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2409.17 - SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
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CHAPTER 6 - TIMBER STAND IMPROVEMENT
The direction included in this chapter has been developed through the coordinated
efforts of Regions 1, 2, 3, and 4. This coordination was initiated by the leadership of
each Region under the concept of shared services. All four Regions must concur on
future changes to the direction. Users of information in this handbook must be
familiar with the parent information in FSM 2476.
6.05 - Definitions. Definitions for silvicultural practices and systems are found in
FSM 2470.5 - Definitions. The accepted reference list of definitions can be found in
Volume 1 of Terminology of Forest Service, Technology, Practice and Products
edited by F.C. Ford-Robertson (Volume 1) produced by the Society of American
Foresters 1971. There is a current effort to define and update terminology, but to
date it has not been finalized. A draft copy of this work is available from Regional
Silviculturists. Terminology and definitions used in this handbook are defined
using the FSM and Volume 1. All practitioners in timber stand improvement
should use these for activities conducted on National Forest System lands.
6.1 - INVENTORY AND PLANS. Timber stand improvement includes any
intermediate treatment, commercial or precommercial, after establishment and
before the final harvest to improve composition, structure, condition, value, and
increment of the stand. Timber stand improvement is an important part of
managing timber stands to achieve management goals and objectives for forest
vegetation. Knowledge in the following areas is important to implementing timber
stand improvement activities:
1. Timber stand composition and structure.
2. Ecological and historical character of individual trees and timber stands,
including genetic factors.
3. Methods of treatment and potential results.
4. Existing and potential markets available and economic feasibilities.
5. Possible destructive agents.
6.11 - Timber Stand Improvement Process. Exhibit 01 displays the proper process
for identifying, developing, planning, and accomplishing a timber stand
improvement project.
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6.11 - Exhibit 01
Timber Stand Improvement Process
Assessment
â
Range Of Choices
â
Environmental Analysis
â
â
Alternatives Not Economically
or Environmentally Acceptable
Preferred Alternative
â
Final Silvicultural Prescription
â
Financing (KV, R&SI, Other)
â
Contract or Force Account
â
Contract Preparation
â
Advertise Contract
â
Pre-Bid Showing
â
Award Contract
â
Report Accomplishment
â
Pre-Work Conference
â
Mark Sample Area
â
Inspection Of Work
â
Payment Of Contractor
â
Final Acceptance
â
Follow-up Slash Treatment
â
Reporting and Recording
â
â
Determine Size of Crew
â
Determine Equip. Needs
â
Job Hazard Analysis
â
Description Of Job
â
Job Show-Me Trip
â
Mark Sample Area
â
Inspection Of Job
â
Final Acceptance
â
Report Accomplishment
â
Follow-up Slash Treatment
â
Reporting and Recording
â
Monitor Treatments
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Monitor Treatments
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6.12 - Silvicultural Examination and Prescription. Basic information about a stand
is needed before a silvicultural prescription can be made (see regional supplement
to chapter 8, Users Guide for the Rocky Mountain Resource System (RMRIS) for
Regions 2, 3, and 4; and Timber Management Control Handbook for Region 1). Use
these inventories as an aid in prescribing the methods, technique, and timing of
initial and subsequent treatments to meet Land Management Plan objectives. The
prescription should also describe the consequences of feasible alternatives including
chemical treatments. The requirements of a silvicultural prescription are contained
in regional supplements to chapter 8. Each Forest shall maintain an inventory of
areas requiring timber stand improvement (TSI) activities. All of these stands must
have been examined, analyzed by an interdisciplinary team, and had the collected
data processed.
6.14 - Coordination. All timber stand improvement work must conform with the
Forest Land Management Plan. Prior to undertaking any timber stand
improvement project, an environmental analysis and/or assessment must be
completed in advance of implementation. These projects are often included in
assessments for timber sales. Herbicide projects may require separate assessments
and plans (FSM 2151 and 2153.2).
The use of herbicides and chemical silvicides for control of undesirable plants
requires careful planning and coordination with states, other federal agencies, and
affected permittees. Such proposals must develop public understanding and, at the
same time, ensure that all resources are appropriately coordinated (FSM 2140.30).
Thinning normally produces heavy fuel loads and must be coordinated with Fire,
Aviation, and Air Management.
Resource coordination through the Forest Service NEPA process well in advance of
the project should prevent conflicts, making the project beneficial to all resources
involved. The advanced coordination must include interdisciplinary input from
specialists in various affected resources.
Timber stand improvement projects may be planned on any National Forest System
lands where land management objectives can be achieved through thinning. Stand
treatments designed to improve tree growth for timber production will be supported
by traditional appropriated timber stand improvement funding. Treatments made
for accomplishing other resource objectives where tree production is not a primary
goal will be funded by the benefiting resource.
Benefits to other resources, in addition to increased production of usable wood fiber,
include:
1. Increased forage/browse production.
2. Enhanced aesthetic values.
3. Increased production of usable water supply.
4. Reduced fire spread potential.
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5. Maintenance of healthy ecosystems.
6. Reduced probability of insect outbreaks.
7. Reduction of tree diseases.
6.15 - Stand Selection Criteria. Selecting a stand for thinning is dependent upon
the silvicultural characteristics and priorities identified in Forest Land
Management Plans. Special recommendations for setting priorities are included
in exhibit 01. Consider the following items in selecting stands:
1. Age. Age refers to both the chronological age and the length of time in a
competitive status. Ideally, stands should be thinned at a young age, with the
chronological ages ranging from 15 to 30 years. The range in age is principally
dependent on the species, site capability, and other factors which contribute to the
trees ability to compete for the most limiting environmental factors. Thinning
should generally be delayed until trees are expressing their mature growth and
quality characteristics and are capable of deterring brush and other site competition
by adequate occupancy of the site.
The longer thinning is delayed after competition among trees begins, the greater is
the unrealized usable production. Tree growth begins to be reduced by competition
well before the competition becomes readily apparent. For instance, in Douglas-fir,
by the time lower branches start dying, competition is already quite advanced.
It will be necessary to compare the actual stocking rate to the density necessary to
achieve a commercial size objective. This comparison may be necessary when there
is a small number of trees per acre, but the first commercially marketable product
is relatively large in size. For example; a ponderosa pine stand which is growing on
a Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type has a stocking rate of 220 3-inch trees per acre.
That stocking should result in the production of 9-inch to 10-inch trees before
moisture competition occurs. That stocking rate would result in severe competition
and mortality occurring over a long period of time if markets changed and a 14-inch
to 15-inch diameter tree was necessary for a first marketable product.
If initial stocking two to three years after disturbance is excessive (10-40 thousand
trees per acre) weeding and cleaning may be needed by age 4-5 if high
precommercial thinning costs are to be avoided.
2. Crown Ratio or Crown Percent. The crown area development is often an
expression of the competitive stature of a tree within a stand. Tolerant species are
more capable of maintaining large crowns even in low-light levels if all other factors
are not limiting. Intolerant species lose lower needles more rapidly from
competition for light, with all other factors not limiting. Trees, however, naturally
tend to lose crown area with increasing age.
Within each species, there is an inherent capability for production of photosynthetic
surface area. This surface, primarily the needle area in conifers, will remain
relatively constant on a site resulting in diminished overall crown lengths in denser
stands. The crown area length in relation to the total tree height is expressed as a
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ratio or percent. For example; a tree 50 feet in total height with a live crown length
of 30 feet has 60 percent crown ratio. For the best thinning response, crown ratios
should be greater than 40 percent of the total bole length, preferably greater than
1/2 the length. In some stands with a high density and young age (5-20 years old),
thinning when crown ratios are 25-35 percent may be appropriate.
Tolerance is expressed below for the most common species in the Regions. The most
tolerant species utilize the photosynthates at lower light levels and higher levels of
root competition than more intolerant species. Most species become less tolerant
with age.
Very Tolerant
Tolerant
Intermediate
Intolerant
Very Intolerant
Pacific Yew
Subalpine fir
Western Red
Cedar
Western
Hemlock
Engelmann
spruce
Grand fir
Incense-cedar
Mountain
hemlock
Red fir
White fir
White spruce
Blue spruce
Douglas-fir
Sugar pine
Western white
pine
Apache pine
Chihuahua pine
Jeffery pine
Junipers
Limber pine
Lodgepole pine
Pinyon pine
Ponderosa pine
Southwestern
white pine
Alpine larch
Bristlecone pine
Cottonwoods
Quaking aspen
Subalpine larch
Western larch
Whitebark pine
3. Stand Density. The benefits of thinning increase as initial density or
number of stems per acre increase. Overstocking results in stands either not
reaching merchantable sizes or reaching them very slowly, especially on lower
productivity lands (site classes V, VI, and VII) (Exhibit 01). High productivity lands
will nearly always produce merchantable volume without major reductions in
density. First priority for precommercial thinning should be given to young stands
on lower productive sites that are overdense. These stands are those which would
seldom produce merchantable volume without thinning. It is because little value
comes from the stands without thinning that nearly all the volume gain; hence,
economic value is attributable to the precommercial thinning. If stand density is so
high that conventional thinning methods are economically unfeasible consideration
should be give to stand replacement. The methods for stand replacement should
consider the use of prescribed fire.
A primary gain from precommercial thinning is a shortening of the time a stand
must be carried before it is commercially thinned. Generally, the longer the time
required for trees to reach commercial size without thinning, the greater the gain
from precommercial thinning. This is accomplished by placing the growth on the
trees which will reach commercial size and eventually producing the final crop
trees.
More usable biomass is captured by completing precommercial thinnings on the
young, less dense stands than on the older larger stands. When density is combined
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with the relative age of the stand, it becomes readily apparent that older overdense
stands create a larger volume of slash than a younger less dense stand.
6.15 - Exhibit 01
Stand Selection Criteria
Site Productivity Class Table
Potential Productivity
Cubic Feet/Acre/Year
Site Class
0-19
20-49
50-84
85-119
120-164
165-224
225-500
VII
VI
V
IV
III
II
I
4. Height - Diameter. Both height and diameter provide a relative expression
of the chronological age of a stand. Many species have varying height growth
patterns that can be determined in yield tables, site index, and height growth
curves. In many cases, these curves will allow the prediction of the potential height
and diameter within a specific time frame. Thus, in young stands, the point of
culmination of annual height growth can be determined. Gains from thinning
decline very rapidly after this point of culmination.
Percentage gains in mean annual increment (m.a.i.) of usable volume due to
precommercial thinnings are closely related to site quality. Percentage gains from
precommercial thinning, within limits, increase markedly with decreasing site
quality. The resulting absolute gains in usable mean annual increment also
increases with decreasing site quality to site class V.
If precommercial thinning is not done until leave trees are about 30 feet or 20
percent of its rotation height, the opportunity to make potential gains in growth
response may no longer be possible. Leave trees should also be within plus or
minus 25 percent of the average diameter for all leave trees within that portion of
the treated stand. Excessively dominant large diameter of "wolf-trees" should not
be left as part of the leave stand. These trees, excessive dominants, poorly utilize
the site, often having extremely long limbs of large size which occupy two to three
times the crown area of normal dominant or co-dominant trees. Where other
resource consideration dominate the management practices or objectives in a stand,
retention of the wolf trees may be necessary or desirable.
Lodgepole pine stands often require that no thinning be accomplished until they are
at least 15 feet in height unless the density is so great that trees begin self pruning.
Any other precocious seed producers should be similarly treated. A re-invasion or
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release of undergrowth shrubs, brush, or small trees can also be severe competition,
especially when moisture is the most limiting factor for growth. This is to reduce
competition due to re-establishment of seedlings. Super dense stands left unthinned
will lose their growth (diameter and height) potential to respond to thinning.
Diameter of material being thinned is a very important consideration in
determining the volume and type of fuel hazard created. Excessive amounts of
slash and the relatively short period of time until the tree reaches commercial size
should limit thinning to stands with average stand diameter less than 5 inches
d.b.h. The most desirable stands to thin would be those of less than 3 inches in
average stand diameter, before thinning.
5. Site Quality. Site quality is the sum of all the environmental factors that
determine the productivity of a forest land area. Indirect methods of measuring
these environmental factors are site index and vegetation classification systems.
The most typical vegetation classification system is the habitat type.
Site index, when properly obtained from dominant trees, is an expression of site
productivity especially the height attainable. Over-dense stands, especially
intolerant species, will not grow to their full height. Therefore, the site's true
potential would not be indicated.
When over-dense stands or young stands exist on the site, the vegetational
classification system of Daubenmire's habitat types will provide a rapid
approximation of the site's productive capability.
While the common approach has been to invest production dollars on the highest
quality sites, percentage gains from precommercial thinnings increase markedly
with decreasing site quality through site classes IV and V. This results because the
gain in usable mean annual increment attributable for the thinning increases with
decreasing site quality. Poorer quality sites have a number of limiting silvicultural
or environmental factors. When these factors are not affected, through reductions
in densities, the resultant stand cannot produce commercial products except over
long time periods, occasionally not at all. High site quality stands nearly always
produce commercial products, even with high densities.
6. Vigor. This factor is a relative expression normally associated with trees in
the main or dominant story of the stand. Attributes normally used to describe vigor
are terminal elongation and needle color, size, and length. Tree vigor often aids in
the evaluation of the leave stands ability to dominate the site through response to a
decrease in any of the limiting factors.
The rate of leader growth or the distance between internodes provides an excellent
measure to the release potential of the site. Elongation of the crown area provides
the greatest carbohydrate production potential for height and diameter growth.
The position of a tree's crown in relation to trees adjacent to it provides the best
overall assessment of a tree's capability to respond to reductions in density. Kraft's
even-aged crown classification system portrays the crown of a tree in relation to the
exposure to sunlight and relative height within the stand. The classifications are:
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a. Dominant Trees. Dominant trees are somewhat above the general
level of the canopy and are exposed to full sunlight from above and to a
certain extent laterally.
"Wolf Trees" are coarse, heavy-limbed, broad-crowned trees that have
usually developed with a lack of lateral, co-dominant competition. Wolf
trees are undesirable in a stand from a timber management standpoint.
These trees may be desirable for other resource considerations.
b. Co-Dominant-Trees. Co-dominant trees are not as tall as dominants,
with crowns receiving overhead light. They may be confined laterally by
dominants and usually make up the main canopy with the dominants.
c. Intermediate Trees. Intermediate trees are definitely subordinate in
position receiving direct sunlight only through holes in the canopy. All
trees of this class are subject to strong lateral competition.
d. Suppressed Trees. Suppressed trees are definitely overtopped with no
free overhead light. Commonly weak and slow growing.
e. Dead Trees. Self-explanatory.
Stand leave trees should normally be selected from dominant and co-dominant
crown classes especially in precommercial stand sizes. When necessary,
intermediate crown classes may be left to maintain crown coverage and site
occupancy if no others are available or if a specific species is desired to meet other
resource concerns. Suppressed trees will seldom respond to thinning and should not
be selected as leave trees.
Tolerant species (6.15, item 2), when overtopped or overdense, may have thin bark
and a well developed "shade leaf" crown. Sudden exposure of trees in these stands
to light through removal of an overstory and thinning can result in "sunburning" or
"sunscald" of the bole and loss of needles. This normally causes diminished growth
and delayed site occupancy or death. Occasionally, mortality may be high in these
stands if other stressful environmental conditions, such as aspect, coincide with the
induced stress of treatment. "Sunburning" is necrosis caused by excessive heating
of the cambial tissue under the thin bark, which often results in flattened sides,
bark sluffing, and poor wood quality.
Grand fir stands more than 30 years of age that have been suppressed and released
through logging should not be thinned until 2 to 5 years after release. This will
allow an assessment of release ability to occur. Grand fir will not respond to
thinning when crown ratios are below 40 percent.
7. Stand Damage. This single element often holds the key to the final selection
of a stand for thinning. All potential insect and disease hazards in the stand
proposed for thinning must be evaluated or rated.
Thinning is often an effective method of reducing current losses from insects and
disease in young stands. It is also an effective method of controlling insects in the
future. The general vigor of the stand will be improved by thinning, and the ability
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to overcome insects, such as the western and mountain pine beetle, will be
increased. Changes of environment within the stand, especially the increase in
temperatures within the stand, appears to be detrimental to a number of insects.
Thinning under an overstory infected with dwarf mistletoe should not be done.
Early removal of the affected overstory, preferably by commercial sales, will benefit
the stand. When thinning in stands infected with dwarf mistletoe, it will be
necessary to preprogram several follow-up inspections and possibly some additional
treatments to deal with latent infections that becomes visible 3 to 5 years after the
initial treatment. Hawksworth's 6-class dwarf mistletoe rating system (ex. 02)
should be used in programming treatments for dwarf mistletoe infected stands.
6.15 - Exhibit 02
Hawksworth 6-Class Mistletoe Rating System
INSTRUCTIONS
/\
EXAMPLE
/ \
STEP 1. Divide live crown into thirds. /
\
If this third has no visible
/ 0 \
infections, its rating is (0)
_________/_______\__________
STEP 2. Rate each third separately. /
\
If this third is lightly
Each third should be given a
/
1 \
infected, its rating is (1)
rating of 0, 1 or 2 as described
/
\
below.
_ ____/__________\________
(0) No visible infections.
/
\
If this third is heavily
(1) Light infection (1/2 or
/
2
\
infected, its rating is (2)
less of total number of
/
\
branches in the third infected.) /____________\
(2) Heavy infection (more
| |
than 1/2 of total number
| |
The tree in this example
of branches in the third
| |
will receive a rating of
infected.)
| |
0 + 1 + 2 = 3.
/
\
STEP 3. Finally, add ratings
of thirds to obtain rating
for total tree.
The 6-class mistletoe rating system (Hawksworth 1961).
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The level of infection and site productivity must be considered when prioritizing
stands with dwarf mistletoe infections. Better site indices should be given a higher
priority because of greater potential volume growth. As the mistletoe ratings
increase, the priority for thinning should decrease. Stands with a rating class of 2
or less with infections in the lower crown will benefit from thinning and may
produce acceptable yields.
Rust and gall infected stands can be substantially improved by careful selection of
leave trees. Commonly, some trees within the stand have a genetic resistance to
these pathogens. The apparent rate of resistance and lack of galls should be
considered in prioritizing these stands for treatment.
The species susceptibility to current insect or disease problems should be evaluated.
Many mixed stands contain nonhost species which could be featured in
management to help eliminate or control the pathogen or insect.
The development of infection entry points must be considered when prioritizing
stands for treatment. Commercial thinnings or removal of salvage materials must
consider the scarring, limb breakage, season of the year, and other circumstances
creating rust or fungal entry points. True firs are very susceptible to various rots.
Treatment types which increase this susceptibility must be given a low priority.
Timing of thinning operations is essential in many stands. Insect populations such
as ips can build up rapidly in slash. By creating a "green chain" of slash, this
problem may be avoided. This often means attracting the insects into down
materials until winter when freezing and drying kills the overwintering larval
stage. There are situations in Arizona and New Mexico when the "green chain" is
not effective because winters are not severe enough to kill ips broods. In these
situations control is provided by limiting the amount of slash (brood material) in
any one location. Specific insects or disease treatments should be discussed with an
entomologist or pathologist.
8. Management Objectives. The items above are the principal silvicultural
considerations that should be weighed in stand selection for thinning. Silviculture
properly applied requires that the stand capabilities be utilized to meet
management objectives. The following objectives further set priorities on stands
selected for thinning and other treatments.
a. Species Composition. The species selected may have considerable
influence on insect and disease susceptibility, potential production,
economic demand, and legal or administrative constraints.
Stands of higher valued species will normally show a greater return for
the investment of thinning funds than low value species (all other
considerations being equal). While current price or demand must have a
greater weight than future price/demand considerations, the future
should be weighed when considering relative priorities between species.
Continued increases in demand for fiber in the form of chips will not only
change the type of output from the various stands, but could change the
price/market structure changing demands from species having high
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quality sawtimber to a dual production species having moderately good
wood structure and fiber quality. This demand picture must be reviewed
with the emphasis on the local demand or market area.
Ability to alter output rates and types must be evaluated in relation to
the overall stand management objective. The ability to produce a
mixture of species is often desired to maintain vigor over time and reduce
susceptibility to damaging agents. Biologically, many species may be
produced on one habitat type, but a seral species may be more productive
than the climax species. Species composition often needs to be controlled
for management purposes. Caution needs to be exercised, however, in
some species because basic biological reactions tend to exclude certain
species because of competitive interactions.
Diversity of the wildlife species inhabiting a stand is directly affected by
its composition. Wildlife habitat objectives may require a broad array of
species to meet stand management objectives.
b. Plans. Management plans, objectives, and constraints often impose
thinning priorities such as spacing, area of treatment, or timing. These
constraints should be considered when setting priorities for expenditures.
The objectives and constraints will normally be found in the silvicultural
prescription for the stand or area.
Management plans also place priorities on areas of treatment to meet
planned harvest objectives. These planned harvest objectives may have
included economical efficiency in their initial determination of need and,
as such, may have programed certain management types to be treated
over a specific time period.
Some stands are predesignated for thinning by Forest plans rather than
silvical priorities. They are set aside to meet future timber management
output objectives or other resource objectives. These targeted areas are
first priority in a management schedule.
9. Disturbance Regimes (Fire). In addition to stand level silvicultural
characteristics and identified land management objectives, stand selection criteria
should consider concepts of disturbance ecology from a stand and landscape
perspective. Understanding of past, current, and potential future fire regimes for
example, can give us clues to sustainable desired conditions in terms of composition
and structure of stands and landscapes. An understanding of historical fire regimes
can give us a clue to the frequency and intensity of fire, the type of stand and
landscape structures that were developed, and possible wildlife habitat that was
maintained over time. This knowledge can then be used to help define desired stand
and landscape conditions to be developed over time as we prepare site specific
silvicultural prescriptions. Understanding how and where fire regimes influenced
past composition and structure should aid in setting priorities for current TSI
treatments.
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10. Economics. Similar stands are often in need of thinning. An analysis
should be conducted to rank stands so that the greatest return is realized for each
dollar invested. Analysis of these treatments should be included in Land
Management Plans, Environmental Assessments/Impact Statements, and/or final
silvicultural prescriptions. The most current applicable technique for conducting an
economic analysis is to be used.
After analysis is completed, implementors of these stand treatment activities will
need to evaluate and select the most cost efficient means for completing the
activities. Consideration will include: available funding; contract versus force
account; administration costs; move in and out costs; season of work; coordination
with resource values and uses; and methods to be used.
11. Review of the Stand Selection Process. The following is a description of an
approach to developing priorities for thinning using the stand selection criteria
developed above. While the stand selection criteria basically is divided into two
segments, not all segments must be considered in making the stand selection. The
priorities are provided as a logic pattern to help order a complex program of
scheduling. The questions that are outlined below, when answered, should provide
a ranking of stands for thinning.
a. Age. Has competition between trees developed? Have the trees in the
stand begun to express growth and quality characteristics (Phenotypic)?
Are the trees old or excessively stagnant?
b. Crown Ratio. Is there sufficient crown present to immediately
respond to density reduction? Must the foliage go through adjustment?
Can more crown be added?
c. Density. Can the stand reach commercial size without significantly
extending the time needed to achieve the projected size at the end of a
typical rotation? What will be the volume of fuel created in unutilized
wood fiber? Is the stand too dense and of such poor quality as to not
achieve an expression of dominance?
d. Height-Diameter. Is the variation in diameter in the leave trees
greater than plus or minus 25 percent? Has the stand differentiated in
height? Are trees past the point of culmination of mean annual and
periodic increment?
e. Site Class. Does the habitat type capability indicate that stagnation is
common for the density present?
f. Vigor. Is the dominance freely expressed with extreme variations
present in the upper 1/3 of the crown in internode elongation? Will the
trees continue to grow at a rate that will capture the site and control
competing vegetation?
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g. Stand Damage. What insects and diseases are present? What are the
future problems with insects and diseases that could be triggered by
treatment of the stand?
h. Species Composition. What species will provide the best future
returns? Is there a need to favor a certain species or species mixes for
insect and disease purposes?
i. Plans. Is the area included as a priority treatment within the Forest
Land Management Plan? Is stand density or composition controlled by
some other resource constraint? Must scheduling be delayed or the
intensity for treatment reduced?
j. Disturbance Regimes (Fire). Is the stand composition and structure
close to the historic range given the typical historical fire regime on the
site? If not, is this stand condition likely to lead to a sustainable stand
and landscape condition in terms of the current or projected future fire
regime? Is the stand so large as to create problems with fire, other
resources, or future forest management activities?
k. Economics. Which of the selected stands to be treated will provide the
best benefit-cost ratio or has the best present net worth?
This list of questions is incomplete and is only provided to stimulate the analysis
procedure used in stand selection.
6.16 - Project Development.
1. Area Layout. Area layout consists of four basic steps: (1) check the
approved Environmental Analysis or assessment and silvicultural examination to
ascertain the general boundaries of the area and to ensure specific coordination
measures are incorporated into the project; (2) locate and mark boundaries of the
specific units to be thinned; (3) develop a project map to scale; and (4) determine the
acreage of each unit.
The first step is to ensure that the Forest Land Management Plan and the parent or
specific project environmental analysis or assessment are being followed. It is also
important to ensure the area and timing of your project do not conflict with other
resource and timber projects. Boundary layout should begin next. Maps, aerial
photos with the boundaries of each prescription unit to be thinned plainly
delineated, and flagging should be taken along and used to layout the area on
ground. If transmission lines, roads, or trails are used as boundaries, make sure
that they are correct on your maps and photos. These features sometimes change
between the time the maps were made or aerial photos were taken. Care should be
used in the layout phase to ensure that units are not too large for the available
work forces.
Whenever possible, it is best to use topographical or other easily identifiable
landmarks as boundaries as this will help in determination of unit acreage.
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Once layout is finished and checked, boundaries should be marked plainly with
paint or signs to ensure that they are easy to identify during the life of the project.
The next step is to develop a project map. It should contain as a minimum the
following:
a. Unit name
b. Unit boundary
c. Scale
d. Delineation of slash treatments by area
e. Special restrictions
f. Name of person who made the map
g. Date the map was made
2. Area Measurement. Area determination can be done by several methods, all
of which are appropriate for use in certain areas at certain times. Listed below are
four methods that can be used.
a. Traversing. This is a method of determining the acreage of a unit. The
most commonly used pieces of equipment are a compass with a hip chain,
steel tape, or pacing as a distance measuring device. Caution should be
used to ensure the equipment is in good working order and that accurate
measurements are taken, or traversing can be as inaccurate as any other
method and much more misleading. There are several programmable
calculator programs available which will determine the error of closure
ratio and acreage of the unit.
b. Dot grid or compensating polar planimeter. These two devices are
used to calculate areas from an accurate map of the unit. This method
should be used only where boundaries are easily located on both aerial
photos and maps. The boundaries of the unit are located on aerial photos
and then checked. These boundaries are transferred from the photos to
the map by means of a "sketchmaster" or similar transposing device.
Great care should be used in this step to ensure the recommended
number of points are lined up both on the photo and map. When the map
is complete and checked, a dot-grid or compensating polar planimeter is
used to calculate acreage. At least three accurate measurements should
be made and averaged to determine the final acreage.
Caution should be used when determining acreage using this method.
Check to see that maps and photos are accurate and that the scale of the
map is correct. Ensure that dot-grid overlays are correctly printed and
that compensating polar planimeters are correctly calibrated. It is also
very important to use the proper correction factor to convert to acres, if
needed.
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c. Global Positioning System. In addition to traditional methods of
measuring area there is new technology available such as Global
Positioning Systems (GPS). Assistance for using GPS can normally be
found in engineering or lands work groups on Districts or Forests.
d. Laser Equipment. Laser equipment available on some units can be
used effectively for measuring area. This is new technology with many
applications other than distance measurement.
6.17 - Treatment Priority. Priority for treatments including species preferences
should be established by Land Management Plans, Environmental
Analyses/Assessments, and silvicultural prescriptions. Specific direction by
Region(s), if applicable, are included in exhibits for this section of the handbook
(Region 1 Ex. 01).
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6.17 - Exhibit 01
FOREST VEGETATION MANAGEMENT
Timber Stand Improvement, NFFV
A Prioritizing Strategy
Draft - December 1997
Introduction:
The National Forest emphasis for stand
improvement activities is described in the
1997 Budget Explanatory Notes for
Committee on Appropriations (USDA Forest
Service, 1997a) and more recently within the
1998 Budget Explanatory Notes for
Committee on Appropriations (USDA Forest
Service, 1997b) before a subcommittee of the
Committee on Appropriations.
"Stand Improvement treatments are essential
to maintain a healthy, resilient forest
ecosystem for the future. These activities will
maintain sufficient timber productivity to meet
projected future desired conditions for the
sustained management of NFS lands. These
activities promote stand health and resiliency
that is essential in creating and maintaining
the proper species composition, density, and
stand structure needed to meet broader
landscape or ecological management
objectives. These activities are designed to be
consistent with environmental, social, and
economic benefits and costs."
(USDA Forest Service, 1997b).
Program objectives are best summarized in
the Accomplishment and Results Measures
Information for Forestland Vegetation
Management, (USDA Forest Service, 1994),
"To annually reforest areas and conduct
timber stand improvement activities to meet
forests plan objective and ecosystem
management needs..... Reforestation and
stand improvement treatments are essential to
maintain a healthy, resilient forest ecosystem
for the future." Further
"Timber stand improvement treatments will
promote stand health and resiliency that is
essential in creating and maintaining the
proper species composition, density, and
stand structure needed to meet broader
landscape or ecological management
objectives." The management production
process, (USDA Forest Service, 1994), states
that "both program and project level
investments are need to maintain a flow of
timber and other resources consistent with
forest plans. Timber harvest, reforestation
and timber stand improvement projects are
used to help sustain diverse and healthy
ecosystem from which these resources are
obtained. "
"The timber stand improvement (TSI)
objective is to improve forest health, vigor
and maintain rapid growth.
This is
essential toward stated management
objectives at the stand, landscape, and
ecosystem levels. " (USDA Forest Service,
1997b).
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6.17 - Exhibit 01--Continued
Prioritizing Strategy
maintaining or improving soil
productivity. Note:
Fertilization is currently not
planned in the Northern
Region.
Timber Stand Improvement Activities listed
within the Timber Stand Management Record
System;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Release treatments to provide
for the removal of competing
vegetation to insure high levels
of growth and vigor. TSMRS
codes 4511, 4512.
Precommercial thinning
treatment provide the
opportunity to regulate stand
density, control stand density,
reduce standing fuels, control
species composition, and alter
stand structure to better meet
resource management
objectives. TSMRS codes 4521,
4522
Fuel ladder reduction and
controlling understory
vegetation to control, deaden
or reduce the growth of
understory vegetation and
TSMRS codes 4541, 4542.
Pruning for improvement of
future product quality by
producing more clear sound
wood or reduce disease
intensity. TSMRS code 4530.
Fertilization treatment
provide and means of
Treatment methods in the Northern Region
normally involve hand tools, mechanical
equipment, and/or prescribed fire.
These
stand improvement activities are important for
restoring or maintaining forest health and
sustainable levels of timber production. As
new stands of trees are regenerated, most will
need to be released from competing
vegetation, and/or thinned to maintain
healthy, vigorous stands.
The majority of our treatments are directed to
lands within the identified timber suitable
land base per the Forest Plan. However, the
recent emphasis for ecosystem management
and reducing the risk of stand replacement
fire on traditionally low intensity high
frequency fire regimes has focused a need for
stand improvement treatments on unsuitable
timber lands as well.
Prioritizing Stand Treatments
Page 2
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6.17 - Exhibit 01--Continued
Prioritizing Strategy
Purpose:
The purpose of this document is to share
prioritizing schemes for use in scheduling and
allocating funding for stand improvement
activities. This prioritization may be useful to
assess the target and budget distribution of
scarce NFFV, stand improvement funds.
Specific stand priority is established at the
Ranger District and/or Forest level from
Regional and National strategic priorities and
direction.
Discussion:
Stand improvement has a long history of
timber benefits through controlling species
composition, stand density and increasing
growth and vigor. With the new direction for
implementing ecosystem management and
concern for accumulating live fuels as it
relates to wildfire management, stand
improvement has a renewed emphasis.
Stand improvement activities can be a
significant tool for influencing stand
composition, structure and ecosystem
processes. This is especially true for species
such as ponderosa pine and western larch.
Without periodic disturbance to reduce
stocking, many of these stands will develop
into very dense spindly stands and do a poor
job of emulating natural or desired conditions
of stand development.
A system of ranking stands for stand
improvement treatment is not intended to
replace the requirement for silvicultural
diagnosis and detailed prescriptions.
Realistically, no scheme can quantify the
variables prominent at the Ranger District for
all of the potential areas for stand
improvement. The method here is an average
of the considerations many program managers
find useful in the process of ranking stands
for funding.
Key considerations for ranking stand
improvement treatment areas include the
following. These are not an inclusive list that
might be considered and they are not listed to
imply a priority.
access
density
economics
growth & vigor
management/ resource objectives
productivity potential class
resilience to fire
resilience to insects & pathogens
species composition
stand differentiation
stand/ tree phenotype
stand and ecosystem health
wildlife habitat requirements
These considerations can be key in
determining the better areas in which to make
investments in stand improvement resources.
As National Forest priorities change, some of
the consideration may take on a new level of
emphasis.
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6.17 - Exhibit 01--Continued
Prioritizing Strategy
Consideration
Description
Access
Access or access timing can be significant in terms of costs or logistics
for treatments. Reflected most commonly in unit cost.
A measure of the stems per acre. This may be compared to what is
desired at the stand or landscape level.
Return on investments will remain a high criteria for prioritizing.
Benefit/cost ratios and unit costs are important measures.
Maintaining or enhancing growth and vigor is an overall objective of
thinning. This may be the top consideration for applying a stand
improvement activity.
All treatments on the national forests shall be designed and implemented
to achieve land management objectives. Ecosystem management, and
forest health have focused on the broader ecological and social
objectives as articulated within the 1997 and 1998 Budget Explanatory
Notes for Committee on Appropriations (USDA FS 1997a, 1997b).
The amount of response trees achieve to treatment is directly related to
site quality. A measure of comparison of site productivity is currently
cubic feet per acre at culmination of mean annual increment. Also
consider the potential for stagnation which may be common on lower
potential productivity sites.
Certain tree species have greater resistance to insects and pathogens.
Stocking control can feature these species. In other instances, where
only susceptible species exist treatments can provide for greater
resilience to insects. The relationship of Douglas-fir and spruce
budworm is an example.
Resilience to fire relates to the land management objectives and the
desire to prevent stand replacement fire in commonly non-replacing fire
regimes, but possibly within replacing fire regimes as well such as
within urban interface areas.
Generally shade intolerant species are featured in the treatments due to
the adverse impacts of shade and competition on these species. Also
consider the species role in ecosystem function and management goals.
Stand differentiation relates to crown ratio, vigor and inter-tree
competition as clarified by O'Hara (1993) and Oliver (1990). It is a
measure of how well featured trees will compete and express themselves
with good vigor, less susceptibility to insects, disease and environmental
conditions and provide options for future sustainability and management.
Tree height, size and crown characteristics are examples that fit into this
category.
Many health conditions relate to species composition and density, such
as spruce budworm and root disease susceptibility. This in turn leads to
increasing risk of higher intensity fire.
Wildlife habitat needs can be very broad. Examples includes openness
providing for forage on winter range for big game, creating larger
diameter trees of specific species or altering tree species composition or
Density
Economics
Growth & Vigor
Management and
Resource
Objectives
Productivity
Potential
Resilience to
Insects &
Pathogens
Resilience to fire
Species
Composition
Stand
Differentiation
Stand/tree
Phenotype
Stand and
Ecosystem Health
Wildlife Habitat
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density for prey species habitat or improving access to special features
such as wallows.
6.17 - Exhibit 01--Continued
Prioritizing Strategy
Prioritizing schemes:
Two prioritizing schemes for stand improvement activities are summarized in the appendix A &
B. The Lolo (et al) NF method in appendix A, and the Kootenai NF method in appendix B. The
Lolo (et al) NF method is patterned after the Kootenai method, expanding it with considerations
for economics and ecosystem health. The categories, ecosystem management, growth and yield
and economics are currently separate prioritization schemes.
The Lolo Forest National Forest Plan (1986) specifies that stands will undergo stocking level
control when;
1. Necessary to meet resource management goals, such as wildlife and visual;
2. Necessary to obtain future stand yields......an economic evaluation will be
used to determine the highest priority stands for treatment;
3. Necessary to protect stands from fire, insects, or disease;
REFERENCES
O'Hara, Kevin L. & Oliver, Chadwick Dearing. 1993. Decision Key for Prioritizing Precommercial Thinning Treatments on the Cle Elum and Naches Districts of the Wenatchee
National Forest. From personal correspondence of Kevin O'Hara, School of Forestry,
University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812. 27 pages.
Oliver, Chadwick D. & Larson, Bruce C. 1990. Forest Stand Dynamics. McGraw, Hill Inc.
467 pages.
USDA Forest Service 1986. Lolo National Forest Plan. Lolo National Forest, Fort Missoula.
USDA Forest Service 1994. Accomplishment & Results Measures Information. 11/18/94,
Washington Office, pages 40-43.
USDA, Forest Service, 1996. Kootenai National Forest TSI Project (Stand) Ranking System.
Forest Silviculturist 2470 memo dated April 14, 1988, updated in 1996.
USDA Forest Service 1997a. 1997 Budget Explanatory Notes for Committee on
Appropriations. Washington Office publication.
USDA Forest Service 1997b. 1998 Budget Explanatory Notes for Committee on
Appropriations. In Hearings before a subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations,
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US House of Representatives, One Hundred Fifth Congress, First Session. Part 3, pages
99-103
Prioritizing Stand Treatments Page 5
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6.17 Exhibit - 01--Continued
Appendix A
Lolo (et al.) National Forest
Stand Improvement Ranking System
Three ranking categories allow one to visualize ranking within the each category
without the masking effects of combining the categories. This is useful in assessing
different management objectives and conditions as priorities change.
ECONOMICS
Benefit/Cost
Unit Cost 1/
ECOSYSTEM
Featured Species
Resilience to Fire
Resilience to Insects &
Pathogens
Stand & Forest Health
Management Objectives
Wildlife Habitat Needs
GROWTH/YIELD
Featured Species
Productivity Class
Tree/Stand Phenotype
Density in Trees/Acre
Management Objectives
Stand Differentiation
1/ Currently used by the Northern Region along with historical need to distribute TSI targets and
funds. Unit cost is also a nationally driven issue.
Units will rank each stand or area using the appropriate activity to assign
numerical values to each of these considerations. Mathematical accumulations will
then be displayed by category on a stand/area ranking summary table. Ranger
Districts must display unit costs and project size bounds in the summary of
prioritized stands/areas when submitting them for budget and target allocation.
Use of the linked spreadsheets is encouraged for efficiency.
FUEL LADDERS
Resilience to Fire
Stand replacement potential within a nonreplacement fire regime and thinning/ understory
vegetation removal/pruning can mitigate?
Yes
........within a stand replacement fire regime and
thinning/understory vegetation removal/pruning
can mitigate?
Yes
No
* If No, then drop stand from consideration.
Points
10
5
*
Featured Species *
Points
5
3
0
Management Area *
Points
-15
2
WL, PP, WBP
DF
Other
MINMA,NFNIL,RANGE,RDLES,SKI, WATER,WLDNS
Other Mgmt Areas or
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Wildland/Urban Interface
* TSMRS code
3
Total Points
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6.17 - Exhibit 01--Continued
PRECOMMERCIAL THINNING
Total Points
ECOSYSTEM HEALTH
CONSIDERATIONS
Preferred Species
WL, PP, WP, WBP
LP
DF
Others
Points
10
5
1
0
Resilience to Fire
Stand replacement potential in a
non-replacement fire regime
that thinning can mitigate?
Yes
No
Points
Resilience to Insects &
Pathogens
Thinning retains species
composition with resistance to
target pests?
Yes
No
Points
Stand/Ecosystem Health
Is thinning necessary to achieve
desired stand conditions for the
Vegetation Response Unit?
Yes
No
Points
Resource Needs?
Wildlife Biologist deems stand
requires thinning for
Threatened/Endangered Species
habitat or site factor?
Yes
Other resource importance?
Visual, Access, etc. Yes
No
Points
Crop Tree Crown Ratio
<20%
20-70%
>70%
Points
2
10
0
Management Area *
SPREC, TM+
BGAMW, CAMPG,
ELKSU, MINMA, OLDGR, RIPRN,
RNA,
Others
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
4
0
Points
5
3
0
GROWTH & YIELD CONSIDERATIONS
Preferred Species
Differentiation
Preferred species able to
differentiate without thinning?
Yes
No
Points
Crop Tree Crown Ratio
<30%
30-70%
>70%
Points
2
10
0
Crop Tree Species
(major species * )
WL, PP, WP,
LP
DF, C, GF, et al.
Points
Crop Tree Age (year of
Origin * )
0-8
9-30
31-50
>51
1
10
10
5
1
Points
0
5
3
0
Crop Tree Height
(average in feet * )
<5
6-10
11-35
>36
Points
0
1
4
2
Management Area *
SPREC, TM+
BGAMW, CAMPG,
ELKSU, MINMA, OLDGR, RIPRN,
RNA,
Others
Productivity (CMAI * )
> 85
50-84
20-49
< 20
* TSMRS code
Total Points
Points
5
3
0
Points
4
3
2
0
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6.17 - Exhibit 01--Continued
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Benefit/Cost Ratio
or Least Cost
Use Fred Stewart's analysis
available mid January.
>1.0
<1.0
Points
10
2
Unit Cost *
Use absolute value
* TSMRS code
Total Points
Project size may be an important consideration. Projects limited to a specific acre
size should be specified so that allocation can be efficiently made. Additionally,
stand treatments should consider intermediate entries of other product removals to
achieve thinning results. An example would be using post and pole removals within
lodgepole pine dominated stands that would be accessible to prospective and
traditional markets.
Fuel Ladders
Stand No.
or Area
Rank
Pts
Acres
Unit
Cost
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Prioritizing Stand Treatments Page 8
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6.17 - Exhibit 01--Continued
STAND SUMMARY TABLE
or use linked spreadsheets
Activity
Ecosystem Management
Stand No.
or Area
Rank
Pts
Acres
Unit
Cost
Growth & Yield
Stand No.
or Area
Rank
Pts
Acres
Economics
Unit
Cost
Stand No.
or Area
Rank
Pts
Acres
UNIT SUMMARY TABLE
DISTRICT
1
2
3
4
5
6
Ladder
Acres
Unit
Cost
$/acres
Program
Size
Range
Acres
Thinning
Acres
Unit Cost
$/acres
Progra
m Size
Range
Acres
Unit
Cost
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6.17 - Exhibit 01--Continued
APPENDIX B
KOOTENAI NATIONAL FOREST
TSI RANKING SYSTEM
United States
Department of
Agriculture
Forest
Service
Kootenai NF
File Code: 2470
Route To:
506 US Highway 2 West
Libby, MT 59923
Date: April 14, 1988
Subject: KNF TSI Project (Stand) Ranking System
To: District Silviculturists and Others
The following system is to be used to compare (prioritize) stands scheduled for
Precommercial thinning (PCT) projects across the forest in relation to each other (Kootenai
National Forest, 1996). Districts may find the above useful in developing (balancing, etc.)
their programs. The intent of this ranking is to provide a means of selecting which projects
to fund when limited dollars are available.
This comparison (ranking) will be made after the stand silvicultural prescription (Rx) has
been completed to the diagnosis phase and a PCT is indicated. Actually filling out the
ranking will only be required when projected budgets indicate a lack of funds to complete
all the PCT projects for a given year. Direction provided in the task forces memo on what is
required in the Rx considers information needed to develop the ranking.
The final ranking is the result of totaling the individual category points. The higher the
points, the higher the probability that the project will be selected. A rating of zero for any
one item will generally be sufficient to eliminate a stand from treatment at the time of
analysis.
This ranking system method is not intended to supplant the Rx but to provide a treatment
prioritizing. As with any system we will find stands that rate low, but need treatment now.
We will deal with this situation with the district silviculturist making a site specific
presentation on why this stand (or type of condition) should be of higher priority than other
stands.
As this is a new development I see us refining the process as we utilize same.
Al Corda
Forest Silviculturist
Prioritizing Stand Treatments Page 10
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6.17 - Exhibit 01--Continued
APPENDIX B--Continued
KOOTENAI NATIONAL FOREST
TSI RANKING SYSTEM
PRECOMMERCIAL THINNING PROJECT RATING GUIDE
STAND ID:
DATE:
Productivity (CMAI)
MCI (>85)
MCII (<84)
LP (>85)
LP (<84)
Crop Tree Species
(major)
Intolerant
Tolerant
LP
Points
4
2
3
2
Points
5
1
3
Crop Tree Age (years)
0-8
9-30
31-50
>51
Points
0
3
2
0
Crop Tree Crown Ratio
<30%
30-50%
>51%
Points
0
1
2
Stocking (TPA)
<500
501-1000
1001-3000
3001-5000
>5001
Points
0
1
2
3
5
Crop Tree Height
(feet)
<5
6-10
11-35
>36
Points
0
1
4
1
Access?
Roaded (to stand)
<1/2 Mile Walk
1/2-1 Mile Walk
>1 Mile Walk
Points
3
2
1
0
Management Area
15
17
16
12
11
14
Others (*)
Points
6
5
5
5
3
3
0
* Stands in nonsuitable MA's that are
diagnosed for PCT are generally financed
with funds other than timber monies, thus
targets are agreed to by the benefiting
function (wildlife, recreation, etc.) and not
part of this process.
TOTAL STAND RATING
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