NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND TROPICAL DEFORESTATION
IN THE BRAZILIAN AMAZON
By
Moana R. Appleyard
B.A., University of California, Berkeley
(1984)
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF
MASTER OF CITY PLANNING
at the
MASSACHUSETTS
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
June 1987
1987 Moana R. Appleyard
The author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce and to
distribute copies of this thepis documen in,4 hole or in part.
Signiture of Author:_
Ilepartm
/
/I/
Certified by:
rba
Mofna R. Appleyard
Studies and Planning
A ofay,987
Judith Tendler
rofessor in Department of Urban Studies and Planning
Thesis Supervisor
Accepted by:
Phi ip L.Clay
Chairman of Mar of City Planning Committee
MASSACHUSETTS INSITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
JUN 0 81987
LIBRARdES
Rotch
NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND TROPTCAL
1 DEFORESTATION
IN THE BRAZILIAN AMAZON
By
Moana R. Appleyard
Submitted to the Department of Urban Studies and Planning
on May 15, 1987, in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the Degree of Master of City Planning
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this thesis is to examine the tensi-on between
economic development and the environment in Developing
Countries. To illustrate the tension, this thesis focuses
on Brazil's development policies for the Amazon and the
environmental consequences of those policies.
Current
development practices are evaluated and compared according
to their economic benefit and environmental soundness.
The thesis also speculates on the changes in development
practices resulting from the influence of the international
community. The final section presents recommendations for
the Brazilian government and the international community.
The intent of these recommendations is to preserve the
tropical rain forests of the Amazon, while promoting
economic development for the region.
This thesis is a response to environmental groups fears of
tropical deforestation and its global consequences.
It was
intended to review the current situation in the largest
existing rain forest of the Amazon, and to reveal
alternatives to the current development practices.
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION.............................................6
1.
CHAPTER ONE:
Environmental
Consequences of Tropical
Deforestation..........................12
2.
1.1.
Introduction and Description of Rain Forosts.13
1.2.
The Loss of Species..........................14
1.3.
The Build-up of Carbon in the Atmosphere .....
1.4.
DesertifIcat ton of the Land...................18
1.5.
Chapter Summary and Conclusions...............19
CHAPTER TWO:
22
2.1.
Chapter Introduction.....................
....
23
2.2.
The Beginnings of the Development Impulse
....
24
2.3.
The Program for National Integration.....
....
25
2.3.1.
National Security................
....
25
2.3.2.
National Growth..................
....
26
2.3.3.
Population Redistribution........ ....
2.4.
3.
Policies to Develop the Amazon ........
16
Shortcomings of the Program for National
Integration..............................
CHAPTER THREE:
Objectives
in
....
Developing the Amazon.
3.1.
Chapter Introduction.........................
3.2.
Development Objectives.......................
3.2.1.
Agronomic Sustainability.............
3.2.2.
Unsubsidized Economic
3
27
29
3.3.
4.
5.
Competitiveness...........
.38
3.2.3.
Self-Sufficiency ..........
.38
3.2.4.
Minimal Effects on Other Resou rces.
.39
3.2.5.
Minimal Macro-ecological E ffect s...
.39
3.2.6.
Fulfilling Social Goals...
.39
3.2.7.
Maintenance of Areas for 0 tier Use.
.40
3.2.8.
Maintenance of Development Options.
.40
Implementing Development Options..
CHAPTER FOUR:
.40
Evaluating Development 0bject ives .42
4.1.
Chapter Introduction..............
.43
4.2.
Cattle Ranching in the Amazon.....
.43
4.3.
Agricultural and Harvesting Uses i n the
Rain Forest.......................
.46
4.3.1.
Shelterwood Forestry......
.46
4.3.2.
Silvicultiire..............
.47
4.3.3.
Clearcutting..............
.48
4.3.4.
Shifting Cultivation......
.49
4.4
Comparison of Development Options (table)
.52
4.5.
Chapter Summary and Conclusions...
.53
CHAPTER FIVE:
International Actors Invol
Developing In the Amazon..
'I in
.56
5.1.
Chapter Introduction..............
.57
5.2.
Multinationals....................
.57
5.3.
The World Bank....................
.58
5.4.
Environmental Groups..............
.61
5.5.
6.
Chapter Conclusions..........................62
CHAPTER SIX:
6.1.
6.2.
Recommendations for the Brazilian
Amazon................................65
Recommendations for the Brazilian Government.66
6.1.1.
Use of Other Land for Development... .66
6.1.2.
Adoption of a Zoning System..........66
6.1.3.
Abolition of Subsidies and
Settlement Schemes...................67
6.1.4.
Promotion of Fducation and Research
Centers..............................69
6.1.5.
Preserve and Learn from Tndigenous
Peop le...............................69
6.1.6.
Shift Decision-making to the Amazon
Region...............................70
Recommendations for the International
Community........................... .........71
6.2.1.
6.2.2.
Target Development Agencies and
Multinationals..............
Support Protective Policies and
Organizations...............
.....
71
.72
CONCLUSION......................................... .74
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................... .82
NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND TROPICAL DEFORESTATION
IN THE BRAZILIAN AMAZON
Introduction
Countries today
are often
faced with tensions between
national economic development and environmental problems.
Tensions
arise
environment.
when
development
projects adversely effect the
An example of this situation is when an
emits pollution
industry
which degrades the quality of air or water.
The
industry and the clean environment, in this case, appear mutually
Since industry
exclusive.
and clean
air or water are desired,
ideally there should be an accommodation
is desirable
of both.
Likewise, it
to have both economic development and environmental
protection.
In Developing Countries one would expect the tension between
economic development
and the
Developed Countries.
These countries are
much
faster
than
America.
The speed
the
with
gap
consequences.
the
environment to
Developed
of development
industrialized
be greater than in
developing at
a rate
Countries of Europe and North
which was
countries
has
intended to close
had
many adverse
One tendency of rapid development is
the priority
for economic development and a disregard for the environment.
example of this
occurrence
country of Brazil.
is
in
the
largest
An
South American
is
Brazil
country,
often
as a "newly
somewhere between the
ranking it
many problems typical of Developing Countries,
of Brazil's problems include a
inadequate income
foreign debt.
productive industrial
of the world.
developing countries,
the growth
early 1970's
these
has
considered an
the high growth rate.
There is
unload
indicators,
more
Brazil
has
of
a very
is competitive with the rest
economic
potential
When the
than most
resources.
in 1970, when
oil crisis
hit in the
for economic development to maintain
The
destructive
early
1970's
period
for
represents
the
Brazil's
problems
in
the most
Brazilian Amazon.
strong evidence that the Brazilian government
many
Some
is poor,
that
"economic miracle"
10%.
Brazil pushed
environmentally
population
due to i.ts abundance of natural
rate reached
has some
it also
a high inflation rate and a huge
sector which
Brazil
Brazil was
large
distribution,
Despite
While Brazil has
relatively developed country.
a large
responsibilities of
industrialized"
traditional Developing
Countries of today.
the Developed
Country and
to
referred
sought to
the large expanse of the
Amazon.
Brazil's development goal in
Gross
National
agricultural
Product
investments.
the
through
Many
1970's
various
investments
was
to
raise the
industrial
were
and
encouraged
in
the Amazon rain forest because the government sought to occupy to
the relatively unpopulated area.
50% of
the country,
(Stone, 1985:84).
it had
While the Amazon
only 4%
of the
makes up over
population in
1.960
The Amazon also attracted attention because of
minerals and
valuable hardwoods,
its enormous wealth potential in
hydroelectric power.
An interesting aspect of Brazil's development
far reaching
is the
effects on
the environment.
rate of tropical deforestation in the
Amazon is
explored rain forest
he destroyed
today.
For
the focus of many groups interested
Amazon is
by the
most. diverse and least
the largest,
existing
estimated at 11
The implications of
the current rate are that rain forests will
The
Recently the
world was
million hectares a year (Environment, 1986).
year 2000.
in the Amazon
these
reasons the
in preserving rain
forests.
My interest
in
the
Amazon
emerged
from
recent concerns
about the global consequences of tropical deforestation.
My original
intention was to explore the causes of deforestation
and promote the need
development.
my
However,
protectionism
development
for protecting
to
that
opts
for
for
tropical
position
rain
shifted
sustained
forests from
from
development.
that
for
Sustained
better trade-off between the Brazilian
a
priority of economic development
and the
need for environmental
protection.
The
shift
in
my
position
emerged from the situation of
Brazil's
social,
need
to
for
priority
political
catch
towards
Brazi.l
economic
as
to
the
a
development
and economic situation
up
sustained development
Developed
development Brazil's fundamental goal.
of
Developing Country.
is
the
vested in the
country.
The
Countries makes economic
Just as Europe
and North
America
exploited
development,
same
their
environments
in
the
early
Brazil and other Developing Countries
now.
In
Developing
the
Countries,
days
of
are doing the
immediate need for
social, political and economic stability appears
to outweigh the
long-term
After reviewing
benefits
of
Brazil's priority for
a
stable
development
ecosystem.
it
seems
government will discontinue development in
Presently
there
appears
to
unlikely
the Amazon.
be an incongruity between the
government's objectives for economic development and
of the
Amazonian projects.
that the
the results
The government devised a program to
integrate the Amazon to encourage national
economic development.
In order to contribute to economic development the projects would
need to
provide
sufficient
economic
benefits.
However, the
various projects in the program have poor prospects of ever being
economically successful.
in
the
way
of
Not only do the projects provide little
economic
development,
they
may even cause an
impoverished situation to arise in the Amazon.
Instead
of
encouraging
progress
and
impoverished situation
encourages dependency
Other
of
characteristics
extracting from
failure of the
an
impoverished
self-sufficiency an
on another region.
situation
include
the region without adequate reinvestment and the
local
economy
to
provide
for
the inhabitants
beyond a subsistence level.
My
hypothesis
is
practices in the Amazon
not
sustainable
over
that
many
are harmful
time.
of
the
current development
to the
environment and are
The implications of unsustainable
development
are
that* the
economic development
the Amazon.
Rather,
country
through the
will
current
an impoverished
not
attain
national
type of development in
situation will
arise where
the benefits of the region flow outside of the Amazon.
To illustrate and prove my hypothesis the next section will focus
on:
-The global environmental consequences of tropical
deforestation.
-Policies to develop the Amazon
-Objectives in developing the Amazon
-An
evaluation of current development practices
-International
Amazon
-Recommendations
The first
actors
that
influence
chapter focuses
potential for
the repercussions
on the rain forest ecosystem and
are the
It
is
important to
developing in the rain forest, and
if the resource is
The second chapter
Amazon.
in the
for Amazonian development
the global consequences of deforestation.
understand the
development
examines
depleted.
the
policies
to
develop the
The government's goals for development are reviewed, as
results of
second chapter
the Program
builds on
for National
Integration.
The
the rain forest potential described in
chapter one.
The
third
chapter
illustrates
developing
in
situation.
The fourth chapter provides
the
Amazon
some specific land uses in
some
ideal
objectives in
rain forest to avoid an impoverished
a closer
examination of
the Amazon according to the objectives
given in the third chapter.
Chapter five explains the influence of
on
the
development
influence from
process
in
the
international actors
sustained development
in
international actors
Brazilian
is
the future (e
likely
Amazon.
The
to contribute to
to recent movements from
environmental groups.
The final chapter gives
government
and
the
recommendations
international
community
for
the Brazilian
to stimulate more
sustained development rather than exploitative development.
Chapter I.
This
consequences
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OFTR.OPICALDEFORESTATI_0I
chapter
of
will
destroying
discuss
the
the
global
Amazonian
rain
environmental
forest.
chapter includes:
-Introduction and Description of Tropical Rain Forests
-The Loss of Species
-The Build-up of Carbon in
the Atmosphere
-The Desertification of the Land
-Chapter Summary and Conclusions
The
1.1.
Introduction and Description of Rain forests
Most development projects in
deforestation.
the Amazon
Deforestation is
the destruction
canopy, by cutting down the trees.
the Amazon
are a
specific type
equatorial regions
of
particular
which
forest
annually (Forsythe,
the
result in tropical
of the forest
The tropical rain forests of
of forest found in the tropical
world.
Rain
receives
1985:12).
at
forests
refer
to a
least 100 inches of rain
It is
this type
of forest that
makes up a large part of the Amazon.
Rain
forests
interdependent
fauna,
organisms
ecosystems,
actually
for
within
are
most delicate and
very
susceptible
lush and abundant in
intense
the
competition
forest
when farmers cut the forest
of pests results.
very serious problem in new
to feed
is
worlds
to
flora
amongst
ecosystem.
the nutrient cycle of the ecosystem.
major problem
a mono crop.
the
This
very easily disrupted during development practices
this disruption is
pests occur
of
which
there
nutrients
environment is
which upset
one
While the forest appears
destruction.
and
have
Malaria
An example of
for crops,
in particular becomes a
settlements.
Mosquitos
and other
when the previous diversity of the forest is
The forest regulates its pests by
on the
pests and
and a
cut for
having predators
keep their numbers down.
Often these
predators are birds or other larger animals which can be kept out
of
an
natures
agricultural
regulating
environment.
device,
(Tropical Nature, 1985).
and
The
a
major
result
is the loss of
problem
for farmers
An important
the soil.
(Stone,1985).
most biological
the
attracts
rain forests is the infertility of
When the forest is cut, about 80% of the nutrients are
lost forever
Since
aspect of
diversity
Amazon
the
preserving
has
this
forests are said to have the
any
ecosystem
largest
of
many
environment.
deforestation has
Agriculture
of
the
attention
has inspired
Rain
existing
rain
organizations
1985).
forest, it
interested
in
Recently the extent of tropical
reached such
high proportions
international concern.
Organization
(Forsythe,
(FAO),
that the issue
The United Nations Food and
estimates
that
7.5
million
hectares of closed forest and 3.8 million hectares of open forest
are cut each year
(Environment, 1986:57).
tropical
will
forests
1986:57).
This
environmental
problems
will
with
review
depleted
ominous
desertification have
involved
be
the
some
deforestation which
prediction
of
species
inspired
tropical
of
in
the
many
At
20 years (Environment,
along
loss,
the current rate
with
the resulting
carbon
build-up and
interest
groups
deforestation issue.
global
include;
consequences
to become
This chapter
of
Amazonian
species loss, carbon buildup, and
desertification.
1.2. The Loss of Species
Rain forests are the
most diverse
They are also one of the most unexplored.
ecosystem in
the world.
There is only about 5%
of all the fauna and flora of rain forests recorded by modern man
(Environment,
1986:57).
Of
an
estimated 5-10 million plant,
insect and animal species
Amazon basin
in the world,
(Time, 1986:50).
2,500 species of fish, which is
1 million ar found in
the
The
Amazon river contains about
ten
times
the
variety
in the
Mississippi River (Time, 1986:50).
Species loss as a result of excessive deforestation has been
called "the greatest
biological
known" (Environment, 1986:56).
"ogenetic
reservoir"
by
calamity
this
world
has ever
Rain forests are referred to as a
Oldfield
(Stone,
1985).
Harvard
sociobiologist E.O. Wilson has said the destruction of the Amazon
would be a
greater
collapse,
limited
disaster
nuclear
than
war,
government" (Stone, 1987:151).
world as
"energy
or
depletion,
economic
conquest by a totalitarian
The genetic
damage done
to the
result of tropical deforestation would take millions of
years to rectify (Environment,
and pharmaceutical
cures are
1986).
Much of
found in
modern medicine
rain forest
flora.
The
American Cancer Institute has stated that
"the loss
rain forest
ramifications in their
would have
serious negative
research (Tropical Nature, 1985:211).
the tropics
include digitalis,
Some modern medicines from
curare and
forest also contain the ancestors to many if
used in
ephedrine.
These are only
indications for the vast potential of this ecosystem.
just the loss of species we are familiar with today,
have
not
changing
yet
and
experienced.
new
diseases
The rain
the species of plant
todays food staples like maize and rice.
we have not been able to discover yet
of tropical
that may
It
is not
but the ones
cure diseases we
It is precisely that the world is
may
surface
at
any
time.
The
squandering of
forests denies.
the rain
us of our genetic stock
which may supply a cure for future diseases or food crises.
The loss of species is most
important to
scientists of all
fields who study natural biology, and who depend on the knowledge
of nature for their own research.
scientists is
of
then related
medicines,
food
important industrial
and
The
knowledge gained through
to the rest of the world in the form
industrial
products found
products.
plastics.
Other
of
the
in rain forests are rubber,
turpentine, rattan, jute, kapok, bamboo, and
and
Some
cellulose for rayon
valuable products include hardwoods like
mahogany, teak, ebony and
ironwood.
Valuable minerals include,
copper, nickel, manganese, and gold.
1.3.
The Build-up of Carbon in the Atmosphere
Carbon is
but
is
mainly produced
increasingly
forests.
by industry
exacerbated
Rain forests
by
the
have enormous
and motor vehicles,
burning
of tropical
stores of carbon dioxide.
When the forests are cut or burned,
the carbon that
the biomass
atmosphere (Stone, 1985:153).
is released
into the
The rain forest has two roles in the
is
is stored in
carbon problem;
The first
the production of carbon from burning the rain forest,
second is
the
declining
monoxide which is
The resulting
of
forests
to
absorb carbon
produced by fossil fuels.
carbon buildup
the "greenhouse effect",
earth.
amount
and the
The increased
which
level of
is
is
believed
the
global
to contribute to
heating
of the
carbon in the atmosphere upsets
the heat regulating
dioxide traps
causing the
polar ice
system
of
the
earths
ecosystem.
Carbon
the sun's radiated heat in the earth's atmosphere,
temperature to
cap.
rise, which
some of the
Tropical biologist Thomas Lovejoy estimated that
the destruction of the rain
temperature between
forests
3 and
flooding would result and
significantly
could melt
alter.
could
increase
the earths
5 degrees (Time, 1983:49). Widespread
the present
Much
climatic conditions would
of the fertile lowlands around the
world would beccme inundated.
An example of the magnitude of forest burning
quoted from
jungle,
Thomas Lovejoy,
developers
"to
have set fires
in the Amazon
clear immense tract of Amazon
that
produced
so
much smoke
that airports 100 miles away were forced to shut down due to lack
of visibility" (Time, 1983:49).
It is
under
important to
much
debate
note that
amongst
scientists.
that the disappearance of the rain
buildup of carbon.
destruction
to
Environmental
possibility of
huildup issue is
It is generally agreed
forest would
contribute to a
But there is no consensus as to the extent of
the
earths
Protection
resulting carbon
the carbon
butldup
ecosystem.
Agency (EPA)
from
In
1983
the
U.S.
issund a warning about the
tropical
the "greenhouse effect."
deforestation
and the
In this report, the EPA
estimated significantly warmer temperatures before the end of the
century (Stone, 1985:152).
1.4.
Desertification of the Land
The problem
of desertification
deforestation.
deforested
Desertification is
area
characteristics
is
a very serious result of
the
of
process
a
that
desert.
gives the
According to
Lovejoy, half of the Amazon's rainfall is generated by the forest
itself (Time,
1983:49).
the area is dramatically
transpiration, which
When the forest is cut the rainfall in
reduced.
is the
The
exuding of
rain forest is cut there is less rain,
climate (Time,
1983).
cause it to become
sunlight.
scientific
water vapor.
which results
Simultaneously, the
hard
The tropical
and
unyielding
forest canopy
sunlight almost never hits the soil.
process is
When the
in a dryer
enzymes in the soil
if
exposed
to direct
is so
thick that direct
Tropical
rain forests have
characteristically thin topsoil and at least a few centimeters of
decaying leaf and
washing away.
When
the forest canopy,
is easily
vegetation
matter
this decaying
that
keep
the
soil from
matter is removed along with
only the thin topsoil is
left.
The top soil
lost in wind or rain, resulting in the loss of the few
remaining nutrients.
The process of cutting the
results in
forest
the drying of the soil,
"If too much forest is lost,
at
irreversible
(Time,
drying
trend"
and
exposing
the earth
and the loss of rain follows.
some
point
1983).
there
The
will
overall
eventual effect is a desert condition of the area which
be an
and
was once
a fertile rain forest.
Another
result
of
this
process
is
that
it effects the
existing forest, and not
The loss
of rain
loss of rain
the
region.
dryer climate
effects even outside of
Amazon
region
areas that
would
in
Lovejoy
the Amazon
have
the drying
would tend to push
and
other scientists
the Amazon could have far reaching
a
region.
significant
ecosystem because of its huge size.
could encourage
are actually cut.
from the cut forest would result in an overall
for
believe the
just the
The drying
impact
According
of the
on the world
to Lovejoy, this
of the entire equatorial zone, which
the temperate
zone further
north, and shift
the grain-growing belt in the U.S. into Canada (Time, 1983).
1.5.
Chapter Summary and Conclusions
In summarizing
the environmental
consequences of Amazonian
deforestation, it is important to remember the diversity of flora
and
fauna
supply.
wealth
of
the
Amazon
Besides the
in
tropical
alone makes up 10-20% of the world's
abundance of
hardwoods,
medicines, food, and minerals.
that
the
regulating
huge
the
factors are
size
world
of
Equally important to
Amazon
heavily
The
modern
remember is
contributes
implications
to
of these
that if the Amazon is deforested scientists would be
medicinal cures,
the
is incredible
products,
industrial
ecosystem.
deprived of a huge natural
among others.
the
species, there
gene
pool
industrial products
Another implication of
contribution
build up heats the
to
the
"greenhouse
earth's temperature
which
could
be
used in
and genes for food sources
Amazonian deforestation is
effect" where the carbon
and melts
the polar ice
cap.
The consequences
world's lowlands.
would include widespread flooding in the
Finally, the
cutting
of
the
Amazon forests
would result in a major loss of rain for the region, and possibly
for the entire equatorial region.
shift
temperate
climates
The drying of this
further
north,
and
zone would
alter
the land
productivity around the world.
Tropical forests are easy
the
extreme
to damage
interdependency
critical factor in
and
rain forests is
or destroy
because of
competition for resources.
the carrying
A
capacity, which
refers to the ability of the land and the resources to adequately
sustain organisms.
Despite
the
abundance
of
vegetation, the
nutrients which nourish plants and animals are very scarce in the
rain forest.
There are
nutrients in
the forest.
high the nutrients and
many
organisms
competing
the few
If the number of organisms becomes too
other
foodstuffs
will
sustain the organisms and result in species loss.
carrying capacity is very
for
important in
not
be
able to
The concept of
rain forests
because of
the interdependence of the ecosystem.
Currently there are experiments about the "critical size" of
forest left intact which
the rain
is needed
forest (Stone,1985).
are testing the smallest amount
species loss
or an
must
absorb
the organisms in
Biologists
and other scientists
of
left
forest
intact without
overburdened carrying capacity.
is not only the deforested area,
which
to sustain
the
but also
displaced
The problem
the surrounding areas
organisms.
When part of the
forest the organisms which are able (including insects) often try
to
flee
to
the
remaining
forest.
experiments might prevent species
combat
the
carbon
buildup
While
loss, they
the critical size
will do
little to
and desertification if a sufficient
amount of forest is not preserved.
The implications for development
are
limited.
The
soil
is
easily
in this
type of ecosystem
exhiisted in
agricultural
schemes, and there is little potential for regeneration
land is
destroyed.
it is important to
once the
Therefore when devising development schemes
prevent extremely
destructive practices that
will ruin the potential of the land forever.
Chapter 2.
POLICIES TO DEVELOP THE AMAZON
This
chapter
will
focus
on
the
process of developing the Brazilian
years.
The Brazilian
major
Amazon
policies and the
in
the
past twenty
government's development policies reflect
the priority of the government for national economic development.
The
implications
of
the
following
policies
environment
of
government.
The chapter outline includes:
the
Amazon
was
of
little
are
that
the
to
the
concern
-Chapter Introduction
-The Beginnings of the Development Impulse
-The Program for National Integration
-National Security
-National Growth
-Population Redistribution
-The Shortcomings of the National Integration Program
2.1.
Chapter Introduction
The
political
situation
influence in determining the
of
Brazil
development
has had a fundamental
path
From 1964-1985 the military governed Brazil.
took control,
economic instability
inflation rate.
it
the country.
Before the military
was apparent
in the soaring
While the military government was not threatened
by a revolution in the country, it occupied
because
of
lacked
the
popular
an insecure position
support
of
the
country.
It
therefore followed policies to reinforce its power.
This chapter is
regime
because
primarily
of
its
focusing
development
on
the
push into the Amazon.
characteristic of the military government was
where
policies
people.
its
were
dictated
from
past military
top down planning,
above
to
the rest of the
This government in particular was widely
lack
of planning
for the
poor.
One
criticized for
It also followed policies
which reinforced its own strength.
The movement
was
over this previously detached
an
region,
attempt
and
resources.
its
to
bring
At the
exert
in
revenues
same time,
from
the
was Brazil's
the northeast.
problems
of
Rather
the
poor into the Amazon region,
the
overflow
people
natural
area.
One problem
large poor population, especially in
than
country,
abundant
the government channeled some of
problems into the relatively unpopulated
in particular
for
power
into the Amazon
confront
the
income distribution
the government sought to shuffle the
which was used
from
the
major
as a
urban
"safety valve"
areas.
This
government viewed the Amazon as a vehicle for reinforcing its own
power, and for relieving its problems.
2.2.
Beginnings of the Development Impulse
The
development
impulse
began
with
president Castello Branco in 1965 initiated
(Stone, 1985:85).
During
the
first
military
"operation Amazonia"
this period the Amazon was behind the
national average in income, education, health, among others.
planners began
to think
about exploiting the Amazon's potential
in traditional uses like
1985:85).
An
old
agriculture and
agency
was
and
incentives and
industry.
This
cattle grazing (Stone,
re-established and renamed the
Superintendency for the Development
issued tax
The
of Amazonia
easy credit
organization
(SUDAM).
SUDAM
for agriculture, pasture
also
encouraged
"poles of
development" around the Amazon basin in one of the first attempts
to occupy the forest.
was
to
establish
Another
Manaus
attempt to
as
a
export-oriented industries in the
witnessed
opened
the
up
Initially in
completion
the
previously
of
revitalize the Amazon
free-trade zone to encourage
basin.
the
The
late
60's also
Belem-Brasilin Highway which
unoccupied
region
of
Rondonia.
"Operation Amazonia" the intention was to encourage
foreign capital into the Amazon.
However, later
the government
became wary of foreign investment and the potential for excessive
profits sent abroad and the government no longer encouraged large
foreign projects
like D.K. Ludwig's Jari (to be expanded later).
After the creation of
SUDAM and
the initial
push into the
Amazon, President Emilio Garrastazu Medici intensified efforts to
utilize the Amazon.
Integration (PIN)
Brazil.
For
colonization
Medici
the
Program
for National
to integrate the Amazon region with the rest of
this
was
Colonization).
devised
program
created,
a
new
INCRA
PIN represents
government
(the
the
most
National
agency
Institute for
comprehensive
colonize and utilize the natural resources of the Amazon.
the basis for
this
examination
of
for
plan to
PIN is
environmentally destructive
policies in the Brazilian Amazon.
2.3.
Program of National Integration
The
Program
of
National
military government in 1970.
was to
Integration was developed by the
The main motivations of the program
integrate the Amazon region with the rest of Brazil were;
National Security, national growth, and population distribution.
2.3.1. National Security
National Security
government of Brazil.
the immense area,
total).
was
a
large
concern
for
the Military
The main problem with the Amazon region is
and lack of substantial population
(only 4% of
The Amazon shares its borders with eight countries that
might potentially
into Brazil.
be interested
in extending
their own borders
Historically, there has been a fear in Brazil that
if Brazil did not
develop
the
organization else
would.
These fears stimulated the government
to develop
the
Amazon
government encouraged
as
soon
region,
as
some
possible.
other
country or
The Brazilian
development in PIN from organizations that
supported
the
government.
This
into the
region, and
government deep
extended
the
rule
of
the
discouraged invaders from
other countries.
PIN
incorporated
a
network
of
roads
and
settlements
throughout the forest to occupy previously unpopulated areas,
discourage any bordering
territory.
boarders.
Many towns
countries
from
Bolivian
boarder.
placed very
of that country.
National Growth
Another reason
for the Program for National Integration was
to feed Brazil's 10% growth rate of Brazil which has
the "Brazilian Miracle"
(Smith,
1981:755).
crisis cut deeply into Brazil's profits
of their
close to the
Many people were crossing into
Brazil from Bolivia to escape the economic woes
2.3.2.
into Brazil's
were strategically placed along insecure
The town of Porto Velho was
problematic
closing
and
oil (Stone,
1985:90).
In the 1970's the oil
because it
imported 70%
Brazil began to go deeply into
debt at this time, and the PIN was intended to
the domestic
been called
further stimulate
SUDAM encouraged
large scale
development projects like cattle grazing, agriculture
and mining
economy.
(Stone, 1985:90).
Under PIN,
Famous projects like D.K. Ludwig's Jari, were
aided by the government through generous subsidies which made the
initial rent
on the
land negligible.
Brazil encouraged foreign
investment because the government did not have sufficient capital
to invest in such projects itself.
In the
history of
the Amazon,
there have been great booms
and busts.
The
incredible
revenue.
rubber boom
of the
For
a
early 1900's
brought in an
while the world saw the future in
rubber, and at the time Brazil's Amazon was the only place to get
the valuable
period,
product.
when rubber was
However, this
in
more
they
the. Amazon.
managed
in Malaysia.
sudden wealth is still in the minds
view
The
capitalize on the prospects
followed with a bust
efficiently
experience of
of the Brazilians, as
wealth
Unfortunately this
the
incredible
military
of
potential for
government intended to
sudden
wealth
Brazil
is
in
some
of the
larger projects in the Amazon.
2.3.3.
Population Redistribution
One
characteristic
diversity.
Brazil's
inhabitants, which
this
time
the
population but
of
Northeast
has annual
Northeast
only 13%
is
a
its
region
great
with
represented
of the
30%
of
Brazil's
gross product (Stone,
(World Bank Country Study, 1985).
hit by one of the severest droughts in
This
uprooted
about
3
prompted the government to
(Smith, 1981:755).
30 million
increase of 1 million people.
The World Bank listed 70% of the inhabitants of the
be poor
regional
million
devise
a
total
1985:88).
Northeast to
In 1970 this area was
the history
people
At
of the area.
from
the
region,
solution
for
the problem
and
The government offered land in the Amazon to
relieve the population pressure
and
the
dissatisfaction with
government policies in the Northeast.
The Program
for National Integration incorporated a variety
of networks to increase
the
exploitation
of
access into
the
the region,
natural resources.
and facilitate
The networks were
telecommunications, roadworks, and settlement schemes.
Telecommunications
integration scheme.
networks
the
The tendency
jungle
government
with
a
focus
major
in
the
Establishing communications was done through
satellite and surface projects
Amazon.
were
to reach
the inhabitants
of the
in the Amazon to disassociate the life in
the
National
incentive
to
transfer of information.
identity,
develop
better
gave
the
national
communications
and
Presumably this would increase national
awareness and national support.
Roads were
another form of network in the Amazon.
notable roadworks are
Brazilia Highway.
the
Transamazon
Highway
and
The most
the Belem-
These huge road projects literally cut through
the heart of the jungle to
pave
the
way
for
access
into the
region.
Settlements
PIN.
often
accompanied
A variety of settlements
farmers, corporations,
the building of roads under
were established;
towns and even larger urban developments.
Along the Transamazon Highway, peasants were
lots of
land and
subsidies to
than the
this way the Amazon
A huge
Amazonia was established
The peasants were targeted from the Northeast
of Brazil plagued by the harsh drought,
far worse
offered 100 hectare
settle near the highway.
movement to induce peasants to settle in
under the program.
small peasant
conditions of
was used
as a
unemployment,
and poverty
the south of the country.
safety valve
In
to relieve the
problems of a particular area.
The significance
of the Program for National Integration is
that it is the most recent comprehensive attempt
Region.
While there
has been
to populate the
a history of exploitation of the
natural and human resources in the Amazon, never
been so
ambitious.
has the attempt
However, this is not to say that the project
was successful in its
attempt.
In fact,
it is
argued by many
that the project was a failure (Smith, 1981).
2.4. Shortcomings of the Program for National Integration
The
goal
of
the
PIN
to
improve
access into the Amazon
through networks has been effective to a large
the
results
were
far
below
expected.
extent.
However,
The shortcomings were
mainly found in the road networks, and the induced settlements.
The road projects in the Amazon
plan to
open up
the jungle,
represent a
very ambitious
and provide access into previously
uninhabited areas (except by indigenous peoples).
of
these
projects
inappropriateness
were
of
plagued
projects
with
to
many
the
However, most
problems from the
environment,
to
the
inadequate implementation of the projects.
Before the
was done
roads were
by river.
One
set up in the Amazon, most transport
reason for
developing in the dense rain forest.
unpredictable in the
runoff from
lack of
rainy
the enormous
services along
season.
this is
the difficulty of
Even today the highways are
They
suffer
from severe
amount of rain in the region, and from
the way,
and sometimes
from bandits or
hostile
most ambitious project, the Transamazon
The
Indians.
of the road has even been reclaimed by
Much
(Smith, 1981:214).
begun in 1975
it was
even though
Highway is still a dirt road,
the jungle (Smith, 1981).
Haste in implementing PIN led to
The
(Kelly, 1983:73).
be placed
was
Highway
Transamazon
a massive scale.
waste on
conceived
and planned in 10 days
Of the 100,000 families that
along the
had settled in the
were supposed to
Highway in the first five years, only 5,717
first three
years (Fearnside,
1982:49), and
only about 8,000 had actually moved in by 1976 (Kelly, 1983:73).
Since
the
settlements
often
went
hand
in hand with the
roads, it is not surprising that they fell short of
expectations as
well.
the original
The main goal of providing space for the
poor Northeasterners was far
short of
the original
plan.
When
the word was out about free land, peasants rushed into the Amazon
from all
were
over the
supposed
country.
to
be
from
Three quarters
the
actually came from that region.
absorbed
about
1%
of
the
Northeast,
The
of the inhabitants
hut only about 40%
Transamazon
project only
growing population of the Northeast
which grew 6% annually (Smith, 1981), thus failing to relieve the
demographic pressures.
Besides failing
to attract
more settlers,
the program did
not prepare the peasants for the harsh conditions of the tropical
rain
forest.
The
responsibility of agricultural training was
supposed to fall under INCRA's jurisdiction,
done (Fearnside,
1982:49).
There was
but this
was never
no assistance program to
teach them how to cultivate
problems.
the
land,
or
deal
with *the pest
While some failed and moved back, others devised ways
of planting in
the rain
order to survive.
forest was
The most common way to plant in
through swidden
agriculture or slash/burn.
The farmers who used this ancient method to farm had to use large
tracts of
the forest.
field to
another
exhausted.
Not
The
every
2
only
does
method necessitated moving from one
or
3
years
when
the
soil became
the method rarely provide beyond a
subsistence level, it is extremely harmful to the environment.
Other problems with the settlements include
tenure.
health and land
Currently, malaria is the largest health problem in the
Amazon (Smith, 1985).
Another problem
tenure system.
of the
Much
owner in writing.
disputes over
was the
inefficient land
land in the area has more than one
In the fastest growing
frontier Rondonia, the
land are a dangerous situation for the inhabitants
(Smith, 1985).
Another goal of the highway and
the way
to pave
for future resource exploitation has only been partially
realized.
have
settlement schemes
While some of the more recent
proved
failures
more
brings
appropriateness
development
successful,
a
of
the
serious
the
projects.
projects in
disproportionate
question
tropical
Unless
rain
the
to
mind
forest
projects
the Amazon
amount of
about
the
for large scale
are specifically
suited for rain forest conditions.
In
short,
many ways.
The
the
Program
roads and
for National Integration failed in
the settlement
schemes were plagued
with
problems.
The
lives in the area.
waste,
but
the
roads invaded Indian lands, and disrupted
Not only did the roads cause havoc and create
projects
failed
transport even to this day.
many settlers,
but not
The settlement
of
the
peasants
schemes did generate
from the area of critical need.
problem with the settlement
use
to provide a reliable mode of
or
schemes were
with the
Another
type of land
the corporations which settled in the
area.
The lack of knowledge
extreme
attempts.
with the
waste
in
the
about
the
resources,
rain
and
forest
resulted in
many failed development
This was apparent with the small peasants, as
large projects.
well as
Many of the peasants who migrated were
not familiar with the difficulties of
farming in
a rain forest,
and there was no assistance to instruct them in effective ways to
manage their farm.
produced two
the
larger
land
which barely
continually wiped out small farm initiatives.
projects
had
different
Some
notable failures
development of the Amazon.
agricultural
infertile
crops, the constant plague of insects and diseases,
including malaria,
The
Besides
projects
with a single crop.
which
attempted
problems
with
the
include huge
to cultivate the forest
Perhaps the grandest example of this is D.K.
Ludwig's Jari.
,Ludwig foresaw
a worldwide
of native trees with a fast
pulp shortage, and mixed stands
maturing Asian
import, the gmelina,
onto a plot of rain forest the size of connecticnt.
largest attempt at mono culture (single
crop),
which
This was the
ended with
200,000
dollars
per
day
losses.
The
loses resulted from a
combination of pests, and the weakened strain of
sold off
timber.
Ludwig
his project for $280 million to the Brazilians, who are
now trying to find ways to make Jari profitable (Kelly,1983:76).
Other large scale attempts to develop the Amazon
corporations
Some of
include cattle grazing,
the greatest
failures in
by private
agriculture and mining.
agriculture resulted from the
misconception of the interdependence of the
ecosystem, including
the infertility of the soil, and the abundance of pests which are
extremely harmful to mono crops,
and agriculturalists.
OBJECTIVES IN DEVELOPING THE AMAZON
Chapter 3.
Chapter three will review some of
development in
the Amazon.
development in the rain
These
forest.
the basic
objectives for
objectives opt for sustained
Various
development projects
will later be evaluated according to the objectives listed.
-Chapter Introduction
-Development Objectives
-Agronomic Sustainability
-Unsubsidized Economic Competitiveness
-Self-sufficiency
-Minimal Effect on other Resources
-Minimal Macro-ecological Effects
-Social Goals
-Maintenance of Areas for other Uses
-Maintenance of Development Options
-Implementing Development Objectives
3.1.
Chapter Introduction
After discussing the shortcomings of development initiatives
in the
Amazon, in
National
particular those
Integration,
this
chapter
objectives for development and
land uses.
for
the
While
security,
distribution, this
will
the Program of
review
some alternatives
the objectives
national
embodied in
some
to the current
of PIN were stated previously
national
growth
and
population
chapter will review some goals that should be
considered when developing an area such as the Amazon.
considerations of
of the
The basic
the government in developing the Amazon should
be to benefit the present and future generations of people in the
Amazon
region,
including
all
levels
of
society,
rain
forest
even
the
Amerindians.
The first issue of preserving
the
for future
generations has been underplayed in the frenzy for development in
the Amazon.
aside
for
forest is
Only recently have
future
use
squandered
preserve areas
or
areas
nonuse.
in
without
the
forest
been put
Without preserved areas the
adequate
for future generations,
record.
It
In
order to
is necessary to divide
the forest into areas for different uses.
The second
schemes
which
issue
have
involves
benefited
doing little for those from the
were designed
to attract
many
of
the
past development
people from other regions, while
Amazon.
The settlement schemes
the excess population of the Northeast
and other overcrowded urban areas.
Many of
either foreign or based out of Sao Paulo.
the corporations are
The benefits therefore
go to the south of
allowing
the
the
Amazon
problems, as
well
country,
to
as
be
or
the
to
another
dumping
available
for
country.
ground
foreign
for Brazil's
exploitation, an
underdeveloped situation has occurred In the Amazon.
in the Amazon is exploitative, based
with little
the region,
can be
the Amazon
The resulting situation
region, in
Amazon should
People
from
interest in
the decision-making.
see
in
is
resources.
If
country, there
regions.
their
the
are
best
The development
to
region
have
a vested
Most likely these people will
interest
decisions
bound
the
to
conserve
the
forest
are made in another part of the
be
differences
between
the two
Presently the decision-making is done in Brasilia, yet
there is relatively little idea of what the
Amazon
is an unequal
be devised by people of the region for the
benefit of the region.
it
taken from
favor of the other parts of
Brazil and foreign countries (Bunker, 1985:69).
of the
The economy
thought as to what should be put back or
invested into the region.
exchange for
on what
By
region.
extensively
Few
research
decision-makers
the
Amazon,
or
concerns are
make
consult
It
a
with
in the
point
to
Amazonian
experts in INPA (Instituto de Pesquisas da Amazonia).
3.2.
Development Objectives
A few
conditions that
development in the Amazon
below the
should be keep in mind when planning
are to
carrying capacity,
forest and limit the
maintain the
human population
limit the total consumption of the
concentration of
land holdings (Fearnside,
1982:65).
Dr.
incorporated
Philip
these
development
Fearnside
conditions
objectives;
a tropical scientist at INPA
in
his
recommendations
for
agronomic sustainabi-lity, unsubsidized
economic competitiveness,
self-sufficiency,
minimal
effects on
other resources, minimal macro-ecological effects, fulfillment of
social
goals
and
maintenance of
maintenance
of
areas
development options
This chapter
some
of
the
other
uses
(Fearnside, 1982:65).
objectives in development in the Amazon
for.
for
are the
and
These
ideal to strive
will explain each objective, and then review
current
development
uses
according
to
these
objectives.
3.2.1.
Agronomic Sustainability
When
developing
part
sustainability requires
left in
as "a
and
of
the
an adequate
rain
balance of
the ecosystem (Fearnside, 1982:65).
branch of
soil
agriculture dealing
management"
(Webster's
agronomic
nutrients to be
Agronomy is defined
with field-crop production
Dictionary,
involves the continual productivity of the
the soil
forest,
1973).
This
land and compensating
when losses occur due to soil erosion and leaching.
To
comply with this objective the problem of pest control with monocrops
would
have
to
be
indicates an imbalance in
kept
the
to a minimum.
ecosystem.
usually manages pests and other agricultural
the forest is converted to another use the
not survive to keep the pests to a minimum.
The
The pest problem
natural forest
annoyances, but when
natural predators may
The imbalance of the
ecosystem is
a sign of low agronomic sustainability.
the agronomic
To sustain
productivity in agriculture and cattle grazing the
soil productivity would need to be
maintained by
preventing the
soil from becoming compacted and by fertilizing the soil.
3.2.2.
Unsubsidized Economic Competitiveness
Unsubsidized
economic
competitiveness
subsidies and tax write-offs
Amazon.
The
previous
as
incentives
subsidies
development would be discontinued.
of
developing
the
forest.
originally encouraged in the
conditions
are
less
than
for
would
to
large
prohibit
develop
and
in the
small-scale
This would show the true cost
While
many
rain forest
ideal.
developments
were
through subsidies, the
This system would discourage
those who are attracted to the free land and not particularly the
rain forest
environment.
the cost of developing
other parts
The World Bank recently estimated that
the Amazon
is about
40% higher
than in
of the country because of high transportation costs,
and the need to import basic food-stuffs and everyday commodities
(Stone, 1985:156).
3.2.3.
Self-Sufficiency
To
strive
for
the
maximum self-sufficiency in the Amazon
would decrease its vulnerability
other
parts
confused with
building
up
of
the
country.
isolationism
the
economy
or
from
from
exports
abroad
Self-sufficiency
protectionism.
the
inside
and from
is not to be
Rather,
without
it is
excessive
external dependence.
in the
The implication here is that the production
Amazon would include food and other basic products needed
for the population to survive.
3.2.4.
Minimal Effects on Other Resources
Effects on other resources includes air
from
development
projects.
If
and water pollution
an industry was polluting the
water and causing harm to the fish, the industry would be subject
to halt the activity or clean it up.
3.2.5.
Minimal Macro-Ecological Effects
The macro-ecological
effects are the maintenance of species
diversity, and preservation of
chapter
1.
should be
Species
climatic conditions
as stated in
loss, carbon build-up and desertification
considered in
the master
plan of
development in the
Amazon, and in each Individual project.
3.2.6.
Fulfilling Social Goals
Social goals
for Amazonia
encourage a
living and adequate income distribution.
living
would
have
to
be
measured
level.
An
adequate
excessive profits
encourage
more
of
income
some
projects.
and
criteria
live above
distribution
corporations
equitable
The minimum standard of
by
determined) which would help people to
minimum standard of
large
(to be
a subsistence
would
discourage
land-owners, and
To encourage social goals
projects that provide a lot of jobs on a stable basis are desired
over those that provide a few jobs for a short period of time.
3.2.7.
Maintenance of Areas for Other Uses
Other uses
designated
in this case refer to surrounding areas that are
for
other
Amerindians or
projects.
for forest
These lands
stipulations that
the government
security
uses.
or
Often
the
study are
would have
lands
reserved
invaded by the neighboring
to be
protected without the
currently plague reservation lands.
can
repossess
national
reserved
development
for
land
of
for
the national
the country.
system the government would not be allowed to
Currently
Under this
take back
land or
build on reserved land, as it did for the Transamazon Highway.
3.2.8.
Maintenance of Development Options
Maintaining
future uses.
harden,
development
If the forest
there
is
reconstructive
on
This
development uses
is cut
little
work
fertilization.
options
and the
chance
the
the
soil is
of
soil
objective
that are
preserves
future
through
would
land
allowed to
use
without
irrigation
discriminate
extremely harmfuil
for
or
against
to the environment
and which prevent future uses.
3.3.
Implementing Development Objectives
The nine
implemented
ideal objectives
through
However, establishing
a
would have to be established and
governing
body
this governing
based
in
the
Amazon.
body in Brazil would be no
task
easy
While
there
is
Brazil's
of
because
area in
the
the union.
powerful in
not very
south
and
central
industrial power
of
centralized structure.
from the states of Amazonia and
representation
Para (another state with
highly
the
these states are
the Amazon),
They are often overshadowed by
country
which
have
enormous
Another difficulty is to deal with
and wealth.
problems in the Amazon that the entire country of Brazil
been able
to deal
with adequately.
Two
of these problems are
improving income distribution and the standard
inhabitants.
wealthiest
Another
and
most
excessive pollution,
about.
for
in
problem
powerful
which so
city
of living
minimizing
Sao
Paulo
of the
pollution.
suffers
The
from
far not been able to do very much
However, these objectives are what projects should strive
the
Amazon,
and
there
pertaining to development.
present
is
has not
government
in
To
the
should be enforcement of rules
implement
Amazon
would
responsibility of determining development
decision-makers in
Brasilia.
these
out
have
of
objectives the
to
the
take
the
hands of
The next chapter will review some
current uses in the rain forest according to these objectives.
Chapter 4.
EVALUATING DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
Chapter four will evaluate
practices
in
the
Amazon
some of
according
the current development
to the objectives from the
previous chapter.
-Chapter Introduction
-Cattle Ranching in the Rain Forest
-Agricultural or Harvesting in the Rain Forest
-Shelterwood Forestry
-Silviculture
-Clearcutting
-Shifting Agriculture
-Table 1: Comparison of Development Options for Terre Firme
-Chapter Conclusions
4.1.
Chapter Introduction
Some of the current
paper involve
development projects
cattle ranching
This chapter will examine
in mind
mentioned in this
and various types of agriculture.
these development
types while keeping
the nine objectives recommended by Fearnside.
of uses are evaluated according to
their appropriateness
terre firme soil of the Amazon rain forest.
about 98% of the soil in
firme refers
to the
the
Amazon
very poor
evaluated according
the soil potential
ranching,
(or
shelterwood
lack
to the
Terre firme makes up
(Stone,
1985:27).
Terre
nutrient deficient soils of most
rain forests (Stone, 1985:27).
have been
The types
The following
development uses
the Fearnside's criteria and with
of
forestry,
potential)
in
mind;
cattle
silviculture, clearcitting and
shifting agriculture.
4.2.
Cattle Ranching in the Rain Forest
In
the
1970's
encouraged cattle
the
Program
ranching as
for
a use
National
for the Amazon.
basically two kinds of cattle ranching, one using
the other without fertilizer.
(Brazilian
Research)
the PROPASTO
Enterprise
(Fearnside,
for
This
the
soil
being heavily
(Pasture Program) section of EMBRAPA
Agriculture
1982:74).
becomes
fertilizer and
topic is
and
Cattle
Fertilization
requirement for the sustained productivity of
grazing
There are
Cattle ranching with fertilizer is
potentially sustainable over time.
researched by
Integration
compacted,
is
the soil.
Ranching
only
one
During
which can retard pasture
the
Therefore,
growth.
of
amount
have
would
cattle
to be
monitored to prevent over grazing (Fearnside, 1982:74).
Cattle grazing with fertilizer is not economically practical
because
the
is
fertilizer
subsidized.
In terms
and
expensive
very
is
usually
of unsubsidized economic competitiveness,
cattle grazing with fertilizer is rarely done because the land is
inexpensive and
the fertilizer
economical in the
past
to
buy
is
expensive.
more
land
It has been more
than
to
invest in
fertilizer.
"Solving fertility and other problems requires substantial
cash inputs on part of ranchers, if not paid for by
government subsidies.
The question of sustainability is an
economic one."
(Fearnside, 1982:75)
Another problem with cattle
sufficiency.
foodstuffs
Cattle
to
ranching
contribute
to
ranching is
does
the
the lack
not
provide
Amazon's
of selfthe
basic
self-sufficiency.
Rather it provides the meat for export abroad or for the southern
urban areas.
Simultaneously, cattle ranching does very little to
further social
goals.
Ranching requires
little in
the way of
labor once the forest is cut
for grazing.
the
totaling 216,685 hectares, only 275
Belem-Brasilia
Highway
Of
11 ranches along
jobs had been created in all catagories from laborers to managers
(Hebette and
Acevedo, 1979:140).
This equals approximately one
job for every 778 hectares.
Cattle
ranching
neighboring uses.
has
There
also
posed
a
serious
threat
to
have been many cases where cattle have
moved
into
the
Amerindians or
neighboring
areas
for research.
One
which
are
protected
for
example of
this was in 1978
when a ranching project moved its boarders into
SUDAM's forestry
reserve near Santarem (Rankin and Fearnside, 1978:75).
Again the
danger of expansion into other areas is that
is easily
destroyed and
is
difficult to restore.
Ranching limits regrowth
and future use because the soil often becomes
requires and long fallow period.
the land
compacted and then
Another problem with fertilized
cattle ranching are the macro-ecological effects.
To cut or burn
the forest canopy contributes to the carbon problem.
is compacted it will cause desertification.
species
that
previously
burned or eaten.
to remaining
occupied
forest cover.
will perish in this
It
process,
Finally,
ranching
The animal species will
If the land
the plant
areas will be cut,
either perish
or flee
is inevitable that some species
especially
if
the
area
is very
large.
Cattle ranching
fertilizer.
without fertilizer
Sustainability only
leaching and
soil erosion.
lasts a
is far
worse than with
few years,
because of
Ranching without fertilizer has all
of the other problems of ranching with fertilizer, but it is more
destructive to
the soil.
to have the worst
type, and
long-term
there is
lands (Fearnside,
fertilizer, most
fertilization.
Pasture use is estimated by Fearnside
use
prospects
little potential
1982:76).
Due
of
for future
to
the
all development
use of pasture
economic
burden of
cattle projects in the Amazon today are without
Agricultural or Harvesting Uses in the Rain Forest
4.3.
rain
forest.
A
few
types
be
to
in the
agricultural uses
There are many different types of
examined
are shelterwood
forestry, silviculture, clearcutting and shifting agriculture.
4.3.1. Shelterwood Forestry
Shelterwood forestry is basically selective cutting of trees
in the
does
forest.
involve
While this
harvesting
is not
the
traditional agriculture, it
valuable
timber
in
the forest.
Experiments with silviculture have been done In Nigeria,
been
going
Santarem
on
in
in
the
SUDAM's
Amazon
problems with this method
of this
program is
be left
per
forestry
since
experiment
station
near
1963 (Dubois, 1968,1971).
Some
involve enforcement.
hectare.
However,
experiments
the
in
Nigeria have
social pressure on the land and the rule has
not been enforced (Fearnside, 1982:68).
and
One requirement
to preserve at least 25 select crop trees to
indicated increased
crops
and have
inferior
tree
Preserving a
few select
types, is an attempt to minimize
destruction and maintain the forest canopy and the nutrient cycle
of the rain forest.
The
profits
of
destructive methods.
shelterwood
are
not
as
high
The reason is because selective
as
more
cutting is
as costly or more than clearcutting, and more area must be cut to
get
the
same
sustainable
in
yield
the
of
timber.
long-term
destruction of the forest.
However,
because
this
method
is
it does not cause total
For the same reason, shelterwood also
use potential and avoids macro-ecological effects
retains future
from
which result
total
labor
requires
shelterwood
goals,
to
economically and socially efficient
large
to
(about
20-30 years)
4.3.2.
absorb
the
labor
during
(Fearnside,
advancing social
the
cut
the land
trees.
area must
To be
be very
the regrowth of the forest
1982:69).
Silviculture
Silviculture involves removing the
or more
tree types.
Most
called monoculture
sustainability
is
not
very
or mono-crop.
high
cutting
harvesting the crop.
agronomic
the
forest
However,
sustainability
in
from the
natural forest.
and planting a crop and later
this
the
The agronomic
in the short run because the
investment is more than simply cutting
requires
planting one
forest and
of the time silvicuture is using one
crop otherwise
It
In
deforestation.
method
long
has
a
much higher
term because it is less
destructive to the ecosystem than clearcutting.
This method does
not retain the original forest canopy like shelterwood, rather it
grows an artificial canopy
not retain
the balance
original canopy,
pests.
of the
of nutrients
and has
term because
method.
But the
in the
resulted in
The competitiveness
the long
new crop.
of the
Silviculture does
ecosystem like the
significant problems with
of silviculture is more apparent in
large investment
involved in the
competitiveness might improve if problems with
the ecosystem and pests can be mastered.
Silviculture does require a large amount of labor to cut the
forest, plant
and harvest the crops, and therefore satisfies the
social goals.
Silviculture does not
tend to
However, Ludwig's Jar
the limited type of products.
because of
multiple
project was experimenting with
to
use
encourage more
silviculture (Fearnside, Rankin, 1978:329).
in
self-sufficiency
be self-sufficient
Silviculture does not tend to effect
have been
silviculture plantations
neighboring uses.
In fact
used as buffers for reserved
The investment of silviculture on the land encourages the
areas.
farmers
to
protect
the
boundaries
of the crop, which in turn
protect the neighboring uses.
The
future
use
intermediate, which
as shelterwood.
intermediate
still
well.
species
desertification
of
the
land
is
probably
is much better than pasture, but not as good
Also
as
occur,
potential
will
the macro-ecological
The
loss
effects are probably
problems of carbon build-up might
is
probably
almost
not
sure
occur
to
happen,
because
but
the soil is
protected from the sun and erosion should be minimized.
4.3.3.
Clearcutting
Clearcutting is the complete deforestation of the forest for
the timber.
This method has very little prospects for agronomic
sustainability because it destroys all of the forest canopy which
results in the loss of most of the nutrients needed for regrowth.
Clearcutting gives a very large profit in the
there are few inputs.
sustained due
its
short-term because
But in the long-term this method cannot be
destructive
nature.
This
method requires
unlimited forests
a long period.
to be cut in order to maintain the system over
no
There are
inputs
into
the
forest
in this
method, once the forest is cut a new area is found.
Clearcutting is
a not
self-sufficient method.
food for the loggers and the
people
of
outside
Social
goals are moderately filled
of
the
project.
Amazonia
It requires
to
come from
because the process involves only a short period of time.
there is
Unless
an enormous area to be cleared, the workers only do the
initial cutting of the forest and are then no longer needed.
Neighboring resources are not usually endangered
except for
the potential problem of watershed resulting from the loss of the
forest canopy.
Macro-ecological
effects
are
most
serious in
clearcutting, because the method results in total deforestation.
The problem
of carbon build-up,
desertification and species
loss
are most serious in this method of development.
4.3.4.
Shifting Cultivation
Shifting cultivation is the most common
used by
small farmers.
form of agriculture
Swidden or shifting agriculture involves
cutting or burning part of the forest for a harvest and moving to
another area
Once the
repair to
once the soil is exhausted (about 2 or 3 harvests).
land is
harvested it
become productive
indigenous populations.
conditions of
must lay
again.
fallow to
This method originated from
Shifting cultivation is
low population
allow it to
best used under
density while allowing the land to
fallow for a sufficient time period.
Many
of the
small farmers
who
moved
into
agriculture.
Amazonia
Under
have
the
adopted
ideal
swidden method of
conditions
(small
area,
low
agriculture can be sustainable
fallow) swidden
population, long
the
over time.
In the short-term shifting
other uses.
it
cultivation is
In the long-term it is not very competitive because
requires a large amount of
land
to
cultivate
harvested land a long enough fallow period.
does encourage self-sufficiency,
farmers to
competitive with
provide for
and
is
allow the
Shifting cultivation
practiced
themselves and
to
by many small
their families.
At the
same time social goals are being met because the method is
labor-intensive.
A
major
drawback
highly
of this method is that it
rarely provides beyond a subsistence level.
The effects of shifting agriculture on neighboring areas can
be substantial
if it
is not
used properly.
into the adjacent lands once their lands are
this method
requires few
small farmers,
method.
which has
inputs it
resulted in
hns been
Many farmers move
exhausted.
Because
very popular with
the extreme
abuse of the
There is currently a large population using this method
(most of the PIN
population.
The
settlers), contrary
large
occupied by squatters
areas
(Fearnside,
that
to the
requirement of low
are left fallow are often
1982:73),
which prevents fallow
and contributes to the destruction of the ecosystem.
The potential for future use is limited if the area is large
and the fallow period is not long enough.
the forest
can reclaim it over time.
If
the area
is small
But the loss of the forest
cover results in a
prevent
future
agriculture
loss
uses.
can
of
most
of
the
nutrients
which can
Due to the destructive nature, shifting
substantially
contribute
to
macro-ecological
impacts of carbon build-up, desertification and species loss.
The following
table created
current uses of the rain
forest
conserve rain forest resources.
by Philip
according
Fearnside rates the
to
his
criteria to
4.4. COMPARISON OF DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS FOR TERRA FIRME
1.Un-
touched
forest
2.Cattle
grazing
fertlized
Agronomic
sustainability:
1
3.Shelterwood
4.Silviculture
5.Clear- 6.Shicutting fting
agri.
nonfertilized
2
3
1
2
3
1-3
Competetiveness
without
subsidies
short:
3
long:
?
3
3
3
3
3
1
2
2
1
3
2
2
Selfsufficiency:
3
3
3
3
3
1
-
Macroecological
effects:
1
2
Social
goals:
1-3
1-3
Effects
on other
lands:
1
2
Future
uses of
land:
1
Fearnside:
1983:73.
3
"Alternatives for Development in
1-3
1-3
3
the Brazilian Amazon"
4.5. Chapter Summary and Conclusions
After comparing some of the current pasture and agricultural
uses in the rain
forest,
it
destructive than
others.
Cattle grazing is not only destructive
is
apparent
that
some
are more
to the rain forest environment, but it is less productive than it
would be
in the
cerrado in the west-central of the country.
In
fact, there is adequate land in Brazil which is better suited for
many
uses
Amazon.
currently
concentrated
in
the
terre
firme of the
The cerrado and the varzea are two such types which have
been underutilized.
The cerrado
are the
savanna lands
This type of land is considered
cattle grazing
than the
guidelines by the
stressed the
use of
much better
terre firme
Amazonian
that border the Amazon.
for agriculture and
of the Amazon.
development
agency
cost
if
destroyed,
has now
Besides the
it has
a lower
it is better understood and is
more resilient than the rain forest (Fearnside,
central of
SUDAM
the cerrado (Stone, 1985:157).
greater productivity of the soil of the cerrado,
opportunity
The latest
1984).
The west-
Brazil where the cerrado is located is also closer to
the markets to facilitate the transportation of goods.
Another land type which
than the
terre firme
has a higher fertility
firme (Fearnside,
floodplains
the only
is
of the
more
agriculturally productive
rain forest is the varzea.
level than the nutrient poor soil of terre
1984).
The varzeas
along the river banks in the
type of
Varzea
land which
refers to the productive
Amazon.
is productive
This area is
in the rain forest,
because nutrients and minerals wash down the river as a result of
annual flooding and become lodged in the riverbanks.
These lands
are good for planting annual crops like rice (Stone, 1985:22).
Other uses of the
have
also
supply
of
been
rain forest
encouraged.
valuable
tree
including timber
The
and mining
rain forest has an abundant
types.
Unfortunately,
it
is very
destructive to extract because one characteristic of rain forests
are that the fauna is very dispersed.
type of
wood, a
very large
amount
of
get a particular
area has to be cut.
one of the least destructive ways
required
Thus, to
select
to acquire
trees
are
Shelterwood is
wood, provided the
left
for regeneration.
Silviculture has intermediate impacts on the environment compared
to
more
destructive
methods
like
clearcutting.
But there is
ongoing research to make this a more viable method of development
in the
Amazon, which
may make it more attractive in the future.
Clearcutting is the most destructive agricultural use in the rain
forest.
It requires
wood, and
Likewise
it
the
leaves
current
destructive to the rain
would
be
less
no inputs except for the extraction of the
the
land
use
future potential.
little
of shifting agriculture is
forest
destructive
with
ecosystem.
if
it
The
followed
extremely
latter method
the
example
of
indigenous people who have been using the method for thousands of
years.
Indigenous people keep their populations to a minimum to
avoid overburdening the land, and they allow many years fallow.
To understand the underutilization
of
the
varzea
and the
cerrado land types in favor of using the rain forest terre firme,
one must refer to the original motives for PIN.
of the
Amazon represented a way for the reinforcing the power of
the government, and protecting the region
are
The development
some
of
the
reasons
the
Amazon
from invaders.
These
has been the target for
development, when it is clearly not the most appropriate for many
of the projects.
Chapter
5.
INTERNATIONAL
AMAZON
ACTORS
INVOLVED
This chapter will review the role of the
actors
involved
in
developing
the Amazon.
IN DEVELOPING THE
main international
While the previous
emphasis of this paper has been on the domestic actors (primarily
the Brazilian
government) in developing the Amazon, this chapter
will illustrate the substantial influence from abroad.
-Chapter Introduction
-Multinationals
-The World Bank
-Environmental Groups
-Chapter Conclusions
5.1.
Chapter Introduction
This section of the study will
review the
will influence the future development process
the past 20 years the
development
process
military
in
the
government
Amazon
Program for National Integration.
characterized
by
top-down
bulk of the population.
the largest
have
shaped
much
For
of the
These two decades were
with little input from the
While the Brazilian government has been
initiator of
actors
in the Amazon.
in major programs like the
planning
development in
always been other actors involved in
major
major actors who
been
the Amazon, there have
the process.
multinational
Some
of the
corporations, the World
Bank, and environmental groups.
5.2.
Multinationals
Multinationals are corporations
one country
represent
Foreign
Amazon
corporations
since
the
turn
have
of
been
was plagued
involved
the century.
initiated a huge project to produce rubber.
In the
Henry Ford
Though this project
by many problems and was eventually abandoned, it is
just one attempt of foreign companies to extract
Amazon.
Often
countries
like Brazil because
controls are
multinationals
are
wealth from the
attracted to less-developed
the costs
are less
and pollution
bellow those of industrialized countries.
a famous statement by the Brazilian
Conference
more than
and typically establish themselves in many different
countries.
Brazilian
which
on
the
Human
delegation at
There is
the Stockholm
Environment in 1972, where a delegate
said "Send
us
your
pollution.
We
need
the
jobs."
(Stone,
1985:156).
In the
past multinationals
position than
encouraged
they
foreign
enjoy
had a
today.
investment,
Amazon.
subsidies to
Until
because
capital and technical expertise.
Brazil offered
much stronger bargaining
During
recently
Brazil
Brazil has
was
short
the initiation
foreign companies
of
of PIN,
to settle in the
However, Brazil has progressed quit far from this period
and no longer needs to encourage investment through subsidies and
tax write-offs.
Now Brazil requires a 30% ownership with foreign
companies.
While much of the influence of multinationals on development
has
eroded,
the
marks
Fordlandia (Ford's
are
left
in
the
rubber plantation)
since been taken over by Brazilian
and Janri.
is still
developers.
multinationals
Amazon
an
a
huge
scale.
The
current
potential for
the mind of Brazilian
sought
to
exploit the
Initially the Brazilian government
invited outside investors, now
projects.
fresh in
lands of
While Jari has
investors, the
experimental development
These early
abandoned
they
Carajas
invest
project
on
their
being
done
Brazilian government is the largest of all projects
own huge
by
the
attempted in
the Amazon.
5.3.
The World Bank
The World
agency.
Bank is
While the
an international funding and development
Bank is
made up
of donors
from around the
world, the
size of
voting power
the
contributor,
The World
donors
with
Bank
about
a
Europe.
world.
the
largest
U.S.
is
the largest
after
World
War
II
for the
As Europe recovered the Bank began to
of
the
funding
Third
and
World.
The
development
Bank is
agency in the
The Bank usually grants loans to developing countries for
large projects
that will
of that country.
these countries
contribute to the economic development
The loans
to invest
able to afford otherwise.
the World
Bank provide
type
of
are often
in large
quite sizable
projects they
and allow
would not be
For many poor countries, agencies like
the only immediate means for the capital
to build large projects.
the
The
20% investment (Science, 1986:814).
established
emphasize the development
currently
is weighted according to the
contribution.
was
reconstruction is
for loans
The Bank often has a
development
projects
because
huge influence on
it
makes
certain
provisions which must be met in order to receive the loan.
In the case of
regional
this
development
project
populous area
project
promoted
of the
(Science, 1986:813).
the World
Brazil,
the
World
called
land-reform
Bank
funded
Polonoroeste.
and
opened
up
a massive
Basically,
the
least
Amazon for the settlement of poor migrants
Of the total cost of
$1.6 billion dollars,
Bank approved close to half a billion dollars in loans
for the project (Science, 1986:814).
deforestation that
groups in the U.S..
The project
caused massive
attracted the attention of many environmental
Norman Myers,
a lending
tropical forest
expert from Britain, who sometimes works for the World Bank calls
the Polonoroeste project "reprehensible" (Boston Globe,1986, Oct.
5).
While the Bank stated that it was aware of the potential for
massive
deforestation,
project.
The
Bank
proceed without the
it
still
claimed
World
provided
the
Bank
the
loans
for the
"Brazilians were prepared to
loans
if
necessary" (Science,
1986:814).
The
importance
of
reviewing
World
their influence and example for other
countries trying
to develop.
Bank projects lies in
international agencies and
By setting the example of massive
environmental destruction, as in the Amazon, the Bank has sent an
unwritten
message
to
the
world
that this type of behavior is
acceptable.
However, the Bank has recently been
from international
environmental groups
latest loan for Polonoroeste.
more environmental
staff.
that it
much pressure
has ceased the
Likewise, the Bank is attempting a
approach in
in the Bank include adding
tinder so
development.
ecologically
One of the changes
trained
people
to the
Previously the Bank only employed 4 ecologists out of the
3,000 professionals, 50 who work in
writing (Boston Globe, 1986, Oct. 5).
provisions for
research.
resulted in
protection of
Many of
the
and speech
Other changes include loan
Indian lands
and tropical science
the changes in the World Banks attitude have
continual
(Science, 1986:814).
public relations
pressure
from
environmental groups
While Polonoroeste is already underway and
most of the damage to the forest is done,
the change in
the World
Bank may prevent these types of projects from happening again.
5.4.
Environmental Groups
of
Some
the
most
notable
interest
preserving the tropical rain forests
World
Wildlife
Fund,
Rain
Environmental Defense Fund.
in
the
U.S.,
it
in
Brazil.
policies
is
Forest
the
Sierra
Action
Since these
difficult
Network
Club, the
and
the
organizations are based
for them to directly influence
Instead,
international developing
are
groups interested in
these
organizations
agencies like
the World
pressure
Bank for more
environmentally-conscious projects.
The
recent
change
environmental issues
in
the
is widely
World
attributed to
these and other environmental groups.
exerted
through
an
extensive
letter-writing
around
Globe,
were
Oct.
Washington during
1986, Oct 5).
31).
the World
Japan
the U.S.
to
environmentally
Congress
not have
the pressure was
campaign.
the
also
world
This
(Boston
demonstrations in
meeting (Boston Globe,
a majority.
have contacted
encourage
1986:814).
Bank annual
towards
While the U.S. has the largest voting power in the
World Bank, it does
based in
There
policy
the pressure from
Much of
involved environmental groups from
1986,
Bank
these
Environmental groups
other countries in Europe and
countries
to
force
a
more
conscious
attitude
in the World Bank (Science,
Environmental
interest
groups
about
the
20%
voting
have
also targeted
power of the U.S. in the World
Bank.
The result of these pressures has had an impact on the World
Bank, which
should have an impact on preserving the rain forests
in Brazil and in other countries.
While
this is
an example of
the international communities interest in conserving the tropical
rain forests, the next
developing
country
step is
to
for environmental
become
influential
in
groups in the
the development
process.
In the past environmental groups in Brazil were rare and had
little
influence
on
the
government.
However, environmental
groups are growing in Brazil, and
the new
may be
demands.
more responsive
to their
democratic government
As the world becomes
more alarmed about tropical deforestation and its global impacts,
developing
countries
are
slowly
importance in preserving this natural
being
though,
the
main
pressure
becoming
aware
resource.
For
of
their
the time
for preserving the Amazon is
still coming from abroad.
5.5.
Chapter Conclusions
The international
actors have
a significant
impact on the
development process in the Brazilian Amazon.
In the past much of
the foreign influence resulted in extractive
practices where the
benefits of development were directed outside of Brazil. However,
the position of foreign organizations is changing, and it has the
potential to
be more
environmentally conscious.
multinationals were encouraged
projects like
Jari.
to
invest
in
large development
More recently multinationals are encouraged
to engage in joint ventures with Brazilian firms.
government needed
Previously the
The Brazilian
to provide incentives for the earlier firms to
invest
in
the
capital to
Amazon,
because
invest themselves.
Brazil
However,
lacked
Brazil has become very
industrialized in
the last
better bargaining
position with multinationals.
fifteen years
is less vulnerable to the whim
is
in
a
better
position
of foreign
to
the sufficient
which has
given it a
Now that Brazil
firms, the government
demand environmentally conscious
projects.
The World Bank has also influenced development in the Amazon
by
providing
loans
for
massive deforestation
large projects like Polonoroeste.
caused by
this project
The
and others around
the world, has forced the Bank to review its development policies
in
the
Third
World.
organizations, the
With
pressure
from
environmental
Bank has ceased funding for Polonoroeste, and
is unlikely to support other projects that are as environmentally
destructive.
The
change
environmental issues
is
in
likely
the
World Banks attitude toward
to
have
an
impact
on future
projects of developing countries.
In
U.S.
the
and
five
last
other
years major environmental groups in
developed
countries
environmentally destructive projects
world.
been
mobilized
to
halt
in the Amazon and around the
In the past year, the issue of tropical deforestation has
in
a
top
concern
This culminated in a
groups wrote
campaign
of international environmental groups.
huge campaign
letters and
the World Bank to
This
have
the
where environmental
protested to development agencies like
halt projects
included
in 1986
causing tropical deforestation.
targeting
Congress
about
World
Bank
funding, and contacting
foreign
donors
of
the
World
Bank to
ensure a majority vote in favor of environmental issues.
While
established
much
of
the
and
is
likely
development
to
in
continue,
the Amazon is already
there
is
a growing
awareness around the world about the importance of preserving the
tropical rain forest environment.
There appears to be a shift in
emphasis from the multinational influence in development projects
to that of an international funding agency.
The recent emergence
of powerful environmental groups and a more environment-conscious
World Bank may ameliorate the present situation.
Chapter 6.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE BRAZ'ILIANAMAZON
Chapter
development
six
and
will
the
review
some
preservation
recommendations
of
the
Amazon.
proposes sustained development through
a variety
recommendations
those
government,
are
broken
up
into
for
This study
of ways.
for
the
The
the Brazilian
and those for the international community.
-Recommendations for Brazil
-Use of Other Land Types
-Zoning System
-Abolition of Subsidies and Settlement Schemes
-Promotion of Education and Research Centers
-Preserve and Learn from Indigenons People
-Shift the Decision-making to the Amazon Region
-Recommendations for the International Commiinity
-Target Development Agencies and Multinationals
-Support Protective Policies and Organizations
6.1. Recommendations for the Brazilian Government
Recommendations for
development of
system
of
the Amazon
land
subsidies
the Brazilian
and
use
government for sustained
include using
zoning,
resettlement
the
other types of land, a
abolishment
strategies,
of
promote
development
education and
research centers on tropical science and preserve and
learn from
indigenous people.
6.1.1.
Use of Other Land for Development
When examining
past development
projects in the Amazon, it
is clear that some are not suited for the rain forest conditions.
This
seems
endeavors.
to
be
the
case
in many agricultural and pastoral
As mentioned before, Brazil has an adequate amount of
land to
satisfy most
Brazil.
The cerrados to the south of the Amazon
suited for
of the
cattle grazing
agricultural and pastoral needs of
are much better
and the varzea lands along the rivers
are more fertile for agriculture.
The
past
development
projects
resulted
from
political
decisions rather than based on the suitability 'of the rain forest
for the projects.
reduce pressure
The shift
on the
to the
Amazon and
cerrados and
will be
varzeas will
more economical for
grazing and agriculture.
6.1.2.
Adoption of a Zoning System
A system of zoning for the Amazon will
for different
designate the forest
types of uses, including a substantial portion for
Amerindians and for research.
and
most
of
the
projects proceed independently of each other.
The danger is that
there
deforestation
no
and
Presently there is no such system,
are
actual
only
estimates
record.
accurate measure of deforestation
by
on
Zoning
the
rate of
would allow an
controlling
the
type and
amount of every use.
Since different
types of
different impacts on the
the amount
land uses in the rain forest have
ecosystem, it
is important
of the most harmful projects.
Clearcutting is one of
the most harmful agricultural uses on the rain
This method
is the
most likely
effects of
clearcutting,
this
forest ecosystem.
to contribute
carbon build-up and desertification.
to control
In
to species loss,
order to
method should
minimize the
be dispersed among
other less destructive uses like shelterwood forestry or reserved
forest areas.
Another aspect
of this recommendation is to divide projects
into short-term and long-term costs
projects have
a very
and
high return in
benefits.
While some
the short-term and are very
destructive, others have less return in
the short-term
but give
benefits over a longer period of time.
6.1.3.
The
Abolition of Subsidies and Settlement Schemes
abolition
of
subsidies
from
the
government
for
development projects in the Amazon would reveal the true price of
developing the rain forest.
According to Robert Skillings of the
World Bank, without government subsidies the cost of
projects in
the
Amazon
(Stone,
is
about
1985:156).
40%
higher than in other parts of Brazil
The
costs
are
much
higher
because
transportation of goods in the Amazon is done along the river, or
by inferior roads by plane.
and the
In any case, the
transportation is
expensive.
distances are long
Also it
is necessary to
import basic foodstuffs and other everyday commodities.
The subsidies deflate the prices
developers
little
incentives
to
take
initial investment is so low, that
more
economical
expired land.
to
This
move
to
of
the
care
when the
virgin
land
which gives
of the land.
land expires
The
it is
land than to reinvigorate
process encourages
more destruction
of the
forest than is necessary.
Settlements
in
the
Amazon
should also be abolished.
original idea of "land without men for men
Globe,
1986,
Oct.
19)
has
been
had
little
success
The
in
living of the migrants who settled
without land" (Boston
re-evaluated due to the poor
results of past settlement schemes.
Integration
The
Program
improving
In
the
for National
the standard of
forest.
The small
farmers rarely went above a subsistence level becaiuse of the poor
conditions of the forest.
Instead of shifting the responsibility of the poor
Amazon,
the
government
rural development.
should
The move
into the
concentrate on better urban and
into
the
Amazon
was
a temporary
distraction to the inequalities of Brazil and the inefficiency of
government policies to reach the
agricultural
conditions,
poor.
insecure
land
The
problems
tenure
and
of poor
primitive
living
conditions
among
other
things
has
plagued
the
PIN
settlements.
6.1.4.
Promotion of Education and Research Centers
The government
resource and
education
of Brazil
abundance of
and
research
should capitalize on their unique
tropical rain
centers
to
forests by encouraging
study
tropical
science.
Currently there is an institute of tropical nature called INPA in
Manaus.
While the government has aided this institute, the input
could be much higher.
indicated
forests.
a
significant
lack
of
By
encouraging
more
research
unknown resource,
of
future
with
a
understanding about the rain
about
better
politicians
first
hand
ever
this relatively
understanding
the
ventured
concerns
developing the Transamazon Highway
consult
government have
of
the
Because of the remoteness of the Amazon region, few
or
experience
by the
the government could increase the success rate
projects
environment.
investors
The past projects
rain
forest
experts
the
which
into
of
the
the
Amazon
region.
government
to
When
neglected to
contributed to its limited
success.
Preserve and Learn from Indigenous People
6.1.5.
The
knowledge
from.
in
the
indigenous
of
the
people
rain
in
the
Amazon
have
an
intimate
forest resources, and should be learned
These people have been exploited for centuries by invaders
Amazon.
The
indigenous
population
has
suffered
tremendously during development projects.
immune
to
system
fight
modern
diseases
The
indians lack the
and many perish upon
Presently the
contact with construction crews building projects.
Amerindian lands
have been
protected with
stipulations for the
national growth
developing on behalf of the national defense and
of
Brazil.
This
practice
should be abolished, and the lands
should be protected in perpetuity.
The
research
tropical
of
science
should
include
those
practices of indigenous peoples who have lived in the rain forest
for centuries.
The Amerindians currently have the greatest
body of knowledge
knowledge
could
about
tropical
greatly
benefit
forests
and
species.
scientists in medicinal
This
cures
among other things.
6.1.6.
Shift Decision-making to the Amazon Region
Perhaps
the
most
sustained development
important
is to
on Amazonian development from
Amazon.
to
encourage
shift the burden of decision-making
the
capital
of
Brasilia
to the
Even within the Amazon the land should be designated to
people or organizations for
title to
recommendation
the land
they will
that will endure over time.
development.
be more
By
giving
people a
likely to devise projects
If the Amazon state
government were
giving a bigger stake in the profits of the region, it will be in
their best
land.
interest to
maintain and
sustain future
use of the
6.2.
Recommendations for the International Community
Although
the
ultimate
development in the Amazon
there are
measures the
lies
responsibility
with
the
for
managing
Brazilian government,
international community can take to help
preserve this environment.
While some
of these recommendations
are already at work, others constitute a "wish list" or potential
way
the
international
development process.
community
include,
community
can
get
involved
in
the
Some recommendations for the international
targeting
policies
of
other
development
agencies and multinationals, reinforcing protection organizations
and educational institutions.
6.2.1.
Target Development Agencies and Multinationals
The change in World
sound
projects
development.
agencies
like
is
a
Bank policy
major
Another measure
the
step
United Nations Development Program
environmental issues.
very effective in
to
influence
towards the need for managed
should
Inter-American
towards more ecologically-
involve
Development Bank, UNCTAD and
to take
a stronger
stand on
The environmental groups in the U.S. were
influencing the World Bank,
other
other development
similar
these countries should enforce
organizations.
environmental
and should be go on
The governments of
awareness
to avoid
projects like Polonoroeste.
The Multinationals
have traditionally had little regulation
from their base countries on how they work abroad.
the government
of Brazil
In 1972 when
said "send us your pollution.
We need
the jobs" the multinationals should be
at home and resist the urge to pollute or destroy the
they would
environment.
as a
to act as
strongly urged
For example, if
to sell their products.
marketing gimmick
Burger King
ecological practices
use their
Corporations could
it
advertised that
buying cattle from
discontinued
the Central-American rain forest to buy more expensive U.S. beef,
American consumers would probably
change and
support the
the 5
cent price increase.
Support Protective Policies and Organizations
6.2.2.
support
The
the
Convention
(CITES)
would
protection organizations and policies like
of
International
on
help reduce
exploitation and poaching.
Endangered Species
Endangered Species
in
Trade
the amount of species loss from overOther foreign policies like
Act could
help Brazil
the U.S.
with funding and care
for its endangered species.
Foreign policies like in the U.S. can influence practices in
Brazil by regulating imports and exports of certain products.
example is the restriction of beef
of
export
products
like
imports, and
chemical
defoliants
An
the supervision
and
hazardous
materials used to destroy forests.
Another way to influence
is for
the
practices in
the Brazilian Amazon
the U.S. to negotiate a mutually agreeable resolution for
present
Brazil's
debt
crises.
The
poor
state
of the
Brazilian economy is likely to encourage more destructive uses in
the Amazon because they produce a
fast return.
If
the economy
strengthens,
the government should feel less compelled to use the
most destructive practices to extract Amazon resources.
CONCLUSION
After reviewing the development policy for the Amazon in the
form of
the National
Integration Program, many of the practices
appear destructive to the environment.
Besides exacerbating the
global problems of tropical deforestation, projects in the Amazon
do not appear to
have
adequately
contributed
to
the national
economic development of the country.
The military
1964-1985, sought
developing the
Program for
networks
government of
Brazil which
to
some
alleviate
Amazon rain forest.
National
to
open
the
Brazil's
problems by
The government developed the
Integration
up
of
was in power from
which
Amazon.
set
The
up
a
variety of
motivations
of
the
government for this program were for
national security, national
growth and population redistribution.
The government intended to
occupy the vast areas of the Amazon to protect it
invaders.
The need
to stimulate national growth was an attempt
to maintain the "economic miracle"
which severely
from potential
even
hurt Brazil's economy.
during
the
oil crises
Population redistribution
was originally devised for the poor people from the Northeast who
suffered from
the 1970
for Brazil to relieve
The
results
of
drought.
itself of
the
growing poor population.
of the
inappropriateness of many
for the Amazonian ecosystem.
large scale cattle ranching,
settlements.
the a
Program for National Integration were
less than satisfactory because
development practices
Induced migration became a way
agricultural
PIN involved
endeavors,
roads and
Cattle ranching
is
extremely destructive to the environment
and provides little
for the local
labor requirements
and does not produce basic foodstuffs for the
Amazon region.
landowners who
Pasture
tends
often live
economy.
to
part of
the country.
contributes
benefits
Amazon.
to
the
outside
Cattle
the
and provides
a
the region.
to the
region
of
few large
Most of the
populated southern
the
only
endless amount of land to graze.
because it
pasture destroys the
future use potential.
almost no
form of development ranching is
Amazon
with few investments into the
Besides serving outside interests,
rain forest
only
ranching as a form of development
impoverishment
of
benefit
outside of
cattle is also sent out of the Amazon
Pasture has minimal
sustainable if
As a
there is
The overall and eventual effect
of intensive grazing is the destruction of the rain forest.
if the
an
Even
land is fertilized, the effects of grazing are disastrous
to the rain forest ecosystem.
Of the many agricultural
shelterwood,
silvicultiire,
this
thesis focused on
clearcutting and shifting cultivation.
Shelterwood and silviculture
land,
endeavors,
both
involve
investment
into the
whether by preserving part of the natural environment as in
shelterwood or
methods are
by planting
only moderately
as in
silviculture.
destructive to
therefore can be sustained over time.
land can
provide economic
The
henefits into
the environment and
continual use
the future
protect the region from the effects of total
economic benefits in
Both of these
of the
as well as
deforestation.
shelterwood and silviculture are in
The
the form
of labor for the
economy
and
both
methods
require
Since
harvest.
from the
profits
the
in
local
labor for planting and
harvesting, the local economy will benefit from the projects.
in
run but
the short
the long run due to the continued productivity of the
are not problem-free,
and silviciilture
While shelterwood
land.
in
not only
Likewise the national economy can benefit
the best examples of sustained development at
they appear
to be
this point.
Experiments are currently going on in the Amazon and
around the
world to
more productive and more
make silviculture
The main problem with shelterwood is the
resistant to pests.
enforcement of the 25 crop tree minimum.
Clearcutting
environment and
has
extremely
provides only
devastating
benefits large
tend to invest profits outside of the region.
national
economy,
dependent on abundant land
for
clearcutting greatly contributes
likely that at some
turned
because
to
it
point the
desert.
prevents
Currently clearcutting
the Amazon.
if it
they
do
Clearcutting has high profits
economy.
However,
relies on
is
the
for
the local
in the short term, but is
to tropical
forest area
future
landowners who
While the benefits
little
continied
Clearciitting
the
on
moderately for the local economy.
Like cattle grazing, clearcutting
may aid the
effects
productivity.
deforestation,
will
be
Since
it
is
depleted or
is not sustainable over time
productivity
of
the
land.
a very large and profitable industry in
Brazil may be faced with an
methods like
national economic development.
clearcutting as
ailing economy
a way to achieve
Without devising methods that are
time,
sustainable over
one
day there
will be
no more trees to
another
product
of
cut.
is
Shifting agriculture
shifting agriculture was used for
While
Program.
Integration
the last
only in
centuries by indigenous people,
abused.
become seriously
this method
the National
two decades has
The benefits of shifting
agriculture do contribute to the local economy because
labor
provides beyond
a
level.
subsistence
Slash-burn,
it is
as
has not improved the situation of the migrants
otherwise called,
Amazon
who came to the
depletes the forest and rarely
it
However,
intensive.
it highly
for
a
life.
better
Rather,
it has
continued the poverty of the migrants.
results of
The poor
be the most economically
the most
economical in
long-run.
efficient
land
the long-run,
but has
disastrous environmeital
the environment in
moderate effects in the
agriculture is
long and
the long-run.
short run
highly misused, but it
term for many small agriculturalists.
harmful of
environment,
it
all uses.
provides little
The solution
not necessarily
because of the destruction
Shelterwood gives a moderate return in
but preserves
the most
use is
Clearcutting the forest has a high return in
to the environment.
the short-run,
PIN also indicate that what appears to
effects in
the
the short-run,
Silvicultiire has
as well.
Shifting
does provide in
the short-
Cattle ranching
is by far
Besides
the destruction to the
for the region in
economic terms.
for the Amazon is sustained development.
refers to a balance between development and the
environment.
This
The
ideal
objectives
for
managed
development
include;
agronomic
sustainability,
self-sufficiency,
unsubsidized competitiveness,
maintenance
other
maintenance
of
resources,
social goals, future use
effects.
potential and
of
other areas,
minimal macro-ecological
These are goals to strive for when devising land use in
the Amazon.
The
present and
future generations of people in
all levels
of
priority for
development
society.
projects
These
regional economic
benefit of the nation.
developing the
The
should
provide
the Amazon region of
objectives
imply
development rather
previous
and
for the
a
shift of
than for the
current
emphasis of
Amazon have resulted in an exploitative situation
where most of the production benefits outside of the region.
the same
time,
the standard of living in
It
national average.
including
food,
the Amazon is
is expensive to buy
because
everything
At
below the
many basic commodities
must
be imported into the
Amazon region.
and
There appears
to be
environmental
concerns
forest.
in
viable ways
when
to maximize developmental
developing
the
The need for a balance between these two
Amazon
objectives lie
the desire of Brazil to economically develop and in
for the world to preserve
The
importance
Amazon lie
in
of
the
deforestation which
can
heat
up
tropical
preserving
potential
include:
world's genetic stock of
which
the
rain
rain
the desire
forest ecosystem.
the rain forest ecosystem of the
global
consequences
of tropical
the loss of species and much of the
fanna and
flora; a
build-up of carbon
the earth's temperature and cause worldwide
flooding as a result of melting
desertification
which
can
further north and disturb
some of
shift
the polar
ice cap;
and
the world's temperate climate
current agricultural
practices in the
world.
While the
Brazilian government initiated the master plan of
development in
many other
the Program
for National
actors involved
the major actors are
and environmental
in
the development process.
multinational corporations,
groups.
most
of
the
profits
outside of the Amazon and even
little
benefit
for
the World Bank
the
the Amazon.
These corporations
and often exported their products
outside
Amazon
of
Brazil.
region.
in
contributed
However,
the
to
there
Amazon.
very
are
destructive
strong
changing due to pressure
world.
follow
The World
Until
from
Bank is
recently
World
in
that
environmental
has also been
the
practices
indications
There was
The World Bank is an
international funding and development agency which
involved
Some of
Multinationals have traditionally had
an exploitative relationship in
retain
Integration, there are
the
Bank
Amazon.
this behavior is
groups
around the
currently under a lot of pressure to
environmentally-conscious
guidelines.
Environmental
groups in
the developed
countries have been very influential in
targeting
organizations
like
ecologically-conscious
the
projects.
World
The
Bank
indications
events are that the Influence of international
from the
to
have
of
actors is
more
recent
changing
exploitative-type of development of multinationals to a
more ecological type of development from the World
Bank which is
being influenced by environmental groups.
The
recommendations
for
the
Brazilian government towards
more managed development include;
when
ind-use
appropriate,
using
other lands
in Brazil
abolition of subsidies and
zoning,
settlement schemes, promotion of education and
research centers,
preserve and learn from indigenous people and shift the decisionmaking
to
the
Amazon
community
international
for
the
multinationals
and
Recommendations
are
to
target
for environmentally-conscious
development agencies
to support
region.
protective policies
practices
and
and organizations which exist to
further environmental goals.
The findings of this study are that development practices in
the
Amazon
can
environment.
reflect
past
The
balance between development and the
a
destructive
projects
have
attracted
international concern over the depletion of the rain forest.
The
external concern over this environment has been very instrumental
in
encouraging
a
better
balance
environment goals in the Amazon.
influence
international
will
changed from the military
The
current
harmful
government
development
responsible
in
continue
be
practices
projects.
productivity
and
for
desire
arises.
sustainable
now that the government
a democracy
in
1985.
more receptive to criticism on
and
The
destructive practices will probably taper
sustainable
development and the
It is likely that the trend of
dictatorship to
may
future
between
more
environmentally
indication is that the
off
as
the
need for
Unfortinately, the awareness
development
may
come
when
the
depletion
of
the
rain
region is too far gone.
forests
and
the impoverishment of the
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