People, Land Management and Environmental Change
Thailand Final Report
1999-2002
Kanok Rerkasem
PLEC/Thailand Team Leader
Chiang Mai University, Thailand
February 20002
Executive Summary
This report outlines activity of the PLEC project in northern Thailand from 1999 to
2002. It begins with a brief history of the background of the work, describing site
selection, initial characterization, determination of focus sites and the conversion of
these into demonstration sites.
Activities for the past over 3 years have been focused on two highland villages, Pah Poo
Chom in Chiang Mai and Tee Cha in Mae Hong Son province. Pah Poo Chom is a
Hmong village and represents a former opium growing community with traditional
pioneer type of shifting cultivation that has undergone considerable change for the past
more than 30 years. With long efforts in opium replacement from external assistance,
the present generation in the community no longer grow opium, the production systems
shifted to intensive production of cabbage and other vegetables on permanent basis.
The village has been settled permanently for over 30 years. In contrast, the second site,
Tee Cha, is a Karen community and the population is facing a gradual change in their
traditional production systems from longer period of rotational shifting cultivation to a
shorter cycle of 7 years, with decreasing trends due to limited land resource. The
production is for subsistence with extensive upland rice growing on sloping land with
diversity of traditional non-rice crops. In 2000, only Pah Poo Chom has reached full
stage of demonstration while Tee Cha remains a field research site up till now.
Prior to demonstration, site characterization and determination of focus sites have been
made on the basis of agrodiversity assessment, biodiversity survey and field
measurements in sample plots across major land-use stage and field type in the villages.
PLEC/Thailand team employs an interdisciplinary approach with researchers from
different disciplines and development agencies. The approach has strong element of
local participation in all stages. In Pah Poo Chom, the number of local experts
increased with the progression of PLEC work. By the time of demonstration, 10
farmers have joined the PLEC/Thailand team as local experts demonstrating
agrodiversity management for biodiversity-rich systems of their plots. The plots were
assessed with data collection, field measurements, monitoring and evaluation, and key
informant interview with a semi-structure questionnaire. Comparisons were made with
samples of non-experts to evaluate effective demonstration and farmers’ training.
These results are presented and discussed.
PLEC/Thailand team also works with the community to build up local capacity and
strengthen community organization for the maintenance and enrichment of biodiversity.
To ensure further support from government and local authorities, PLEC assisted a new
Village Committee, with a mandate on forest protection and biodiversity conservation,
to conduct planning for village land use and management for biodiversity-rich systems,
such as conservation forests, village headwater and other managed systems with rich
biodiversity. The outcomes of the exercise are quite worthwhile with positive response
from local authorities and local institutions, especially the Tambon (sub-district)
Administrative Organization (TAO) and local forestry office in the area.
The demonstration site is recently chosen to be a Pilot Village for a national farmer-tofarmer training programme, the Farmers’ Field School project for tribal communities in
northern Thailand. The likelihood of success in sustaining PLEC work in the
demonstration site may be high but this depends on external supports and services from
government and local authorities. Strengthening the capacity of implementing agencies,
for example development and extension workers in the Farmers’ Field School
programme, has yet to be done. Training in PLEC idea and approach is essential to
shift development paradigm to promote agrodiversity for biodiversity-rich ecosystems
on larger scale.
1.
PLEC/Thailand Sub-Cluster
1.1
History of work
Historically, an interdisciplinary group of researchers from the Multiple Cropping
Centre, Departments of Social and Anthropology and Botany formed to associate with
PLEC after a visit by the present Principal Scientific Coordinator, Professor Harold
Brookfield, in October 1993. This was the time that United Nations University initiated
a new collaborative research project on Population, Land Management and
Environmental Change (PLEC).
With national priority and policy for development in northern Thailand, PLEC/Thailand
decided to focus research on agrodiversity of mountain land management. It then
followed the suggestion that the Thai group from CMU work collaboratively with the
Chinese group from Kunming Institute of Botany (KIB) to represent the “Montane
Mainland Southeast Asia (MMSEA) cluster” for the PLEC Project. The sub-region
shares many similarities with respect to cultural and ecological diversity. There are
also many differences. Project sites in northern Thailand and Southwest China had
been selected to represent the major ethnic groups of the sub-region with different
degree of pressures on the production and biodiversity. Without support from the GEF
funding, the sites in northern Thailand were reduced to two villages with one full
demonstration during the period of 1999-2002. The detail of the two sites will be given
later in this report.
Major funding for PLEC/Thailand came from the United Nations University. Other
sources of additional support came from the Thailand Research Fund (TRF) for
research activity in Tee Cha village for 4 years, starting the end of 2000, with some
B50,000 from the Department of Public Welfare for Farmers’ Field School training
programme and about B10,000 from the Hmong Association for Pah Poo Chom forest
management activity.
1.2
Evolution of work
The work of PLEC in northern Thailand evolved from the past research experiences on
traditional shifting cultivation and highland economic development (e.g., Kunstadter et
al. 1978, Nakano 1978, McKinnon and Vienne 1989, Anderson 1993 and Rerkasem
and Rerkasem 1994). At the beginning four villages; Pah Poo Chom (Hmong) in
Chiang Mai, Mae Salap (Akha) in Chiang Rai, Mae Rid Pagae and Tee Cha (Karen) in
Mae Hong Son were chosen for PLEC sites. The sites represent major ethnic groups
and cover a wide range of historical and present production systems and land use.
The Hmong of Pah Poo Chom are former opium growers with traditional practice of
pioneer shifting cultivation. Unlike the Karen and Lua who practice rotational shifting
cultivation on permanent settlement, the Hmong shifting cultivation involves clearing
mature forests for intensive opium production until soil fertility of the land is
completely exhausted. The shifting cultivators, then, move to the next forest area for
opening up the new fields. The community has successfully shifted the traditional
systems to intensive vegetable and fruit production.
In contrast, Tee Cha is a Karen community with dominant subsistence production of
upland rice in rotational shifting cultivation system. Mae Salap and Mae Rid Pagae fall
in between the two extreme communities described above with partial
commercialization with cash crops (Figure 1).
Preliminary characterization of these sites was made with sketch maps of village land
use. Basic village data were also collected, e.g., number of households and population,
type of crops grown, management of land and farming systems. A field method known
as participatory rural appraisal (KKU 1987, McCracken et al. 1987 and Chambers
1992) was used for village appraisal with transect survey and field walk, group meeting
and key informants interview. The agroecosystem approach (AEA), initially developed
by Conway (1986), was also applied to analyse the village ecosystems, local
livelihoods and the impact of change on land use and production systems (Rerkasem
and Rerkasem 1994).
In 1999, village fieldwork was virtually devoted to establishment of sites for
demonstration. At this stage, two villages, Pah Poo Chom and Tee Cha, were chosen to
be the focus sites for demonstration in northern Thailand. Village appraisal and field
measurement were aimed at identifying and evaluating farmers’ practices with emphasis
on biodiversity conservation. A survey of agrodiversity management was conducted
across the diverse village land use and field type to identify farmers’ best practices for
demonstration. With PLEC agrodiversity approach (Brookfield et al. 1999),
participatory method was adopted to carry out surveys of the existing land-use stages
and field types. Transect method was applied across village land use and field types for
the plant species inventory. Sample plots were laid out for major land-use stages and
fields for species inventory and plant count. Plot size of 10 m x 10 m with nested subplots was employed for taking samples for species inventory and plant count (Khruasan
2000 and Rerkasem 2000). The major land use and field type included headwater area,
managed land such as community forests, swidden fields and fallow lands, mixed
perennial plots or fruit orchards, intensive cropping area, homegardens, edges of
different types with potentiality for conservation of domesticated and wild species. In
cases of small edges and homegardens, samples were taken from the whole farmers’
fields. Local names and utilization was obtained from key farmers who assisted in the
survey. The sampling methods and field measurement were based on guidelines
provided by the PLEC-Biodiversity Advisory Group (Zarin et al. 1999).
In summary, a number of tools, methods and approaches have been employed for field
survey, assessment of agrodiversity and inventory of biodiversity in demonstration
sites. These were used in combination at different hierarchical levels of the existing
farming systems and village agroecosystems, for the link between land-use stages and
field types in particular. Table 1 gives the summary of these tools, methods and
approaches.
By the end of 2000, Pah Poo Chom had reached full stage for PLEC demonstration.
Tee Cha was, however, being kept for research activity on managed fallow and
traditional management and conservation of swidden crops with limited demonstration
activity. In Pah Poo Chom where the dominant landscape for agriculture is a uniform
production of intensive cabbage, there still exists the diversity of land use and
agrodiversity management within the particular land use. These may be detected at the
level of field type. Agrodiversity management may be taken from traditional practices
or adapted from traditional knowledge but many are also recent innovations and these
are not fixed idea. The distinct management practices are compiled in Annex 1 and
these have been the basis for demonstration. In working with the local experts or the
whole community, farmers’ demonstration plots or community-managed land were set
up to demonstrate and promote strategies and techniques on agrodiversity management
for biodiversity-rich systems. The focus of PLEC has given to (1) management of
edges for conservation of traditional crops, vegetables, fruit trees as well as forest
species; (2) effective community organization and management of land and forests for
conservation and sustainable uses, and (3) “best” practices for intensive cropping on
slopes. With exception of full demonstration, similar survey and field methods for
village appraisal were employed in Tee Cha village.
TABLE 1. Field methods, tools and approach with respect to expected outcomes of
fieldactivities.
FIELD METHODS/
OUTCOMES OF FIELD ACTIVITIES
TOOLS
AND Village
APPROACHES
Landscape
Mapping and PRA
Farming
Systems
Production
Systems
Household
Fields/
Plots
Identification of land use and patterns of
natural resources.
Defining major
production systems and identifying
biophysical/organizational component of
agrodiversity
Guideline “Field Type”
Characterizing the existing (distinct)
farming and forest management practices
with diverse crops and cropping systems.
Grouping of common management
practices
Agrodiversity Checklist
Identifying sample plots as the representative of the field
type for direct observation and measurement
Household Survey/Field
Interview
Selection
of
sample
households based on field
types and potential for
future
demonstration.
Collecting information on
some household socioeconomic
status
and
management
of
agrodiversity
PLEC work in Thailand involves a team of scientists from Chiang Mai University,
extension and development workers from government agencies of the Department of
Public Welfare and Royal Forest Department, and non-government agencies in the area.
At the beginning in 1999, some 7 natural and social scientists from Chiang Mai
University were involved in the Project with one masters student in Botany. He finished
his biodiversity study in Pah Poo Chom and graduated in 2000. However, the
contribution from an economist has been fairly small and eventually left the team in the
following year. At the end of 2000, additional support from the Thailand Research
Fund enabled the PLEC team in Tee Cha to gain a botanist and one of her Ph.D.
students for the work on mycorrhizal fungi in relation to fallow regeneration. Another
Ph.D. scholarship from Thailand Research Fund is now committed for study effects of
Macaranga on shifting cultivation and fallow regeneration in Tee Cha beyond 2002.
People from local government agencies were invited to join PLEC. Three persons from
the Office of the Department of Public Welfare in Chiang Mai became core members of
PLEC and stayed on to the end of the project. The number of persons involved from
the Department of Public Welfare increased steadily as the project progressed. Some 3
persons from CARE/Thailand programme in agriculture and natural resource based in
Chiang Mai have provided continuing support to the Project in Tee Cha throughout the
period. The team keeps strong link with local foresters in Mae Tanan area of Pah Poo
Chom with regular involvement of one person for field demonstration and local
training. The number of people involved with PLEC/Thailand and team composition is
outlined for the entire period from 1999-2002 in Table 2.
TABLE 2. Composition of PLEC/Thailand team and number of persons involved,
1999-2002.
Institution
Chiang Mai University
- Agricultural Science
- Botany
- Geography
- Economic
1999
7
4
1
1
1
Number of Persons
2000
2001
6
7
4
4
1
2
1
1
0
0
2002
7
4
2
1
0
Department of Public Welfare
- Core members of PLEC team
- Supporting members
10
2
8
11
3
8
11
3
8
12
4
8
Royal Forest Department
CARE/International-Chiang Mai
Graduate Students
1
0
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
0
2
Total core members
9
9
10
11
Total
19
21
23
22
To involve the PLEC team, farmers and farmers’ association with other bodies, a
number activities including workshops, scientific meetings, village forum and farmer
meetings, farmer training, and farmer-to-farmer exchange in a Farmers’ field Schools
were organized throughout the entire period of 1999-2002 (Table 3).
For scientific exchange, PLEC was able to organize a joint workshop with Thailand
Research Fund for national and international participants on regeneration ecology and
management for degraded landscape and forest ecosystems during 10-16 February
2001. Report of the workshop appeared as CMUPNlab Working Paper No.1 for limited
distribution among participants and funding support institutions. Two of the PLEC
papers presented in this workshop (Yimyam et al. 2001 and Youpensuk and Lumyong
2001) have been submitted for international publication already (i.e., Yimyam et al
2002 and Youpensuk et al. 2002). PLEC arranged an annual review meeting once a
year with partner institutions to update activity and inform partners about the project
progress. In 2001, the meeting was jointly organized with TRF for wider audience to
include researchers and undergraduate and graduate students from Chiang Mai and Mae
Jo Universities, Research Institutes of the Department of Agriculture and others.
Report of the meeting is available in Thai language. PLEC members have attended
numerous national and international meetings and conferences, organized both by
PLEC and non-PLEC institutions, to share the experience and lessons learned from the
demonstration sites. At least a total of 21 occasions may be found in the record for the
past 3 years (Table 3).
For farmers and farmers’ association, there were many informal training and village
meetings. However, PLEC organized village forum at least once a year for interest
groups in demonstration activity in Pah Poo Chom. A field day was held at the end of
the project to involve other villages nearby and members of local administrative
organizations. PLEC actively involved in formal training, conducted by the
Department of Public Welfare in a form of Farmers’ Field School. Expert farmers have
opportunities to present their demonstration plots and demonstrated management
techniques or innovative practices.
TABLE 3. Number of meeting, workshop and field day, 1999-2002.
Activity
Annual Review Meeting
PLEC/TRF Scientific Workshop
Farmers’ Field School Session
Field Day in Demonstration site 2
Village Forum2
Annual meeting DPW regional offices3
Other Meeting and Conference
Notes:
1999
1
0
0
0
0
1
7
Number
2000
2001
1
1
0
1
0
2
0
0
1
2
1
1
7
6
20021
1
1
1
1
1
figures for 2002 are up to February only
for Pah Poo Chom only
3
input of PLEC to the regular meeting of the Department of Public Welfare
2
2.
Descriptions of PLEC Sites
2.1
Pah Poo Chom
Pah Poo Chom is a Hmong Njua or blue Meo village. The village is located at 920masl
in a small watershed of Huai Mae Chaem , which drains into Mae Taman, a tributary of
Mae Taeng, the major tributary of the Chiang Mai valley. The village administration
falls under Keud Chang sub-district of Mae Taeng in Chiang Mai province.
The landform of the site is residual hills, with residuum from granite and shale as
parent materials (Lampaopong et al. 1985). The soil is acid with pH 5.0-5.3. The
texture is mainly sandy loam with good internal drainage. The soil surface is fairly
deep (>1.5 m) in the major agricultural area in the lower fields with gently slopes,
presumably due to erosion deposit from the upper fields with steep slopes. The soil
depth is only 20-30 cm on the upper fields with steep slopes. Soil erosion does not
seem to be the problem, except patches with steep slopes (Rerkasem and Huijun 1995).
Major land use for agriculture is in the lower fields with gentle slopes (10-25%).
Cabbage is the dominant cash crops with supplement sprinkler-fed irrigation. With
increasing area planted to lychee, cabbage production is being pushed to the upper
fields by extending irrigation. With local innovation and traditional knowledge of land
husbandry, the vegetable farmers have been able to manage the land with massive
regeneration of ground cover (Mimosa invisa) in the wet season and escape heavy rain
to plant the first season cabbage at the end of September to early October. The
dominant land-use patterns are monoculture of cabbage or simple mixture of lychee as
a canopy crop with vegetables or traditional crops grown underneath (Figure 2). At
field type level, the production systems are more diverse. Many farmers are managing
patches of varying size and shape within and between major land use, as
“edges”(Brookfield 1999), for growing a variety of traditional crops and local
vegetables from former swidden fields for household consumption. This type of field
may be observed with scattered patches of forest trees and other useful species between
major agricultural fields and in the riparian area (Korsamphan et al. 2001). There is
high proportion of forests on steep slopes and hilltops in the village with community
management for conservation and local utilization.
Major changes in Pah Poo Chom took place in early 1960s when some 10 Hmong
households voluntarily moved into the area which has been designated as Nikhom
(government resettlement scheme) are in districts of Chiang Dao and Mae Taeng (Van
Roy 1971). Since then, the overall population has grown up 343 persons in 57
households in 2000. At present the village is formally registered as a cluster of a
lowland village nearby, Ban Ton Kham. External development support from the Royal
Thai Government (RTG) and international agencies started early after village
establishment. However, during 1960-69, many settlers fled to join relatives or find
other alternative site for settlement. This was a difficult period for the villagers when
majority of people suffered from severe poverty and food shortage. The social and
economic conditions in the village were poor with high population of opium addicts
and little opportunity for employment. The village site was located on a bare ridge with
low attitude of about 900 m and this is uncomfortable for the Hmong who were
previously from the very high altitude, 1300-1500 m (Walker 1971). According to
Cooper (1984) the village was, in fact, on a brink of collapse due to unfavorable social
and economic conditions. In the late 1990s, the village was regarded as one of the
prosperous hill-tribe villages with intensive land use, permanent housing, improvement
of living conditions and so on.
Major changes in Pah Poo Chom are summarized in Box 1, starting from early
establishment in early 1960s to present. With the recent establishment of Tambon
Administrative Organization (TAO) according to government policy on
decentralization, small financial support can be accessed through this channel. A total
amount of 0.5 million Baht is available as village fund for investment from the current
government programme. As Pah Poo Chom is being processed to obtain the official
status, the increase in government fund for village development is expected through
TAO structure in the near future.
2.2
Tee Cha
Tee Cha is a Pwo Karen village in Sop Moei, a border district of Mae Hong Son
province. It is situated on a mountainous area, with altitude of about 700 masl in the
lower part of Salween international river basin. Karen is the largest population along
the border in this area. Cross border migration was normal between the Karen
communities in the past but the movement is now under government control with
migration camps, located near the village along the border. The village was said to
have established more than 200 years ago with very little development assistance from
external agencies, including the national government. Only weathered roads were built
for logging concession of the teak forests in the past and the present of an international
non-government agency for the past few years to assist local communities on land-use
planning and natural resource conservation. The area is being planned for a future
National Park, and community empowerment has been one of the NGO issues to
strengthen local communities and their traditional institutions.
BOX 1. Major changes in Pah Poo chom village, 1960-2001.
1960-69
Under the leadership of Mr. Yee Saehang, about 10 households of Hmong moved down
from the border of Thailand/Myanmar to government resettlement area (Nikhom) and
settled in Pah Poo Chom permanently. For some years the condition of the village was
rather poor due to continuous logging from forest concession and illegal cutting. Logging
remained active. With the hardships, some households left to join relatives in Mae Tho and
other Hmong settlement, e.g., Nan and Tak provinces.
Those who stayed behind continued farming with shifting cultivation practice. Therefore,
the existing forests in the village were overused and the area was highly degraded with poor
fallow regeneration for further shifting cultivation. Bamboo, which is the only dominant
species in secondary forests, was heavily harvested and sold to outsiders to supplement
income. Soon after resettlement, the Hmong of Pah Poo Chom had become very poor with
inadequate food from production of subsistence crops. There was also a high population of
opium addicts. Most households engaged in wage labour from the nearby commercial tea
plantation with the small rates of only Thai Baht 6.00-8.00/day or equivalent to US$0.30.4/day (US$1.00 = ThaiB20.00). Many exchanged their weight labour with a small sack of
rice (10 kg). The social and economic condition of the community was projected to be
collapse in the next few years if this situation continued (Cooper 1984). In the late 60s, the
Tribal Research Centre of the Department of Public Welfare with external assistance started
development programme with the introduction of alternative cash and subsistence crops
such as improved rice, maize and livestock to replace opium cultivation. Proposal for
further assistance was drafted for United Nations and other funding agencies (e.g., Oughton
1970).
1970-79
In early 1970s the Thai-Australia Highland Agricultural Project (TAHAP) picked up the
village and provided technical assistance for agricultural development in the village through
collaboration with the Tribal Research Centre of the Department of Public Welfare,
Ministry of Interior. Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) was introduced as alternative
high value forage to natural pasture for cattle. About 100 rais (16 ha) of relatively flat land
in the valley was developed for irrigated paddy (Oughton and Imong 1970). A small
diversion weir was constructed with feeding canals. Unfortunately, the soils could not hold
water for paddy rice and the production system failed to provide adequate production for
subsistence. Paddy cultivation was abandoned shortly after. However, the idea of irrigation
gave the opportunity for the local people to develop intensive cabbage production. The
importance of irrigation led the villagers to conserve the headwater area to protect their
water resource. In 1969 Mr. Paolu Saetao brought in Mimosa invisa, a noxious thorny
weed, from lowland village nearby for fencing his small kitchen garden. The weeds spread
rapidly throughout the village landscape, but not until early 1980s did farmers begin to see
the value of the weed as a soil builder. The use of Mimosa as a living mulch was adopted
for intensive cropping in later stage of development.
1980-89
During 1980-87, external support from the World Bank was given to village development.
Lychee and other fruit trees were introduced for growing in homegardens for local
consumption. However, farmers saw income opportunity from lychee, and the tree was
extended to major agricultural fields as one of major cash crops in the village.
With government incentive on household registration, villagers decided to move down and
settle in the small valley. Cabbage was introduced in 1985 for farmers’ trial in small plots.
The cabbage technology was obtained from their Hmong relatives in Mae Tho where
intensive vegetable production was successfully developed in the early days of United
Nations Crop Replacement Programme in 1970 (Geddes 1976). Opium production virtually
stopped in the following season. People grew subsistence crops intensively with more or
less permanent farming practice. Ruzi grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis) was introduced as
vegetative buffer strips for soil and water conservation. Some 10 rai of sloping land was
used for SWC demonstration. However, the success of vegetative strips for SWC was very
limited. The on-site benefit of SWC was unclear The management of grass strips required
so much labour to control the spread to agricultural field where it becomes the dominant
weed.
1989-93
The Thai-Australia Highland Agricultural and Social Development Project (TA-HASD)
chose the village as one of the Watershed Demonstration site to represent Mae Taman
Development Zone (TA-HASD 1993). A model for sustainable land management and
forest protection was suggested for watershed management. Grass-strips were introduced
as soil and water conservation measure for intensive permanent cropping on slopes <35
degree. On the hilltops, natural forest conservation and reforestation were envisaged to
protect ecological function of the watershed and headwater area. With people participatory
approach, the idea of Watershed Demonstration would have implication for conflict
resolution on land disputes within the community and between other villages. The success
of cabbage growing and the continuity of external development support had attracted many
people to return to the village and the village population rose to 217 persons in 32
households in 1993. Since then the village had become a permanent site for the Hmong
settlers.
1993-96
Middlemen appeared in the village to buy some produce, especially cabbage. With
connection to the external market, contract farming for vegetable production was introduced
and this intensified vegetable production in the village, e.g., vegetable soybean, young corn
and cowpea for canning, carrots, potatoes, cabbages for vegetable market in Chiang Mai
and Bangkok and so on. Farmers’ income increased greatly and Pah Poo Chom became the
well-off village with at least 12 pick-up trucks and 15 motorcycles in 40 households
(Thepsarn 1998). There was a rapid expansion of lychee grown in association with annual
crops and vegetables. Average household could earn a annual income of B36,000 (Village
Survey 1996) Pressure on land for short season vegetables began to build up and steep land
and secondary forests for cultivation were opened up. Internal conflicts on land use and
land disputes, dry season water for irrigation and forest protection have emerged and
become the major issues for village administration. The problems also extended to other
villages nearby.
19972001
Thailand with a label of Newly Industrialized Country (NIC), was withdrawn from
international development aid. All external supported projects on highland development
ended in 1998. This leaves future support to the Royal Thai Government. A Master plan
for Highland Development, Control of Narcotic Crops and Environment Conservation was
developed to ensure continuity of support to the highland community. However,
government support was greatly reduced due to macro-economic collapse in Thailand and
the region as a whole. Only small budget could be allocated to responsible agency. The
local community may draw some additional support from the newly developed grass-root
administration to continue village development.
The village is inhabited with a total population of 148 persons in 41 households. The
village economy is basically derived for household consumption and subsistence with
production of upland rice and swidden crops. Some farmers may grow local chilli for
external market but area for growing is limited and competing directly with traditional
shifting cultivation of upland rice. Farmers may earn additional income from selling
minor forest products but the market is unreliable with the risk of illegal harvest,
according to forestry laws and regulations. The household income ranges between
B5,000-10,000/year. Livestock, cattle in particular, are the major income for certain
years. Rich households may own an elephant with value of >B200,000/animal. With
little logging activity, income from elephants reduces greatly.
Traditionally, the Karen in Tee Cha could afford to grow upland rice in shifting
cultivation with long fallow rotation of up to 15 or 20 years. With long fallow
management, the community could produce adequate upland rice for its own
consumption throughout the year. Productive regeneration of the long fallow is the key
to sustainability of this type of shifting cultivation, and its agrodiversity management
has been reported elsewhere (e.g., Rerkasem 2001, Sabhasri 1978 and Zinke et al
1978). At present, the Karen in Tee Cha still maintain traditional practice of clearing a
large fallow forest for production of one season upland rice. With increasing pressures
on land, the number of fallow fields has to be reduced to support the growing
population however. There are only 6 pieces of fallow fields for rotation (Figure 3).
This is apparently very short for rotation as comparing with traditional shifting
cultivation cycle of 15-20 years in the past. Despite the fact that a large area in the
village is under forest cover, the clearing of forests is prohibited, with community
agreements, both within and between the villages, for communal utilization or
conservation. Hence, future forest clearing for shifting cultivation is unlikely.
Expansion of land for paddy is another option for food security of the subsistence
economy in Tee Cha, but physical limitations (steep slopes and limited water supply)
will have to be overcome.
Despite the above constraints and development potential, people are successfully
maintaining productivity of upland rice and swidden crops with the use local tree
species for fallow enrichment, locally known as Letha or Pada (Macaranga
denticulata). It is a prolific seed producing species with massive production of biomass
and it associates with some 20 arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Yimyam et al. 2001 and
2002, Youpensuk and Lumyong 2002 and Youpensul et al 2002). The major soil type
in Tee Cha is clay loam and highly acid with pH between 4.2-5.5. PLEC is working
with the local farmers to gain a better understanding on the contribution and
agrodiversity management of Pada to overcome the degradation of shifting cultivation
and enhance natural process of forest regeneration.
3.
PLEC Activity and Evaluation of the Outcomes
3.1
Local Experts
Selection
The selection and participation of local experts are crucial to ensure the success of
PLEC demonstration. Local experts were selected on the basis of voluntary,
innovative, management skills and knowledge. They are not necessarily attached to
any social and economic status in the community. The local experts working with
PLEC/Thailand team are from a mixed social and economic background. In Pah Poo
Chom, one of local experts has been elected as village headman in 2000 while others
are old women from poor households with no cabbage field or lychee. Initial contact
and assistance from village leaders, in our case, provided the entry point for
demonstration activity in the village.
Selection of local experts is a process, which began with field assessment right at the
preparatory phase of demonstration site. Farmers were invited to participate in village
ecosystem appraisal, identification and assessment of land-use stages and field types,
field inventory and assessment of biodiversity and agrodiversity management. Distinct
farmers’ management and innovation observed during the field assessment led to the
identification of local experts who were doing something different from the others.
With discussion and consultation, field owners agreed and collaborated with the PLEC
team to establish demonstration plots for field measurement and monitoring. There are
a total of 10 plots for demonstration; 7 for edge management and 3 for agrodiversity
management of intensive cropping. Selection of local experts was an interactive and
iterative process. It continued for a period of time from site preparation to
demonstration. The number of local experts increased as demonstration activity
progressed.
Number of local experts and farmer-to-farmer training
In the case of Pah Poo Chom, where full demonstration was implemented, the number
of local experts increased from 4 persons in 1999 at preparatory phase to 7 in 2000 and
10 from 2001 to present (Table 4). None of local expert was female at the beginning of
site preparation in year 1. Female participation started at the demonstration phase in
year 2 and maintained throughout the project cycle.
TABLE 4. Change in number of local experts in Pah Poo Chom village.
Sex
Male
Female
Total
1999
4
4
Number of Local Experts
2000
2001
4
5
3
5
7
10
2002
5
5
10
Local experts worked with the PLEC team to conduct field experiments, assist in data
collection and plot monitoring and shared their views with the interpretation of field
results. Knowledge gained from demonstration plots was used for farmers’ exchanges
in and between the villages, field training and other government programmes (see Table
3). Village forum were arranged to support farmer-to-farmer exchange. The method
was found to be very effective with the help of a PLEC member as facilitator at the
beginning. PLEC helps the local experts to prepare field results and presentation of
their demonstration plots to other farmers inside and outside the village, e.g., Farmers’
Field School sessions in 2001. Some local experts in Pah Poo Chom have been chosen
for local trainers in government programme for rural development.
Farmers’ activity in Tee Cha is much reduced to collaborate with field assessment and
experimentation. At present, members of 3 households are actively involved in field
experimentation on management of M. denticulata and the effects on upland rice. They
work with PLEC to collect data and monitor their upland rice fields. A few women
assisted PLEC/Thailand team to carry out field survey and assess the existing
agrodiversity management and conservation practices of traditional crops in their
shifting cultivation fields.
3.2
Farmers’ Association and Adaptation of PLEC Activity and Farmers’ Own
Ideas on Management of Demonstration Site Activities
PLEC initiated activity, which built on existing community organization to manage and
enrich biodiversity of village ecosystems. There was an informal village organization
for forest protection and water management for sprinkler irrigation, but the mandate
and function of the organization were not clear to the community. As a result, internal
conflicts arise and increase over time, due to forest clearing for farming and short water
supply for the dry season irrigation, for cabbage in particular. Introduction of an idea
for community land use planning was successful. With relevant data and information,
such as land use, land holding, crops and cropping practices, and other biophysical and
agricultural information, the method helped to bring the community to work together
and sort out the problems. Along with PLEC demonstration, many people have seen
the examples of “best practices” from local experts and have opportunity to discuss
openly.
The example of Mr. Saophang, who manages agroforest edges up on a small watershed
on the western side of the village, clearly illustrated “best practice” for alternative
biodiversity-rich systems to other land-use types. This kind of field demonstration also
helped to bring up the discussion in the group meeting on values and knowledge of
traditional (Hmong) management and conservation. Many young people in the village
have actually lost these values and tradition (Annex 3). They never practice any form
of shifting cultivation and have negligible knowledge about the systems.
With confidence gained through the learning process above, people decided to set up a
farmers’ association for forest protection and biodiversity conservation in the village.
The association is now formerly organized as Village Committee for Forest Protection
and Biodiversity Conservation (VCFP&BC). The PLEC team provided technical
training to the members of the Committee on land-use planning, field mapping,
monitoring and evaluation of land use and change. With the implementation of
national policy and cabinet decision on land use in the mountain in early 2000, villagers
from Pah Poo Chom were able to submit their village land occupation to the local
authority for a land-use permit. The Committee is currently working with Tambon
Administrative Organization (TAO) to coordinate land-use planning and conservation
at a sub-district level with possible expansion of the village association to an intervillage network. The development of the village committee in this direction has
attracted the local Royal Forest Office (RFD) to coordinate villagers for government
reforestation and forest protection programme in the near future. This means that the
reforestation budget will be another funding source for village development. Plans to
sustain this PLEC activity is now underway.
3.3
Value of PLEC Activity to the Farmers and Their Families in Production,
Diversification of Crops and Income Sources
PLEC works with 6 local experts on the production and management of the complex
and diverse systems, ranging from mixtures of swidden crops, with annuals mixed with
perennials to form a complex structure of multiple canopy layers of agroforestry
systems (Annex 2). The activity aims to demonstrate the values of the systems to
household food security, stable income, maintenance and enhancement of biodiversity
for in situ conservation.
Production of swidden crops (annual and perennial legumes and non-leguminous crops,
vegetables, spices, herbs and many others) is one of the major functions of women in
the households. They may grow a diversity of crops in small plots in or between the
major production fields, creating a field type category of edges. The production from
edges is mainly relating to cooking and food preparation for the family. Supply from
edges is ideally for the whole year. Year round production is possible if adequate local
germplasm is available to provide suitable crops for different seasons. The products
may also be used for bartering with neighbouring households or selling to external
markets for supplementary cash income. In the local market near the village, growers
sell fresh chilli at B50-60/kg, fresh pods of local yardlong bean at B12/kg, a bunch of
boil waxy corn cobs at B10/bunch (5-6 cobs) and fresh fruit of Hmong cucumber at B510/kg. Supplementary income from these would cover food flavours such as soy sauce,
fish sauce, monosodium glutamate, and salts for cooking.
As men are not involved in feeding the family, their perception of crop diversification
is very different from those of the women. Men have a strong bias toward specialized
production of cabbage or lychee in pure culture or a few simple mixtures of cash crops.
For them, this provides the major source of income for the family and cash opportunity
for heavy investment in certain years with favourable cabbage price and output, e.g.,
buying a new pick up vehicle. They tend to adopt risk aversion for production strategy.
Unfortunately, the strategy does not work very well. The probability of “good year” for
cabbage is very low indeed. When the price is exceptionally high, output turns out to
be very low and vice versa. Furthermore, cabbage prices fluctuate daily, for example
between B2.00-3.00 to B5-15/kg in a matter of a few days. Only few people were
lucky in the past.
Mr. Saophang Saetao is the only local expert, more than 65 years old, who
demonstrated the positive income and household requirement from crop diversification
of his agroforest edges. He showed that production system with crop diversification
could give a higher income from either cabbage or lychee. Annual income from
Saophang’ agroforest edge varies between B40,000-60,000 as compared with B15,00035,000 for the cabbage grower. With his skill, Saophang is able to sell a musical
instrument, locally referred as Can (a kind of traditional pipe) at B3,500-4,000 each.
The pipe is made from a special bamboo species with fairly small size and hard stem.
The local name of the plant is Zong Qeng in Hmong. He also maintains a large number
of medicinal herbs, wild trees for vegetables and wild fruits for household requirement.
The idea of crop diversification from PLEC demonstration has now provided an
alternative agricultural strategy for income generation and food security with more
resilience to external forces such as variable market prices.
4.
Data Analysis
This section presents the results of the analysis of the effect of PLEC sponsored
management in the demonstration sites on biodiversity. The emphasis is on the values
of agrodiversity for maintenance and enrichment of biodiversity.
4.1
Values of in situ conservation of traditional crop species and landraces
Among other ethnic groups in northern Thailand, the Hmong are known to grow a
diversity of non-rice staple crops, legumes, local vegetables, herbs, medicinal plants
and some perennials in association with both upland rice or opium in traditional shifting
cultivation (Anderson 1993 and Sutthi 1989, 1990 and 1996). Despite the shift from
traditional agricultural systems to permanent agriculture, the conservation of traditional
crop species and many landraces may not be feasible due to replacement from other
alternatives from external sources (Sutthi 1990). However, the role of traditional crops
remains with the family for daily meals as local food habits remain unchanged. In the
case of Pah Poo Chom where cabbage is the dominant crop for cash income, women in
the households have to find ways to conserve, as much as possible, the traditional crops
for cooking and other needs. Some grow local spices and herbs in a few containers in
front of the houses while others grow them out with more species in homegardens and
other field types including the cabbage fields.
From agrodiversity field assessment and monitoring plots, some 52 species of
traditional crops, except fruit trees and herbaceous shrubs, were identified in the
village. An interview using a semi-formal questionnaire with some 23 households was
conducted to follow up the estimate. In Table 5 the results show that only 8 species
have been grown by the majority of respondents, up to 15 out of 23. In contrast, some
7 species or 14% of total number of traditional crops were completely left out.
However, these species still remain in local experts’ plots.
The diversity of traditional crops can be found in few small patches, referring as
“edges” which is a category of field type that occurs within and between the major
production fields such as cabbage, carrot, canning beans, upland rice and so on. These
edges contain a diversity of species and many varieties of traditional crops, ranging
from annual crops to various kind of vegetables, herbs, edible vines and other
perennials, including a few wide and domesticated fruit trees. A typical plot of the
edges is characterized by a complex combination of crops locally conserved from
former shifting cultivation based on both opium and upland rice, naturally emerged and
wild species for multiple purposes (Table 6). There are about 10 women who are
managing the complex mixture of edges at the moment, 5-6 of them have joined PLEC
demonstration as local experts to promote and enrich the edge systems as potential
areas for in situ conservation. In comparison to other traditional crop growers, the local
experts grow the highest number of species, ranging from 17-40 species with staggered
planting throughout the growing seasons of different crops (Table 7). Field results of
local experts’ plots show that species richness of traditional crops in managed edges is
higher and more abundant but even distribution as compare to those grown upland rice
plots (Table 8).
TABLE 5. The extent of traditional crops grown by women in Pah Poo Chom.
Species grown
Percentage
0
7
13.5
Number of Respondents (N=23)
1-5
6-10
23
14
44.2
26.9
Total
11-15
8
15.4
52
100
TABLE 6. List of plant species and their numbers in an edge of mixture of local plants
and wild vegetables or feeds of Pah Poo Chom village.
PLANT NAME
PLANT COUNT
(numbers/sample)
Domesticated species:
1. Hmong Glutinous Corn (Zea mays L.)
2. Shallot (Allium ascalonicum L.)
3. Hmong Leaf Mustard (Brassica juncea L. [Czern & Coss])
4. Pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata [Duch. ex Laus] Duch ex
Poir)
5. Coriander (Cariandrum sativum L.)
6. Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lamk.)
7. Lychee seedlings (Litchi chinensis L.)
Semi-domesticated species:
8. Wild Bitter Gourd (Momordica sp. )
9. Susumber (Solanum torvum Sw.)
Wild herbaceous species naturally emerged:
10. Lum Phasi (Crasscepphalum crepidiodes [benth.] S.
Moore)
11. Amaranth for pig feeds (Amaranthus viridis L.)
12. Edible Fern (Asytasiella neesiana Lindau.)
13. Tong Sard for food or sweet wrapping (Phrynium capitatum
Willd.)
14. Wild Banana (Musa acuminata Colla.)
15. Kong (Zingiberaceae) edible fruit, leaves used for rice barn
and fiber for rope
300
1,150
250
4
5
3
1
20
1
1
1
11
9 (hills)
22 ( hills)
5 (hills)
TOTAL (15 species)
1,783
Source: Rerkasem (2000)
Notes: Plant counts were taken from a sample size of 5 m. x 10 m across the edge at the end of the
growing season of swidden crops on 3 February 2000. A few species remained to be harvested for seeds.
TABLE 7. A comparison between plots of local experts and other growers.
Category of Growers
N
Plot Size
Species
(m2)
Number
Range
PLEC local experts
5
20-900
29
17-40
Typical growers1
14
variable
16
8-25
9
variable
6
4-8
2
Strip planting
Notes: N designates the number of samples.
1
Typical growers represent the samples of women in the village who are growing traditional crops in any
field types including edges. No measurements were undertaken for their plot sizes.
2
This category of growers is belonging to typical growers who planted their traditional crops in a narrow
strip in the cabbage field or other vegetable plots. The strip may be a single row of Hmong leaf mustard
or pumpkin along the boundary of the field.
TABLE 8.
Species abundance, richness and derived Shannon index of managed
edges of local experts as comparing to traditional upland rice plots.
Systems of Cultivation
Managed edges of local
experts:
1. Ms Jue Saetao
Area
Plot Size
Abundance
Species
Shannon
(rai)
(m x m)
(plants/rai)
Richness
Index
(57,419)
(18.7)
(2.00)
1,073
15
2.39
20
2.31
17
2.26
23
1.02
(14.5)
(0.65)
(2.16)
2.00
30 x 30
2. Ms Yaa Saehang
2.00
10 x 10
205,024
3. Ms Bumue Saesong
0.14
10 x 10
5,446
4. Ms Sue Youngchepsujarit
4.50
10 x 10
18,136
1
(1,967/18,400)
2
Upland rice plots:
(1.5)
Plot-1
2.00
40 x 40
256/14,400
22
1.01
Plot-2
2.00
10 x 10
5,824/25,600
15
0.96
Plot-3
1.00
10 x 10
1,620/14,400
10
0.59
Plot-4
2.00
40 x 40
168/19,200
11
0.07
Notes: Measurements were taken at the time of overlapping between harvesting of upland rice and
beginning of opium season (1-3 November 2000) so that diverse species of traditional crops formerly
grown in association with upland rice and opium could be seen in some edges with good residual soil
moisture. (1)high value of abundance in Ms. Yaa Saehang’s plot was due to high number of dominant 3
species, Brassica seedlings, glutinous corn and shallot recorded at 160,000, 25,600 and 16,000 plants/rai
respectively. (2)figures are given for the abundance of traditional crops/upland rice. 1 rai is equivalent to
1,600 m2 or 0.16 ha.
4.2. Agroforest (AF) edges: a model of production diversification and conservation
objectives
Agroforest edges are common in Pah Poo Chom but the field type can be easily missed
in field assessment. The edges are production fields, they are “village property”
assigned to those land owners around the edges to take care for natural vegetation cover
to conserve underground water supply for domestic use in the dry season. In general,
the responsible households look after the edges with minimum management, except
Saophang who is managing his AF edge with production and conservation objectives
(Korsamphan et al. 2001).
As expected, the managed edges of the local expert shows higher values of abundance
and diversity indices in comparison to the minimum managed edges of non-experts
(Table 9). Through a continual process of species enrichment, the AF edge managed by
the local expert has reached some 114 species with a total of 717 individuals in the
sample plots. Most of the tree species can be used for firewood, and other species are
more specifically used as food, construction material and making tools (Table 10).
There are some herbs and spices for medicinal and other uses for the household. The
economic benefits and source of income from diversified products have been discussed
already in the previous section.
TABLE 9. Biodiversity assessment of agroforest edges.
Name
of
Responsible
Person for Management of
Edges
PLEC local expert:
Saophang
Non-experts: (average)
- Juk Saehang
- Joint managed by
Chao/Chang Seng
- Unidentified person
Total
Individuals
Species
Richness
Shannon
Index
Margalef
Index
717
114
2.77
17.19
315
332
315
38
33
18
2.35
2.29
1.54
6.39
5.51
2.96
300
62
3.24
10.69
TABLE 10. Utilization of tree species in agroforest edge managed by local expert in
Pah Poo Chom.
Utilization
Food
Herbs/Spices
Construction
Farm Tools
Firewood
Number of
Species
25
16
24
18
78
Herbs &
Spices
1
Other utilization
Construction
Farm
Firewood
Tools
6
6
14
3
1
5
8
20
14
Other
4
2
1
2
4
As Saophang’s AF edge is located in a riparian area of a small watershed of a tributary
of Mae Taman, the management of AF edge provides an ecological service to the
watershed. The watershed is also a headwater for dry season irrigation. The area
protected for intensive production of vegetables and lychee orchards is 56.5 ha (Figure
4). The area is, however, occupied by some 8 households that formed into a small
water-user group to manage and maintain the headwater and irrigation system.
Apart from the value of AF edge on conservation of diverse tree species, the
agrodiversity management of the AF edges by Saophang can also be used to illustrate
the positive economic and ecological values of AF edges beyond the field type. This
demonstration serves to cover the maintenance of critical headwaters at the watershed
level. It links economic incentive of the managing farmer to the headwater
conservation objective of the water users group. The demonstration has had significant
implications for the larger-scale management of village headwaters, where the intensity
of conflicts and disputes are increasing in the community and between other villages in
the down stream watershed.
4.3
PLEC Agrodiversity and community-based land use planning for
maintenance and enrichment of biodiversity
Towards the end of the project phase 1 during November 2001-January 2002, a short
series of field workshops were arranged for the Village Committee to discuss and share
different views about future village development. These workshops were based on
experiences and lessons from PLEC demonstration activities for over the past 3 years
with emphasis on agrodiversity, and maintenance and enrichment of biodiversity in the
context of land use in the village. The idea is to find ways in which PLEC
demonstration of agrodiversity management with focus on biodiversity maintenance
and enrichment would go beyond the field level where local experts are capable of
demonstrating such the actions. A village meeting was employed to involve other
people in village. There was also a need for negotiation with a few landholders whose
plots are located in the boundary of protected area to limit further expansion or return it
to natural forest where ever appropriate. Members of Tambon Administrative
Organization (TAO), local development agencies from the district and sub-district and
foresters were invited to discuss and share the results of the community workshop at the
end of the series. A draft of the village plan for land use, forest protection and
biodiversity conservation was presented. While TAO took up the plan for further
development action, foresters got an interest in working with villagers on reforestation
and rehabilitation of degraded forests in the village.
One of the major results is the community was consensus on revision of village land
use to encourage the maintenance and enrichment of biodiversity and prevent further
encroachment to the headwater area for production of cash crops (Figure 5). The most
critical area is the headwater on the upper part of the village. Water from the headwater
area is used for dry season crops for most farming households in the village. At the
end, it was decided to revise the demarcation of the headwater boundary with a larger
area to compare with the former boundary (Figure 2). The revised headwater also
overlaps with many parcels of land already allocated since early 1970s to households
for wet rice cultivation at that time (Box 1). This does not mean that the landholders
will have to give up their production for conservation. The intention is to conserve
natural biodiversity in the existing agroforest edges with dominant of wild banana and
other wild species for local utilization. Future development support from TAO or other
government projects may be sought to enrich biodiversity of these agroforest edges.
5. Sustainability of PLEC Work
The sustainability of PLEC work in Thailand has already been prepared before the end
of PLEC phase 1. Much emphasis on the sustainability of PLEC work was given to
Pah Poo Chom as the full demonstration. As already mentioned in the previous section,
PLEC field research in Tee Cha would continue with further support from Thailand
Research Fund (TRF). The village is planned to be one of the major sites for future
research on “Agrodiversity for in situ Conservation of Thailand’s Native Rice
Germplasm”, a new project to be supported by McKnight Foundation for the next 5
years, beginning in early 2002.
5.1
Means undertaken to ensure the continuity of PLEC work
Towards the end of PLEC project phase 1 in 2002, a plan has been made to transfer Pah
Poo Chom demonstration site to become a National Pilot Village for government
programme on Farmers’ Field School for Sustainable Highland Development and
Environmental Conservation (Thong-ngam et al. 2002). The outcome of PLEC
activities such as human capital (local experts or Village Committee), demonstration
approach and local capacity in land use monitoring and evaluation, will be kept to
support Farmers’ Field School with financial support from government.
For capacity building and institutional arrangement, the strategies for implementation
of Farmers’ Field School project are to build on inter-government agencies at local
level where PLEC has already initiated. Establishment of a team effort for responsible
government and non-government agencies is being proposed for project
implementation with good understanding of PLEC approach. A field workshop in Pah
Poo Chom, is planned to introduce PLEC approach to heads of provincial offices of the
Hill-Tribe Welfare Centres in northern Thailand before the termination of the project in
early 2002. The PLEC team from Chiang Mai University may offer field training and
technical consultation.
5.2
Likelihood of success
As mentioned above, Pah Poo Chom is becoming a village model for a national
programme on Farmers’ Field School to demonstrate successful development and local
capacity to maintain and manage the rich biodiversity on marginal uplands. The
programme is devoted to farmer-to-farmer extension of local ideas and innovations.
This gives an opportunity for the extension of PLEC model beyond the demonstration
site. In this case, the likelihood of success even in the absence of further direct support
for PLEC work will depend on the technical and financial support from the responsible
agency, the Department of Public Welfare (DPW). More extension and development
workers will have to learn from PLEC experiences for future multiplication and
replication of PLEC work in other areas with more ethnic diversity under different
conditions. Training in PLEC approach, methodology for field assessment of
agrodiversity or biodiversity and other related subjects are all essential to build up
technical capacity of the responsible institution to sustain the PLEC work in the context
of national programme. Without the training element, the programme is likely to fall
back to conventional approach with little people participation, poor understanding of
the village ecosystems and ignorance of local knowledge and indigenous values of the
people.
At the local level in Pah Poo Chom, the Village Committee is expected to continue
PLEC work with local administration and government agencies. Technical monitoring
and evaluation of this activity will be valuable to strengthen the capacity of the Village
Committee and relevant local organizations
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Resources. Pp. 201-216. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.
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Technical Knowledge. Chiang Mai: Tribal Research Institute (Technical
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Tapp, N. 1986. The Hmong of Thailand: Opium People of the Golden Triangle. Indigenous
Peoples and Development Series. Report No. 4. London: Anti-Slavery Society and
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Assistance Bureau. 28 p.
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Development Research Institute/Natural Resources and Environment Program. 149 p.
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Resource Management Experiences in Upland and Highland Areas. Proceedings of
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Pp. 73-79. Pulau Pinang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia.
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denticulata in rotational shifting cultivation. In: CMUPNlab Working Papers 1: Report of a
workshop on Regeneration Ecology and Management for Degraded Landscapes and Forest
Ecosystems. Pp.81-94. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University.
Yimyam, N., Rerkasem, K. and Rerkasem, B. 2002. Pada (Macaranga denticulata (Bl.) Muell.
Arg.), a fallow enriching species in shifting cultivation. Agroforestry Systems (In Press)
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highlands in Mae Hong Son province. In: CMUPNlab Working Papers 1: Report of a workshop
on Regeneration Ecology and Management for Degraded Landscapes and Forest Ecosystems.
Pp.182-185. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University.
Youpensuk, S., Lumyong, S., Yimyam, N. and Dell, B. 2002. Biodiversity of arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi from rhizoshpere of Macaranga denticulata (Eupharbiaceae) on the highland
rotational shifting cultivation area in Thailand. Australian Jounal of Botany (In Press)
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Pp.34-159. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii for East-West Center.
Annex 1. Management diversity in relation to land management and
biodiversity conservation in Pah Poo Chom demonstration site.
1.
Use of natural vegetation as ground cover. Mixtures of annual, perennial grasses and some introduced legume
species, e.g., Ageratum conyzoides, Brachiaria ramosa, Chromolaena odonata, Chrysopogon aciculatus,
Eupatorium adenophorum, Mimosa invisa,Pennisetum purpureum P. pedicellatum, Panicum repens, Paspalum
sp, and others are being used as ground covers and green manure during fallow periods in the wet season.
2.
Management of weeds for soil improvement is now very common in Pah Poo Chom. Since the introduction of
spiny Mimosa (Mimosa invisa) from the adjacent lowland village for fencing to protect a vegetable garden from
farm animals, rapid dispersal of the weed had been fairly troublesome at the beginning of the introduction. After
that, a few farmers began to observe the positive contribution of Mimosa invisa residue on the following maize
crop. At that time the soils in Pah Poo Chom were so exhausted due to intensive use of land for permanent
agriculture. Soils under Mimosa plants after clearing and burning are much better in terms of their physical
property (increasing porosity) and fertility. The weed, then, became an important part of the farming system
management and farmers occasionally sow the seeds in their fields to increase its population density with
uniform distribution. Some even bought the seeds from their neighbours. Management of Mimosa is simple.
Slashing will easily kill the vine plants of mature Mimosa. Plant residues are left in the fields for about 1-1.5
month before the 1st season cabbage comes in middle to late September. Burning residues on the soil surface
helps to clean the fields before seedbed preparation by hand tools. Soils are then turned over to cover ashes and
plant residues providing organic fertilizer to the soils. The amount of nitrogen fixed by Mimosa invisa as live
mulch or green manure in the maize crop was estimated at about 47 kgN/ha, giving the total amount nitrogen
with corn trash of 67 kgN/ha (Rerkasem et. al. 1992);
3.
Management of “edges” for soil, water and biodiversity conservation; this may be observed as

Vitiveria zizanioides or Leucaena leucocephala/Cajanus cajan strips, thrashline of crop residues and weeds
(e.g., Chromolaena odorata) on contour strips for soil and conservation measure

keeping natural patch between agricultural fields (AF edge) for water conservation in small stream,
conservation of swidden crop species or wild fruits and other perennials or forest trees, and

narrow strip wild banana or bamboo as an edge for field marking
he idea of vegetative strips was introduced by external development agencies such as the Thai-Australia
Highland Agriculture Project and extension workers from the Department of Public Welfare. However, the
maintenance of the vegetative strips were poor and deteriorated on a long term basis. A few patches of
vegetative strips can be seen in the village. It remains unclear whether the SWC-strips are necessary to protect
soil erosion as farmers are managing the land with minimum disturbance.
4.
Use of physical barriers such as dead logs, tree stumps and big rock, to protect soil erosion on sloping
fields. Farmers often leave these in the fields across the slope. With intensive cultivation, tree stumps will be
rotten and possibly removed or burned. Coppicing is uncommon – it is uncommon for the Hmong to maintain
big trees in agricultural fields. Big trees are left for spiritual reasons or personal preference.
5.
Row planting across the slope is adopted in dry season for the convenience of crop irrigation by mobile
(movable) sprinklers. This helps to prevent soil erosion due to excessive water. Row planting along the slope
was said to prevent land slide in the wet season. Excessive rain will be drained out. The amount of erosion will
depend on the percentage of ground cover. Severe erosion may be expected under poor ground cover.
6.
Use minimum tillage. The method is traditional to Hmong in planting opium with hand tools for land
preparation. A few farmers use tractor to plough their lands in the low-lying fields where slopes are fairy gentle,
varying between 10-15%. No farmers use tractors on steep lands.
7.
Unclean weeding is another traditional practice with annual crops and vegetables. Farmers leave useful species
naturally emerged in the fields for their household consumption and the method helps to increase percentage of
ground cover between crop rows.
8.
Fallow management in wet season. Fallowing is somewhat uncommon practice for Hmong farmers in general.
Farmers in Pah Poo Chom start their 1st season cabbage fairly late in the middle of October to early November.
Only small patches are opened up for the cabbage nurseries. Therefore major land preparation is delayed until
the end of the wet season for planting the main crops. Most of cropping season finishes before the beginning of
the next wet season, except those fields planted to hot season crops such as glutinous corn, vegetable soybean
and the like. With intensive cropping practices, somehow, the land owners will have to have adequate time for
Mimosa growth in the fields to obtain significant biomass before slashing. Soil erosion in this system is fairly
low, varying 1.05 to 4.93 t/ha/year. The extent of erosion depends on the time of land preparation, unpredictable
rain at the end of the season and cropping intensity.
9.
Incorporation of crop and weed residues is also a common practice of hill farmers. In the case of fruit trees,
branches pruned to opening up tree canopy will be left underneath the trees. Weeds would be slashed down and
the trash left to cover the ground.
10. Using shade-resistant bush species like coffee to improve and sustain bench terraces. This is farmers’
innovation after the introduction of bench terrace by some development project. A lychee grower in the village
was observed to practice this system of interplanting of growing coffee under the mature lychee along the edge
of the terrace that would become a bench terrace in the long term. However, a simple mixture of similar
perennials may not be the ideal intercropping systems for general practice as they equally require the same
environmental space for growth and development. Contrasting habits of annual and perennial differentiate the
environmental space providing a superior intercropping system.
11. Sustainable harvest of minor forest products has been agreed upon for extraction of bamboo shoots in utility
forests in the village. In the past, the bamboo forests were almost collapsed due to uncontrolled harvest for
external demand of wood and young shoots. Shoot harvesting is currently not permitted to improve natural
regeneration. Young shoots may be collected for canning factory as long as adequate number of young shoots
per tree are left behind for regeneration. Destructive harvest of bamboo worms is also not permitted.
12. Intercropping and strip planting of swidden crops and local (Hmong) vegetable is widely detected in the
cabbage fields to meet household needs and to some extent conserve genetic resources of the local varieties.
This may be seen as another edge type, but the practice is much more simple than those found in separate patches
of swidden crops. Hmong leaf mustard (Brassica junceae) is the common species found in this type of edge.
One-row strip of the leaf mustard is directly seeded along the border of cabbage fields with staggered planting
for successive harvest.
13. Staggered planting and rotating crops between different fields with combination of traditional and local
crop species are cropping strategies to reduce pest and disease problems and pick up fertilizer residue from the
previous crops. Cabbage has never been planted after one another in the same plot. There is a break to reduce
pest and disease problems. The 1st season cabbage require minimum spray as compare to the second one in the
dry season. Fertilizer residue from the 1st season cabbage may be carried over to the following glutinous corn in
the next season in the same piece of land. Farmers never apply any fertilizer to the glutinous corn.
14. Spot application of chemical fertilizers to individual hills of cabbage and other cash crops, such as Chinese
cabbage, potato, carrots, vegetable and soybean. This practice not only saves large amounts of fertilizer but it
increases fertilizer use efficiency. In cabbage, only a small amount of complete fertilizers such as 15-15-15 NPK
are applied to individual hills 1-2 weeks after transplanting when seedlings fully recover from transplanting
shock. Another top-dressing an application may be required before head formation. Vegetables are normally
harvested at about 50-60 days after transplanting.
15. Branch pruning, girdling and cincturing to induce flowering and fruit set in commercial fruit trees,
especially the lychee in Pah Poo Chom, is being tested by growers. It is generally believed that lychee need a
period of vegetative dormancy in cool season to flower successfully at the beginning of hot dry season. The
dormancy is normally induced by biophysical stresses, e.g., moisture or low temperature. Artificially induced
techniques such as control irrigation and fertilizers, growth regulators, root pruning, branch girdling or cincturing
may work. An in-depth interview with key growers in the villages and other Hmong villages in Chiang Mai
province can not confirm whether the methods of branch girdling or cincuring work. Nevertheless, this practice
indicates flow of local innovation among the focus group.
16. Growing living fence in homegardens is adopted to protect animals and prevent soil erosion. The practice is,
however, limited to a few farmers in Pah Poo Chom who have reasonably taken care of the homegardens. The
reasons for undeveloped homegardens in Pah Poo Chom have yet to be known.
ANNEX 2. Edges for Maintenance and Enrichment of Biodiversity.
Edges Type 1. Conservation of Swidden Crops and Local Vegetables for Household Consumption and Uses
Despite the diverse land-use systems in the village, many production fields have “edges” (Brookfield et al. 1999),
containing different abundance and diversity of traditional crop and vegetable species, and sometimes including other
useful plants naturally emerged or transferred from natural habitats. These edges may be easily observed in the major
production fields, (cabbage or lychee orchards) and we refer to them as edges for traditional crops from former
shifting cultivation. With elimination of traditional shifting cultivation and opium growing, women in the households
continue to conserve the diversity of traditional non-opium crops for food, vegetables and other necessities. Edges
appear in the landscape with the simple structure of a single row with only 1-3 species of swidden crops in or around
the boundary of cabbage fields.
Some 5 women, 65 years old or more, joined PLEC as local experts to demonstrate management of biodiversity-rich
edges. They grow a complex mixture with staggered planting of up to 40 different species of traditional crops,
vegetables, spices, herbs and perennials. Some edges appear in areas considered as “not suitable” for crop cultivation,
e.g., narrow levee between the fields, rock outcrop area. Others can be observed in agricultural fields with a small
plot or narrow strip along the edges of the fields. The size of the edges varies from 2 x 10m to 30 x 30m. In the
surplus years, the edge growers may sell their products to local markets nearby. Edges may start at the onset of wet
season in late April to early May with traditional crops from the former upland rice in shifting cultivation, including
sorghum, chili, cowpeas, gourds, loofahs, taro, pumpkins, Hmong cucumbers, yams, sweet potatoes. If residual soil
moisture is adequate for the following cool-dry season, the growing season of edges may be extended to include many
traditional vegetables, annual and perennial crops formerly grown in association with opium. These may include a
wide variety of Hmong green mustards, many kinds of eggplants, lemon grass, glutinous corn, corianders, chayote,
shallots, onion, ginger, banana, papaya and others. There are at least 75 species of crops, useful annual and perennial
species and newly introduced crops or fruit trees in the edges. The whole production system of edges varies
considerably and some edges may support the household as long as 8 to 10 months in a year.
One woman expert has found a special market for traditional vegetables and wild herbs in Chiang Mai City, especially
where the Hmong people move to sell their traditional weaving and other products for tourists. Edges also serve as
in-situ conservation of diverse genetic resources to improve productivity of the commercial systems. All varieties of
Hmong glutinous corn, for example, is being continuously conserved in the edges for own consumption. As the crop
is becoming popular in the lowland markets, Pah Poo Chom farmers can readily grow glutinous corn after main
season cabbage for cash. The price a bundle (5-6 ears) is up to 10-15 bahts.
Edges Type 2. Management of Agroforests for Local Use and Services
Agroforest edges can be observed widely in agricultural and non-agricultural landscape. The edges may range from a
rather simple form of management with common perennial species such as bamboo and wild banana strips to a
complex system of agroforest management with complex mixture of trees and other perennials. Management of
agroforest edges range from virtually no management with natural vegetation cover to a managed system enriched
with useful species, both wild and domesticated.
The Hmong community practice traditional conservation of forest tree species in the village landscape with a belief
mem toj in Hmong or Feng Shui in Chinese (Tapp 1986). In Pah Poo Chom, some forest patches are protected to
conserve underground water for domestic use in the dry season when water is scarce. The land is community owned
but assigned to landowners surrounding the edges. Their major responsibilities are to protect and manage the edges
for sustainable use and conservation. As the edge ownership belongs to the community, any people in the village can
come in and harvest for minor products. Any form of destructive harvesting is, however, prohibited with local rules
and regulations. Species diversity varies greatly from a low diversity of 18 species in minimum managed plot to a
maximum of 114 species in highly managed plot.
An exception old man, Mr Saophang Saetao who is approaching 70 years old, is managing a highly diverse and
complex system of forest edge along small stream for watershed conservation. He reintroduced many rare forest tree
species and wild perennials at the beginning of rehabilitation of a degraded forest some 15 years ago. Many wild
vegetables and medicinal herbs can be collected for household use. A special bamboo species with small stem is used
for traditional music instrument, a kind of pipe known locally as Can. The Can may be sold at 3500-4000 baht each
and Saophang earned a total income of over 30,000 baht in 1999 for selling his Can to Hmong musicians.
Annex 3. Environment perceptions, indigenous knowledge and conservation of
biodiversity-rich systems in Pah Poo Chom.
The public generally has a negative view of Hmong management of biodiversity-rich natural forests
ecosystems. Unlike Karen and Lua who manage productive forest fallow in rotational shifting cultivation
(Kunstadter et al. 1978), the Hmong, in contrast, use natural forests destructively with clear cutting and
intensive land use. However, Tapp (1986) gives positive example of Hmong’s perception on the value of
natural forests and environment. In the Smoeng district when mining activity started in the area, an entire
Hmong community moved out as they perceived that the activity would have changed the watercourse
and hence be destructive to the “vein” of the mountain. At the end, the community would collapse. The
Hmong is also known to manage large diversity of domesticated species and collect wild species
extensively (Sutthi 1990 and 1996). They use forest trees such as Litsea cubeba, Caroyota obtusa and
Dendrochide stimulans, as indicators for opium field with high latex.
In Pah Poo Chom with permanent land use for cash crops, conservation of forests is related to water yield
for irrigation and income generation. The community has established communal rules and regulations to
manage the natural forests. The critical headwater area is now demarcated for strict protection. Forest
products can be collected in separate area, which is conserved as utility forests. The community could
maintain fairly high proportion of forests, or more than 70% of the entire village area. Forest edges are
another type of land use for forest conservation and utilization. The edges are small fields but it is a duty
of households with landholdings around the edges to protect and conserve the edges. Farmers in Pah Poo
Chom are dependent on forest products for household food security and as a significant source of income
for the households, especially in the “bad cabbage” year due to either crop failure or low price.
On the basis of this background, PLEC built on local capacity and provides technical support to enhance
productive forests and agrodiversity management to enrich biodiversity, through planting forest trees in
forest gaps, reforestation in degraded area, construction of firebreak, and the demarcation of forest and
village boundary. In the transition of community organization toward government policy and
administration, PLEC worked with existing formal and natural village groupings to establish Village
Committee for Forest Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (VFP&BC). With PLEC assistance in
preparation of field data, village information and training, the Committee was capable of drafting a
village plan to protect biodiversity-rich forests and other land use. The plan was used for submission to
Tambon Administrative Organization (TAO) and shared with other agencies for future support. With
community agreement, the revised village forest plan has been extended to cover forest edges in the
agricultural landscape (Figure 5). Areas with land use conflicts, both within community and between
community, were dealt with case by case to resolve the conflicts. For example, the Committee with
support from natural leaders is negotiating with those who have recently encroached into the village
forest area. Some plots may be allocated with condition of no further expansion of the plot size. Others
may have to return to the community for protected area.
Annex 4. Lists of publications, reports and student thesis.
International Journals, PLEC News and Views and Book Chapters:
Kanok Rerkasem, Charal Thong-ngam, Chawalit Korsamphan, Narit Yimyam and Benjavan Rerkasem
2002. Intensification and diversification of land use: examples from highlands of northern Thailand. In:
H. Brookfield, C. Paddoch, H. Parsons and M. Stocking (eds.) Cultivating Biodiversity: the
Understanding, Analysis and Use of Agrodiversity. A book chapter in Part III. Agrodiversity Case
Studies. London: ITDG Publication. (In Press)
Kanok Rerkasem, Narit Yimyam, Chawalit Korsamphan, Charal Thong-ngam and Benjavan Rerkasem
2002. Agrodiversity lessons in mountain land management. Mountain Research and Development 22
(1): 4-9.
Narit Yimyam, Kanok Rerkasem and Benjavan Rerkasem. 2002. Pada (Macaranga denticulata (Bl.)
Muell. Arg.), a fallow enriching species in shifting cultivation. Agroforestry Systems (Submitted)
Somjit Youpensuk, Saisamorn Lumyong, Narit Yimyam, and Bernie Dell 2002. Biodiversity of
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi from rhizoshpere of Macaranga denticulata (Eupharbiaceae) on the
highland rotational shifting cultivation area in Thailand. Australian Jounal of Botany (In Press)
Charal Thong-ngam, Thamanoon Areetham, Prasong Kaewpha, Songsak Thepsarn, Narit Yimyam,
Chawalit Korsamphan and Kanok Rerkasem. 2002. Scaling-up PLEC demonstration site for national
pilot programme: a case example of Hmong Njua village in northern Thailand. PLEC News and Views
19: 7-16.
Meeting and conference papers:
Kanok Rerkasem 2001. Upland land use in Greater Mekong. Paper prepared for a workshop on Social
Challenges for the Greater Mekong: Cambodia China, Lao PDR, Mynmar, Thailand and Vietnam. 28-19
November 2001. Social Research Institute, Chiang Mai University. 16 p.
Kanok Rerkasem 2001. Farmers’ management of fallow succession in northern Thailand. Paper
prepared for an International Symposium on Managing Biodiversity in Agricultural Ecosystems,
organized by United Nations University, Secretariat of the Convention of Biological Diversity and
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. 8-10 November 2001. Montreal, Canada. 12 p.
Kanok Rerkasem, Narit Yimyam, Chawalit Korsamphan, Charal Thong-ngam and Songsak Thepsarn
2001. Agrodiversity management of ethnic minorities on highlands. CMUPNlab Working Paper 2:
Report of Annual Review. Pp. 226-250. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University. (In Thai)
Kanok Rerkasem 2001. Vegetation management by forest farmers in montane mainland Southeast Asia.
In: CMUPNlab Working Papers 1: Report of TRF/UNU-PLEC workshop on Regeneration Ecology and
Management for Degraded Landscapes and Forest Ecosystems. Pp.53-80. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai
University.
Charal Thong-ngam 2001. Results of Farmers’ Field School session in Pah Poo Chom. 21-24 August
2001. Report submitted to Hill-Tribe Welfare Division, Department of Public Welfare, Ministry of
Labour and Social Welfare. 31 p. (In Thai)
Chawalit Korsamphan, Charal Thongngam and Kanok Rerkasem 2001. Biodiversity management and
utilization of forest edges in a Hmong community. In: CMUPNlab Working Papers 1: Report of
TRF/UNU-PLEC workshop on Regeneration Ecology and Management for Degraded Landscapes and
Forest Ecosystems. Pp.95-110. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University.
Narit Yimyam, Kanchanaporn Lodkaew and Kanok Rerkasem 2001. Nutrient cycling through
Macaranga denticulata in rotational shifting cultivation. In: CMUPNlab Working Papers 1: Report of
TRF/UNU-PLEC workshop on Regeneration Ecology and Management for Degraded Landscapes and
Forest Ecosystems. Pp.81-94. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University.
Songsak Thepsarn, Den Khruasan and Chusri Trisonthi. 2001. Ethnobotanical survey of community
forests of the Pwo Karen. Paper prepared for TRF/UNU-PLEC workshop on Regeneration Ecology and
Management for Degraded Landscapes and Forest Ecosystems. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University.
Songsak Thepsarn 2001. Results of Farmers’ Field School session in Pah Poo Chom. 8-11 April 2001.
Report submitted to Hill-Tribe Welfare Division, Department of Public Welfare, Ministry of Labour and
Social Welfare. 21 p. (In Thai)
Somjit Youpensuk and Saisamorn Lumyong 2001. Endomycorrhizas in Macaranga denticulata on the
highlands in Mae Hong Son province. In: CMUPNlab Working Papers 1: Report of TRF/UNU-PLEC
workshop on Regeneration Ecology and Management for Degraded Landscapes and Forest Ecosystems.
Pp.182-185. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University.
Student Thesis:
Den Khruasan 2000. Management, Conservation and Utilization of Plants: A village case of Pah Poo
Chom, Mae Taeng district, Chiang Mai province. Master Thesis. Department of Biology, Faculty of
Sciences, Chiangmai University. 248 p