masses are expected to move in.
Normally, it is not early morning frosts that damage trees right after planting, it is
extended periods of cold in lower teens and twenties that cause problems, and winds
can make it worse. Plant when trees are still dormant. Dormant trees will withstand
cold better.
Do not plant during freezing temperatures, and do not expose roots to freezing
temperatures during planting.
Experience has shown that planting too early in the season can result in high
mortality. Even though a site may be free of snow, do not plant when there is still a
chance of killing frosts or when soil temperatures are low. The moisture content of
the stems and needles in trees coming from packing boxes is high. When exposed to
low temperatures during late freezes, the water in the plant tissues freezes, killing the
tissue.
(2) Summer Planting Container. There may be freezing temperatures during the
summer plant season at high elevations, especially at night. Summer stock is not frost
hardy. Trees stored on site must be protected from severe freezing as new root tips
are easily damaged. Do not start planting until the chances of hard frosts are over.
(3) Fall Planting. Fall-planted container stock is subject to frost damage when
planted later in the season (after October 1).
Trees planted from mid-August through September are able to harden off normally as
days shorten and night temperatures decline. By mid-October, these trees become
cold hardy and can withstand temperatures well below freezing. If severe cold (teens
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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to low twenties) weather is forecast, delay planting until low temperatures are
expected to rise to normal fall temperatures. The moisture content of containerized
trees coming out of the cooler will often be high. It will take a few days on the site
for trees to lose the high moisture content and become more resistant to freezing.
b. Frozen or Cold Soils. Trees cannot be properly planted in frozen soils. It creates
problems in opening the planting hole and filling it properly. Suspend planting
operations if soils are frozen more than an inch deep. Do not plant if soils are below
40 degrees Fahrenheit at rooting depth. Adequate soil temperatures are needed for
seedlings to absorb soil moisture.
c. Drying Winds. Winds can damage trees by drying roots and tops. Watch
seedlings closely for signs of soil or root drying. Consider suspending operations if
tree roots are drying between the planting bag and planting, or if soils are drying
before the hole can be closed. Use temperature/humidity charts developed
specifically for Rocky Mountain sites to determine suitable planting windows.
Warm winds can desiccate trees that have open stomata, typical of trees just removed
from the planting box. Consider suspending planting operations if there are warm
drying winds and temperatures exceed 80 degrees Fahrenheit.
d. Dry Soils. Sufficient soil moisture is needed so the planting hole can be properly
opened and closed. Base the decision to plant on soil condition and experience of
local moisture patterns and planting windows. For example, if soils are dry in the last
week of June and no rain is forecast, planting may not be appropriate. Although there
are risks, if soils feel dry in April, trees can be planted assuming normal rains will
occur.
On low to middle elevations in southwestern Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and
southern Utah, do not plant trees in May or June unless soil moisture is adequate to
get roots established. These are typically the driest months of the year. Do not rely
on anticipated monsoon rain patterns to make up current moisture deficits.
Seasonal moisture expectations dictate planting strategies during the fall planting
season. Trees are becoming dormant and their moisture needs are declining as the
season progresses. As well, trees with less water content will be less prone to freeze
damage. Trees planted in late August will need more soil moisture than those planted
in mid- September. Trees planted at high elevations after mid-September will need
relatively little additional moisture until next spring.
Planting late in the fall while waiting for wetting rain can result in cold damage to
trees that are not properly conditioned and hardy for freezing temperatures.
e. Snow-covered Sites. Snow can make finding planting spots difficult. If planters
cannot find planting spots, stop planting until the snow melts enough that planting
spots can be detected. On some sites only an inch or two of snow can make planting
spots difficult to find.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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f. Warm Temperatures. Warm temperatures alone may not be extremely harmful,
however; there are cases when heat may be a concern. For example, if it is 70
degrees Fahrenheit at 10 am and will be in the 80 degree-plus range most of the day,
it is probably desirable to delay planting. Consider planting in early hours and late
evening on very warm days or moving crews from south and west slopes to north and
east slopes. Consider compounding factors particularly wind. Moderately warm
temperatures coupled with drying winds are extremely stressful to trees.
g. Water-Saturated Soils. Trees planted in waterlogged soils will suffocate and die.
Tree roots must have air to function. Saturated soils also affect the ability to plant,
especially in high clay or silt content soils. Soils must be well drained enough to
properly open and close a hole for successful planting. Often soils too wet to plant
immediately after snowmelt or heavy rains are plantable a few days or a week later.
On very wet sites, it may be necessary to change the stock type or season. For
example, in spruce bottoms that are so waterlogged they can only be planted with
summer and fall container stock.
9. Trees Left Over at End of Planting Day. Avoid having leftover trees by limiting trees
delivered each day. However, when trees are left over at the end of the planting day, consider
the physiological condition of trees. If they are still dormant, and box temperatures are low,
these trees may be retained and returned to the tree cooler or appropriate storage area. However,
discard trees if they have warmed or are becoming physiologically active. Do not return any
trees that have been in planting bags. Also consider the availability of stock and how long before
trees will be needed in making the decision for returning stock to coolers. If there is a shortage
of trees, there may be a need to take more risks in holding over trees than if there is tree excess.
Plant trees that are returned to storage on the next working day. If the trees are wrapped, they
must have the tops upright in open boxes, unless below freezing temperatures are expected in
exposed shelters.
2.54 - Testing for Spoiled or Damaged Trees
Exclusive of visual cues, there is no precise method for evaluating seedling quality. If spoiled or
damaged trees are suspected, request nursery assistance or conduct field tests. Quality dormant
stock can sometimes look off-color or have small damage, but still be plantable with high
survival potential. A thorough evaluation is sometimes necessary.
1. Seedling Quality Tests at the Nursery. The nursery has traditionally used
morphological characteristics, health indicators, dormancy, moisture stress, and limited nutrition
measurements to evaluate seedling stock. Forest Service nurseries can test trees for cold
hardiness, root growth potential, and stress tests. Contact the nursery for directions on how to
submit a sample for testing if there are suspect seedlings.
2. Pot tests. There are relatively simple procedures that can be used as indicators of
seedling quality. The easiest is a simple potting test and can be used at the district. Plant
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seedlings in plastic pots or constructed wooden bins. Forest soil is suitable for the potting
medium.
Place pots either inside or outdoors where seedlings will receive at least a half-day of full sun.
Place pots where they are not influenced by pavement or other artificial factors. Winter tests
have to be inside with about 8 to 10 hours of lighting, but once the weather warms in spring, pots
can be placed outside during the day and brought in at night if a severe freeze is expected. Water
trees as needed. Results of the test are expressed in live or dead condition, bud flush, and root
growth. This test is somewhat crude, but can indicate the ability of stock to flush and/or grow
roots. It takes several days to see results, which is a limitation of this test.
2.55 - Snow Caches and Other Storage Options
1. Snow Caches. Properly constructed snow caches are suitable for storing dormant
conifer tree seedlings. Snow cache temperatures will hold constant at between 30 to 33 degrees
Fahrenheit with humidity in excess of 90 percent for 4 months or longer. Districts needing
assistance in constructing a cache for the first time should contact the regional silviculturist or
reforestation specialist for referrals and suggestions. Some of the basic considerations for snow
caches are listed below:
a. Site Selection. Select sites in the fall before heavy snowfall, when the ground
profile is still exposed.
Caches should be on northern aspects or shaded sites that retain snow reserves. The
facility should not be in direct sunlight for more than an hour or so in early morning
or late evening. A large cache can be economically constructed on or near mountain
highway passes or ski areas where snow removal equipment is available and safe
access is assured. Smaller caches can be located on or near individual planting sites.
Locate caches where they can be periodically checked.
b. Designs. There are several designs available, including pit and pile, log house,
icehouse, culvert, and permanent cement house snow cache. The culvert and
permanent cement house are more cost efficient and are generally less dependent on
deep snow packs.
The pit and pile is presented here to emphasize some principles of snow caching.
Assistance in design of snow caches can be found in the references in section 2.06(d)
and by contacting persons listed in the Skills List as having the needed skill. The
following materials are needed for conventional pit and pile design:
(1) 2 by 4s or 2 by 6s.
(2) Sawdust or boughs.
(3) Canvas or opaque plastic tarps (space blanket is best).
(4) Long poles to mark location of cache.
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DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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(5) Snow removal equipment.
c. Construction of Snow Caches. Construct the cache before receiving seedlings so
they will not be exposed to sun or extreme temperature variations. Stockpile snow
early in winter by covering mounds of snow with boughs, sawdust, weed-free straw,
canvas, or space blanket tarps that have been sewn together. When plastic is used, it
must be placed over the top of deep insulation, not directly on the snow.
After delivery of trees, construct the cache with stockpiled snow. Keep a minimum
of 2 feet of snow between tree boxes and the ground and a minimum of 6 to 12 inches
between stacks of boxes. This space should be filled with snow as the cache is being
covered. This will prevent heat buildup and provide for air circulation. Refer to
exhibit 01 for a diagram of the snow cache interior.
The following items will aid in management of the snow cache:
(1) Draw a diagram of the cache showing location of trees by seed lot prior to snow
cache construction. Denote changes on the diagram made during construction.
(2) Place seedlings in cache so stock needed first will be near the entrance and that
needed last is at the back.
(3) Mark the entrance with poles.
(4) Place 2 by 4s or 2 by 6s on edge between boxes to aid in breaking boxes loose
from snow during removal.
(5) Do not compact snow too tightly at the entrance or between boxes, as snow may
turn to ice. Make sure there are 6 to12 inches between rows of boxes.
(6) Keep heavy snow-moving equipment from top of cache to avoid crushing boxes.
(7) Keep the cache intact as much as possible when removing trees. Maintain
insulating cover over the cache until all trees have been removed.
R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.55 - Exhibit 01
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R2 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 4/29/2002
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2409.17_2.01-2.5
Page 97 of 97
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2. Other Refrigeration Units. Refrigeration units not specifically designed for tree
storage may be used for short-term storage (up to 4 weeks). Some types of refrigerated coolers
include milk/beer coolers, meat coolers, fruit storage facilities, and refrigerated semi trucks. Use
these units only for short-term storage because it is difficult to maintain appropriate temperatures
and high relative humidity with these units. Most refrigeration units are not designed to operate
at low temperatures (32 to 34 degrees) and high humidity (above 95 percent). Temperature
fluctuations cause trees to break dormancy and create moisture condensation problems, both of
which stimulate development of microorganisms. The increase in biological activity increases
heat and toxic gases in the tree boxes. Improper refrigeration will result in tree mortality.
Use only units that have temperature adjustments and monitor them frequently. Temperatures
should be as close to 34 degrees as possible and avoid as much temperature fluctuation as
possible.
If fruit storage facilities are used, keep trees separate from fruit and any respiration retardants
used to preserve fruit. Ripening of fruit will increase tree growth and some chemicals can kill
trees.
During short-term storage, maintaining high humidity is not a concern providing the boxes are
closed and sealed. Check boxes for damage and repair as needed. Air space is required between
boxes to allow for heat removal from the individual packages. This is critical, especially for pine
species.
Keep all short-term storage time as short as possible. Leave trees at the nursery as long as
possible, or arrange for multiple shipments to reduce storage time.