Pacific Northwest Region
United States
Department of
Agriculture
Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Forest Service
Pacific
Northwest
Region
June 2012
View from Twin Lakes in Glacier Peak Wilderness, eastern WA Cascades
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
Wilderness Stewardship Challenge ...........................................................................................................................1
Regional Air Quality Management Approach............................................................................................................2
Objectives of the Region 6 Wilderness Air Quality Plan............................................................................................3
Laws, Policy and Other Guidance ........................................................................................... 4
Federal Laws ..............................................................................................................................................................4
State Air Pollution Laws.............................................................................................................................................9
Forest Service Policy and Other Guidance ................................................................................................................9
Wilderness Areas................................................................................................................. 14
Class I and Class II Areas ..........................................................................................................................................14
Ecoregions ...............................................................................................................................................................17
Wilderness Characteristics ......................................................................................................................................24
Air Pollutants ...................................................................................................................... 26
Pollutants of Interest to Wilderness in the Pacific Northwest ................................................................................26
Emission Rates.........................................................................................................................................................30
Regional Sources of Air Pollution ............................................................................................................................32
Source Locations .....................................................................................................................................................34
Deposition, Concentration and Distribution ...........................................................................................................36
Future Air Pollution Emissions ................................................................................................................................44
Wilderness Air Quality Values and Sensitive Receptors ...................................................... 47
Visibility ...................................................................................................................................................................49
Flora ........................................................................................................................................................................49
Soils .........................................................................................................................................................................53
Water ......................................................................................................................................................................54
Fauna .......................................................................................................................................................................55
Cultural Resources...................................................................................................................................................56
Priority Sensitive Receptors and Indicators ............................................................................................................57
Establishing a Baseline ............................................................................................................................................58
Wilderness AQRV Monitoring in R6...................................................................................... 60
Visibility ...................................................................................................................................................................60
Flora: Lichens...........................................................................................................................................................66
Flora: Ozone Sensitive Plants ..................................................................................................................................69
Water: Lake Chemistry ............................................................................................................................................71
Fauna: Mercury in Fish ............................................................................................................................................80
Wilderness Air Quality Monitoring Strategy for R6 ............................................................... 81
Visibility Monitoring ................................................................................................................................................81
Flora: Lichen Bio-monitoring ...................................................................................................................................82
Flora: Ozone Injury Surveys for Sensitive Plants .....................................................................................................82
Water: Wilderness Lake Chemistry Monitoring ......................................................................................................83
Fauna: Mercury in Fish Tissue Analysis ...................................................................................................................83
Example – Roaring River Wilderness .......................................................................................................................84
Appendix A: 10-YWSC Wilderness Scoring ............................................................................ 87
Visibility ...................................................................................................................................................................87
Flora: Lichen ............................................................................................................................................................87
Flora: Ozone Sensitive Plants ..................................................................................................................................88
Water: Lake Chemistry ............................................................................................................................................88
Fauna: Mercury in Fish ............................................................................................................................................89
Summary of Scoring for Each Wilderness ...............................................................................................................90
Appendix B: Summary WAQRV Data .................................................................................... 92
Appendix C: References ....................................................................................................... 94
List of Tables
Table 2-1. NAAQs for Six Principal Pollutants, October 2011 ....................................................................... 6
Table 3-1. Class I Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington ................................................................ 16
Table 3-2. Class II Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington ............................................................... 16
Table 3-3. Wilderness Characteristics That May Be Affected by Air Quality .............................................. 25
Table 4-1. Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds ............................................................................................ 29
Table 4-2. Hazardous Air Pollutants Released into the Atmosphere in 2010 in tons/year ........................ 32
Table 4-3. Sources of NOx, SO2, PM2.5, NH3, and VOCs............................................................................ 33
Table 4-4. Regional Sources of Greenhouse Gases..................................................................................... 33
Table 5-1. Potential Effects of Air Pollution on Wilderness Air Quality Values .......................................... 48
Table 5-2. Ozone Sensitive Plant Species used as Bio-indicators ............................................................... 52
Table 5-3. Ozone Exposure Metrics Associated with Injury or Reduced Growth ....................................... 52
Table 5-4. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators for Water ........................................................................... 55
Table 5-5. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators of Air Pollution Effects in Fauna ........................................ 56
Table 5-6. Priority WAQVs, Sensitive Receptors and Indicators ................................................................. 57
Table 5-7. Temporal and Spatial Criteria for Establishing WAQV Baselines ............................................... 58
Table 6-1. Sources of Haze Components Measured on the IMPROVE Monitors ....................................... 61
Table 6-2. IMPROVE Visibility Monitors in Region 6 ................................................................................... 63
Table 6-3. Representative IMPROVE Monitors ........................................................................................... 64
Table 6-4. Wilderness Lichen Plot Sampling Dates ..................................................................................... 68
Table 6-5. Ozone Injury to Vegetation Surveys in R6 Wilderness............................................................... 70
Table 7-1. IMPROVE Monitoring Laboratory and Operating Costs............................................................. 81
Table A-1. Counting Instructions................................................................................................................. 87
Table A-2. Lichen Biomonitoring Scoring .................................................................................................... 88
Table A-3. Overall Scoring for Each Wilderness .......................................................................................... 90
List of Figures
Figure 3-1. Class I and Class II Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington ............................................ 15
Figure 3-2. USFS Region 6 Wilderness Areas and Level III Ecoregions........................................................ 18
Figure 4-1. Emissions Rates of, SO2, NOx, NH3, PM2.5 and VOCs in Washington and Oregon ................. 30
Figure 4-2. Greenhouse Gas Emissions by State and Sector...................................................................... 31
Figure 4-3. Air Pollution Sources and Public Lands in the Pacific Northwest ............................................. 35
Figure 4-4. Average Annual Use of Endosulfan in 2002.............................................................................. 36
Figure 4-5. Model-Predicted Total Nitrogen Deposition Rates for the Pacific Northwest ......................... 37
Figure 4-6. Model-estimated Total Sulfur Deposition in the Pacific Northwest......................................... 38
Figure 4-7. W126 Ozone exposure in 2008 for the Pacific Northwest ....................................................... 40
Figure 4-8. N100 Ozone Values in 2008 ...................................................................................................... 41
Figure 4-9. IMPROVE (Rural) 2005–2008 PM2.5......................................................................................... 42
Figure 4-10. Mercury Deposition ................................................................................................................ 43
Figure 4-11. Atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory ........................................................................ 44
Figure 6-1. IMPROVE Monitoring and Wilderness Locations in Region 6................................................... 62
Figure 6-2. Best and Worst 20 % and Annual Average Visibility at Mount Hood ....................................... 65
Figure 6-3. Visibility Trends at the Mt. Hood IMPROVE Monitor ............................................................... 66
Figure 6-4. Lichen Bio-monitoring Plot Locations ....................................................................................... 67
Figure 6-5. Wilderness Scale Sensitivity Classification................................................................................ 73
Figure 6-6. Water Chemistry Monitoring in Wilderness Lakes ................................................................... 76
Figure 6-7. Location of Four Study Lakes .................................................................................................... 78
PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
The purpose of this Wilderness Air Quality Plan is to provide a strategy for monitoring air quality in
wilderness in Region 6 (R6). It is based on the goals of the 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge.
The audience includes wilderness managers, air quality specialists and others, including stakeholders
who are interested in the management and stewardship of wilderness.
Wilderness Stewardship Challenge
The 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge (10-YWSC) was developed by the USDA Forest Service
Chief’s Wilderness Advisory Group (WAG) as a quantifiable measurement of the Forest Service’s success
in wilderness stewardship. The goal identified by the Wilderness Advisory Group, and endorsed by the
Chief, is to bring each and every wilderness under Forest Service management to a minimum
stewardship level by the 50th Anniversary of the Wilderness Act in 2014. The first year of the Challenge
was Fiscal Year 2005. i
Wilderness encompasses nearly 20 percent of the land area of the National Forest System. The
Wilderness Act of 1964 states that wilderness “. . .shall be administered for the use and enjoyment of the
American people in such manner as will leave them unimpaired for future use as wilderness, and so as to
provide for the protection of these areas, the preservation of their wilderness character, and for the
gathering and dissemination of information regarding their use and enjoyment as wilderness.” Yet, with
improving technologies and ever increasing pressure from a growing population, wilderness program
responsibilities and complexities have increased while an available wilderness workforce has decreased.
Consequently, concerns exist at multiple levels of the agency regarding our ability to implement
protections to assure the perpetuation of wilderness.
An assessment of critical wilderness stewardship tasks was applied nationally in 2002 and wildernesses
did not fare well. An earlier attempt to quantify wilderness management duties identified over 200
individual tasks. The Wilderness Information Management Steering Group distilled these 200 individual
tasks down to 10 comprehensive elements in an effort to simplify the measurement of wilderness
stewardship. A “minimum stewardship level” is defined in the Challenge as meeting six out of these 10
elements.
To move forward with the Challenge each USDA Forest Service Region has identified specific strategies. 1
Through the development of these strategies it is clear that the Challenge cannot be met by utilizing
resources in wilderness and recreation alone. An interdisciplinary approach is necessary. Support is
needed from specialists in air quality, aquatics, botany, fire, and wildlife. Leadership and field managers
need to work closely with these programs to successfully meet the Challenge.
The ten elements identified in the Challenge represent only a small portion of the difficult task of
wilderness stewardship. It’s important to remember that the elements are not to be regarded simply as
1
Region strategies are available on the 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge Web Site,
http://fsweb.wo.fs.fed.us/rhwr/wilderness/10ywsc/index_10ywsc.html.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
a checklist. Attainment of each element is a stepping-stone to ensure that each wilderness retains its
wilderness character into the future.
This report addresses Element #3 of the 10 listed elements 2-- air quality. In order to meet the minimum
level of stewardship for air quality, the Wilderness Advisory Group identified the following goal and
desired outcome:
•
•
Goal: Monitoring of wilderness air quality values is conducted and a baseline is established for
each wilderness.
Outcome: The baseline condition of at least one sensitive receptor will be determined for each
wilderness, which can be used to evaluate air pollution-caused change over time.
Regional Air Quality Management Approach
Shortly after the 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act, the Forest Service established an Air Resource
Management (ARM) program to address the potential adverse impacts of air quality on all national
forests. The Region 6 Air Resource Management (ARM) program was initiated in 1981 to specifically
focus on air quality issues in the national forests in Oregon and Washington. Since then, a great deal of
work has been conducted to examine air quality in the national forests and wilderness areas of Region 6.
Air quality related values (AQRVs), sensitive receptors, and indicators have already been established for
each of the region’s 16 Class I wilderness areas. Regional managers help protect these designated areas
from the adverse impacts of air pollution by reviewing and providing comments on proposed, new or
modified, industrial and power generation facilities. When an existing source is found to cause visibility
impairment, the ARM staff will work with state air pollution control agencies to reduce the emissions
from the identified source. Regional vegetation and fuels management programs also work with ARM to
reduce smoke impacts from prescribed burning activities on national forests.
In collaboration with wilderness managers and forest inventory and analysis staff, ARM has also
conducted extensive regional air quality monitoring activities beyond Class I areas. These region-wide
activities include:
1. Monitoring lichens as bio-indicators of air pollution
2. Conducting synoptic surveys of sensitive lakes to identify baseline values of lake chemistry and
to monitor for changes due to acid deposition
3. Installing a region-wide visibility monitoring system which has been operating since 2000
4. Monitoring ozone injury to vegetation (by the Forest Inventory and Analysis group)
Available information from all regional air quality monitoring efforts is presented in this document.
Applicable credit towards the monitoring requirements put forth by the Challenge is given to each
wilderness for which monitoring has been conducted. 3
2
A definition of the Wilderness Stewardship Challenge Element #3—Air Quality is available online at
http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=toolboxes&sec=air.
3
Specific wilderness stewardship scores related to the Challenge for Region 6 are located in Appendix A.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Objectives of the Region 6 Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Rather than create 65 individual wilderness air quality plans with duplicate information, this strategy
continues to build on the current regional approach to air quality management. This document provides
available regional air quality information and outlines the relevant details and the monitoring needs of
each individual wilderness area. The regional information common to all wilderness areas includes
sources of air pollution, monitoring locations, and results. Scoring and recommended monitoring
strategies are presented for each individual wilderness area in the appendices to this report. Appendix
A contains the scoring for each wilderness in relation to the Challenge, and Appendix B contains
individual air quality plans for each wilderness in the region.
The Region 6 Wilderness Air Quality Plan has the following objectives:
1. Establish AQRVs, sensitive receptors and indicators for all Class II wilderness areas in the region
(AQRVs are already established for Class I areas)
2. Obtain credit for previous and existing monitoring as scored by the current 10-Year Wilderness
Stewardship Challenge (10YWSC) for air element #3 for each wilderness area
3. Create a wilderness air quality value monitoring plan for each wilderness
These objectives are designed to help Region 6 conduct and establish baseline values and determine
trends, assess if the air quality in each wilderness is getting better or worse and develop regional
strategies for improvement.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
CHAPTER 2
Laws, Policy and Other Guidance
Laws, regulations, directives, and policies define our authority, responsibilities and limits. The following
sections describe applicable legislative acts, regulations and Forest Service policy related to
implementing air quality programs in the Pacific Northwest Region.
Federal Laws
Forest Service Organic Act of 1897
The basic authority to protect national forest lands was delegated to the Forest Service by the Organic
Act of 1897. Unlike the national parks, which were created primarily to preserve natural beauty and
unique outdoor recreation opportunities, the founders of early national forests envisioned them as
working forests with multiple objectives. The Organic Administration Act of 1897, under which most
national forests were established, states: “No national forest shall be established, except to improve and
protect the forest within the boundaries, or for the purpose of securing favorable conditions of water
flows, and to furnish a continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of the United
States…”
Multiple-Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960
In the Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 (16 USC 528), Congress established that the national
forests shall be administered for outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed and wildlife and fish
purposes.
Wilderness Act of 1964
The 1964 Wilderness Act (16 USC 1131) establishes a wilderness preservation system of federally-owned
lands where “earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor
who does not remain.” The Forest Service is charged to preserve the wilderness character of such areas
under its jurisdiction and to protect them from man-caused degradations not specifically allowed by the
law. The Wilderness Act gives the Forest Service the ability to take action against sources of air pollution
affecting a wilderness, but most likely only after measurable impact has been detected.
Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974
The basic authority to protect national forests was enhanced by the Forest and Rangeland Renewable
Resource Planning Act of 1974, as amended by the National Forest Management Act (16 USC 1602) of
1976. This act directs the Forest Service to “…recognize the fundamental need to protect and, where
appropriate, improve the quality of soil, water, and air resources…” (16 USC 1602(5)(C)). Additionally,
the Act, as amended on Dec. 31, 2000, calls for an assessment every 10 years, which includes:
•
•
An analysis of the potential effects of global climate change on the condition of renewable
resources on the forests and rangelands of the United States
An analysis of the rural and urban forestry opportunities to mitigate the buildup of atmospheric
carbon dioxide and reduce the risk of global climate change
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This section of the Act also calls for a report from the Secretary of Agriculture that accounts for the
effects of global climate change on:
•
“Forest and rangeland conditions, including potential effects on the geographic ranges of
species, and on forest and rangeland products.”
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), as amended (42 USC 4321) established the EPA along
with national environmental policies and goals to protect, maintain, and enhance the environment.
NEPA requires federal agencies to integrate environmental values into their decision making processes
by considering the environmental impacts of their proposed actions and reasonable alternatives to
those actions. To meet this requirement, federal agencies prepare a detailed statement known as an
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
Clean Air Act of 1970, with Amendments
The purpose of the Clean Air Act (CAA) is to enhance the quality of the nation's air resources and to
protect public health and welfare. It is one of the most complex pieces of legislation ever crafted by
Congress and even more complex in its implementation through regulation and enforcement. There are
six titles of the CAA: Title I – Air Pollution Prevention and Control; Title II – Emission Standards for
Moving Sources; Title III – General; Title IV – Acid Deposition Control; Title V – Permits, and Title VI –
Stratospheric Ozone Protection.
Roles and Responsibilities under the CAA
The CAA authorizes the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop and enforce regulations
to achieve the stated objectives of the CAA. The CAA also gave states primary responsibility for air
quality management. States carry out this responsibility through their preparation of a State
Implementation Plan (SIP) which must be approved by the EPA. The SIP outlines how a state will achieve
and maintain applicable federal and state standards. The states must involve the public and industries
through hearings and opportunities to comment on the development of each state plan.
The Forest Service has two roles under the CAA, one of protection of AQRVs in Class I Wilderness areas,
and another when activities on national forests emit air pollution. The Forest Service role of protection
AQRVs in Class I areas is described under the New Source Review section below. The role of the Forest
Service in terms of complying with air pollution laws and standards when activities on National Forests
emit air pollution is described both under NEPA and under the Conformity Rules.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
The CAA requires EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for widespread pollutants
from numerous and diverse sources considered harmful to public health and the environment. The CAA
established two types of national air quality standards. Primary standards set limits to protect public
health, including the health of "sensitive" populations such as asthmatics, children, and the elderly.
Secondary standards set limits to protect public welfare, including protection against visibility
impairment, and damage to animals, crops, vegetation and buildings. The Clean Air Act requires periodic
review of the science upon which the standards are based and the standards themselves.
The EPA has set NAAQS for six principal pollutants, which are called "criteria" pollutants, which include:
ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and lead. For each pollutant,
the standards are expressed in units of parts per million (ppm) by volume, parts per billion (ppb) by
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
volume, and micrograms per cubic meter of air (µg/m3). 4 Each standard has a specific averaging period
associated with it and is expressed in a particular form (e.g., not to be exceeded more than once per
year, annual mean, etc.). Table 2-1 presents the current NAAQS for the six criteria pollutants. NAAQ
standards are periodically reviewed and revised. For the most current information visit:
http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html.
Table 2-1. NAAQs for Six Principal Pollutants, October 2011
Pollutant
Primary/Secondary
Carbon
Monoxide
Primary
Lead
Primary/Secondary
Nitrogen
Dioxide
Primary
Primary/Secondary
Averaging
Time
8-hour
1-hour
Rolling 3
month
average
1-hour
Annual
Ozone
Primary/Secondary
8-hour
0.075 ppm (3)
Annual
15 μg/m3
98 percentile averaged over 3 years
Annual Mean
Annual fourth-highest daily maximum 8hour concentration, averaged over 3 years
Annual mean, averaged over 3 years
24-hour
35 μg/m3
98 percentile, averaged over 3 years
24-hour
150 μg/m3
Not to exceed more than once/ year, on
average over 3 years
Particle
Pollution
(PM 2.5)
Particle
Pollution
(PM 10)
Primary/Secondary
Primary/Secondary
Level
9 ppm
35 ppm
0.15 μg/m3 (1)
100 ppb
53 ppb (2)
Form
Not to exceed more than once/year
Not to exceed
th
th
th
99 percentile of 1-hour daily maximum
concentrations, averaged over 3 years
Secondary
3-hour
0.5 ppm
Not to exceed more than once/year
(1) Final rule signed October 15, 2008. The 1978 lead standard (1.5 µg/m3 as a quarterly average) remains in
effect until one year after an area is designated for the 2008 standard, except in areas designated nonattainment,
the 1978 standard remains in effect until implementation plans to attain or maintain the 2008 standard are
approved.
Sulfur
Dioxide
Primary
1-hour
75 ppb (4)
(2) The official level of the annual NO2 standard is 0.053 ppm, equal to 53 ppb, which is shown here for the
purpose of clearer comparison to the 1-hour standard.
(3) Final rule signed March 12, 2008. The 1997 ozone standard (0.08 ppm, annual fourth-highest daily maximum 8hour concentration, averaged over 3 years) and related implementation rules remain in place. In 1997, EPA
revoked the 1-hour ozone standard (0.12 ppm, not to be exceeded more than once per year) in all areas, although
some areas have continued obligations under that standard (“anti-backsliding”). The 1-hour ozone standard is
attained when the expected number of days per calendar year with maximum hourly average concentrations
above 0.12 ppm is less than or equal to 1.
(4) Final rule signed June 2, 2010. The 1971 annual and 24-hour SO2 standards were revoked in that same
rulemaking. However, these standards remain in effect until one year after an area is designated for the 2010
standard, except in areas designated nonattainment for the 1971 standards, where the 1971 standards remain in
effect until implementation plans to attain or maintain the 2010 standard are approved.
4
Description taken from the EPA’s National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS),
http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Forest Service Conformity under NAAQS
Under the Clean Air Act, any area that violates the NAAQS for any of the six criteria pollutants is
designated as a non-attainment area. A maintenance area is a non-attainment area that has been redesignated to attainment status subject to submission and approval of a maintenance plan. If a state has
a non-attainment or maintenance area, it must develop a SIP that describes how the state will achieve
and maintain federal and state standards.
The conformity rule of the CAA pertains to specific projects that are proposed in a non-attainment or
maintenance area. The rule states: “No department, agency, or instrumentality of the federal
government shall engage in, support in any way or provide financial assistance for, license or permit, or
approve any activity which does not conform to an implementation plan…” (Sec. 176, 42 USC 7506).
As it pertains to the Forest Service, the rule requires that the agency demonstrate that its actions, or
actions of those who occupy and use National Forest system lands under Forest Service authorization,
will not impede the SIP’s ability to attain or maintain the ambient air quality standard. When applicable,
activities on national forests that may require a review for conformity include: fuel treatments including
prescribed fire and harvest activities; road, trail, or building construction; and land use and special use
permit decisions such as ski or winter sports area, mining, oil and gas development and landfills.
Prevention of Significant Deterioration of Air Quality (PSD)
When major stationary sources of air pollution are proposed to be built or modified, they must go
through a review process to ensure the new or modified facility or emission source will comply with all
applicable regulations. A major stationary source is defined as one which would emit 100 or 250 tons
per year of a regulated pollutant depending upon the type of source. If the source is located in an area
which is in attainment with the NAAQS, the facility must demonstrate that the emissions from the
source won’t deteriorate the air quality to just below the NAAQS. Thus, the facility may only degrade
the air an incremental amount. The allowable increment to be consumed is smaller for Class I areas
than for Class II areas. This regulation is referred to as the Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD)
program (Sec. 160-169, 42 USC 7470 et seq., 40 CFR 51.166).
The PSD provisions categorize every region in the country as Class I, II or III with allowable levels of air
quality deterioration for each class. Class I areas were originally designated as national parks over 6,000
acres, national wilderness areas and national memorial parks over 5,000 acres and international parks
that were in existence as of August 7, 1977. The list of all Class I areas can be found in 40 CFR 81.406. All
remaining lands, public and private, outside of those listed are Class II areas. Currently, there are no
Class III designations in the nation. Any re-designation from a Class II to Class I area can only be
accomplished by individual states. The Spokane Indian Reservations was reclassified from Class II to
Class I in 1991 5. The NAAQS must be met in both Class I and Class II areas.
One of the goals of the CAA is to preserve, protect, and enhance the air quality in national parks,
national wilderness areas, national monuments, national seashores, and other areas of special national
or regional natural, recreational or historic value. Section 165 (d)(2)(B) of the CAA states that the Federal
Land Manager (FLM) has: “…an affirmative responsibility to protect the air quality related values
(including visibility) of any such lands within a Class I area.” In Region 6, the FLM role has been delegated
to the Regional Forester. It is the responsibility of the FLM to consult with EPA in the statutory process
5
EPA redesignated this land based on a request from the Spokane Tribal Council. See 40 CFR 52.2497
and 56 FR 14862, April 12, 1991, for details.
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required for the approval of a Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) permit application for a
major source (42 USC 7475 (d)(2)(B)).
The role of the Forest Service in the PSD permitting process is to review an application for an air
polluting activity, determine if the additional pollution will impact air quality related values (AQRVs) in
Class I wilderness areas, and make recommendations to state and federal permitting agencies before a
permit is issued. It also requires that the EPA and states consider recommendations of the FLM. It is up
to the state regulatory agency to grant or deny the permit.
To help determine any potential negative impacts of air pollution, it is important that the Forest Service
conduct an inventory of AQRVs and collect monitoring data to assess human-caused change and/or
model future impacts. Steps to protect AQRVs include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Determine what components should be protected
Measure the existing conditions of those components
Analyze whether pollution is impacting components
Establish and maintain long term monitoring of components to identify and predict future
impacts
5. Establish and maintain a database for use in the air regulatory process
Best Available Control Technology Review for New or Modified Pollutant Sources
One key part of an air permit application is the review of proposed air pollution control technology for
each new or modified emission unit at a facility. Air quality regulations recognize that it is most cost
effective to require pollution control upgrades at the time new sources are built or modified, thereby
allowing plant owners to plan for these costs as part of the construction of a new plant or an overall
plant upgrade.
In general, the review of air pollution control technology involves analyzing what types of control
technologies are possible for each regulated pollutant, including greenhouse gases, from each emission
unit at the facility. The best performing option is selected unless it is deemed to be too expensive or
causes other adverse environmental impacts. This process of ensuring that the best available control
technology (BACT) is applied to industrial sources reduces air emissions to the lowest possible amount
and minimizes air pollution impacts.
Visibility Protection and Regional Haze Rule
Regional haze is visibility impairment caused by cumulative air pollutant emissions from numerous
sources over a wide geographic area. Through the 1977 amendments to the CAA, Congress set a
national goal for visibility as “the prevention of any future, and the remedying of any existing,
impairment of visibility in mandatory Class I federal areas which impairment results from manmade air
pollution” (Sec. 169A, 42 USC 7491). The amendments required the EPA to promulgate regulations to
help states develop emission limits, schedules of compliance and other measures as necessary to make
reasonable progress toward meeting the national goal.
These regulations were promulgated in 1980 to address visibility impairment that is “reasonably
attributable” to one or a small group of sources. The EPA deferred action on regional haze regulations
until monitoring, modeling, and scientific knowledge about the relationship between pollutants and
visibility effects improved. In 1999, EPA announced a major effort to improve air quality in national
parks and wilderness areas. The Regional Haze Rule (40 CFR 51) calls for state and federal agencies to
work together to improve visibility in 156 national parks and wilderness areas. The rule requires the
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states, in coordination with the EPA, the National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U.S.
Forest Service, and other interested parties, to develop and implement air quality protection plans to
reduce pollution causing visibility impairment. The Forest Service and other agencies have been
monitoring visibility in national parks and wilderness areas since 1988. A consistent methodology to
monitor visibility in these Federal Class I areas was developed, known as the Interagency Monitoring of
Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE).
State Air Pollution Laws
Both Oregon and Washington are required to notify federal land management units of proposed major
pollution sources or modifications which may potentially affect visibility and air quality related values in
Class I areas. Washington Administrative Code (WAC) 173-400-111 General Regulations for Air Pollution
Sources is online at http://www.ecy.wa.gov/pubs/wac173400.pdf; the Oregon Administrative Code 222,
223, 224, and 225 is online at http://www.deq.state.or.us/regulations/rules.htm.
The Forest Service Region 6 ARM program staff act as the point of contact to receive and review state
applications for potential pollution sources/modifications and provides comments back to the state
agency. Unless an issue arises, individual national forests are typically not responsible for state level air
quality applications processes. The region receives approximately 12 permit applications annually and
provides air quality analysis to determine if proposed actions are likely to cause, or significantly
contribute to, an adverse impact to visibility or other AQRVs within regional wilderness areas.
Additionally, the Forest Service has agreed to cooperate with State Smoke Management Programs.
Prior to burning being conducted on Forest Service lands, the Forest Service submits burn plans to the
State Smoke Management Programs. These programs evaluate the cumulative impacts from all the
proposed burns for a given day along with weather forecasts. The State then determines which burns
will be allowed for the next day. More information about the Washington State Smoke Management
Plan may be found at: www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/rp_burn_smptoc.pdf.
The Oregon State Smoke Management Plan is similar to Washington’s, but provides for additional
protection of Class I areas. These areas are referred to as smoke sensitive areas. More information
about the Oregon Smoke Management plan may be found at
www.oregon.gov/ODF/FIRE/SMP/smokemgt_onthe_web.shtml.
Forest Service Policy and Other Guidance
The primary objective of the Forest Service management program is to ensure that national forests are
managed in an ecologically sustainable manner. The national forests were originally envisioned as
working forests with multiple objectives to improve and protect the forest, to secure favorable
watershed conditions, and to furnish a continuous supply of timber for the use of citizens of the United
States. Forest management objectives have since expanded and evolved to include ecological
restoration and protection, research and product development, fire hazard reduction, and the
maintenance of healthy forests.
The role of the Forest Service in air quality management is to coordinate national forest activities with
state and federal air quality control efforts. This is done by properly managing and/or mitigating the
sources of air pollution created by Forest Service activities, such as prescribed fire, the construction and
use of roads and the operation of various facilities. The Forest Service establishes pollution impact
monitoring efforts in wilderness areas to understand the condition of resources of concern, such as
lichen or sensitive lakes. The Forest Service is dedicated to its stewardship role under the Organic Act
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and to its responsibility under the CAA’s PSD provisions to protect and enhance AQRVs in designated
Class I wilderness areas.
Forest Service Manual (FSM)
The Forest Service policy for air resource management in wilderness is set forth in the Forest Service
Manual (http://www.fs.fed.us/im/directives/).
Section 2300, Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management, established the general
criteria for wilderness management under authority of the CAA. The objectives set forth in Section
2320.2 include direction to “gather information and carry out research in a manner compatible with
preserving the wilderness environment to increase understanding of wilderness ecology, wilderness
uses, management opportunities, and visitor behavior.”
Specific policies are outlined in Section 2323.6, Management of Air Resources:
2323.61 - Objectives
1. Protect air quality and related values, including visibility, on wilderness land designated Class I
by the Clean Air Act as amended in 1977 (FSM 2120).
2. Protect air quality in wilderness areas not qualifying as Class I under the same objectives as
those for other National Forest System lands (FSM 2120).
2323.62 - Policy
1. Define air quality related values (AQRV) and initiate action to protect those values.
2. For each AQRV, select sensitive indicators, monitor, and establish the acceptable level of
protection needed to prevent adverse impacts (FSM 2120).
3. Determine the potential impacts of proposed facilities in coordination with state air quality
management agencies. Make appropriate recommendations in the permitting process following
established Prevention of Significant Deterioration application review procedures for major
emission sources. Requests to air quality management agencies for consideration of Class II
values in the permit process are appropriate (FSM 2120).
4. Manage smoke from management ignited prescribed fires occurring in or adjacent to Class I
wilderness areas in a manner that causes the least impact on AQRVs (FSM 2324).
Section 2580, Air Resource Management, provides further direction:
2580.2 – Objectives
1. Protect AQRVs within Class I areas, as described in 42 U.S.C. 7475(d)(2)(B) and (C) and section
2580.5.
2. Control and minimize air pollutant impact from land management activities.
3. Cooperate with air regulatory authorities to prevent significant adverse effects of air pollutants
and atmospheric deposition on forest and rangeland resources.
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2580.3 - Policy
1. Integrate air resource management objectives into all resource planning and management
activities.
2. Use cost effective methods of achieving resource management objectives.
2580.43 - Regional Foresters shall:
1. Protect current condition of air quality related values within Class I areas.
2. Monitor the effects of air pollution and atmospheric deposition on forest resources. Monitor air
pollutants when Forest Service goals and objectives are at risk and adequate data are not
available.
Class I and Class II Wildernesses
The main distinction between Class I and Class II areas for Forest Service air quality management is that
Class I areas are protected through the Clean Air Act and air quality related values (AQRVs) are already
established. Although the responsibility of the Forest Service to protect air quality values in wilderness is
the same, regardless of whether areas are Class I or Class II, it is our ability to affect change and the
process that is used in Class I areas that is different.
FLAG: Federal Land Managers' Air Quality Related Values Work Group
The FLMs’ (AQRVs) Work Group (FLAG) was formed at the request of industry to FLMs to develop a
consistent approach to evaluate air pollution effects on federally managed resources during the PSD
process. FLAG members include representatives from agencies that manage Class I wilderness areas: the
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service (USDA/FS), the National Park Service (NPS), and the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS).
The goals of FLAG have been to provide consistent policies and processes both for identifying air quality
related values (AQRVs) and for evaluating the effects of air pollution on AQRVs, primarily those in
federal Class I air quality areas, but in some instances, in Class II wilderness areas. The FLAG Phase I
Report (December 2000) consolidates the results of the FLAG visibility, ozone, and deposition
subgroups. The chapters prepared by these subgroups contain issue-specific technical and policy
analyses, and recommendations for evaluating AQRVs (http://www.fs.fed.us/air/documents/flag.pdf).
This document is currently under revision (http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/Permits/flag/index.cfm).
Strategic Framework for Responding to Climate Change
The Strategic Framework for Responding to Climate Change ii provides a structure for the Forest Service
to guide current and future actions to meet the challenges related to climate change. It incorporates the
actions included in Chief Gail Kimbell’s letter to the National Leadership Council of February 15, 2008.
This document states that Forest Service policies to address climate change must encompass two major
components: 1) Facilitated adaptation, which refers to actions to adjust to and reduce the negative
impacts of climate change on ecological, economic, and social systems; and 2) Mitigation, which refers
to actions to reduce emissions and enhance sinks of greenhouse gases, so as to decrease inputs to
climate warming in the short term and reduce the effects of climate change in the long run.
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Seven key goals outlined in this framework are designed to help the Forest Service carry out the mission
of sustaining forests and grasslands for present and future generations under a changing climate. The
first key goal listed below holds implications for air quality monitoring and management.
•
Science: Advance our understanding of the environmental, economic and social implications of
climate change and related adaptation and mitigation activities on forests and grasslands.
The goal of advancing our understanding of science incorporates the translation of relevant science into
land management applications, using enhanced monitoring systems, predictive models, decision
support tools and databases. These tools will aid resource managers by monitoring trends and
predicting future changes.
Climate Change Roadmap and Scorecard
Forest Service Chief Tom Tidwell emphasized that every program and unit in the Forest Service has a
role to play in responding to climate change. The new USDA Strategic Plan for 2010-2015 sets a
departmental goal to “ensure our national forests and private working lands are conserved, restored,
and made more resilient to climate change, while enhancing our water resources.”
As a measure of this goal, all national forests are to come into compliance with a climate change
adaptation and mitigation strategy. To guide the Forest Service in achieving this goal, the Climat Change
Roadmap and Scorecard was developed.
The Roadmap integrates land management outreach, and sustainable operations accounting. It focuses
on three kinds of activities: assessing current risks, vulnerabilities, policies and gaps in knowledge;
engaging partners in seeking solutions and learning from as well as educating the public and employees
on climate change issues; and managing for resilience in ecosystems as well as in human communities,
through adaptation, mitigation and sustainable consumption strategies.
The roadmap directs forest managers to:
•
•
Expand observation networks, intensify sampling in some cases and integrate monitoring
systems across jurisdictions.
Monitor the status and trends of key ecosystem characteristics, focusing on threats and
stressors that may affect the diversity of plant and animal communities and ecological
sustainability. Link the results to adaptation and genetic conservation efforts.
A Performance Scorecard was implemented to help measure national progress. The scorecard includes
measures of steps forward made by each national forest and grassland, supported by the regional
offices, stations and national programs. The scorecard will address agency capacity (training and
program guidance); partnerships (alliances, integrating science and management); adaptation (assessing
and monitoring key resource vulnerabilities and priorities); and mitigation (assessing and managing
carbon stocks and flows, reducing the environmental footprint of the Forest Service). 6
6
Information about the National Roadmap for Responding to Climate Change and associated Scorecard
can be found online at the Office of the Climate Change Advisor,
http://www.fs.fed.us/climatechange/advisor/products.htmlS-957b.
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Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers (WWSR) Strategy, 2010-2014
The Forest Service Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers (WWSR) Strategy 2010-2014 iii outlines an
approach for Wilderness and Wild and Scenic River management in the face of new environmental and
societal challenges. It states “without full and meaningful engagement in the central national issues of
our day: mitigation and adaptation to climate change, husbandry of water resources, engagement of all
Americans in the out-of-doors, opportunities for people to sustain a nation healthy in body and mind,
wilderness areas and wild and scenic rivers may come to be seen as “museums” rather than as relevant,
contemporary conservation tools central to the agency’s mission…”. The document emphasizes a three
part strategy: 1) Promote effective stewardship in the face of rapid change, 2) Build capacity for
stewardship of Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers, and 3) Develop strong external and internal
constituencies for wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers.
The goals and objectives of part 1 of the Strategy: “Promote effective stewardship in the face of rapid
change” holds immediate implications for wilderness air quality management. Top level goals for and
objectives wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers include:
•
•
•
•
•
Manage to prescribed standards (this includes the 10- year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge.)
Conduct periodic monitoring of key indicators of resource health to establish baseline conditions
and monitor trends over time.
Use monitoring information and adaptive management to modify stewardship direction in
forest plans.
Provide support to newly designated wildernesses and wild and scenic rivers.
Provide international leadership on protected areas and river resources.
Along with the goals and objectives, the principles guiding the implementation of this strategy hold
implications for managing climate change related impacts to wilderness. One of the guiding principles
for implementation of the WWSR Strategy is that the wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers programs
be positioned to be responsive and play key roles in some of the most critical issues in our national
forests.
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CHAPTER 3
Wilderness Areas
Currently, there are 65 wildernesses managed by the Forest Service in the Pacific Northwest. Of these,
40 are located in Oregon, 24 are located in Washington, comprising a total of 4, 948,419 acres.
Together, they feature most of the major Pacific Northwest ecosystems including coast and coast range,
low- and mid-elevation temperate rain forest, alpine, Cascade crest, east slope lodge pole and
ponderosa pine forest, high desert sage-steppe, and western juniper woodlands.
A majority of Pacific Northwest wilderness areas are located in the Cascade Mountains. Some of these
protect volcanic peaks such as Three Sisters, Mt. Adams, Mt. Hood, Mt. Baker, and Glacier Peak. Others
surround high country chains of lakes such as Alpine Lakes Wilderness in Central Washington and
Mountain Lakes Wilderness in Southern Oregon. Still others, like the Kalmiopsis Wilderness, Olympic
Wilderness, or the Opal Creek Wilderness, protect unique biological ecosystems and old growth forests
in the region.
This collection of protected areas contains a remarkable array of essential resources. These areas are a
source of clean air and fresh water and sustain multiple plant, animal, and fish species. These
landscapes also reflect human prehistory and history, and contain significant ancestral and cultural
resources. They also offer vital opportunities for challenge, solitude, and a deep connection with nature
that help keep our lives and perspectives in balance.
Class I and Class II Areas
Sixteen of the 65 wildernesses in the region are Class I areas 7 and cover a total land area of
approximately 1.2 million hectares (Figure 3-1 and Table 3-1). Twelve of the 16 distinct areas are
located in the Cascade Range, 3 are located in northeast Oregon, and 1 area is located in the Oregon
coast lowlands. All remaining 49 wilderness areas managed by the Forest Service in Region 6 are
designated as Class II areas (Figure 3-1 and Table 3-2). A characterization of each wilderness is provided
in Appendix B.
7
Class I areas have more protections under the Clean Air Act (CAA). Specifically, the allowable increment
to be consumed is smaller for Class I areas than for Class II areas--as defined within the CAA Prevention
of Significant Deterioration (PSD) program. (Sec. 160-169, 42 USC 7470 et seq., 40 CFR 51.166).
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Figure 3-1. Class I and Class II Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington
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Table 3-1. Class I Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington
Class I Wilderness
State
Class I Wilderness
State
Pasayten
WA
Mount Hood
OR
Glacier Peak
WA
Mount Washington
OR
Alpine Lakes
WA
Mount Jefferson
OR
Mount Adams
WA
Three Sisters
OR
Goat Rocks
WA
Diamond Peak
OR
Eagle Cap
OR
Gearhart Mountain
OR
Hells Canyon
OR
Mountain Lakes
OR
Strawberry Mountain
OR
Kalmiopsis
OR
Table 3-2. Class II Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington
Class II Wilderness
State
Class II Wilderness
Boulder River
WA
Bull of the Woods
Buckhorn
WA
Clackamas
Clearwater
WA
Copper Salmon
Colonel Bob
WA
Cummins Creek
Glacier View
WA
Drift Creek
Henry M. Jackson
WA
Grassy Knob
Indian Heaven
WA
Lower White River
Lake Chelan-Sawtooth
WA
Mark O. Hatfield
Mount Baker
WA
Menagerie
Mount Skokomish
WA
Middle Santiam
Noisy-Diobsud
WA
Mill Creek
Norse Peak
WA
Monument Rock
Salmo-Priest
WA
Mount Thielsen
Tatoosh
WA
North Fork John Day
The Brothers
WA
North Fork Umatilla
Trapper Creek
WA
Opal Creek
Wild Sky
WA
Red Buttes
William O. Douglas
WA
Roaring River
Wonder Mountain
WA
Rock Creek
Wenaha-Tucannon
OR/WA
Rogue-Umpqua Divide
Badger Creek
OR
Salmon-Huckleberry
Black Canyon
OR
Sky Lakes
Boulder Creek
OR
Waldo Lake
Bridge Creek
OR
Wild Rogue
State
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR/CA
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
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Ecoregions
In addition to understanding area classifications, as defined by the Clean Air Act, it’s helpful to
characterize wilderness areas by the abiotic and biotic factors which determine ecosystem response to
air pollution. For example, bedrock type has been found to be a significant factor in determining the
buffering capacity of surface waters against acidification (Nanus, 2004). iv Vegetation type and soil
moisture are also significant factors in determining the injury caused by ozone (Kohut 2007). v
Classifying the landscape using these determining factors helps resource managers assess which
geographic areas in the region are likely to respond to air pollution in a similar manner. This information
is useful in verifying whether monitoring in one area may be reasonably representative of another area.
Ecological characterization also helps prioritize regional monitoring strategies.
The US EPA divides North America into geographical areas called ecoregions which are identified and
mapped according to their specific abiotic and biotic factors. These factors include: geology, physical
geography, vegetation, climate, soils, land use, wildlife, and hydrology (Omernick, 1995) vi. Ecoregions in
North America have been classified at different spatial resolutions, where level 1 is the most course, and
level IV is the finest . The level III ecoregions within Washington and Oregon are shown in Figure 3-2. A
brief description is provided below for each Level III ecological classification in Oregon or Washington
that contains a wilderness area 8.
8
More detailed explanations that outline the methods used to define the US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) Ecoregions (http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions.htm) are given in Omernik 1995,
2004, and Omernik et al. 2000. The applications of the ecoregions are explained in Bryce et al. 1999 and
in reports and publications from the state and regional projects (e.g., Griffith et al. 2007, Griffith. et al.
1994, and Omernik et al. 2000).
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Figure 3-2. USFS Region 6 Wilderness Areas and Level III Ecoregions (Omerick)
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Ecoregion Descriptions
Blue Mountains
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Location: Located primarily in northeastern Oregon with small areas extending into
southeastern Washington and western Idaho.
Wilderness Areas included: Mill Creek, Bridge Creek, Black Canyon, Strawberry Mountain,
Monument Rock, North Fork of the John Day, North Fork of the Umatilla, Wenaha-Tucannon,
Eagle Cap, and Hells Canyon.
Climate: A severe mid latitude climate, with both continental and Mediterranean influences,
characterizes this region. It is marked by warm dry summers and cold winters. The mean annual
temperature ranges from approximately -1°C to 10°C. The frost-free period ranges from 30 to
160 days. As with temperature, the mean annual precipitation ranges widely depending upon
elevation, ranging from about 220 mm in low valleys to over 2050 mm at high elevations; 558
mm is the regional mean value.
Vegetation: At low elevations, grasslands of bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, basin big
sagebrush, mountain big sagebrush, and juniper woodlands thrive. In forested areas, ponderosa
pine is common along with some Douglas-fir and grand fir. At higher elevations, subalpine fir,
Engelmann spruce, whitebark pine, and lodgepole pine--all with krummholz--are present. Alpine
meadows are found in the alpine zone.
Hydrology: Perennial stream density varies by elevation and substrate. Some areas contain few
perennial streams. Springs are scattered throughout the region and alpine lakes exist in the high
elevation areas. A few large reservoirs are located in this vicinity. Large rivers that cross the
region include the Deschutes and Snake.
Terrain: Distinguished from the neighboring Cascades and Northern Rockies ecoregions because
the Blue Mountains are generally not as high and are the forests are considerably more open.
Like the Cascades, but unlike the Northern Rockies, the region is mostly volcanic in origin. Only
the few higher ranges, particularly the Wallowa and Elkhorn Mountains, consist of intrusive
rocks that rise above the dissected lava surface of the region. Elevations range from 305 m to
over 3000 m. Soil temperature regimes are mostly frigid, but include some mesic in warmer
areas, and cryic at high elevations. Andisols and Mollisols are common, with mostly xeric and
udic soil moisture regimes. Most soils in this area are influenced by volcanic ash deposits.
Wildlife: Rocky Mountain elk, mule deer, black-tailed deer, black bear, bighorn sheep, cougar,
bobcat, coyote, beaver, racoon, golden eagle, chukar, sage thrasher, pileated woodpecker,
nuthatches, chickadees, bluebirds, chinook and coho salmon, rainbow trout, bull trout, and
brook trout.
Land Use/Human Activities: Forestry and recreation. Unlike the bulk of the Cascades and
Northern Rockies, much of this ecoregion is grazed by cattle. Some public lands. Areas of
irrigated agriculture for alfalfa and pasture, winter wheat, potatoes, mint, onions, garlic, grass
seed are established in this terrain. Larger cities include Madras, Redmond, Prineville, La
Grande, Baker City, and Enterprise (OR).
North Cascades
•
Location: Located in the Northern end of Cascade Range in northwest Washington and southern
British Columbia. It also includes a disjunct area enclosing the high Olympic Mountains to the
west of the Puget Lowland
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Wilderness Areas included: Pasayten, Mount Baker, Noisy-Diobsud, Boulder River, Lake ChelanSawtooth, Glacier Peak, Alpine Lakes, Henry M. Jackson, Wild Sky, Buckhorn (partial), The
Brothers (partial), and Mt. Skokomish (partial).
Climate: A variety of climatic zones exist in this area. Dry warm summers and mild to cold wet
winters mark this region. A dry continental climate occurs in the east and mild, maritime,
rainforest conditions are found in the west. High elevations receive abundant snowfall. The
mean annual temperature varies from approximately 0°C at high elevations to 9°C in low
western valleys; the mean summer temperature is 16°C; and the mean winter temperature is 1°C. The frost-free period ranges from 40 to 200 days. The mean annual precipitation is 1761
mm, and ranges from 300 mm in the lower east, to more than 6000 mm on the High Olympics in
the west.
Vegetation: Lower western forests include western hemlock, western red cedar, and Douglasfir. Subalpine forests include Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, and lodgepole pine. Ponderosa
pine and Douglas-fir grow in the east, along with a few pine grass parklands.
Hydrology: A high density of high-gradient perennial streams and numerous glacial lakes exist
along with a few reservoirs.
Terrain: High, rugged mountains and glaciated peaks with a few U-shaped valleys define this
region which contain the greatest concentration of active alpine glaciers in the conterminous
United States. It is underlain by sedimentary and metamorphic rock in contrast to the adjoining
Cascades which are composed of volcanics. Andisols, Inceptisols, and Spodosols are common,
with mesic, frigid, and cryic soil temperature regimes and xeric or udic soil moisture regimes.
Wildlife: Black bear, bighorn sheep, mountain goat, black-tailed deer, mule deer, cougar,
coyote, bobcat, beaver, fisher, marten, osprey, bald eagle, grouse, pileated woodpecker,
mountain chickadee, salmon, and steelhead.
Land Use/Human Activities: Recreation, tourism, forestry, and woodland grazing. This area is
also a water source for lower, drier adjacent ecoregions. Much of the region is in public national
forest and wilderness or provincial and national parks. Larger settlements include Keremeos and
Hedley (Canada), and Concrete, Rockport, Winthrop, Twisp, and Leavenworth (WA).
Cascades
•
•
•
•
Location: Stretches from the central portion of western Washington and through the spine of
Oregon. It includes a disjunct area around Mt. Shasta in northern California.
Wilderness Areas included: Clearwater, Norse Peak (partial), William O. Douglas (partial),
Tatoosh, Glacier View, Goat Rocks, Mount Adams, Indian Heaven, Trapper Creek, Mark O.
Hatfield, Mount Hood, Salmon-Huckleberry, Badger Creek (partial), Bull of the Woods,
Clackamas, Roaring River, Opal Creek, Mount Jefferson, Middle Santiam, Menagerie, Mount
Washington, Three Sisters, Waldo Lake, Diamond Peak, Boulder Creek, Rogue-Umpqua Divide,
Mount Thielsen (partial), Sky Lakes, and Mountain Lakes.
Climate: Marked by a mild to severe mid-latitude climate, varying by elevation, this region has
mostly dry warm summers and relatively mild to cool very wet winters. The mean annual
temperature ranges from approximately -1°C to 11°C. The frost-free period ranges widely from
5 to 180 days depending on elevation and latitude. The mean annual precipitation is 1824 mm,
ranging from 1150 mm to 3600 mm.
Vegetation: Extensive and highly productive coniferous forests are found here. At lower
elevations, Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western red cedar, big leaf maple, and red alder are
dominant. At higher elevations, Pacific silver fir, mountain hemlock, subalpine fir, noble fir, and
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
•
•
•
•
lodgepole pine are established. To the south, Shasta red fir, and white fir are found. Subalpine
meadows and rocky alpine zones occur at the highest elevations.
Hydrology: Contains many intermittent and perennial streams in a dense drainage network
along with multiple alpine lakes. At lower elevations a few large reservoirs exist. Water quality is
high.
Terrain: This mountainous terrain is underlain by Cenozoic volcanics and has been affected by
alpine glaciations. It is characterized by steep ridges and river valleys in the west, a high plateau
in the east, and both active and dormant volcanoes. Elevations range from about 250 meters
upwards to 4,390 meters. Soils are mostly cryic and frigid temperature regimes, with some
mesic at low elevations and in the south. Andisols and Inceptisols are common.
Wildlife: Roosevelt elk, black-tailed deer, black bear, mountain goats in the north, cougar,
coyote, beaver, river otter, mountain quail, pileated woodpecker, northern goshawk, mountain
chickadee, northern spotted owl, chinook salmon, steelhead trout, and bull trout.
Land Use/Human Activities: Forestry and recreation are common activities. This territory also
supplies water for urban and agricultural areas in adjacent lowland ecoregions. A few areas
support ranching and livestock grazing. Large areas are designated as public lands--national
forests or parks--and human population density is relatively low. No cities occur within the
Cascades ecoregion. Larger towns include Stevenson (WA)and Cascade Locks and Oakridge (OR).
Eastern Cascade Slopes and Foothills
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Location: In the rain shadow of the Cascade Mountains stretching from central Washington to
northern California.
Wilderness Areas included: Norse Peak (partial), William O. Douglas (partial), Badger Creek
(partial), Lower White River, and Gearhart Mountain.
Climate: A more continental climate than in ecoregions to the west, with greater temperature
extremes and less precipitation. It has warm dry summers and cold winters. The mean annual
temperature ranges from 2°C to 11°C, varying greatly due to elevation and latitude. The frostfree period ranges from 10 to 140 days. The mean annual precipitation is 649 mm, but ranges
from 500 mm to over 3500 mm on high peaks.
Vegetation: Open forests of ponderosa pine and some lodgepole pine distinguish this region
from the higher ecoregions to the west where fir and hemlock forests are common and lower
dryer regions to the east where shrubs and grasslands are predominant. The vegetation is
adapted to the prevailing dry continental climate and is highly susceptible to wildfire. Higher
elevations have Douglas-fir and other fir species such as grand fir and white fir. Lowest
elevations grade to sagebrush steppe vegetation.
Hydrology: Stream densities are variable, generally higher in the north, but fewer streams in
some of the pumice areas. High, medium, and low gradient streams occur. A few large lakes and
reservoirs exist in this region.
Terrain: Gently to steeply sloping mountains and high plateaus mark this area. Volcanic cones
and buttes are common in much of the region, some young lava flows exist. More glacial
features are found in the north. Elevations range from 300 m to over 2500 m. Geology is mostly
Pleistocene, Pliocene, and Miocene basalt, andesite, and tuffaceous rock. Deposits of volcanic
ash, pumice, and cinders are thick in some areas. Soils are mostly xeric Andisols and Mollisols
and include mesic, frigid, and cryic temperature regimes.
Wildlife: Black bear, black-tailed and mule deer, cougar, wolverine, coyote, yellow bellied
marmot, bald eagle, golden eagle, Cooper’s hawk, osprey, coho, chinook, chum, and pink
salmon, rainbow trout, and bull trout.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
•
Land Use/Human Activities: Forestry, recreation, hunting and fishing, and livestock grazing.
Much of the region is in national forest or other public land and some tribal land is located in
this region. Larger cities include Hood River, Bend, Klamath Falls, and Lakeview (OR).
Klamath Mountains
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Location: Between the Cascades and the Coast Range in northwestern California and
southwestern Oregon.
Wilderness Areas included: Kalmiopsis, Wild Rogue, and Red Buttes.
Climate: A mild, mid-latitude Mediterranean climate, marked by warm summers with a lengthy
summer drought period and mild winters is found here. The mean annual temperature ranges
from approximately 5°C at higher elevations to 14°C in valleys and in southern parts of the
region. The frost-free period ranges from 90 days at high elevations to 240 days or more in
lower, warmer areas. The mean annual precipitation is 1438 mm, ranging from about 500 mm in
low dry areas to over 3000 mm on the wetter high mountains.
Vegetation: Vegetal mix of northern Californian and Pacific Northwest conifers and hardwoods.
Mixed conifer forests are common and include Douglas-fir, white fir, incense cedar, tanoak,
Jeffrey pine, Shasta red fir, sugar pine, ponderosa pine, chinkapin, and canyon live oak. In some
lower elevation areas, chaparral and western juniper are common. Oregon oak woodland with
Oregon white oak, madrone, California black oak, ponderosa pine, and grasslands are also
found.
Hydrology: A high density of moderate to high-gradient streams and rivers exists in this region.
Rivers are often deeply incised in canyons; most flow westward. Major rivers include the
Umpqua, Rogue, Illinois, and Klamath. Some glacial lakes are found at high elevations in the
California portion.
Terrain: Rugged, highly dissected and deeply dissected, mountainous terrain with steep slopes
defines this ecoregion. Along with the folded mountains, foothills, terraces, and floodplains also
occur. Elevations range from about 120 m to over 2600 m. The region contains diverse and
complex geology and soils. Paleozoic and Mesozoic marine sandstones and shales, granodiorite,
gabbro, and other intrusive rocks, and volcanic rocks occur. Ultramafic parent material and soils
with scattered areas of serpentinitic soils occur and influence vegetation patterns in some areas.
Inceptisols and Alfisols are common, with mesic and frigid soil temperature regimes and xeric
and some udic moisture regimes.
Wildlife: Black bear, Roosevelt elk, black-tailed deer, cougar, bobcat, coyote, river otter, beaver,
California ground squirrel, peregrine falcon, osprey, red-tailed hawk, northern spotted owl,
California quail, anadromous fish, reptiles, various salamanders and other amphibians.
Land Use/Human Activities: Human related activities include forestry, recreation and tourism,
along with some ranching and grazing. Hay, pasture, and some truck crops are also found in
valley areas. A few mining areas exist. This region contains large areas of national forest land or
other public land. Larger cities and towns include Roseburg, Grants Pass, Medford, and Ashland
(OR) and Yreka and Weaverville (CA).
Coast Range
•
•
Location: Coastal mountains of western Washington, western Oregon, and northwestern
California.
Wilderness Areas included: Colonel Bob, Wonder Mountain, Mount Skokomish (partial), The
Brothers (partial), Buckhorn (partial), Drift Creek, Cummins Creek, Rock Creek, Copper Salmon,
and Grassy Knob.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
•
•
•
•
•
•
Climate: A marine west coast and Mediterranean-type climates, with warm, relatively dry
summers and mild, but very wet winters, define this landscape. The mean annual temperature
ranges from approximately 7°C to 14°C depending upon elevation and latitude. The frost-free
period ranges from 100 to 280 days. The mean annual precipitation is 2149 mm, ranging from
about 1000 mm to over 5000 mm.
Vegetation: Coniferous forests are abundant. Sitka spruce forests and coastal redwood forests
to the south originally dominated the fog-shrouded coast, while a mosaic of western red cedar,
western hemlock, and seral Douglas-fir blanketed inland areas. Today Douglas-fir plantations are
prevalent on the intensively logged and managed landscape. Other species include red alder, big
leaf maple, vine maple, rhododendron, salal, salmonberry, and Oregon grape.
Hydrology: A high density of perennial streams with mostly high to medium gradient. Dendritic
drainages are dominant. Some coastal lakes are found, along with numerous bays and estuaries.
Terrain: Moderately to steeply sloping dissected mountains outline this terrain with some hills
and low mountains. This ecoregion contains coastal headlands, high and low marine terraces,
sand dunes, and beaches. Elevations range from sea level to over 1200 m. Quaternary colluvium
covers much of the Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks or Tertiary volcanic basalts that are
most typical rock types. Soils are typically Inceptisols, Alfisols, and Andisols, with a mesic
temperature, some isomesic along the coast, and some frigid soils at high elevations. Landslides
and debris slides are common.
Wildlife: Black-tailed deer, Roosevelt elk, black bear, cougar, coyote, bobcat, beaver,
Townsend’s mole, northern spotted owl, marbled murrelet, shorebirds and waterfowl, chinook
and coho salmon, and steelhead.
Land Use/Human Activities: Human related activities include forestry and forest product
gathering; recreation and tourism; fishing and hunting, as well as commercial fish and mollusk
processing. Larger cities include Aberdeen (WA) and Astoria, Seaside, Tillamook, Newport, Coos
Bay, and Crescent City (CA).
Northern Rockies
•
•
•
•
•
•
Location: Covers the “Interior Wet Belt” of British Columbia, from the Caribou Mountains in the
north, the Columbia Mountains, Selkirk Mountains, and the Northern Rocky Mountains of
eastern Washington, northern Idaho, and northwest Montana.
Wilderness Areas included: Salmo-Priest.
Climate: Severe mid-latitude climate and is more humid to the north. It is marked by relatively
dry, warm summers and cold, snowy winters. The mean annual temperature ranges from
approximately 0°C to 9°C; the mean summer temperature is 15°C; and the mean winter
temperature is -4°C. The mean annual precipitation is around 1000 mm, ranging from 400 mm
in low, drier valleys to over 2000 mm on high mountains that capture Pacific moisture. Frost free
period ranges from about 30 days to 160 days.
Vegetation: Forests have some maritime influence. Pacific indicators such as western hemlock,
western red cedar, mountain hemlock, and grand fir occur. Douglas-fir, subalpine fir, Englemann
spruce, western larch, lodgepole pine, and ponderosa pine are also typical.
Hydrology: Numerous high gradient perennial streams and rivers are found. Some areas of small
glacial lakes exist and in lower elevation areas there are some large lakes and reservoirs.
Terrain: Rugged topography defines this region with high and low mountains, narrow valleys
and deep canyons. Some high peaks are over 3000 m. Variety of ages and types of igneous and
metamorphic rocks, and some folded sedimentary strata are typical. Inceptisols, Andisols, and
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
•
•
Alfisols are common. Soil temperature regimes include mesic, frigid and cryic. Soil moisture
regimes are typically xeric or udic.
Wildlife: Grizzly bear, black bear, moose, elk, woodland caribou, mountain goat, mule deer,
white-tailed deer, bobcat, cougar, snowshoe hare, grouse, osprey, bald eagle, boreal owl,
Stellar’s jay, gray jay, common raven, mountain bluebird, spotted frog, Pacific tree frog, trout
and salmon.
Land Use/Human Activities: Human related activities include forestry, recreation and tourism,
wildlife habitat, mining, livestock grazing, and some minor farming in valleys. Large areas are in
public lands of national forests or provincial and national parks. Some tribal land exists. Larger
cities include Revelstoke and Nelson (Canada), and Creston, Colville, and Spokane (WA) and
Sandpoint, Coeur d’ Alene, Wallace, Orofino and Kellogg (ID) and Libby, Kalispell, and Polson
(MT).
Puget Lowland
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Location: Located on eastern Vancouver Island and lands adjacent to Strait of Georgia in British
Columbia and along Puget Sound in Washington.
Wilderness Areas included: Buckhorn.
Climate: A mild mid-latitude maritime climate marked by warm dry summers and mild wet
winters. The mean annual temperature is 9°C; the mean summer temperature is 15°C; and the
mean winter temperature is 4°C. The mean annual precipitation is 1223 mm and ranges from
300 mm to over 2500 mm. Frost free period ranges from 150 to 220 days.
Vegetation: Mostly coniferous forests are found here and contain Douglas-fir, western hemlock,
western red cedar, grand fir, red alder, and bigleaf maple. Understories contain salal, Oregon
grape, and moss. Some small areas of oak woodlands exist.
Hydrology: Numerous perennial streams that are mostly low to moderate gradient exist. A few
large lakes are in this region.
Terrain: Mostly broad rolling lowlands, some plains with low mountains define this region. It
occupies a continental glacial trough and is composed of many islands, peninsulas, and bays
along the Strait of Georgia and in the Puget Sound area. Pleistocene glacial drift, Tertiary
continental and marine sediments are found over older volcanics. Inceptisols, Spodosols, and
Andisols are common with mesic soil temperature and xeric and udic soil moisture regimes.
Wildlife: Black-tailed deer, elk, red fox, beaver, otter, bald eagle, turkey vulture, wood duck,
mallard, western sandpiper and other shorebirds, chinook salmon, and steelhead.
Land Use/Human Activities: Human related activities include large urban, suburban, and rural
residential populations, forestry, fishing, recreation and tourism, and some diversified
agriculture. Larger cities include Nanaimo, Victoria and Vancouver (Canada), Bellingham, Mt.
Vernon, Everett, Seattle, Tacoma, Olympia, and Centralia (WA).
Wilderness Characteristics
Table 3-3 presents a summary of the wilderness characteristics which may be affected by air quality. Six
categories of wilderness characteristics are shown including views, flora, fauna, water, soils, and cultural
resources. Most wildernesses describe scenic views, plants, wildlife, fish, lakes or streams as an
important characteristic (indicated by a check mark). Unique soils are also identified in some
wildernesses while cultural resources were not described in any wilderness. A brief description of each
wilderness is also provided on www.wilderness.net.
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Boulder Creek
x
x
x
x
x
Mount Baker
x
x
x
Mount Hood
x
x
x
x
Mount Jefferson
x
x
x
x
Mount Skokomish
x
x
Mount Thielsen
x
x
x
Mount Washington
x
x
x
Mountain Lakes
x
x
Noisy-Diobsud
x
Norse Peak
x
Boulder River
x
x
x
Bridge Creek
x
x
x
Buckhorn
x
Bull of the Woods
x
Clackamas
x
Clearwater
x
Colonel Bob
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Cummins Creek
x
x
x
Diamond Peak
x
Drift Creek
x
x
x
Opal Creek
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
North Fork John
Day
North Fork Umatilla
x
Copper Salmon
x
x
x
x
x
Pasayten
x
x
x
x
Red Buttes
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Eagle Cap
x
x
x
x
Roaring River
x
x
x
Gearhart Mountain
x
x
x
Rock Creek
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Glacier View
x
x
x
x
Rogue-Umpqua
Divide
Salmon-Huckleberry
x
x
x
Goat Rocks
x
x
x
x
Salmo-Priest
x
x
x
x
x
x
Sky Lakes
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Glacier Peak
Grassy Knob
Hells Canyon
Henry M. Jackson
x
x
x
x
x
x
Strawberry
Mountain
Tatoosh
x
The Brothers
Indian Heaven
x
Kalmiopsis
x
Lake Chelan-Sawtooth
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Three Sisters
x
x
x
x
x
Trapper Creek
x
x
x
x
x
Waldo Lake
x
x
x
x
x
Wenaha-Tucannon
x
x
x
x
Wild Rogue
x
Lower White River
Mark O. Hatfield
x
x
Cultural
Resources
Mount Adams
Soils
x
x
Water
x
Wilderness Name
Fauna
x
Flora
x
Black Canyon
Views
Badger Creek
Cultural
Resources
x
Soils
x
Water
Flora
Alpine Lakes
Wilderness Name
Fauna
Views
Table 3-3. Wilderness Characteristics Which May Be Affected by Air Quality
Menagerie
x
x
x
x
x
Middle Santiam
x
x
x
Wild Sky
x
x
x
x
Mill Creek
x
x
x
William O. Douglas
x
x
x
x
Monument Rock
x
x
x
Wonder Mountain
x
x
x
x
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
CHAPTER 4
Air Pollutants
Designing a region-specific wilderness air quality monitoring plan requires an understanding of the
types, amounts, sources of, and expected near future trends. Different pollutants have different effects
on wilderness. For example, ozone may cause injury to trees and vegetation, whereas sulfur may cause
acidification of soils and streams, and Greenhouse gases can cause changes in climate. However, the
amount of pollutants emitted factor into the dose-response relationship between the pollutant and the
receptors. Source location, in combination with meteorological factors determines where the pollutants
will be transported, dispersed, and deposited. Finally, an understanding of the sources of these
pollutants helps air resource managers communicate concerns to the owners and regulatory agencies,
which have the capability or authority to limit emission rates, respectively.
Pollutants of Interest to Wilderness in the Pacific Northwest
There are hundreds of chemicals emitted into the atmosphere which are potentially harmful to
wilderness. Air pollutants may adversely impact wilderness by causing acidification of waters,
decreasing biodiversity, injuring vegetation, reducing growth, reducing visibility, and poisoning food
webs. Additionally, indirect effects of climate-forcing pollutants such as greenhouse gases may
substantially alter ecosystems. Air resource specialists working in the Pacific Northwest have identified
those air pollutants which are likely to have the greatest adverse effect on wilderness areas in this
region. The air pollutants of greatest regional concern to wilderness are nitrogen, sulfur, ozone (O3),
particulate matter (PM), toxics (metals, organic pollutants), and greenhouse gases (GHGs). Each of
these pollutants is discussed below, including their sources, rates of emissions, source locations, and
future trends.
Nitrogen containing compounds are a group of highly reactive gasses which include nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and ammonia (NH3). NOx is emitted from cars, trucks and buses, power plants, and off-road
equipment. Ammonia is emitted from dairy farms, fertilizer application, and decomposition of biological
waste. Excess nitrogen may cause acidification of surface waters, unwanted fertilization resulting in
shifts in community groups and ultimately loss of biodiversity. Furthermore, it reacts with other
chemicals in the atmosphere to form ozone, fine particulates, and haze.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as “oxides of sulfur.” The largest
sources of SO2 emissions are from fossil fuel combustion at power plants and other industrial
facilities. Smaller sources of SO2 emissions include industrial processes such as extracting metal from
ore, and the burning of high sulfur containing fuels by locomotives, large ships, and non-road
equipment. SO2 causes acidification of surface waters, damages sensitive vegetation which can
decrease biodiversity, and when combined with NH3 contributes to the formation of haze.
Ozone (O3) is not usually emitted directly into the air, but at ground-level is created by a chemical
reaction between NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight. Ozone occurs
both in the lower atmosphere where it is considered harmful, and in the stratosphere, where it acts to
reduce ultraviolet radiation arriving at the earth’s surface. Motor vehicle exhaust and industrial
emissions, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents, as well as natural sources emit NOx and VOC that help
form ozone. Ground-level ozone is the primary constituent of smog. Sunlight and hot weather are
favorable to the formation of ozone, but recently, high levels of ozone have been found in rural areas of
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
the inter-mountain west during winter. Many urban areas tend to have high levels of ozone, but even
rural areas are subject to increased ozone levels because wind carries ozone and pollutants that form it
hundreds of miles away from their original sources.
Particulate matter (PM) is a complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets. Particle
pollution is made up of a number of components, including acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), organic
chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles. PM is hazardous to human health when inhaled and
diminishes views by scattering light. It also is a climate forcing pollutant n the form of “black carbon” it
alters the reflectivity of earth’s surface and accelerates the melting rate of glaciers. PM is commonly
grouped into two categories:
•
•
Coarse particles, such as those found near roadways and dusty industries, are larger than 2.5 to
10 micrometers in diameter.
Fine particles, such as those found in smoke and haze, are 2.5 micrometers in diameter and
smaller. These particles can be directly emitted from sources such as forest fires, or they can
form when gases emitted from power plants, industries, and automobiles react in the air.
Greenhouse Gases (GHG) are those gases which trap heat in the atmosphere. Some greenhouse gases,
such as carbon dioxide are emitted to the atmosphere through both natural processes and human
activities. Other greenhouse gases (e.g., fluorinated gases) are created and emitted solely through
human activities. Greenhouse gases are of concern, not because of the direct effects of these pollutants,
but because the indirect effects will cause changes to climate which will cause species to shift north and
to higher elevations and fundamentally rearrange U.S. Ecosystems vii (EPA, 2009). Currently these
effects are realized as extreme whether events, lower accumulation of snowpack, increased rate of
retreat of glaciers, increases in frequency and severity of drought, rising sea levels, planetary shifts in
vegetation and increasing loss of biodiversity. As such, GHGs pose the largest concern of all air
pollutants.
The principal greenhouse gases that enter the atmosphere because of human activities are:
•
•
•
•
Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels
(oil, natural gas, and coal), solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of other
chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon dioxide is also removed from the
atmosphere (or “sequestered”) when it is absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon
cycle.
Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas,
and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices and by the
decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills. Because CH4 has 25 times the global
warming potential as CO2, and huge reserves of CH4 are being released from melting of the
tundra, it could negate any benefit gained by CO2 off sets.
Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities as well
as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride
(SF6) are powerful synthetic greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial
processes. Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes for ozone-depleting substances
(i.e., CFCs, HCFCs, and halons). These gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, but
because they are potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global
Warming Potential gases (High GWP gases).
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Toxic air pollutants: This category of pollutants includes hazardous air pollutants, heavy metals, and
semi-volatile organic compounds.
•
•
•
9
Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) are known or suspected to cause serious health and/or adverse
environmental effects. Examples of HAPs include benzene, which is found in gasoline;
perchlorethlyene, which is emitted from some dry cleaning facilities; and methylene chloride,
which is used as a solvent and paint stripper by a number of industries. Most air toxics originate
from human-made sources, including mobile sources (e.g., cars, trucks, buses) and stationary
sources (e.g., factories, refineries, power plants), as well as indoor sources (e.g., building
materials and activities such as cleaning). The original 189 HAPs identified by EPA are listed at
EPA’s website: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/orig189.html. The list has been modified since its
origin; modifications may also be found on the EPA’s website.
Trace metals such as mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), and zinc (Zn) can
deposit onto soils or surface waters, where they are absorbed by plants and ingested by
animals. As a result, people and other animals at the top of the food chain that eat
contaminated fish or meat are exposed to concentrations that are much higher than the
concentrations in the water, air, or soil. Like humans, animals may experience health problems if
exposed to sufficient quantities of toxic metals over time. Most trace metals are emitted from
mining and smelting activities and from the burning of coal and oil.
Semi-volatile organic compounds (SOCs), as referred to in this document, are those chemicals
which persist in the environment, bioaccumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of
causing adverse effects to human health and the environment. These substances have been
shown to experience long-range transport to regions where they have never been used or
produced, and consequently they pose threats to the environment of the whole globe. They
include current and historic use herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, products of their
degradation, combustion byproducts, industrial use chemicals, and flame retardants. Table 4-1
presents the list of SOCs which have been detected in air, lichens, conifer needles, water, snow,
fish, or sediments in 20 national parks of the western United States viii9. The table also identifies
if currently used SOCs and their common applications. Because many of the wilderness areas in
Region 6 are located near national parks, SOCs are of concern to wilderness.
http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/studies/air_toxics/wacap.cfm
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Table 4-1. Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds
Currently
SOC
Use
Application
Used?
Apples, potatoes, tomatoes and
Endosulfans
Insecticide
Yes
cotton
Fruit and vegetable crops (including
seed treatment), tobacco,
greenhouse vegetables and
Hexachlorocyclohexanes
ornamentals, forestry (including
Insecticide
Yes
(HCHs)
Christmas tree plantations), farm
animal premises, pharmaceutical
treatment of scabies and head lice 10
Dacthal
Herbicide
Yes
Weed control 11
Polycyclic aromatic
Combustion
Yes
Byproduct of combustion
hydrocarbons (PAHs)
byproduct
Insecticide and
Cotton, corn, almonds, and fruit
Chloropyrifos
degradation
Yes
trees, including oranges and apples
product
Dieldrin
Insecticide
No
Agricultural operations
Used as a chemical intermediate and
Hexachlrobenzene
Fungicide
No
a solvent for pesticides
Sold in the U.S. until 1983 as an
Chlordanes
Insecticide
No
insecticide for crops like corn and
citrus and on lawns and gardens
Used in a wide array of products,
including building materials,
Polybrominated dephenyl
Flame retardant
Yes
electronics, furnishings, motor
ethers (PBDEs)
vehicles, airplanes, plastics,
polyurethane foams, and textiles
Widely used as dielectric and
Polychlorinated biphenyls
Industrial use
No
coolant fluids, e.g. in transformers,
(PCBs)
capacitors, and electric motors
Yes, limited
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroet
to disease
Insecticide
Spraying for mosquitoes
hane (DDTs)
vector
control
10
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp?id=754&tid=138#bookmark09
11
http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/ccl/pdfs/reg_determine2/healthadvisory_ccl2reg2_dacthaldegradates_summary.pdf
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Emission Rates
Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ozone, and Particulate Matter
Figure 4- 1 presents a summary of SO2, NOx, NH3, PM2.5, and VOCs (a precursor to ozone) emissions in
Washington and Oregon, as reported for 2008. Emission rates were obtained from the US EPA National
Emission Inventory reporting system. NOx and VOCs (i.e., precursors to ozone) were emitted in the
greatest amounts, whereas SO2 was emitted in the smallest amount. All pollutants, except PM2.5, were
emitted in greater amounts in Washington than Oregon.
Figure 4-1. Emissions Rates of, SO2, NOx, NH3, PM2.5 and VOCs in Washington and Oregon
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission rates were obtained from State GHG reports for the period from 19902008. GHG emissions are reported in units of million metric tons per year of CO2 equivalent
(MMtCO2e). Figure 4-2 illustrates the total GHG emissions in Washington and Oregon, and the
contribution from the major sectors (transportation, residential and commercial, industrial, and
agricultural). In 2008, Washington emitted approximately 101.1 MMtCO2e, with the largest amount
emitted by the transportation sector. During the same period, Oregon emitted 66.2 MMtCO2e, with the
largest contribution from the transportation sector as well. The agricultural sector contributed the
smallest amount of GHG emissions from the four major sectors.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Figure 4-2. Greenhouse Gas Emissions by State and Sector
Air Toxics
Table 4-2 lists the HAPs emitted in Washington and Oregon in 2010. Only those HAPs with quantities
greater than 10 tons per year (tpy) per state 12 are shown. The HAPs emitted in the largest quantities
(greater than 1,000 tpy in a state) are ammonia, certain glycol ethers, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen
fluoride, methanol, methyl isobutyl ketone, nitric acid, phenol, styrene, toluene, and xylene. More than
74,000 tpy of HAPs were released into the air in each state in 2010 (not including non-reporting sources.
Currently, there are no comprehensive records of SOC emissions within the region. In 2007, Oregon
required reporting of pesticide use under the Pesticide Use and Reporting (PURS) program. According to
the 2007 PURS data, approximately 5,732 pesticide applicators filed 284,984 reports of pesticide use.
12
Ten tons/year represents the minimum emission threshold for a single listed HAP per federal
operating permit conditions. Source: EPA’s Toxic Release Inventory http://www.epa.gov/tri/. The TRI
includes emissions from the following sources: manufacturing, metal mining, coal mining, electrical
utilities which combust coal or oil, hazardous waste treatment and disposal facilities, chemical
wholesalers, petroleum terminals and build stations, solvent recovery facilities, and federal facilities
which manufacture or process large quantities of chemicals.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
This report identified 20,237 tons) of active ingredient pesticides used in Oregon. This included
approximately 551 active ingredients. The top five active ingredients, by pounds, for the entire state
were: metam-sodium (42%), glyphosate (9%), copper naphthenate (7%) [wood preservative], 1,3dichloropropene (5%), and aliphatic petroleum hydrocarbons (4%).
Table 4-2. Hazardous Air Pollutants Released into the Atmosphere in 2010 in tons/year
Chemical Name
OR
WA
Chemical Name
Manganese
11
58
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene
Compounds
665
717
Acetaldehyde
Mercury Compounds
17,444
11,368
Ammonia
Methanol
45
2
Barium Compounds
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
19
124
Benzene
Naphthalene
145
2,481
Certain Glycol Ethers
N-Butyl Alcohol
54
8
Chlorine
N-Hexane
133
5
Chlorine Dioxide
Nickel
36
10
Chromium
Nitrate Compounds
2
18
Copper
Nitric Acid
N-Methyl-21
21
Copper Compounds
Pyrrolidone
64
32
Cresol (Mixed Isomers)
Phenol
Polycyclic Aromatic
3
51
Cyclohexane
Compounds
66
135
Ethylbenzene
Styrene
14
2
Ethylene Glycol
Sulfuric Acid
805
714
Formaldehyde
Tetrachloroethylene
3,032
5,833
Hydrochloric Acid
Toluene
319
3,238
Hydrogen Fluroride
Trichloroethylene
24
30
Lead
Triethylamine
43
60
Lead Compounds
Xylene (Mixed Isomers)
10
21
Manganese
Zinc Compounds
22,935
24,928
Sub-Total
Sub-Total
74,665
Grand Total (OR)
Grand Total (WA)
Note: Totals include chemicals not shown in quantities less than 10 tpy
OR
WA
53
19
10
40,082
1,479
21
372
99
39
20
1,056
2
57,709
51
61
764
307
12
99
157
36
48
1,127
1,191
190
37
2,479
2,823
186
467
38
1
1,589
2,458
242
2
19
0
2,492
1,372
64
141
51,693
67,721
92,679
Regional Sources of Air Pollution
Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ozone, and Particulate Matter
Emission sources are commonly categorized into source sectors or source types. Source sectors refer to
different economic sectors including transportation, energy, agricultural, and waste management.
Source types refer to categories of sources, such as mobile sources, stationary sources, and area
sources. Mobile sources may be further divided into those which move on roads, e.g., cars and trucks,
and those not on roads, such as ships and trains. Stationary sources are those sources most commonly
associated with industrial smoke stack including power plants, oil refineries, and cement plants. These
are also the most regulated of all the source types in which information is most readily available about
pollutants emission rates. Area sources are those small but numerous sources which are best quantified
over an area, rather than individually, for example, backyard barbeques and residential heating.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
The largest sources of these emissions are shown in Table 4-3 (i.e., those source categories with greater
than 10,000 tpy). The main source sectors contributing to air pollution in the region are agricultural,
transportation, electric power generation, residential heating with wood and solvent use.
Table 4-3. Sources of NOx, SO2, PM2.5, NH3, and VOCs
Source Sector
Source Type
Pollutant
Electrical power generation
Coal combustion
On-road diesel-powered heavy duty vehicles
On-road gasoline-powered light duty vehicles
NOx
Mobile sources
Locomotives
Commercial marine vessels
Non-road diesel-powered equipment
SO2
Electrical power generation
Coal combustion
Mobile sources
Commercial marine vessels
Fuel combustion
Residential wood burning
PM 2.5
NH3
Agricultural
Mobile sources
Mobile sources
VOCs
Fertilizer application
Livestock waste
On-road light duty gasoline vehicles
On-road gasoline-powered light duty vehicles
Non-road gasoline-powered equipment
Solvent
Consumer and commercial use
Fuel combustion
Residential wood burning
Greenhouse Gases
Although greenhouse gases are recognized as a global problem, the US is one of the largest contributing
countries. Table 4-4 presents the largest regional sources of GHGs by source sector and source type
(note: only sources emitting greater than 1 million metric tons CO2 equivalent are included). The
transportation, energy, and waste management sectors emit the largest amounts of GHGs in the region.
Pollutant
GHGs
Table 4-4. Regional Sources of Greenhouse Gases
Source Sector
Source Type
Transportation
Combustion of petroleum
Residential, commercial
Electricity use
Industrial
Electricity use
Waste management
Enteric fermentation
Air Toxics
Industrial sources subject to state and federal permitting rules are the only sources which are required
to report their release of HAPs. Toxic metals are known to be emitted from mining, smelting, cement
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manufacturing, aluminum plants, and combustion of coal and oil. Agriculture is the largest source
category of semi-volatile organic compounds.
Source Locations
Figure 4-3 illustrates the location of existing sources of air pollution and public lands in the Pacific
Northwest. ix Most of the region’s industry is concentrated in the Puget Sound, which includes six oil
refineries, three cement plants, and four pulp and paper mills. Pulp and paper mills are also located
along the lower Columbia River, the Willamette Valley, along the Oregon and Washington coast, and in
the eastern portion of the region in Spokane, Wallula, and Lewiston, Idaho. These facilities are typically
large emitters of NOx, SO2, and PM10.
Urban areas are also known sources of air pollution due to the concentration of automobile traffic and
industry. The majority of urban areas are located along the I-5 corridor between Vancouver, BC and
Eugene, OR.
There are two coal-fired power plants in the region. TransAlta LLC operates two 702.5 megawatt (MW)
coal-fired boilers at its Centralia, WA power plant. Portland General Electric (PGE) operates a 617 MW
coal-fired power plant in Boardman, OR. These facilities historically have been the largest source of SO2,
NOx, and other pollutants in the region. However, between 2001 and 2002, TransAlta installed
scrubbers which reduced SO2 emissions by 90 percent. Both of these sources will cease burning coal by
2025.
Other significant sources of air pollution include the Ash Grove cement plant in Durkee, OR which is the
largest single stationary source of mercury emissions in the Pacific Northwest. Ash Grove has been
upgrading its facility to comply with state mercury regulations, which are stricter than the federal
standards. Teck Cominco Metals LLC operates a smelter in Trail British Columbia, a known source of
emissions of heavy metals.
The agricultural areas are shown in red in Figure 4-3 and are particularly prevalent in the Willamette
Valley, and the interior Columbia River Basin. Figure 4-4 illustrates that these regions represent some of
the highest use of Endosulfan in the country. x Endosulfan is a known endocrine disruptor, which
primarily affects fish.
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Figure 4-3. Air Pollution Sources and Public Lands in the Pacific Northwest
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Figure 4-4. Average Annual Use of Endosulfan in 2002
Deposition, Concentration and Distribution
Nitrogen
Figure 4-5 illustrates the amount of total nitrogen deposition in the Pacific Northwest expressed in units
of kilograms per hectare per year (kg/ha-yr). The deposition rates were obtained from model predicted
values obtained from the US EPA using emission rates from the 2002 national emissions inventory. xi The
highest deposition rates (5-10 kg/ha-yr) occur near the western end of wilderness areas located nearest
the Puget Sound and south along the I-5 cooridor south through Portland/Vancouver , Salem, and
Eugene. Additionally, there’s a small area of high deposition on the eastern end of the Pasayten
Wilderness. The lowest deposition amounts occur in southeastern Oregon.
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Figure 4-5. Model-Predicted Total Nitrogen Deposition Rates for the Pacific Northwest
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Sulfur
Figure 4-6 illustrates the amount of total sulfur deposition in the Pacific Northwest expressed in units of
kg/ha-yr. The deposition rates were obtained from model predicted values obtained from the US EPA
using emission rates from the 2002 national emissions inventory. xii The highest deposition rates of
sulfur (5-10 kg/ha-yr) occur near the western end of wilderness areas located on the crest of the
Cascade Mountains, in the Olympic peninsula, and along the Oregon Coast. Sulfur deposition is much
lower on the east side of the Cascades.
Figure 4-6. Model-estimated Total Sulfur Deposition in the Pacific Northwest
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Ozone
Ambient ozone concentrations are used to indicate locations where exposure to ozone may exceed
empirical thresholds for sensitive species. Exposure is typically characterized over the growing season,
when plant stomata are open, allowing the pollutant to enter into the plant. During drought conditions,
stomata close, so while a plant may be exposed to ozone, it does not necessarily imply that the plant
dosage is equivalent.
Two exposure metrics are used to estimate the likelihood ozone injury and/or biomass loss to sensitive
plants. These are the N100 and the W126 as defined below.
N100: the number of hours when the measured ozone concentration is greater than or equal to 0.100
parts per million (ppm).
W126: a cumulative exposure index that is biologically based, and places more weight on the higher
hourly average concentrations, while retaining the mid-and lower-level values.
Experimental trials with a frequent number of peaks (hourly averages greater than or equal to 0.100
ppm) have been demonstrated to cause greater growth loss to vegetation than trials with no peaks in
the exposure regime (Hogsett et al., 1985; Musselman et al., 1983; Musselman et al., 2006; and
Musselman et al., 1986).
The second statistic is the seasonal ozone exposure called the W126 (Lefohn and Runeckles, 1987). The
W126 was developed as a biologically meaningful way to summarize hourly average ozone data. The
W126 places a greater weight on the measured values as the concentrations increase. It is possible for a
high W126 value to occur with few to no hours above 0.100 ppm.
When these two metrics are combined, the information can be used, along with soil moisture data
(Lefohn et al., 1997), to predict where vegetation has the greatest risk from suffering from biomass
(growth) reductions. It should also be noted the lack of N100 values does not mean ozone symptoms
will not be present when field surveys are conducted. The use of both the N100 and W126 is consistent
with the recommendations of the Federal Land Manager Air Quality Related Values Workgroup (FLAG,
2002).
Figure 4-7 illustrates the W126 ozone metric for 2008 for the Pacific Northwest as interpolated using
krigging from observations in 2008. xiii The monitoring stations are illustrated by the small dots. The
figure illustrates that the wilderness areas in southern Oregon and Hells Canyon have the highest
seasonal ozone exposure expressed as W126 metric.
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Figure 4-7. W126 Ozone exposure in 2008 for the Pacific Northwest
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Figure 4-8. N100 Ozone Values in 2008
Figure 4-8 illustrates N100 ozone metric for the Pacific Northwest. Highest N100 values are all less. The
highest values occur near the California border in Central Oregon, south of the Gearhart wilderness, and
in the wilderness areas southwest of Seattle in the Washington Cascades, and in the Oregon Cascades.
Particulate Matter
Figure 4-9 illustrates the spatial distribution of the annual mean fine particulate matter (PM2.5) as
measured by the IMPROVE monitoring network. xiv The Pacific Northwest has some of the lowest mean
PM2.5 concentrations in the US. The coastal areas and east of the Cascades have slightly higher mean
PM2.5 concentrations as compared with the Cascades. Additionally, the east end of the Columbia River
Gorge also has relatively higher PM2.5 concentrations than the rest of the region.
Short-term periods of very high PM2.5 concentrations often occur associated with fires. The location
and timing vary greatly, thus are not shown.
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Figure 4-9. IMPROVE (Rural) 2005–2008 PM2.5
Annual Mean Gravimetric Fine Mass (FM) Concentrations (μg m-3)
Air Toxics
Figure 4-10 illustrates total mercury wet deposition as measured by the National Atmospheric
Deposition Program in 2010. xv The small black dots indicate the monitoring sites. There were only three
monitoring sites in the Pacific Northwest from which the data were interpolated. The high resolution of
the deposition rates is due to the combining of the mercury deposition measurements at individual sites
with PRISM interpolated precipitation data.
Wilderness sites located in the Olympic Peninsula, the Coastal Range, the northern Oregon and
Washington Cascade Mountains and the Blue Mountains all have relatively higher amounts of mercury
deposition than other sites in the Pacific Northwest and at nearly the same amount as the highest
deposition locations anywhere within the US.
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Figure 4-10. Mercury Deposition
Greenhouse Gases
Figure 4-11 illustrates the mean CO2 concentrations measured at the Mauna Loa observatory. The
carbon dioxide data (red curve) measured as the mole fraction in dry air on Mauna Loa, constitute the
longest record of direct measurements of CO2 in the atmosphere. They were started by C. David Keeling
of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in March of 1958 at a facility of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration [Keeling, 1976]. NOAA started its own CO2 measurements in May of 1974,
and they have run in parallel with those made by Scripps since then [Thoning, 1989]. The black curve
represents the seasonally corrected data. Data are reported as a dry mole fraction defined as the
number of molecules of carbon dioxide divided by the number of molecules of dry air multiplied by one
million (ppm). As of April 2012, monthly mean CO2 concentration was 394 ppm.
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Figure 4-11. Atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory
(http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/)
Future Air Pollution Emissions
The main drivers of regional air pollution emissions are population, economic growth, technological
change, land-use activities and regulations. Population growth increases air pollution rates as more
people use automobiles, heat their homes and require energy for electricity. The population of Oregon
and Washington has been increasing between 7 and 21 percent between 1980 and 2010 (US Census
Bureau), and is expected to continue to increase. Economic growth continues to struggle in both states,
thus exerting a downward pressure on emission rates. Technological changes in the energy and
transportation sectors are occurring as renewable energy and biofuels are replacing fossil fuels. Land
use changes in western Oregon and western Washington will most likely occur on lands closer to
existing population centers and the rate of conversion will increase with the size of those population
centers xvi. However, as discussed later in this section, the changes due to increases in GHGs also have a
significant effect on air quality.
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Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ozone, and Particulate Matter
Nitrogen, sulfur, and particulate matter are the pollutants which are most readily controlled from
industrial and mobile sources. Regulatory response to scientific studies and the public’s desire for clean
air is exerting continual pressure on air pollution sources to reduce their emissions. Regional emissions
of these pollutants are expected to decrease in the next 15 years xvii. The region’s two coal-fired power
plants are scheduled to shut down by 2025 or sooner. Automobile emissions of NOx are expected to
decrease with the new fuel standards xviii. NOx and SO2 emissions from large ocean vessels and ships are
expected to decrease to meet the International Maritime Organization standards for Emission Control
Areas within 200 miles of the US Coastline xixxx. Regional estimates of emissions have shown that sulfur is
expected to continue to decrease. Nitrogen emissions are expected to decrease, but to a lesser extent
than sulfur. Particulate matter is expected to increase during periods of fire, but otherwise the trend is
unclear.
Greenhouse Gases
Surface air concentrations of air pollutants are highly sensitive to winds, temperature, humidity, and
precipitation. Climate change can be expected to influence the concentration and distribution of air
pollutants through a variety of direct and indirect processes, including the modification of biogenic
emissions, the change in chemical reaction rates, wash-out of pollutants by precipitation, and
modification of weather patterns that influence pollutant buildup. In summarizing the impact of climate
change on ozone and particulate matter, the International Panel on Climate Change xxi (IPCC) states that
future climate change may cause significant air quality degradation by changing the dispersion rate of
pollutants, the chemical environment for ozone and PM generation via emissions from the biosphere,
fires, and dust (EPA, 2009).
According to the Oregon Global Warming Commission (www.keeporegoncool.org/content/oregonsclimate), scientists expect average temperatures in the Pacific Northwest to continue to rise in response
to global climate change, by at least 1.5° F and as much as 2.7° F by 2030 and 5.4° F by 2050, with some
areas increasing much more and others changing more slowly. These projected increases are likely to
result in longer growing and fire seasons (and more fuel for fires), earlier animal and plant breeding, a
longer and more intense allergy season and broad ecosystem disruption. Precipitation changes are very
uncertain, but most precipitation will continue to arrive in the winter. Lower summer precipitation and
earlier peak stream flow will mean less water available for summer use, the risk of higher and more
intense flooding, and decreased water quality due to higher temperatures, pollutant concentration, and
increased salinity in coastal areas.
According to the IPCC, it is very likely that heat waves globally will become more intense, more frequent,
and longer lasting in a future warm climate, whereas cold episodes are projected to decrease
significantly (Meehl, G.A. et al., 2007). Meehl et al. (2007) report on a study finding that the pattern of
future changes in heat waves, with greatest intensity increases over western Europe, the
Mediterranean, and the southeast and western United States, is related in part to circulation changes
resulting from an increase in GHGs.
Based upon the above information, ozone and particulate matter are expected to increase with
increased warming during the summer, likely during periods of heat waves. Ozone concentrations are
expected to increase during these periods due to (1) temperature dependent biogenic VOC emissions,
(2) thermal decomposition of peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN), which acts as a reservoir for NOx, and (3)
association of high temperatures with regional air stagnation. Additionally, smoke is likely to increase as
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a result of increased fire activity. These higher PM and ozone episodes are likely to occur during
summer and early autumn, when visitor frequency to wilderness areas is likely to be near maximum.
Air Toxics
With increased regulatory restrictions and pollution prevention efforts, emissions of air toxics are likely
to decrease in the future, but because of their persistent nature, they remain of concern. The US EPA
continues to develop regulations to reduce the release of HAPs through the implementation of
Maximum Achievable Control Technology requirements (MACT) for new and modified sources.
Additionally, environmentally harmful persistent organic are gradually being phased out worldwide
through international efforts such as the Stockholm Treaty on Persistent Organic Pollutants
(http://chm.pops.int )and EPA’s Pesticide Program (http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/index.htm).
Nevertheless, many persistent organic compounds remain of concern, long after their elimination. The
persistent organic compounds may remain in the environment for decades. Additionally, they tend to
migrate towards colder climates such as north and at higher elevations where many wilderness areas
are located. Because they bio-accumulate in the food web and subsequently accumulate in fatty tissue,
they continue to pose a relatively unmonitored and unevaluated health risk to top predators.
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CHAPTER 5
Wilderness Air Quality Values and Sensitive
Receptors
The goal for demonstrating the minimum level of stewardship expected for the air quality element of
the 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge is to monitor wilderness air quality values and establish a
baseline.
Air pollution may cause undesired effects on several areas of forest ecosystems, including visibility,
flora, soils, water, fauna, and cultural resources. These general categories of features or properties of
wilderness that are affected in some way by air pollution are referred to as Wilderness Air Quality
Values (WAQVs). Table 5.1 presents a summary of the potential effects of air pollutants to WAQVs.
The effect of a given air pollutant on a WAQV is dependent upon several factors, including the
magnitude and duration of exposure or deposition of a pollutant, the sensitivity of a given
environmental receptor, buffering capacity of the ecosystem, and other existing stresses (e.g., insects
and disease). The characteristic of a WAQV that is first modified by air pollution is referred to as a
sensitive receptor. A sensitive receptor indicator is a measurable quality of a sensitive receptor that
responds to air pollution, thus the focus of monitoring efforts. Details about the potential effects of air
pollution on each WAQV, a list of WAQV-specific sensitive receptors, and sensitive receptor indicators
are presented in the following section.
The term critical load is used to describe the threshold of air pollution deposition that causes harm to
sensitive resources in an ecosystem. A critical load is technically defined as “the quantitative estimate of
exposure to one or more pollutants below which significant harmful effects on specified sensitive
elements of the environment are not expected to occur according to present knowledge”. Critical loads
are usually expressed in units of kilograms per hectare per year (kg/ha-yr) of wet or total (wet + dry)
deposition. Critical loads can be developed for a variety of ecosystem responses, including shifts in
microscopic aquatic species, increases in invasive grass species, changes in soil chemistry, increases in
invasive grass species, changes in soil chemistry affecting tree growth and lake and stream acidification
to levels that can no longer support fish. When critical loads are exceeded, the environmental effects
can extend over great distances. For example, excess nitrogen can change soil and surface water
chemistry, which in turn can cause eutrophication of downstream estuaries. Critical loads are further
discussed in the following sections. For more information about critical loads, visit
http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/clean_air_water/clean_water/critical_loads/
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Table 5-1. Potential Effects of Air Pollution on Wilderness Air Quality Values
Wilderness
Air Quality
Value
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Ozone
PM
Toxics
GHGs
Visibility
Aerosol
formation
Aerosol
formation
Increases the
rate of
formation of
acid aerosols
Scatters
light
No known
effects
Increase
formation of
ozone during
heat waves
Flora
Nutrient
enrichment
and loss of
biodiversity
Visible injury to
acute exposure
No known
effects
Visible injury to
acute exposure
Shifts in
distribution of
vegetation &
loss of
biodiversity
Soils
Acidification
and
fertilization
Acidification,
decreased
fertility,
increased Al
toxicity,
microbial
shifts, and loss
of biodiversity
Visibility injury
to
leaves/needles.
Loss of
biomass
No known
effects
No known
effects
Accumulation of
metals toxic to
soil biota and
plants.
Alterations of
soil moisture
and microbial
activity
Water
Alterations in
nutrient
loading
Increased
acidity
No known
effects
Accelerated
melting of
glaciers
Accumulation in
aquatic
ecosystems
Loss of glaciers,
alterations in
runoff, and
frequency of
extreme events
Fauna
Indirect
effects due
to changes to
flora
Increased
acidity
resulting in loss
of biodiversity
of aquatic
species
No known
effects
No known
effects
Bioaccumulation
of metals
Shifts in
distribution
Cultural
Resources
Deterioration
of
petroglyphs
from acid
deposition
and
ammonia
Deterioration
of petroglyphs
from acid
deposition
No known
effects
No known
effects
No known
effects
Increased
weathering
rates
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Visibility
Effects of Air Pollution
Fine particulate pollution affects visibility by scattering light between a visitor and a landscape feature of
interest. This attenuation of light out of and into the viewer’s line of sight alters the color and contrast
of the spectacular views most of us expect in wilderness areas. When the source of particulate and its
precursors is caused by multiple sources from distant locations, the diminished visibility is referred to as
regional haze.
Nitrogen also affects visibility indirectly through the formation of secondary particles (i.e., those formed
through chemical and physical transformations in the atmosphere). Nitrogen-containing pollutants such
as NOx, HNO3 (nitric acid), and NH3 (ammonia) are significant contributors to winter haze, particularly
east of the Cascades. The ammonium nitrate particle is hygroscopic, thus under high humidity
conditions, it becomes a very efficient light scattering particle, thus very effective at causing haze.
Sulfur affects visibility through the formation of the ammonium sulfate particle. When combined with
an oxidant such as ozone, sulfur dioxide (SO2) is converted to sulfuric acid (HSO4), when then combines
with NH3 to form the ammonium sulfate particle, which effectively scatters light, thus causing haze.
Sensitive Receptors and Indicators
Diminished scenic views for wilderness visitors are the primary sensitive receptor. This may occur either
due to plume blight or reduced color or contrast of a scenic vista. For additional information on plume
blight or regional haze, refer to the Forest Service Air Resource Management Program website at
http://www.fs.fed.us/air/source01.htm
Aerosols collected and analyzed by the IMPROVE (Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual
Environments) are used to quantify the amount of visibility occurring on a given day, and also provide
information on the chemical composition of the haze-causing aerosols. These monitors collect aerosols
over a 24-hour period once every three days. Using a whole year of data, various statistical metrics are
used to indicate the overall visibility condition of the air shed. The most commonly used metrics are the
mean of the 20 percent best days, the mean of the 20 percent worst-case days, and the annual average.
Statistically significant changes in these metrics are good indicators of improvement or worsening of
conditions.
Flora
Effects of Air Pollution
Plants can be impacted by air pollution either directly, through respiration, or indirectly, through the
process of nutrient uptake from the soil. Some of these pollutants are naturally occurring nutrients such
as nitrogen. However, when the natural cycles are altered by anthropogenic sources of air pollution,
then the ecosystem is likely to respond accordingly to these alternations.
Nitrogen is a macronutrient, necessary for all plant life. But in wilderness, excess nitrogen deposition
may cause shifts favoring weedy species (i.e., nitrogen-tolerant species) over natural species (some of
which are less tolerant of nitrogen). Given sufficient increases in nitrogen deposition, a loss of
biodiversity may eventually occur. In aquatic ecosystems, excess nitrogen deposition may cause shifts in
diatoms and algal communities, potentially contributing to increases in toxic algal blooms.
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Sulfur dioxide may directly or indirectly affect flora. Direct exposure to acute concentrations of sulfur
dioxide adversely affect photosynthesis in all plants by interfering with key enzymes, reducing growth
rates and causing necrotic features in angiosperms. xxii Gymnosperm needles develop a water-soaked
appearance and typically turn reddish-brown in color. Indirectly, sulfur dioxide may alter plant growth
through nutrient leaching of soils. Acidic form of nitrogen and sulfur can also erode waxy cuticles of
plants.
Ozone is one of the most toxic air pollutants to plants. It causes considerable damage to vegetation
throughout the world. Plants are generally more sensitive to ozone than humans. Many native plants in
natural ecosystems are sensitive to ozone. The effects of ozone range from visible injury to the leaves
and needles of deciduous trees and conifers to premature leaf loss, reduced photosynthesis, and
reduced growth in sensitive plant species. Other factors, such as soil moisture, presence of other air
pollutants, insects or diseases, genetics, or topographical locations can lessen or magnify the extent of
ozone injury. Ozone also has the potential to alter species composition and influence pest interactions,
such as predisposing trees to bark beetle. xxiii
Particulate matter is not known to have any adverse impacts on plants. When deposited on the leaves
of plants, it is typically removed by the next precipitation event.
There are several pollutants known to be toxic to plants. Douglas fir and ponderosa pine are relatively
sensitive to fluoride, which causes foliar “tip burn.” All trace metals may be toxic to trees if present in
sufficient concentrations. Trace metals identified as having especially high potential to acutely injure
trees because of widespread distribution or intensive local release as a result of anthropogenic activities
include cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper lead, mercury, nickel, thallium, vanadium, and zinc.
Symptoms of toxicity due to trace metals include interveinal chlorosis, stunted foliage size, loss of leaf
turgor, wilting, and death.
Greenhouse gases are expected to alter the distribution of native species (including local extinctions) of
ecosystems of the Northwestern United States. xxiv Additionally, more frequent and intense wildfires and
increase in insect pest outbreaks and invasive species are also expected.
Sensitive Receptors and Indicators
Lichens
Two properties make lichens useful air quality indicators: (1) They are especially sensitive to some
important pollutants, and (2) they concentrate many pollutants in proportion to environmental
availability. xxv The first property demonstrates that air pollution is causing environmental harm by
harming sensitive lichens and warns of incipient broader ecological effects. Both properties make them
useful for indicating relative pollution levels over geographic space and time. Physical and physiological
characteristics of lichens explain these properties.
Lichens have no protective cuticles, guard cells, or specialized tissue to serve as a barrier to or
containment of atmospheric pollutants. Lacking roots, lichens, especially epiphytic lichens, largely obtain
nutrients and contaminants from the atmosphere. When wetted, pollutants deposited to their surface
as gases, vapors, or fine particles dissolve and are absorbed, along with the wash from canopy leaves
and branches. Continued precipitation can dilute and leach the pollutants, creating a dynamic
equilibrium between accumulation and leaching. For mobile elements needed for nutrients like nitrogen
and sulfur, the dynamic equilibrium between accumulation and leaching is achieved over a period of
weeks to months. For some metals like cadmium, lead, and chromium which bind tightly to cell walls,
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the equilibrium could take years. Lichen algal and cyanobacteria partners are especially vulnerable to
pollutants like sulfur dioxide, ammonia, fluorine, and nitric and sulfuric acids. These reactive gases and
acids harm essential processes like photosynthesis and respiration by altering enzyme activity, oxidizing
photosynthetic pigments, and physically compromising cellular ultrastructure or membrane integrity.
The following analyses are used by the USDA Forest Service Region 6 air program and FIA program as
indicators of air pollution on lichens:
1. Community analyses yield the most comprehensive ecological assessment of air pollution
effects, but require sophisticated statistical techniques to separate pollution from other
environmental influences on lichen community composition. Regional gradient models of the
USDA FIA Lichen Indicator differentiate lichen community responses to air pollution and climate
from other environmental variables. Systematically sampled survey data can be scored along air
pollution and climate gradients and used to assess conditions and monitor change across
forested land. Gradient models and initial assessments are complete for western Oregon and
Washington and are being developed for eastern Oregon and Washington. xxvi
2. Chemical analysis of lichen thalli can be used to track virtually any element or compound that
lichens absorb and the concentration of those elements or compounds. Repeat measurements
of mercury in lichens can track suspected regional increases or decreases in any element.
Elements typically analyzed in lichens include nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous, cadmium,
chromium, lead, mercury, nickel, titanium vanadium, and zinc. However, lichens have been
analyzed for semi-volatile organic pollutants including pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyl, and
poly-cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Declines of nitrogen-sensitive lichen species have been observed in several ecoregions within the Pacific
Northwest. Sensitive lichen species of 20 - 40% were associated with critical loads of 1 – 4 and 3- 9
kg/ha-yr in wet and total deposition. CLs increased with precipitation across the landscape, presumably
from dilution or leaching of depositional N xxvii. Critical loads for lichens response to nitrogen deposition
have also been identified for three Level I ecoregions within the Pacific Northwest: Marine West Coast
Forest: 2.7 – 9.2 kg/ha-yr; Northwest Forested Mountains 2.5 -7.1 kg/ha-yr; and for North American
Deserts: 3.0 kg/ha-yr xxviii.
Lichens are also known to be sensitive to sulfur dioxide concentrations. The most sensitive lichen
species may be at risk at prologued exposure to SO2 above 5-15 ppb. xxix This is equivalent to a
deposition rate of 20.64 kg SO2/ha-yr, following the IWAQM Phase I recommendations for converting
concentrations to deposition rates. xxx
Ozone Sensitive Plants
Plant species sensitive to ozone are useful bioindicators only with a clear description of injury symptoms
and at least some measure of air pollution exposure. xxxi Symptoms of ozone injury include foliar injury,
premature defoliation, and growth loss. On ponderosa pine, chlorotic mottle is evident on the needles
which appear as discoloration of the needles as spots or continuous reddening under more severe
exposure.
The USDA Forest Service has been monitoring ozone sensitive plant species in the Pacific Northwest
since the 1990s. xxxii Table 5-2 provides a summary of ozone plant species used as bio-indicators for
Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) ozone bio-monitoring in California, Oregon, and Washington.
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Table 5-2. Ozone Sensitive Plant Species used as Bio-indicators
Common Name
Scientific Name
Blue elderberry
Sambucus mexicana Presl.
Evening primrose
Oenotherea elata Kunth.
Jeffrey pine
Pinus jeffreyi Grev. And Balf.
Douglas’ sagewort
Artemisia douglasiana Bess. Ex Hook.
Ninebark
Physocarpus malvaceus (Greene) Kuntze.
Pacific ninebark
Physocarpus capitatus (Pursh) Kuntze
Ponderosa pine
Pinus ponderosa P. & C. Lawson var. ponderosa.
Quaking aspen
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Red alder
Alnus rubra Bong.
Red elderberry
Sambucus racemosa L.
Scouler’s willow
Salix scouleriana Barratt ex. Hook.
Skunkbush
Rhus trilobata Nutt.
Common Snowberry
Symphoricarpos albus (L.) S.F. Blake
Western wormwood Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt.
Thinleaf huckleberry
Vaccinium membranaceum Dougl.
Ozone exposure associated with injury to plants is frequently characterized through two metrics. The
W126 metric is a cumulative index of exposure that uses a sigmoidal weighting function to give added
significance to higher concentrations of ozone, while retaining and giving less weight to mid and lowers
concentrations. The W126 index is expressed in cumulative ppm-hr.
The N100 metric characterizes the number of hours specific location experiences ozone concentrations
greater than 100 ppb during the year. Table 5-3 presents a summary of combined W126 and N100
metrics above which injury or reduced growth may occur to plant species, depending upon the
sensitivity of the species, assuming stomata opening. xxxiii Ponderosa Pine and Quaking Aspen are two
species considered highly sensitive to ozone.
Table 5-3. Ozone Exposure Metrics Associated with Injury or Reduced Growth
Metric
W126
N100
Highly Sensitive Species
5.9 ppm-hr
6
Moderately Sensitive Species
23.8 ppm-hr
51
Low Sensitivity
66.6 ppm-hr
135
Observed injury to ozone sensitive plants in combination with ambient ozone monitoring data has been
used to interpolate across the landscape to assess the risk of flora to ozone damage. xxxiv
Ozone sensitive plants must be inspected at selected sites, preferably on a grid to ensure spatial for
suspected ozone injury. Specimens are sent to an ozone expert for validation of the injury. A biosite
index is calculated from the amount and severity of injury for each evaluated plant. Ozone exposure
must also be estimated using measurements of ambient ozone measurements, interpolated across the
landscape. The combination of site injury and ambient ozone concentrations may be used to create risk
maps across the region.
Currently, there are very limited ozone measurements representative of wilderness. Efforts are needed
to collect ambient ozone concentrations to improve the spatial representativeness of the existing
datasets.
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Soils
Effects of Air Pollution
Forest ecosystems that are naturally sensitive to acid deposition are generally characterized by low rates
of weathering and generally low quantities of available base cations (i.e., calcium, magnesium, sodium,
and potassium). xxxv Under conditions of elevated inputs of acidic deposition and subsequent transport
of sulfate and nitrate in drainage waters, nutrient cations will be displaced from available pools and
leached from soil. This condition is not problematic for areas with high weathering rates and high pools
of available nutrient cations. However, over the past century, acidic deposition has accelerated the loss
of large amounts of available calcium and magnesium from the soil in acid-sensitive areas. Depletion
occurs when base cations are displaced from the soil by acidic deposition at a rate faster than they can
be replenished by the slow breakdown of rocks or the deposition of base cations from the atmosphere.
This depletion of base cations fundamentally alters soil processes, compromises the nutrition of some
trees, and hinders the capacity for sensitive soils to recover from inputs of acidic deposition.
Dissolved inorganic aluminum is often released from soil to soil water, vegetation, lakes, and streams, in
forested regions with high acid deposition, low stores of available calcium, high soil acidity, and limited
watershed retention of atmospheric inputs of sulfate and/or nitrate. High concentrations of dissolved
inorganic aluminum can be toxic to plants, fish, and other organisms.
Acidic deposition results in the accumulation of sulfur and nitrogen in forest soils. As sulfates (SO42-) and
nitrates (NO3-) anions are deposited, base cations formed from the weathering of rock (e.g., Mg2+ , Ca2+)
neutralizes the acids. As base cations are depleted at a greater rate than they are replenished, the acid
neutralization capacity (ANC) of the ecosystem is reduced. Over sufficiently long periods of time,
depletion of ANC can alter the pH of the soils and water. Additionally, if present in sufficient quantities,
these anions may replace other nutrients that plants normally uptake (e.g., Al2+), thereby mobilizing this
toxic compound into the environment.
Nitrogen deposition may alter soil nutrient cycling, a key component of the global nitrogen cycle. Soils
act both as a source and sink of nitrogen. Forests typically require more nitrogen for growth than is
available in the soil. However, in some areas, nitrogen levels are above what forests can use and retain.
This condition is referred to as nitrogen saturation.
In an analysis by McNulty, critical loads for acid loads for forest soils have not been exceeded for the
years 1994-2000 in the Pacific Northwest. xxxvi
Sensitive Receptors and Indicators
Soil chemistry has been used as an indicator of air quality. The following indicators have been used:
base saturation, exchangeable calcium ion (Ca2+), exchangeable calcium plus magnesium ions (Mg2+),
and the carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N).
Soil solution chemistry has also been used as an indicator of air quality impacts. Specifically, three
indicators have been use: (1) The molar ratio of calcium to aluminum (Ca:Al), (2) the molar ratio of [Ca2+
+ Mg2+ + K+]: Al, and (3) NO3- concentration.
The following potential criteria have been used to indicate adverse impacts to soils chemistry from
atmospheric deposition:
•
Base saturation less than 10%, which may indicate a depletion of base cations
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•
•
•
Percent change over time of Ca2+
Percent change over time of Ca2+ + Mg2+
C:N less than 0.2
The following potential criteria have been used to indicate adverse impacts to soils solution chemistry:
•
•
•
Ca:Al < 1.0
Base cation: Al < 1.0
NO3- > 20 µeq/L during growing season
Water
Effects of Air Pollution
Nitrogen can both acidify and cause eutrophication of waters. Nitrate and ammonium that can be
converted to nitrate within the watershed have the potential to acidify drainage waters and leach
potentially toxic aluminum from watershed soil. xxxvii Nitrate (NO3), can negatively impact aquatic
ecosystems by lowering the acid neutralizing capacity (ANC), which can be thought of as the water's
natural acid buffering system. As the ANC decreases, the pH will eventually decrease and thus the acid
levels will increase.
In addition to contributing to acidic rain, nitrogen can cause other ecosystem impacts by unnaturally
fertilizing land and water. These excess inputs of nitrogen termed nutrient enrichment and
eutrophication can disrupt the natural flora and fauna by allowing certain species that would not
naturally occur in abundance to out compete those that thrive in pristine nitrogen limited systems. The
end result is an unnatural shift in species composition for sensitive species, which may have a
subsequent impact on other components of the ecosystem including eutrophication and increases in
algal mass xxxviii.
Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of sulfur-containing fuels (e.g., coal and oil) is transformed
into sulfuric acid in the atmosphere. Sulfuric acid is deposited onto downwind landscapes where it can
act to acidify water bodies. As water bodies become more acidic, acid-intolerant species of fish die off,
thus causing a loss of biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems.
Toxic gases such as fluorine also may impact wilderness waters, particularly in close proximity to local
sources such as aluminum processing facilities. Other atmospheric pollutants of concern with respect to
toxicity include mercury (Hg) and some pesticides. A more comprehensive discussion of Hg is provided
in the section discussing fauna.
Greenhouse gases and black carbon are climate forcing agents which may indirectly affect wilderness
waters. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane trap heat in the earth’s atmosphere by
allowing solar radiation in, but reducing outgoing radiation. The heating of the atmosphere affects
wilderness waters through changes in the rate and timing of glacier snowmelt or the rate of evaporation
affecting water quantity and quality, and the temperature of lakes and streams.
Sensitive Receptors and Indicators
There are many possible sensitive receptors and indicators of air pollution effects on wilderness waters.
Sensitive waters might include the chemistry of water which could influence its suitability to support
various aquatic species and life forms. ANC is an indicator of change for the sensitive receptor water
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chemistry. Nutrient ratios are also used to characterize nitrogen-limited lakes, which may be sensitive
to increased inputs from atmospheric deposition. There are also biological receptors, which might
reflect the suitability of the lake water for supporting aquatic organisms that might be sensitive to
acidification or eutrophication. These could include, for example, specific species of fish, zooplankton,
or diatoms. A sensitive receptor can be evaluated by measuring indicators of injury or ecosystem
change. Table 5.4 lists the sensitive receptors and indicators for wilderness waters.
Table 5-4. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators for Water
Sensitive Receptor
Indicator
Potential Criteria
Acid neutralization Capacity (ANC)
ANC < 50 µeq/L
NO3 concentration
NO3 > 10 µeq/L
Water Chemistry
SO4 concentration
Change over time
< 4 N-limited
DIN:TP
> 12 P-limited
Chlorophyll a
Change over time
Water productivity
Clarity (lakes)
Change over time
Salmonid species presence
Loss over time
Fish
Fish species richness
Change over time
Fish condition factor
Change over time
Total zooplankton richness
Change over time
Zooplankton (lakes)
Crustacean taxonomic richness
Change over time
Rotifer taxonomic richness
Change over time
Mayfly taxonomic richness
Loss of sensitive taxa
Benthic macro invertebrates
(streams)
Index of Biotic Integrity
Deviation from reference
Historical change from
Diatoms
Community composition
paleolimnological reconstruction
Conflicting information exists as to whether or not acidification has occurred in acid-sensitive waters of
the Pacific Northwest. For example, in a study of sediment cores collected from 48 Cascade Mountain
lakes, the diatom-inferred pH and conductivity values showed no significant changes over the previous
3150 years within the standard errors of the predictions. xxxix Whereas, the USGS found that episodic
acidification may occur during the initial period of seasonal snow melt in small alpine streams in Mount
Rainier National Park. xl
Fauna
Effects of Air Pollution
Toxic air contaminants, such as mercury, can bioaccumulate and greatly biomagnify through the food
chain in fish, humans and other animals. The conversion of non-organic forms of mercury to methyl
mercury is initiated by sulfur-reducing bacteria in aquatic sediments. Methyl mercury is a potent
neurotoxin, and has been shown to have detrimental health effects in human populations as well as
behavioral and reproductive impacts to wildlife. As of 2006, 46 states have consumption advisories for
certain lakes and streams warning of mercury-contaminated fish and shellfish. High concentrations of
mercury are measured in sediments and fish tissue, even in remote areas of the Arctic. Recently,
elevated methyl mercury loads have been monitored in upland bird species and songbirds, calling into
question the traditional wisdom that methyl mercury contamination be directly linked to only aquatic
systems.
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Persistent organic pollutants such as pesticides remain a concern worldwide. Many historically used
pesticides have been banned; however, their persistence in the environment has allowed them to revolatilize from their original deposit location to colder climates of northern and higher locations where
they condense and are deposited. Thus, wilderness areas are susceptible to these persistent organic
compounds. Current-use semi-volatile organic compounds such as Endosulfan and dactal and banned,
pesticides such as dieldrin and DDT have been found to cause abnormalities in the reproductive
structure of fish, and disrupt their endocrine systems.
Sensitive Receptors and Indicators
Fish are particularly sensitive to toxic pollutants which accumulate in aquatic ecosystems. They are
commonly used in mercury studies because of potential risk to humans through frequent consumption,
but also to fish-eating wildlife species such as kingfisher, mink, and otter.
Songbird feathers have also been used to assess mercury accumulation in the environment. Alteration
of song has been implicated due to bioaccumulation of methyl mercury.
Woodland Caribou are subject to accumulation of toxic metals in lichens, which provide a large portion
of their winter diets. Cadmium has been detected in high concentrations in the liver of Canadian
Woodland Caribou, residing near smelting operations, resulting in warning people not to consume
Caribou liver.
Table 5-5. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators of Air Pollution Effects in Fauna
Sensitive Receptor
Indicator
Potential Criteria
Whole fish MeHg concentration
Above threshold values
Fish
Fish pesticide concentration
Above threshold values
Songbirds
MeHg concentration in feathers
Above threshold values
Cultural Resources
Effects of Air Pollution
Nitrogen and sulfur may act as both an acidifying and biological agent, which can degrade cultural
resources. Nitric and sulfuric acid can promote acid dissolution of stone, clay pigments, and protective
coatings. Ammonia and other nitrogen and sulfur-containing pollutants can stimulate the growth of
natural rock-dwelling algae, cyanobacteria and oxidizing bacteria, which in turn, can weather cultural
stone through the release of nitric and sulfuric acids, or through the physical swelling and shrinking of
microbial biomass with changing moisture availability. xli
Greenhouse gases can alter climate, affecting the weathering rate of stone. Microscale factors such as
shading exposure, moisture, and evaporation can affect the dissolution rate of acids, causing indirect
weathering of cultural resources. Extreme temperature ranges are also known to affect weathering
rates of stone. xlii
Sensitive Receptors and Indicators
Any cultural resource located in wilderness may be subject to the adverse effects of air pollution. Such
adverse effects may be indicated by changes in color, recession of surfaces, rounding of corners, and
decreases in legibility of inscriptions. Aerosol deposits of black carbon may discolor stones. Surface
recession occurs when weathered material is removed from rock. If one can establish where the original
surface lay, then a rate of recession can be calculated.
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Inscriptions carved into stone soften over time as the sharp corners weather and recede. Similarly,
carved corners become more rounded. Measurement of corner recession to estimate the exposure age
on statues and natural sandstone talus blocks has been used. The method has been modified on a
microscopic scale to date petroglyphs. Photographic documentation over time may be the most readily
used method to assess changes to cultural resources.
Priority Sensitive Receptors and Indicators
Table 5-6 presents the priority AQRVs, sensitive receptors, and indicators for wilderness in the region.
Of the various AQRVs (visibility, water, soils, flora, fauna, and cultural resources), only visibility, flora,
fauna and water were selected as the highest priority sensitive receptors. Soil was not included in this
list because the pollutant loading in wilderness areas of the Pacific NW are not sufficient to cause
adverse impacts on soils. Cultural resources were not identified as priority AQRV because of lack of
experience assessing these impacts, the paucity of cultural resources in Region 6 wildernesses and the
relatively lower loading of acid gases.
Scenic views diminished by haze are perhaps the most obvious example of the adverse effects of air
pollution to wilderness visitors. The Forest Service in Region 6 participates in the operation of the
Interagency Monitoring for Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) program, which monitors regional
haze and its causes around the country. The IMPROVE program has well established protocols for
sampling and laboratory analysis. More details about IMPROVE monitors are provided in Chapter 6.
Lichen community composition and elemental concentrations are well established indicators of air
pollution. Bio-monitoring of lichens provides information on the effects of multiple pollutants including
nutrient nitrogen, air toxics, and greenhouse gases.
Visible injury to ozone sensitive plants is thought to be a potential issue in those wilderness areas which
have sensitive plants with known exposure thresholds (e.g., ponderosa pine) and where W126 and N100
values are approaching or have exceeded the threshold values for sensitive plants (see Table 5-3).
Monitoring techniques are well established for monitoring visible injury to ozone-sensitive plants, and
ambient ozone concentrations.
Fish are well established sensitive receptors to air toxics, particularly mercury. Concentrations of methyl
mercury in whole fish are useful to compare with established ecological and human health thresholds.
Water has been a high priority WAQV in the region. Since 1985 the region has conducted monitoring at
numerous lakes in wilderness areas for signs of acid deposition. Only recently have nutrient nitrogen
and its eutrophic effects become of interest in forest ecosystems of the Pacific Northwest.
Table 5-6. Priority WAQVs, Sensitive Receptors and Indicators
Priority WAQV
Sensitive Receptor
Sensitive Receptor Indicator
Visibility
Scenic Views
Regional haze
Lichens
Changes in community composition
Concentrations of N, S, P, Cd, Cr, Pb,
Flora
Lichens
Hg, Ni, Ti, V, and Zn
Ozone
Visible Injury on ozone-sensitive plants
Fauna
Fish
Concentration of Methyl mercury
Water Chemistry
ANC
Water
Water Chemistry
DIN: TP
Diatoms
Community Composition
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The selection of any one or more of these priority AQRVs for a given wilderness is based upon casespecific factors including pollution exposure, ecosystem composition, and costs. Appendix B contains
the recommendations of AQRVs, sensitive receptors, and sensitive receptor indicators for each
wilderness area.
Establishing a Baseline
In order to establish a baseline, sufficient data must be collected to characterize the spatial and
temporal condition of the wilderness air quality value. Table 5-7 presents a summary of the
recommended spatial and temporal criteria for establishing a baseline for the priority sensitive
receptors.
Table 5-7. Temporal and Spatial Criteria for Establishing WAQV Baselines
Sensitive Receptor
Priority WAQV
Sensitive Receptor
Baseline Criteria
Indicator
Visibility
Scenic Views
Regional haze
5 years
Changes in community
Lichens
composition
First round of visits @
density of
Concentration of N, S, P,
1 plot/20,000 acres
Flora
Lichens
Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Ni, Ti, V,
and Zn
Visible Injury on ozoneFirst round of visits on
Ozone
sensitive plants
FIA sampling grid
First round of visits:
Concentration of Methyl
Fauna
Fish
stratified random
mercury
sampling, 10%
First
round of visits:
Water Chemistry
ANC
stratified random
Water Chemistry
DIN: TP
sampling of acid sensitive
Water
(i.e., ANC<50) or NDiatoms
Community Composition
limited waters, 10%
The Regional Haze Rule has established that the five-year period of 2000 -2004 shall be used as the
bases for determining baseline values from all IMPROVE monitoring sites. This same period shall also be
used for purposes of the Regional Wilderness Air Quality Plan in assessing baseline values for visibility at
these sites.
Lichens shall be monitored at a density of at least one plot for every 20,000 acres to characterize the
spatial variation of a wilderness area. This plot density was determined by balancing the likely variation
in climatic, geologic, and biologic factors within a given wilderness and practical limitations of access to
wilderness plots, and limitations of funds available to perform the sampling and analyses.
Since the FIA program has already sampled the Region’s forests for ozone injury at a pre-defined scale,
and conducted extensive analysis of this information in combination with ambient ozone
concentrations, this data will serve as the baseline value for assessing ozone injury to vegetation.
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A stratified random sampling approach should be used to establish baseline values for wilderness waters
and fish. The goal is to characterize the population of surface waters and resident fish for the entire
wilderness. For large wilderness areas containing many lakes, a complete census of all lakes may be
impractical. Consequently, statistically based surveys using a stratified random sampling approach
should be used. The surface waters should be stratified such that the lakes or streams of greatest
interest are surveyed. This may be disproportionate to their frequency of occurrence in nature. Such a
stratified random sampling process preserves the ability to make population-level extrapolations while
maximizing the collection of data for the sites of greatest interest. For example, if the interest is
evaluating whether or not atmospheric deposition is causing unwanted fertilization of wilderness
waters, the surface waters should be stratified to include only N-limited waters. Of that subset, a
randomized sampling approach should be conducted which forms the basis for extrapolating the results
to a larger population. At a minimum, 10 percent of the stratified population should be sampled. The
actual water bodies sampled will also be determined from practicalities associated with access in
remote areas.
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CHAPTER 6
Wilderness AQRV Monitoring in R6
The Region (R6) Air Resource Management (ARM) program was established in 1981 to monitor and
protect wilderness areas and forest resources from the adverse effects of air pollution. The ARM
program staff has monitored sensitive receptors in many of the wilderness areas within the region.
Monitoring has been conducted for visibility, lichens, fish, and water chemistry. Additionally, the Forest
Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program of the Forest Service has surveyed vegetation for ozone injury and
soils in the region, some of which has occurred in the wilderness areas of the region.
A discussion of the monitoring of wilderness in R6 along with baseline and trends for the inventoried
AQRV’s is included below. A determination of baseline data and monitoring of trends is included in the
10YWSC and indicates a higher level of accomplishment for Element 3 - Wilderness Air Quality
Monitoring (see 10YWSC Counting Instructions). Baseline data as defined in the 10YWSC is “enough
data has been collected to characterize the condition of the wilderness air quality value.” Trends are
established from baseline monitor data of a priority sensitive receptor over time. Trend Analysis is the
practice of collecting information and attempting to spot a pattern, or trend, in the information.
Visibility
Description
The CAA specifically identifies visibility as an AQRV in Class I wilderness areas. Visibility is also an
important component in other areas popular for their scenic vistas. Important vistas can be visually
impaired by pollution in three ways:
•
•
•
"Uniform haze" (pollutants from one or several sources are well mixed in the atmosphere and
obscure the view uniformly)
"Layered haze" (pollutants from one or several sources appear as a layer because of poor
atmospheric mixing conditions)
"Plume" (pollutants appear as a continuous plume that originates from a single source)
There are a variety of monitoring techniques that document visibility conditions and make quantitative
measurements of atmospheric properties that effect visibility. Region 6 has used the techniques
described below:
1. Scene monitoring considers the appearance of a scene viewed through the atmosphere. Scene
characteristics include observer visual range, scene contrast, color, texture, clarity, and other
descriptive terms. Scene characteristics change with illumination and atmospheric composition.
Photographs, video images, and digital images are effective ways to document scene
characteristics. This system of monitoring was employed on in Region 6 between 1991 and
2000, but since has been replaced by Aerosol monitoring.
2. Web Cameras are used to depict air quality conditions from national forests throughout the
United States. The Forest Service provides public access to near real-time and daily image
archives and historical image galleries. These images can be accessed through the following web
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site: http://www.fsvisimages.com/. Currently, there are three locations in Region 6 of near
real-time visibility images; these are at Mount Hood, OR, Wishram, WA (eastern end of the
Columbia River Gorge), and the Pasayten Wilderness in Washington State. In addition, the
historic gallery contains images of the scenes during varying range of haze conditions.
3. Aerosol monitoring looks at the physical properties of the ambient atmospheric aerosols
(chemical composition, size, shape, concentration, temporal and spatial distribution, and other
physical properties) through which a scene is viewed. Fine particle measurements are commonly
made to quantify aerosol characteristics. The Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual
Environments (IMPROVE) program is representative of this type of monitoring. Data from
IMPROVE provides a means of determining the sources of visibility impacts such as soil, soot,
and sulfate. Table 6-1 presents a summary of the aerosol components measured at an IMPROVE
monitor and some common anthropogenic and natural sources of air pollution.
Table 6-1. Sources of Haze Components Measured on the IMPROVE Monitors
Anthropogenic
Natural Sources of
Regional Haze Pollutant
Sources of Pollutant
Pollutant
Coal-fired power plants, diesel
Sulfates
Volcanoes
engines, industrial boilers
Organic Carbon
Incineration, household heating
Fire, vegetation
Cars, trucks, off-road vehicles,
Nitrates
Soils, lightning, fire
industrial boilers, agriculture
Fine Soil
Off-road vehicles, agriculture
Wind-blown dust
Elemental Carbon
Soot, diesel engines
Fire
Fine Particulate Matter
Combustion processes, roads
Fire
Construction, roads, woodstoves,
Coarse Particulate Matter
Wind-blown dust, fire
fireplaces
Inventory
Figure 6-1 illustrates the location of the wilderness areas and IMPROVE visibility monitoring sites in
Region 6. The monitoring locations were originally sited to be representative of the Class I areas.
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Figure 6-1. IMPROVE Monitoring and Wilderness Locations in Region 6
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The IMPROVE monitoring network was designed to implement an extensive long term monitoring
program to establish the current visibility conditions, track changes in visibility and determine causal
mechanism for the visibility impairment in the mandatory federal Class I areas. The program was
initiated in 1985, but not all sites were installed until 2000. Additional “protocol” sites were added in
other years, and Tribes also had the opportunity to monitor visibility conditions on tribal lands. Table 6-2
shows the year that each monitor began operating.
Note: The IMPROVE network provides valuable information for characterizing visibility conditions in our
wildernesses. The intent of the Air Quality element, however, is to have our monitoring extend beyond
IMPROVE visibility monitoring to evaluate other important wilderness air quality values, such as lake
water sampling and lichen monitoring. Forests which have developed a wilderness air quality plan and
have identified visibility as the sole wilderness air quality value will be able to claim credit for IMPROVE
monitoring.
Table 6-2. IMPROVE Visibility Monitors in Region 6
Site
Code
State Elevation (m)
Mount Hood Wilderness
MOHO1
OR
1531
Kalmiopsis Wilderness
KALM1
OR
80
Crater Lake National Park
CRLA1
OR
1996
Three Sisters Wilderness
THSI1
OR
885
Starkey Experimental Forest
STAR1
OR
1259
Hells Canyon
HECA1
OR
655
White Pass
WHPA1
WA
1827
Columbia River Gorge (East End)
CORI1
WA
178
Columbia River Gorge (West End)
COGO1
WA
230
Snoqualmie Pass
SNPA1
WA
1049
Pasayten Wilderness
PASA1
WA
1627
North Cascades National Park
NOCA1
WA
568
Mount Rainier National Park
MORA1
WA
439
Olympic National Park
OLYM1
WA
599
Spokane Reservation
SPOK1
WA
552
Makah Tribe
MAKA1
WA
n/a
Puget Sound
PUSO1
WA
98
Starting Year
2000
2000
1988
1993
2000
2000
2000
1993
1996
1993
2000
2000
1998
2001
2001
2006
1996
The only aspect of an “inventory” needed here is to identify the representative IMPROVE monitor for
each wilderness area, particularly the Class II wilderness areas. Table 6-3 identifies the most
representative IMPROVE monitor for each wilderness. Note, for the Red Buttes Wilderness, the two
most northern IMPROVE monitoring sites in California (Redwoods or Lava Buttes) are the most
representative sites, even though these monitors are located in Region 5 (not shown in Figure 6-1).
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Wilderness
Alpine Lakes
Badger Creek
Black Canyon
Boulder Creek
Boulder River
Bridge Creek
Buckhorn
Bull of the Woods
Clackamas
Clearwater
Colonel Bob
Copper Salmon
Cummins Creek
Diamond Peak
Drift Creek
Eagle Cap
Gearhart Mountain
Glacier Peak
Glacier View
Goat Rocks
Grassy Knob
Hells Canyon
Henry M. Jackson
Indian Heaven
Kalmiopsis
Lake Chelan-Sawtooth
Lower White River
Mark O. Hatfield
Menagerie
Middle Santiam
Mill Creek
Mountain Lakes
Mt. Adams
Table 6-3. Representative IMPROVE Monitors
Representative
Wilderness
IMPROVE Monitor
SNPA1
Monument Rock
MOHO
Mt. Baker
STAR1
Mt. Hood
CRLA1
Mt. Jefferson
SNPA1 or NOCA1
Mt. Skokomish
STAR1
Mt. Thielsen
OLYM1
Mt. Washington
MOHO1
Noisy-Diobsud
MOHO1
Norse Peak
SNPA1
North Fork John Day
OLYM1
North Fork Umatilla
KALM1
Opal Creek
KALM1
Pasayten
CRLA1
Red Buttes
KALM1
Roaring River
STAR1
Rock Creek
CRLA1
Rogue-Umpqua Divide
SNPA1
Salmon-Huckleberry
MORA1
Salmo-Priest
WHPA1
Siskiyou
KALM1
Sky Lakes
HECA1
Strawberry Mtn.
SNPA1
Tatoosh
WHPA1
The Brothers
KALM1
Three Sisters
PASA1
Trapper Creek
MOHO1
Waldo Lake
COGO1 or CORI1
Wenaha-Tucannon
THSI1
Wild Rogue
THS1
Wild Sky
STAR1
William O. Douglas
CRLA1
Wonder Mountain
WHPA1
Representative
IMPROVE Monitor
STAR1
NOCA1
MOHO1
THSI1
OLYM1
CRLA1
THSI1
NOCA1
SNPA1
STAR1
STAR1
THSI1
PASA1
REDW1 or LABE1
MOHO1
KALM1
CRLA1
MOHO1
PASA1 or SPOK1
KALM1
CRLA1
STAR1
MORA1 or WHP1
OLYM1
THSI1
WHPA1
THSI1
STAR1
KALM1
SNPA1
SNPA1
OLYM1
Baseline
As part of the national regional haze program, all IMPROVE monitoring sites use the same period to
establish baseline metrics: 2000-2004. Common metrics used to characterize baseline include: (1)
annual average, (2) 20 percent worst-case days and (3) 20 percent best case days.
Visibility is quantified using one of the following metrics: standard visual range (SVR), deciviews (dv), or
light extinction (Bext). SVR is the farthest distances one can see a dark object against a light background
as measured in kilometers or miles; higher values are, of course, better. Conversely, each change in dv is
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
roughly equivalent to a just noticeable change in visibility; higher values indicate hazier conditions while
lower values are clearer. Light extinction is defined as the amount of attenuation of light due to
scattering and absorption as it passes through the atmosphere, for example between the viewing object
and your eye. Bext is commonly expressed in units of inverse megameters (Mm-1); higher values indicate
more haze.
Figure 6-2 illustrates an example of baseline metrics and aerosol composition, as measured at the Mt.
Hood IMPROVE monitoring site for the baseline period of 2000-2004. The pie chart on the far left shows
that during the best days, visibility is only 2.5 Mm-1, and ammonium sulfate comprises 48% of the
aerosol composition on these days. The pie chart in the middle illustrates that during the 20% worstcase days, visibility degrades to 37.5 Mm-1, and organic carbon and ammonium sulfate are the largest
contributing aerosols. The pie chart on the left illustrates the mean annual light extinction is 15.1 Mm-1,
when ammonium sulfate and organic carbon are the largest contributing aerosols to haze. Refer to
Table 1 for common sources of these aerosols.
State air quality agencies have summarized baseline conditions as measured at each IMPROVE monitor
in their State Regional Haze State Implementation Plans (SIPs), which may be found on their websites.
Additionally readers may also obtain and create their own graphics and data from the Federal Land
Managers Environmental Database (FEDs) at http://views.cira.colostate.edu/fed/.
Figure 6-2. Best and Worst 20 % and Annual Average Visibility at Mount Hood
Trends
The Regional Haze Rule established a uniform rate of progress, also called a glide slope, for each Class I
area to characterize the rate of improvement needed to achieve natural conditions by 2064. Trends are
determined every five years and compared with the uniform rate of progress as a guide for ensuring the
State plans to reduce haze are working as expected.
Figure 6-3 illustrates the trends at the Mt. Hood IMPROVE monitor since the baseline period, for the 20
percent best days, 20 percent worst-case days, and the annual average. The figures illustrates that the
best days have not gotten worse, the worst-days are highly variable (the annual beyond 2003, was
unable to plot).
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State air quality divisions will track the trends at each IMPROVE monitoring site every five years.
Updates to these graphs should be provided on the State Air Quality Department shortly after the State
review of these trends. Additionally readers may also obtain and create their own graphics and data
from the Federal Land Managers Environmental Database (FEDs) at http://views.cira.colostate.edu/fed.
Figure 6-3. Visibility Trends at the Mt. Hood IMPROVE Monitor
Flora: Lichens
Description
The Pacific Northwest Region of the USDA Forest Service began monitoring lichens as indicators of air
quality in 1993. Each year, trained sampling crews travel to wilderness areas in the region to survey and
collect lichens. The monitoring follows established FIA and regional protocols for field sampling and
laboratory analysis. xliii Sampling and analysis is conducted to characterize (1) the concentration of
nitrogen, sulfur, and elemental metals in the lichen thalli, and (2) community composition of lichen
plots, which shifts with changes in air pollution and climate.
Inventory
Figure 6-4 illustrates the locations where lichens have been collected to date in Wilderness. A yellow
dot indicates locations where lichens have been collected only for elemental analyses. A blue dot
indicates locations where lichens have been collected for both elemental analysis and community
composition. A red dot indicates locations were repeat visits have occurred for both elemental
concentrations and changes in community composition.
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Figure 6-4. Lichen Bio-monitoring Plot Locations in Wilderness
Table 6-4 presents a summary of the lichen plot visits to each wilderness area. Between 1993 and 2002
(referred to as Round 1), lichen monitoring crews established bio-monitoring plots in 28 wilderness
areas. Between 2003 to 2012 (referred to as Round 2), sampling crews established lichen biomonitoring plots in 59 wilderness areas, many of which were repeat visits to lichen plots established in
Round 1. With one year left in Round 2 (2012), two wilderness areas with no lichen plots will be
sampled: Cummins Creek and Lower White River.
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Table 6-4. Wilderness Lichen Plot Sampling Dates
Wilderness
Round 1
(1993-2002)
Years Visited
Alpine Lakes
Badger Creek
1995-1997
Black Canyon
Boulder Creek
Boulder River
1999-2000
Bridge Creek
Buckhorn
Bull of the Woods
Clackamas
Round 2
(2003-2012)
Years Visited
2005-2009,
2012
2005
Wilderness
Monument Rock
2011
Mt. Hood
2009-2010
2007
Mt. Jefferson
Mt. Skokomish
2011
Mt. Thielsen
2007
2011
2006
Clearwater
2011
Colonel Bob
Copper Salmon
Cummins Creek
Diamond Peak
Drift Creek
2007
2011
2012
2004-2005
2011
2008-2009
Rock Creek
Eagle Cap
1994-1996
1996
1998-1999,
2000-2001
Gearhart Mountain
Glacier Peak
Glacier View
Goat Rocks
1994-1995
Grassy Knob
Hells Canyon
Henry M. Jackson
Indian Heaven
Kalmiopsis
Lake ChelanSawtooth
Lower White River
Mark O. Hatfield
Menagerie
Middle Santiam
Mill Creek
2007, 2009,
2012
2011
2004
Rogue-Umpqua
Divide
SalmonHuckleberry
Salmo-Priest
Siskiyou
2011
Sky Lakes
2012
2007
2005
2008, 2012
Strawberry Mtn.
Tatoosh
The Brothers
Three Sisters
2011
2012
2006-2007
2011
2011
2011
2003, 2007,
2009
2005
2003, 2012
2000
1997
1996-1997
1997
Mountain Lakes
1997, 1999
Mt. Adams
1995-1997
Round 2
(2003-2012)
Years Visited
2011
Mt. Baker
Mt. Washington
Noisy-Diobsud
Norse Peak
North Fork John
Day
North Fork Umatilla
Opal Creek
Pasayten
Red Buttes
Roaring River
1996-1997
1996
Round 1
(1993-2002)
Years Visited
2005
1993-1994,
1996-1997
1994-1997
1996-1997,
1999-2000
1995, 1997
2004, 2009
2004-2005
2011
2003, 2007,
2009
2004-2005
2005, 2007
2007
2011
1995, 1997
2011
2004
2009, 2012
2011
2005
1997
2011
1999-2000
2010
1996-1997
2011
1997
1994-1997
2011
2011
2003, 2007,
2010
2008
2004
2007
2004-2005
Trapper Creek
1996
2005
Waldo Lake
Wenaha-Tucannon
Wild Rogue
Wild Sky
William O. Douglas
1995-1997
2004-2005
2011
2011
2011, 2012
2011
Wonder Mountain
1997,2000
1994-1995
1997
2011
Baseline
A baseline is considered established if there is a reasonable spatial representation of lichen collected in
the wilderness area, i.e., with a density of at least one lichen plot per 20,000 acres of wilderness.
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Baseline monitoring must include lichens sampling and analysis for both elemental analysis and
community composition. The blue dots in Figure 6-4 illustrate where lichen plots have been established
in sufficient density for a wilderness baseline to be considered established.
Trends
A trend is considered established if a lichen plot has been revisited and the samples analyzed for
community composition and elemental analysis, at the minimum spatial resolution (i.e., at least one plot
for every 20,000 acres of wilderness). Trends are best determined and described by a qualified expert
on lichens and air pollution.
Flora: Ozone Sensitive Plants
Description
Since 1928, the Forest Service’s Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program has conducted assessments
of all the Nation’s forested lands for use in economic and forest management planning. The program
has been expanded in recent years to monitor several indicators of forest sustainability including:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Conservation of biological diversity
Maintenance of productive capacity of forest ecosystems
Maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality
Conservation and maintenance of soil and water resources
Maintenance of forest contribution to global carbon cycles
Maintenance and enhancement of long-term multiple socioeconomic benefits
These indicators were identified by the international Montreal Process Criteria and Indicators for
Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests.xliv One of the indicators of forest ecosystem
health is to monitor the area and percentage of forest lands subjected to specific air pollutants (sulfates,
nitrates, and ozone). FIA began surveying the bio-monitoring sites in 2000 to identify locations where
visible injury to ozone sensitive species has occurred. Bio-monitoring sites are located both within and
outside wilderness.
Inventory
Table 6-5 shows the inventory of bio-monitoring sites in wilderness in Region 6. For each wilderness,
the number of plots, size, period of sampling and the ozone sensitive species sampled is displayed.
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Table 6-5. Ozone Injury to Vegetation Surveys in R6 Wilderness
Wilderness
Number
of Plots
Size
(acres)
Years
Sampled
Alpine Lakes
1
391,988
2000
Clearwater
1
14,647
2000-2009
Colonel Bob
1
11,855
2002-2008
Eagle Cap
1
359,991
2002-2009
Henry M. Jackson
1
103,297
2000-2009
Mark O. Hatfield
2
65,822
2000-2009
North Fork John Day
1
120,560
2000
Pasayten
1
531,539
2000-2008
Sky Lakes
1
113,849
2000-2009
William O. Douglas
1
169,081
2002-2009
Ozone Sensitive Species Sampled
Alnus rubra (Red Alder)
Sambucus racemosa (Red Elderberry)
Alnus rubra (Red Alder)
Vaccinium membranaceum (Thin-leaved huckleberry)
Sambucus racemosa (Red Elderberry)
Alnus rubra (Red Alder)
Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow)
Sambucus racemosa (Red Elderberry)
Apocynum androsaemifolium (Spreading Dogbane)
Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa Pine)
Symphoricarpos spp. (Snowberry)
Populus tremuloides (Quaking Aspen)
Alnus rubra (Red Alder)
Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow)
Sambucus racemosa (Red Elderberry)
Vaccinium membranaceum (Thin-leaved huckleberry)
Alnus rubra (Red Alder)
Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow)
Vaccinium membranaceum (Thin-leaved huckleberry)
Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa Pine)
Symphoricarpos spp. (Snowberry)
Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa Pine)
Populus tremuloides (Quaking Aspen)
Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow)
Symphoricarpos spp. (Snowberry)
Apocynum androsaemifolium (Spreading Dogbane)
Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa Pine)
Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow)
Symphoricarpos spp. (Snowberry)
Alnus rubra (Red Alder)
Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa Pine)
Sambucus mexicana (Elderberry)
Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow)
Symphoricarpos spp. (Snowberry)
Baseline
Baseline is considered established if there is a reasonable spatial representation of locations within a
wilderness where ozone sensitive vegetation has been surveyed for injury, Similar to the criteria for
establishing baseline for lichen. The same criterion for spatial density is used for ozone injury as is used
for lichen: at least one plot per 20,000 acres of wilderness. Following this criterion, only the Clearwater
and Colonel Bob wilderness areas would meet the minimum spatial density for establishing baseline.
Preliminary baselines have been established for these wilderness areas per the data summaries
presented for the period of 2000-2005. xlv As of 2005, there have been no observations of ozone injury
to vegetation in the R6 wilderness areas which have been surveyed. However, there has been one
location in R6 where ozone injury to vegetation has been observed – the Columbia River Gorge. The
injury detected in the Gorge by the FIA ozone bio-monitoring program was a biosite a little over 120
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miles east of Portland in an irrigated area that is naturally non-forested. Although the presence of injury
is atypical there, this site supports ambient data showing that ozone levels are high there and capable of
causing injury to susceptible species, forest or non-forest, given favorable environmental conditions.
Trends
No temporal trends in ozone injury to vegetation have been established to date. Revisits to these
existing plots are needed to survey and assess ozone injury. Additionally, an increase in spatial density is
needed at many of these wilderness areas to meet the spatial density criteria of one plot per 20,000
acres of wilderness.
Water: Lake Chemistry
The Air Resource Management Program of the Forest Service has been working with Forest staff to
monitor and assess changes to acid sensitive waters since the 1980s. The various sampling efforts
conducted in the region’s waters are described below. Details of the individual studies may be found on
the Forest Service Air Resource Management Program website at www.fs.fed.us/air, under the regional
reports link, for Region 6.
Description
Monitoring of water chemistry as a sensitive indicator of air pollution has been primarily focused on
monitoring for effects of acid deposition. Only recently has attention been shifted towards monitoring
for unwanted nutrient enrichment due to atmospheric deposition.
Acidification of sensitive waters is characterized by the pH and acid neutralization capacity (ANC) of
water. ANC is calculated as total cations (positively charged ions) minus total anions (negatively charged
ions). Waters sensitive to chronic acidification generally have ANC < 100 µeq/L, and waters sensitive to
episodic acidification generally have ANC < 50 µeq/L xlvi are characterized as acid sensitive, in that the
water has little capacity to buffer against acid ions (e.g., SO4-, and NO3-).
Waters may also be characterized as nutrient-limited, where additional amounts of nutrients such as
nitrogen or phosphorous, may cause increased (or unwanted) growth of certain species. Nitrogen is the
most common macro nutrient in the atmosphere, which may be deposited on nutrient-limited waters,
potentially causing eutrophication. Nitrogen-limited waters have been identified as those with dissolved
nitrogen (DiN) to total phosphorous (TP) ratio of less than 4. DiN is the sum of nitrate and ammonium
ions. xlviixlviii
Inventory
Synoptic surveys are often used to characterize water chemistry of an area to identify the trophic state
of water bodies. The time at which the water is collected during a synoptic survey can influence the
resulting chemistry and the ways the data can be used. Water chemistry in lakes, particularly dilute
lakes, can vary diurnally, seasonally, and annually. Therefore if the objective of the synoptic survey is to
compare measurements among different lakes within the same region (spatial assessment), all sites
would be ideally sampled at the same time as possible to minimize the temporal variability. Seasonal
affects can be minimized by restricting the sampling to just the summer or fall.
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The EPA Western Lakes Survey
The EPA Western Lakes Survey of 1985 xlix was the most extensive survey of the health of our nation’s
lakes in the Western United States. Sampling was conducted in September and October, 1985. The
large spatial extent of the survey allowed a comparative spatial analysis that is statistically meaningful.
The Western Lakes Survey developed and implemented a set of protocols for sample collection and
laboratory analysis for monitoring of nutrients, anions, and cations, many of which are still used today.
Although the Western Lakes Survey was not designed to answer questions specific to temporal changes
in an individual wilderness, the survey served as the benchmark to establish a baseline for water
chemistry in many wildernesses which were fortunate enough to be included in the survey. The
following wildernesses had lakes included as part of this study: Pasayten, Noisy Diobsud, Mt. Baker,
Glacier Peak, Alpine Lakes, Boulder River, Buckhorn, Clearwater, Henry M. Jackson, William O. Douglas,
Lake Chelan-Sawtooth, Indian Heaven, Goat Rocks, Hells Canyon, Diamond Peak, Eagle Cap, Mt. Hood,
Mt. Jefferson, Three Sisters, Waldo Lake, and Sky Lakes.
GIS Analysis and Identification of Acid Sensitive Wilderness Lakes
In 2004, the US Geological Survey used statistical relations between alkalinity concentrations and basin
characteristics (primarily geology and topography) to evaluate the sensitivity of approximately 3500 unsampled lakes in wildernesses of Oregon and Washington to atmospheric deposition. l Alkalinity
concentrations that were measured at 95 lakes during the 1985 EPA Western Lakes Survey were used to
calibrate the statistical models. Multiple logistic regressions were used to estimate the probability that
alkalinity concentrations in individual lakes would be below the specified threshold of 100 microequivalents per liter (µeq/l), and, thus be sensitive to deposition. Of the explanatory variables of
concern (bedrock type, mean basin sloe, mean basin aspect, mean basin elevation, lake area and basin
area), only bedrock type and mean basin slope had statistically significant correlations with measured
alkalinity concentrations. The results illustrated in Figure 6-5 show the relative sensitivity of the water
bodies by wilderness. The red-colored wilderness areas have a high sensitivity to acidification, the faded
yellow have a medium sensitivity, and the green have a low sensitivity.
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Figure 6-5. Wilderness Scale Sensitivity Classification
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R6 Summit Lake Long Term Monitoring
Summit Lake, located in the Clearwater Wilderness of Washington, is one of the most studied lakes in
the region. When first sampled as part of the EPA Western Lakes Survey (1985), it was one of the most
dilute lakes in the region, with an ANC of 3.9 ueq/l. With essentially no buffering capacity against acid
deposition, it was thought to be highly sensitive to the effects of air pollution, and a good lake to
monitor. The Forest Service returned to monitor this lake several times between 1993 and 2006. li
Cascade Mountain Ecoregion, Diatom Calibration Study
In order to obtain a historical perspective on how the wilderness lakes of the region may have changed
over time, the Region conducted a paleo-limnological study. Lake chemistry may be inferred from the
historic record of diatom shells which are deposited on the lake bottom when they die. These may be
examined under a microscope to identify species richness (type and abundance) at various layers. The
layer’s age is determined using radioactive dating techniques. Because diatoms are highly sensitive to
changes in water chemistry, any significant changes in species richness amongst the different layers
serves as an indicator of a historic change in lake chemistry. By correlating the current species richness
with current water chemistry, across numerous lakes, a wide distribution of water chemistry and
corresponding diatom communities is obtained. Then statistical analysis may be conducted to correlate
diatom species and abundance with water chemistry. This data set may then be used to infer historic
changes in water chemistry based upon the diatom species composition.
The Cascade Mountain Ecoregion Diatom Calibration Study was performed across 40 lakes in the
Cascades Mountains of Oregon and Washington in June – September 1996. lii The following wilderness
areas had lakes included in this study: Alpine Lakes, Clearwater, William O. Douglas, Goat Rocks, Henry
M. Jackson, Indian Heaven, Mt. Hood, Mt. Jefferson, Three Sisters and Sky Lakes. Additional lakes from
national forest and national park lands outside of these wildernesses were also included.
R6 Synoptic Lake Monitoring
This regional sampling study was conducted at numerous wilderness lakes during the period from 19902002. The intent was to expand the number of lakes sampled in many wildernesses to identify acid
sensitive lakes, establish a baseline, and revisit many of the lakes originally sampled as part of the 1985
Western Lakes Survey. The following wilderness areas had lakes included in this sampling effort:
Clearwater, Eagle Cap, Mark O. Hatfield, Mt. Jefferson, Rogue-Umpqua Divide, Three Sisters and Waldo
Lake.
Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie NF and Okanogan-Wenatchee NF Lake Monitoring
This study focused on expanding the number of lakes sampled in the Pasayten, Alpine Lakes, Glacier
Peak, Clearwater, Mt. Baker, Noisy-Diobsud and William O. Douglas wildernesses. Additionally, several
lakes which were sampled as part of the 1985 Western Lakes Survey were revisited as part of this
monitoring effort. Monitoring of lakes in these wilderness areas occurred between 1996 and 2007.
Goat Rocks Wilderness Study
As a condition of a PSD permit for the Weyerhauser Longview Fibre Mill, a study was conducted at Cedar
Pond and Gertrude Lake in the Goat Rocks Wilderness. liii Samples were collected and analyzed from
these two lakes in 1995 and 1996.
Eagle Cap Wilderness Reconnaissance and Mirror Lake Limnological Study
A synoptic survey of the lakes of the Eagle Cap Wilderness was conducted in 1998. liv Most of the lakes
sampled were limited to the Lakes Basin Management Area. In addition to water chemistry, sediment
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cores were also collected from Mirror Lake to evaluate historic changes. Repeat visits to many of these
lakes occurred in 2009.
Umpqua Lakes Baseline Water Quality Inventory
Nine lakes within the Umpqua National Forest were sampled in September 1990, as part of this study. lv
Three of the lakes were located within the Rogue-Umpqua Divide Wilderness (i.e., Buckeye, Cliff, and
Fish Lakes). Water quality samples were analyzed for major ion chemistry and related water quality
parameters.
Mt. Jefferson and Hatfield Wilderness Areas
Five lakes in the Mt. Jefferson Wilderness (Scout, Claggett, Davey, Cleo, and Turpentine Lakes) and one
lake in the Mark O. Hatfield Wilderness (Warren Lake) were sampled in September 1999. lvi The lakes
were intentionally selected to identify dilute systems based on field measurements of conductivity. The
waters samples were analyzed for major ion chemistry. The surface sediment samples were analyzed
for diatom community composition, to add to the diatom calibration data set for the Cascades.
Episodic Acidification
In addition to chronic acidification, seasonal fluctuations in water chemistry may result in episodic
acidification. Seasonal patterns in surface-water chemistry and stream flow are strongly influenced by
snow pack melting, which releases large amounts of dilute, slightly acidic water to terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems in the spring. lvii
Episodic acidification has been measured for one alpine stream in Mt. Rainier National Park, but the
extent of this phenomenon is unknown. The Forest Service in Region 6 conducted a study of episodic
acidification in four lakes within the Goat Rocks Wilderness of southern Washington. The researchers
concluded that episodic acidification is of greater concern than chronic acidification, although the
increased loading for these study lakes to cause acidification would require substantial increase in S and
N deposition, above levels received in the mid-1990s.
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Figure 6-6. Water Chemistry Monitoring in Wilderness Lakes
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Cascade Mountain, Four Lake, Long Term Study
An extensive study was conducted on four lakes, which occur on a north to south transect across the
Cascade Mountains to determine the historic, current, and future potential of acidification effects of
atmospheric deposition. lviii The lakes included in this study are Foehn Lake (Alpine Lakes Wilderness),
Summit Lake (Clear Water Wildereness), Scout Lake (Mt. Jefferson Wilderness), and Lake Notasha Sky
Lakes Wilderness, see Figure 6-7. Water samples were collected from these lakes annually between
1999 and 2007. Sediment cores were also collected to evaluate historic changes at these lakes.
Additionally, dynamic modeling was conducted to estimate the amount of increase in acid ions
necessary to cause acidification. For more information, refer to the Wilderness Lakes Final Report at
www.fs.fed.us/air/regdocs.htm#r6.
In addition to evaluating water chemistry, lake sediment cores were collected and evaluated to
determine whether chronic acidification has occurred in the region. Sediment cores were collected and
dated and diatom taxa evaluated at several layers. Diatoms are excellent indicators of historic changes
because when they die, their exoskeletons remain in the lake bottom, becoming buried over time. The
exoskeletons may be examined to determine the community composition at a given layer. Over time,
the sediment core creates a fossilized record of diatom taxa. Because diatoms are very sensitive to
changes in water chemistry, they serve as indicators of changes in lake chemistry. An evaluation of the
diatom taxa of sediment core layers dated using radioactive isotope ratios can be used infer historic
changes in water chemistry. Using the diatom taxa found in 48 lake sediment cores in the Cascade
Mountains, correlations were developed for the variance found in these taxa. The strongest
correlations were found for pH and conductivity. Then, using these correlations, an analysis was
conducted of a sediment core from Summit Lake, WA to infer historic changes in these parameters from
the diatoms present. The age of the sediment layers were determined using radioactive isotope analysis.
The results of this study revealed that no significant changes in pH or conductivity have occurred in the
previous 3150 years (Eilers, 1998).
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Figure 6-7. Location of Four Study Lakes
The Forest Service conducted further analysis of four sensitive lakes (shown in Figure 10), along a northsouth transect in the region to assess the ability of the lakes to respond to current threats (Eilers, 2009).
Hydrodynamic modeling was used to evaluate two lakes in Oregon (Lake Notasha in the Sky Lakes
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Wilderness and Scout Lake in the Mount Jefferson Wilderness) and with two lakes in Washington
(Summit Lake in the Clearwater Wilderness and Foehn Lake in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness).
The results of the study indicated that the two Oregon lakes: Notasha and Scout, show no evidence of
acidification or other changes that could be considered harmful under current levels of deposition.
Summit Lake in the Clearwater Wilderness of Washington shows evidence of already having received
elevated deposition of sulfur and other compounds based on current water chemistry and analysis of
the sediments. However, the naturally long-residence time of the lake water allows for considerable
opportunity to neutralize inputs of sulfur and nitrogen. The northern-most lake in the study, Foehn Lake,
appears to have been formed within the last 100 years. The accumulated sediment is low and the major
ion chemistry indicates that this lake is already slightly acidic.
The model was also used to assess how these lakes would respond to increases in acidic deposition. The
model simulations indicated that Lake Notasha, Scout Lake, and Summit Lake are highly resistant to
acidification from sulfur and nitrogen deposition. These lakes would require nearly a threefold increase
in sulfur deposition to deplete the buffering capacity sufficiently to realize a change in pH. Further these
lakes are highly resistant to inputs of nitrogen and high loading over short durations. However, the
model simulations of Foehn Lake under increasing deposition of sulfur and nitrogen show greater
sensitivity than observed for the other three lakes. Factors that contribute to this greater
responsiveness are its shallow bathymetry (which lead to shorter residence time), the high percentage
of exposed bedrock in the lake, and its shallow sediments.
Determining Critical N Loads to Subalpine Lakes in the Pacific Northwest
In July, 2008, the region conducted a nutrient enrichment study on two lakes, one of which was located
in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness (Dorothy Lake). lix Sediment cores were obtained to look at historical
changes in the diatoms indicative of acidification or eutrophication. Additionally, nutrients were added
to small containers of the lake water to determine if increases in nitrogen would cause shifts diatom
communities.
The result of the experiments and lake surveys revealed that both lakes currently have sufficient N for
algal growth, and are P-limited lakes. The paleo-limnological results reveal that while some changes in
the relative abundance of diatom taxa have occurred during the last century these changes do not
suggest than any major shifts in pH or total phosphorous have occurred during that time.
The results also suggest that N deposition has not had detectable effects on the diatom communities in
these lakes. The current water chemistry further suggests that N deposition will not have enrichment
effects on these lakes.
Baseline
For purposes of this document, at least 10 percent of the lakes in the wilderness area must be sampled
during the summer or the fall to adequately characterize the water chemistry of the wilderness. Either
acidification or nutrient limitations may be identified as the indicator. The water chemistry of a lake is
often characterized on the basis of a single sample, collected during the summer or fall for lakes. In
general, however, it is preferable to base surface water characterization and assessment on multiple
samples (either collected throughout the annual cycle or restricted to summer and fall) collected over
several years. Additionally, baseline is more fully characterized by multiple samples collected
throughout the year, multiple consecutive years for at least three years, and/or a paleolimnological
records obtained from sediment cores.
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Trends
Usually only the most sensitive lake in the population of lakes which have been surveyed is monitored.
This may be the lake with the lowest ANC value, or one that considers other factors as well (e.g., short
residence times, greatest amounts of atmospheric deposition, etc.). Similar considerations are given to
identify the lake most vulnerable for nutrient enrichment from nitrogen deposition.
At least one repeat visit should occur at the same lake at least 10 years apart in order to characterize a
trend. However, it is much more preferable to conduct multiple repeat visits during the baseline period
and again ten years later at the same lake to more fully characterize trends.
Fauna: Mercury in Fish
Description
Fish have been monitored by other federal and state agencies for years to determine if mercury
concentrations in fish pose a health risk to humans who eat fish as a substantial portion of their diet.
When levels have exceeded established health thresholds, the waters have been posted to warn
individuals. However, wildlife may also be affected by mercury contamination, including species that
eat fish as part of their diet (e.g. kingfisher, mink, otter, osprey, etc.). In 2011-2012, the Forest Service
initiated efforts in the Eagle Cap Wilderness as a pilot project to determine mercury concentrations in
fish. Eight lakes were sampled. Brook Trout was identified as the target species, although Rainbow and
Lake Trout were also collected.
Inventory
Fish were sampled from five lakes in the Eagle Cap Wilderness in 2010: Aneroid, Rogers, Minam,
Chimney and Laverty. The study was expanded to 25 lakes in the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest,
including the following additional lakes in Eagle Cap Wilderness: Mirror, Legore, Steamboat, Long,
Arrow, Heart, Culver, Crater, and Looking glass. Additionally, a few lakes were sampled in Hells Canyon
Wilderness, located within the Seven Devil Mountains: Ruth, Basin, Emerald, and Shelf lakes.
Baseline
Baseline was considered established only for the Eagle Cap and Hells Canyon Wilderness Areas as of the
2011 study.
Trends
Trends have not yet been established in any R6 wilderness areas for mercury contamination in fish.
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CHAPTER 7
Wilderness Air Quality Monitoring Strategy for R6
Monitoring strategies have been developed for each individual wilderness and are summarized in
Appendix B. The wilderness-specific monitoring recommendations should be used with the information
below to identify appropriate monitoring protocols and costs.
Visibility Monitoring
The regional air resource management will continue to fund the following nine IMPROVE monitoring
sites into the foreseeable future. All IMPROVE monitoring and laboratory analysis follows the IMPROVE
standard operating procedures (SOPs). These SOPs may be found at the IMPROVE website at
http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/improve/.
Costs:
The annual cost for the laboratory analysis of the filters is currently $36,000 as of 2012. The annual
labor costs associated with weekly site visits varies by site, as shown in Table 7-1. Operating costs vary
depending upon the travel time to each site and the pay grade of the operator.
Table 7-1. IMPROVE Monitoring Laboratory and Operating Costs
Funding
Laboratory
Wilderness or Site
Code
State
Agency
Costs ($)
Mount Hood Wilderness
MOHO1
OR
USFS
36,000
Kalmiopsis Wilderness
KALM1
OR
USFS
36,000
Three Sisters Wilderness
THSI1
OR
USFS
36,000
Starkey Experimental Forest
STAR1
OR
USFS
36,000
Hells Canyon
HECA1
OR
USFS
36,000
White Pass
WHPA1
WA
USFS
36,000
Columbia River Gorge (East End)
CORI1
WA
USFS
36,000
Snoqualmie Pass
SNPA1
WA
USFS
36,000
Pasayten Wilderness
PASA1
WA
USFS
36,000
Total
324,000
Operating
Costs ($)
16,969
6,567
8,842
10,000*
3,741
7,624
11,146*
14,799
13,857
93,545
*Includes operating costs for NADP site.
Not all IMPROVE monitoring sites funded by the Forest Service are representative of every wilderness
area managed by the Forest Service. Thus, wilderness areas should be cognizant of the benefits
received through funding of the IMPROVE monitors by other agencies.
Given the large annual costs associated with operating an IMPROVE monitoring site and the declining
discretionary budgets of the Forest Service, no additional IMPROVE monitoring sites are recommended
at this time. However, with any change in the future, some wilderness areas may wish to consider
establishing a monitoring site at a closer distance to increase the representativeness of the monitoring
data.
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Flora: Lichen Bio-monitoring
Lichen bio-monitoring is arguably the most efficient and informative means of monitoring air pollution
effects to flora. A region-specific manual has been developed for monitoring air quality using lichens on
the national forests of the Pacific Northwest. lx The manual provides field protocols, laboratory protocols
and individualized sampling strategies for nine national forests. FIA has also developed its own manual
for lichen sampling lxi.
In order to conduct a systematic, annualized lichen sampling and analysis program in the region, there
are multiple tasks to be conducted each year. These tasks include: planning for the field season (e.g.
hiring field crews, determine where sampling will occur, scheduling, etc.), conducting the field sampling
(e.g. driving to the forest, hiking to plot locations, collecting lichens, recording field information, etc.),
cleaning lichen in preparation for the laboratory analysis, identifying the lichen species, conducting the
laboratory analysis, entering the information into the database, performing statistical analysis to score
the sites, and reporting the results.
Costs:
On average, it costs approximately $560 per site to monitor lichens, as described above. This is based
upon an economy of scale in which 1,600 lichen plots are established and visited on a ten-year rotation
(i.e. 160 plots/year) across all national forests and wilderness areas in the region (which is a density of
one plot per every 20,000 acres).
Flora: Ozone Injury Surveys for Sensitive Plants
Monitoring for ozone injury to vegetation should continue following the baseline established by the FIA
program. To date, injury has been detected at only one site in the region. Due to a changing climate,
resource managers are expecting increases in ozone exposure, particularly in urban areas. Thus, the
emphasis of the ozone injury monitoring is to monitor trends. The areas to be targeted should be those
wilderness areas in close proximity to major metropolitan areas on the west side of the Cascades (e.g.
Buckhorn, The Brothers, Clearwater, Glacier View, Tatoosh, Alpine Lakes, Boulder River, Mt. Baker, Mark
O. Hatfield, Mt. Hood, Salmon-Huckleberry), and those located most south and east (i.e. Gearhart
Mountain, Sky Lakes, Mountain Lakes, Kalmiopsis Wild Rogue, Grassy Knob, Red Buttes, Hells Canyon).
The FIA program has discontinued its yearly ozone monitoring program, at least on a yearly basis. It is
unclear whether or not monitoring for ozone injury will occur again in the future.
As such, means for conducting surveys for ozone injury to vegetation should be made by interested
wilderness managers. If monitoring has not yet occurred within the wilderness of interest, monitoring
should be conducted to establish baseline. Repeat visits should be conducted once every ten years to
monitor trends.
The FIA program established a protocol for monitoring ozone injury. The protocol is called the Phase 3
Field Guide – Ozone Bio-indicator Plants (combined), Version 5.1, October 2011 and may be found at
FIA’s website: www.fia.fs.fed.us/library/field-guides-methods-proc/. Monitoring of ozone injury in
wilderness areas should follow the regional guidance for the protocol.
Costs:
The mean cost for conducting monitoring for ozone injury to vegetation is $550 per site. lxii This is based
upon the lowest bid received for conducting approximately 100 plots in California and Washington. This
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
amount includes time for planning, training, travel, on-site monitoring, injury validation, database entry
and analysis. The bulk of these costs are associated with travel. The actual time on site is approximately
one hour.
As a means of saving costs, wilderness areas may wish to use lichen sampling crews to conduct
monitoring for ozone injury, at the same time and locations as lichen bio-monitoring sites. Lichen survey
crews consist of a trained botanist and ecologist. By conducting ozone monitoring at the same time and
location as the lichen plots and adhering to the same sampling frequency and density, the travel costs
would be substantially reduced, thereby reducing the overall cost per plot.
Water: Wilderness Lake Chemistry Monitoring
In wilderness areas in which water has been identified as a priority wilderness air quality value,
consideration should be given to monitoring sensitive lakes for indications of acidification or unwanted
nutrient enrichment. Wilderness managers are advised to monitor for both these effects by requesting
analysis for both (1) Total Water Analysis: filtering, anions, cations, pH, ANC and conductivity and (2)
total phosphorous (TP), total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC).
The Forest Service’s Air Resource Management (ARM) Program has established protocols for field
sampling and analyses. lxiii Protocols are provided for field sampling, laboratory analysis, quality
assurance/quality control, data analyses, field sampling for aquatic biota and transitioning from the
previous protocols. These protocols should be followed when monitoring for water chemistry.
Additionally, the ARM program has developed a stream-sampling video which can and should be used to
train individuals on sampling methods for lake chemistry. Both the monitoring protocols and training
video are available on the Forest Service ARM website: www.fs.fed.us/air.
Costs:
Laboratory costs for analysis of cations, anion, ANC, pH, alkalinity and conductivity is $130 per sample
for FY2012, For an additional $15, samples can also be analyzed for TP, TDN and DOC, which is
recommended. To see current pricing and arrange for sampling equipment and laboratory analysis of
the data, please contact the ARM water laboratory at www.fs.fed.us/waterlab/index.shtml. In addition
to these laboratory costs, there are costs associated with salary, vehicles, per diem, database entry, and
non-laboratory analysis.
Fauna: Mercury in Fish Tissue Analysis
In wilderness areas where fish are identified as a priority sensitive receptor, sampling should be
conducted for predator species such as trout. Sampling should focus on lakes rather than rivers because
of their relatively enhanced ability to convert mercury to its toxic form of methyl mercury and because
resident fish do not migrate, which increases their overall exposure. Wilderness managers should focus
on lakes which are most frequently visited by fisherman to characterize the potential for human
exposure. Additionally, lakes located in areas which are frequented by fish-eating wildlife species,
including birds and mammals, should also be targeted.
The USGS has developed a standard operating procedure for collection of fish samples from remote
lakes, lxiv which is a good reference to use for sample collection. Ideally, ten fish of the target species
should be collected from each water body for individual analysis. Whole fish should be analyzed to
represent what is eaten by wildlife, as opposed to using just the fillets, as typically eaten by humans.
Simultaneous with the fish sampling, various water quality parameters will be measured in each lake to
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
facilitate a cursory assessment of the relationship between water chemistry and mercury
bioaccumulation. Specific parameters will include: pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity and temperature
(a temperature profile through the water column will be measured where applicable). If additional funds
become available, wilderness managers are also advised to collect a water sample for laboratory
analysis of dissolved organic carbon, sulfate, sulfide and chlorophyll a.
Once transferred to the laboratory, samples should be processed for total mercury. It is unnecessary to
analyze for methyl mercury because the ratio of methyl mercury to total mercury is well established.
The laboratory should measure the standard length and weight of each fish and remove a scale sample,
operculum and sagittal otoliths, and subsequently determine the age of each specimen if it has the
capability. Each sample should be analyzed for total mercury concentration in solids following EPA
method 7473 lxv or an equivalent method.
Costs:
The cost for the laboratory mercury analysis (including sample preparation and digestion) is
approximately $50/sample, based upon pricing from the USGS. Additional costs will be incurred for staff
time for field collection, associated travel and equipment. Also, it is highly recommended that water
quality should be sampled at the same time and location as the fish collection. Refer to the section on
Water: Wilderness Lake Monitoring for associated costs and protocols for this activity
Example – Roaring River Wilderness
The following example is provided for the Roaring River Wilderness to demonstrate how the information
in this plan may be used to craft an individual wilderness air quality plan.
Step 1: Evaluate Wilderness Character and Identify Candidate WAQVs
WAQVs are identified from wilderness descriptions in law, descriptions at publicly available web sites, or
discussions with Forest Service staff, or from one’s own familiarity with the wilderness area. The
following description of the Roaring River wilderness appears on the wilderness.net website.
Description
The largest block of new wilderness designated in 2009 in Oregon is in the Roaring River
Valley, a tributary of the Clackamas River. The wilderness area is named after the Roaring River
that flows through the area and is a tributary of the Clackamas River. Salmon and steelhead
spawn in the Roaring River and the area is thick with bears, cougars, mule deer, elk, spotted
owls and pileated woodpeckers. Lupine or Indian paintbrush are common wildflowers in
summer. Lakes in the area include the Rock Lakes and Serene Lake, while Cache Meadow is
one of the many alpine meadows. The wilderness has five trails: Shining Lake, Shellrock Lake,
Serene Lake, Grouse Point and Dry Ridge. Prior to designation, these trails were open to use by
mountain bikes.
Since the description mentions the river and lakes, water is identified as a candidate WAQV. The
description also mentions fish and wildlife; hence fauna is identified as a candidate WAQV.
Additionally, alpine meadows and wildflowers are mentioned, thus flora is also identified as a candidate
WAQV. Table 3-3 provides a summary of the wilderness characteristics for each wilderness.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Step 2: Identify Sensitive Receptors and Indicators
Table 5-6 is then reviewed to identify the appropriate sensitive receptor for each of these. From the
table, lichens and ozone sensitive plants are appropriate sensitive receptors for flora. Fish are the
sensitive receptor for fauna and water chemistry and diatoms are identified as the sensitive receptors
for water.
Step 3: Assess Regional Potential Threat from Air Pollution
Refer to chapter 4 to identify the nearby upwind sources of air pollutants and the potential threat.
Figure 4-3 shows that the Portland metropolitan area and the Willamette Valley agricultural areas are
nearby sources of air pollution. Both are sources of nitrogen (NOx from combustion sources and
ammonia from agriculture). Additionally, Figure 4-4 shows that the insecticide Endosulfan was used in
relatively high amounts in 2002, the last year available information was available.
Figure 4-5 illustrates the model-predicted amount of nitrogen deposition which occurs across the
region. The Roaring River Wilderness receives approximately 3.2 kg/ha-yr of N on the east side to 5-10
kg/ha-yr of nitrogen on the west side from atmospheric deposition. This is within the range where shifts
in lichen community composition are estimated to occur within mixed conifer forests (Geiser, 2010) and
above the threshold where changes in diatom assemblages have been observed in nitrogen-limited
waters of alpine lakes in Colorado (Baron, 2006). Thus nitrogen-limited lakes may be at risk of unwanted
fertilization from atmospheric deposition of nitrogen and shifts in sensitive vegetation.
Figure 4-6 illustrates the model-predicted amount of sulfur deposition which occurs in the region. The
Roaring River Wilderness receives approximately 5-10 kg/ha-yr of sulfur deposition. Sensitive lichen
species are not known to exhibit adverse effects below 10 kg S/ha-yr.
Figure 4-7 and 4-8 illustrate the ozone exposure within the region. The Roaring River Wilderness has a
W126 value of 7 ppb, and an N100 value of 1-2 ppb. Loss of growth or injury to sensitive vegetation is
not known to occur below a combined W126 value of 5.9 ppb-hr and an N100 value of 6. Thus, ozone
injury is not believed to be occurring as of 2008, when the ozone observations occurred.
Figure 4-10 reveals that there is a relatively high amount of mercury deposited in the vicinity of the
Roaring River Wilderness.
Based on this assessment, lichens, water chemistry (and diatoms), and fish would be sensitive
receptors considered for monitoring.
Step 4: Evaluate Existing Monitoring
Table 6-4 indicates that baseline for nutrient/metals concentrations in lichen and for lichen community
along regional eutrophication and climate gradients has been established from sampling conducted in
1995 and 1997. Repeat visits were conducted in 2005, but the data remains to be analyzed and
reported. Using the lichen scoring procedure, if flora were identified as the priority sensitive receptor,
six points could be obtained now and an additional four points could be obtained once the lichens from
the repeat visits were analyzed and reported. Thus, the wilderness strategy is to contact the regional air
quality specialist to identify when trend data will be analyzed and reported.
Figure 6-6 illustrates that none of the water bodies in the wilderness have been monitored for potential
effects of acidification or nutrient enrichment. Nor has monitoring been conducted to date for mercury
or SOCs in fish in this wilderness area.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Step 5: Evaluate Cost Considerations
There are no costs associated with increasing the lichen scores from six to 10 for the current trend
period. Future trend monitoring for two lichen plots is $1,100.
Laboratory analysis for one water quality sample is $145, plus the labor.
The fish in the lakes could be monitored for mercury at a cost of $500/lake, assuming 10 fish are
collected per lake. However, there are no readily available laboratories to analyze SOCs in fish.
Step 6: Determine WAQV Monitoring Strategy
In summary, lichens, water quality, and mercury in fish were identified as candidate sensitive receptors
based upon the wilderness description which included mention of flora, water, and wildlife. Nitrogen
and mercury were identified as the pollutants of most concern.
Monitoring for lichen should be conducted for changes in community composition as they may be
caused by air pollution or climate change. Additionally, lichens should be sampled and analyzed for the
concentration of nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, nickel, titanium,
vanadium and zinc. Lichen monitoring should occur at a density of at least one plot for every 20,000
acres of wilderness. Since the wilderness contains 36,768 acres, two lichen plots are needed to meet
these criteria (rounded to the nearest whole digit).
A baseline for lichen community composition and chemical concentrations was established back in 1997.
Repeat visits to assess changes and trends has been conducted, but the results are not yet available.
Given that 10 points can be achieved in the near future for no additional costs for characterizing trends
in lichen communities and elemental concentrations, lichens are identified as a priority sensitive
receptor.
Monitoring lichen is sufficient to meet the maximum scoring needs associated with the wilderness
challenge. However, should wilderness managers wish to increase stewardship associated with air
quality, additional sampling could be conducted as described below.
Water chemistry could be monitored for changes due to acidification and nutrient enrichment. ANC and
DiN:TP nutrient ratios should be sampled and quantified. The selection of which water bodies to sample
may be determined from stratified random sampling, but with considerations of access and specific
watershed attributes.
Additionally, fish could be sampled for mercury and levels compared with ecological and human health
thresholds. The selection of the appropriate water body to obtain fish should consider numerous
factors. Consult with the forest or regional air resource management specialist to help with this
determination. However, it is certainly reasonable to collect fish and water chemistry from the same
water body as most of the cost associated with sample collection and analysis is from travel costs to and
from wilderness water bodies.
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APPENDIX A
Appendix A: 10-YWSC Wilderness Scoring
The supplemental information for determining accomplishments of “Wilderness Areas Managed to
Minimum Stewardship Level” (Revised 06/06/2006) identifies the following counting instructions for the
air quality element of the 10YWSC. The goal is stated as “monitoring of wilderness air quality values is
conducted and a baseline is established for this wilderness.” The counting instructions are shown in
Table A-1 below.
Table A-1. Counting Instructions
Score
Accomplishment Level
Development of a wilderness air quality value plan, including identification of wilderness
2
air quality values, sensitive receptors and indicators
Conduct inventory for a priority sensitive receptor (in addition to IMPROVE visibility
4
monitoring)1
Establish baseline for a priority sensitive receptor (in addition to IMPROVE visibility
6
monitoring)1
Monitor a priority sensitive receptor for trends from baseline (in addition to IMPROVE
10
visibility monitoring)1
1
The IMPROVE network provides valuable information for characterizing visibility conditions in our
wildernesses. The intent of this element, however, is to have our monitoring extend beyond IMPROVE
visibility monitoring to evaluate other important wilderness air quality values, such as lake water
sampling and lichen monitoring. Forests which have developed a wilderness air quality plan and have
identified visibility as the sole wilderness air quality value will be able to claim credit for IMPROVE
monitoring.
Visibility
As presented in Table 3-3, no wilderness areas in Region 6 have identified visibility as the sole wilderness
air quality value. Therefore, no wilderness can claim credit for IMPROVE monitoring.
Flora: Lichen
Table A-2 presents a summary of the wilderness scoring given for conducting lichen bio-monitoring in a
wilderness. Two points are given if lichens are included as a sensitive receptor in the wilderness air
quality monitoring plan. The remainder of the points are dependent upon the density of the lichen plots
and the type of analyses conducted. To obtain a reasonable spatial representation of the wilderness
area, at least one plot is needed for every 20,000 acres of wilderness. If lichen plots are established at a
lower density, points may still be claimed, according to the table below. Additionally, lichens will be
sampled and analyzed for both elemental analysis and community composition. Full (10) points are
given if lichens are collected and analyzed for both of these, and only half the points will be given if only
one of these parameters are collected and analyzed.
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Table A-2. Lichen Biomonitoring Scoring
Plot Density
Task
Analysis Type
(1 plot/# acres)
Development of a wilderness air
quality monitoring plan including
lichens as a sensitive receptor and
indicator
<20,000
Conduct lichen biomonitoring surveys
20,000 - 40,000
>40,000
<20,000
Elemental
20,000 - 40,000
Analysis
>40,000
Establish Baseline
<20,000
Community
20,000 - 40,000
Composition
>40,000
<20,000
Elemental
20,000 - 40,000
Analysis
>40,000
Monitor and evaluate for trends from
baseline
<20,000
Community
20,000 - 40,000
Composition
>40,000
Points
2
2
1
0.5
1
0.5
0.25
1
0.5
0.25
2
1
0.5
2
1
0.5
Flora: Ozone Sensitive Plants
Scoring for ozone injury to vegetation is similar to lichen biomonitoring in that partial credit is given for
wilderness areas where monitoring has been conducted but not at the desired plot density. Table 6-5
presents a list of the wilderness areas in Region 6 which have biomonitoring sites, the number of plots,
Baseline is considered established if there is a reasonable spatial representation of locations within a
wilderness where ozone sensitive vegetation has been surveyed for injury, similar to the criteria for
establishing baseline for lichen. The same criterion for spatial density is used for ozone injury as is used
for lichen: at least one plot per 20,000 acres of wilderness. Temporally, baseline has been established
for these wilderness areas per the data summaries presented for the period of 2000-2005. lxvi No
temporal trends in ozone injury to vegetation have been established to date.
Water: Lake Chemistry
Wilderness areas which have water chemistry samples contained in the Forest Service Air Resource
Management program’s water chemistry database are considered in the scoring. All other wilderness
areas were assumed not to have identified water chemistry as a priority sensitive receptor. However,
wilderness managers could determine that water chemistry is a priority sensitive receptor at any time,
and utilize this plan accordingly. Two points are given if water chemistry is identified as a priority
sensitive receptor for the wilderness.
Synoptic surveys are often used to characterize water chemistry of an area to identify the trophic state
of water bodies. The time at which the water is collected during a synoptic survey can influence the
resulting chemistry and the ways the data can be used. Water chemistry in lakes, particularly dilute
lakes can vary diurnally, seasonally, and annually. Therefore if the objective of the synoptic survey is to
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
compare measurements among different lakes within the same region (a spatial assessment) all sites
would be ideally sampled at the same time as practically possible to minimize the temporal variability.
Seasonal affects can be minimized by restricting the sampling to just the summer or fall. During the
Western Lakes Survey, sampling was conducting only during September and October.
Oligotrophic lakes are considered those most susceptible to acidification and/or eutrophication effects
of nitrogen deposition. Acid sensitive lakes are identified as those with an acid neutralization capacity
(ANC) less than or equal to 50 microequivalents per liter (µeq/l). N-limited lakes are identified as those
with a DiN:TP (dissolved inorganic nitrogen: total phosphorous) ratio of less than four. lxviilxviii Dissolved
inorganic nitrogen is the sum of nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+).
For purposes of this document, at least 10% of the lakes in the wilderness area must be sampled during
the summer or the fall to adequately characterize the water chemistry of the wilderness. Thus, the two
points for conducting an inventory are only given if at least ten percent of the lakes in a wilderness have
been sampled for either ANC or nutrient ratios. Note, lakes are distinguished from ponds in the
database used for this exercise. Either acidification or nutrient limitations may be identified as the
indicator. Two additional points are given if an inventory is conducted to identify lakes sensitive to
acidification, or those which are nitrogen limited.
The water chemistry of a lake is often characterized on the basis of a single sample, collected during the
summer or fall for lakes. In general, however, it is preferable to base surface water characterization and
assessment on multiple samples (either collected throughout the annual cycle or restricted to summer
and fall) collected over several years.
Thus, partial credit (1 point) is given if baseline is only characterized by a single data collection point
(e.g., that obtained during the EPA Western Lakes Survey). Full credit (2 points) is given if baseline is
more fully characterized by multiple samples collected throughout the year, multiple consecutive years
for at least three years, and/or a paleolimnological records obtained from sediment cores.
In conducting long-term monitoring studies for trends analysis, the most sensitive lake in the population
of lakes which have been surveyed is usually monitored. This may be the lake with the lowest ANC
value, or one that considers other factors (e.g., short residence times, greatest amounts of atmospheric
deposition, etc.). Similar considerations are given to identify the lake must vulnerable for nutrient
enrichment from nitrogen deposition.
For scoring the trends analyses, only partial credit (2 points) is given where only one repeat visit has
occurred at the same lake, at least 10 years apart. Full credit (4 points) is given when multiple repeat
visits have occurred in different years, at the same lake, over at least a ten year period or more.
Fauna: Mercury in Fish
Table A-2 presents a summary of the wilderness scoring given for monitoring mercury concentrations in
fish. Two points are given if fish are included as a sensitive receptor in the wilderness air quality
monitoring plan. At least a few of the lakes in a wilderness must be sampled for mercury in fish for an
inventory to be considered conducted (4 points). A baseline is considered established when 10 percent
or more of the lakes have been sampled and characterized for
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Summary of Scoring for Each Wilderness
Wilderness Name
Alpine Lakes
Badger Creek
Black Canyon
Boulder Creek
Boulder River
Bridge Creek
Buckhorn
Bull of the Woods
Clackamas
Clearwater
Colonel Bob
Copper Salmon
Cummins Creek
Diamond Peak
Drift Creek
Eagle Cap
Gearhart Mountain
Glacier Peak
Glacier View
Goat Rocks
Grassy Knob
Hells Canyon
Henry M. Jackson
Indian Heaven
Kalmiopsis
Lake ChelanSawtooth
Lower White River
Mark O. Hatfield
Menagerie
Middle Santiam
Mill Creek
Monument Rock
Mount Adams
Mount Baker
Table A-3. Overall Scoring for Each Wilderness
Priority
Wilderness
Conduct
Establish
Sensitive
AQ Plan
Inventory
Baseline
Receptor
X
W
X
X
X
L
X
X
X
L
X
P
X
L
X
X
X
W
X
P
X
L
X
P
X
L
X
X
X
L
X
X
X
L
X
X
X
W
X
X
X
L
X
X
X
L
X
X
X
L
X
L
X
X
X
L
X
X
X
W
X
X
X
L
X
P
X
W
X
P
X
L
X
X
X
L
X
X
X
L
X
X
X
F
x
x
X
L
X
X
X
W
X
X
X
L
P
X
X
W
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
L
W
L
L
L
L
L
W
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
P
P
X
X
Monitor
for
Trends
P
P
P
P
X
P
P
P
P
-
Score
P
P
P
8
8
5
8
7
8
6
8
6
10
6
6
2
8
8
8
5
7
6
6
6
6
8
8
5
8
P
P
P
2
7
6
6
5
5
8
8
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Table A-3 Overall Scoring for Each Wilderness (Continued)
Wilderness Name
Wilderness
AQ Plan
Priority
Sensitive
Receptor
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
W
L
L
L
L
Conduct
Inventory
Establish
Baseline
Monitor
for
Trends
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Mount Hood
X
X
X
Mount Jefferson
X
X
X
Mount Skokomish
X
X
X
Mount Thielsen
X
X
P
Mount Washington
X
X
P
Mountain Lakes
X
X
P
Noisy-Diobsud
X
X
X
Norse Peak
X
X
P
North Fork John Day
X
P
P
North Fork Umatilla
X
X
P
Opal Creek
X
X
X
Pasayten
X
X
P
Red Buttes
X
X
X
Roaring River
X
X
X
Rock Creek
X
X
X
Rogue-Umpqua
X
X
X
Divide
Salmon-Huckleberry
X
L
X
X
P
Salmo-Priest
X
L
X
P
Sky Lakes
X
W
X
X
X
Strawberry Mountain
X
L
P
P
Tatoosh
X
L
X
X
P
The Brothers
X
L
X
X
Three Sisters
X
L
X
X
P
Trapper Creek
X
L
X
X
P
Waldo Lake
X
L
X
X
P
Wenaha-Tucannon
X
L
P
P
Wild Rogue
X
L
X
X
Wild Sky
X
L
P
P
William O. Douglas
X
W
X
X
Wonder Mountain
X
L
X
X
L = lichen. W = water. F = fish. X = Completed task. Dash (-) = Not completed. P =Partially completed.
Score
8
8
6
7
6
7
6
5
4
5
6
5
6
8
8
8
7
5
10
4
8
6
8
8
8
4
6
4
8
6
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
APPENDIX
Appendix B: Summary WAQRV Data
Individual wilderness air quality plans are presented here. The plans are presented in a consistent
summary format, as follows.
Title: Name of Wilderness
Location and Administration:
• National Forest
• State
• County
• General Location
• Size (acres)
• Year established
• Clean Air Act Designation as Class I or Class II area
Features:
• Description
• Lakebed geological composition
• Visitor Use
• Mean annual precipitation
• Elevation Range
• Climate (Temperature and Precipitation)
• Number of lakes and ponds
• Threatened and Endangered Species (TES) present.
• Ozone sensitive plants
• Air Quality sensitive lichens
• Cultural resources
Status and Trends:
• Acid Deposition
• Nutrient Enrichment
• Ozone impacts
Air Quality Related Values (AQRVs):
• Priority
• Receptor
• Indicator
• Trends
• Recommended Actions
Wilderness Challenge Points:
• Summary for each AQRV
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
Metadata associated with the databases which were queried to populate the individual plans may be
found at T:\FS\NFS\R06\Program\AirResourceMgmt2580\WildernessAQPlan\R6_wilderness_aq_plan_metadata.xlsx
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PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
APPENDIX
Appendix C: References
i
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iii
USDA Forest Service. (March 17, 2011). U.S. Forest Service Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers Strategy –
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iv
Nanus and Clow. 2004. Sensitivity of Lakes in Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington to Atmospheric
Deposition. (Unpublished) US Geological Survey, Denver, CO.
v
Kohut, Robert. 2007. Assessing the risk of foliar injury from ozone on vegetation in parks in the U.S. National Park
Service’s Vital Signs Network. Environmental Pollution, 149, pp 348-357.
vi
Omernick, J.M. 1995. Ecoregions: A Spatial Framework for Environmental Management. In Biological
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Technical Support Document for Endangerment and Cause or
Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under Section 202(a) of the Clean Air Act. Climate Change Division,
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viii
Landers, D.H., S.L. Simonich, D.A. Jaffe, L.H. Geiser, D.H. Campbell, A.R. Schwindt, C.B. Schreck, M.L. Kent, W.D.
Hafner, H.E. Taylor, K.J. Hageman, S. Usenko, L.K. Ackerman, J.E. Schrlau, N.L. Rose, T.F. Blett, and M.M. Erway.
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U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service, Air Resources Division. Map of Public Lands and Pollution
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US Department of Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Quality Assessment Program. Map of
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xi
CMAQ-model predicted nitrogen deposition. Model output obtrained from Donna Schwede US EPA.
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xii
CMAQ-model predicted nitrogen deposition. Model output obtrained from Donna Schwede US EPA.
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xiii
USDA Forest Service Air Resource Management Program. www.fs.fed.us/air.
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Spatial and Seasonal Patterns and Temporal Variability of Haze and its Constituents in the United
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National Atmospheric Deposition Program, (NRSP-3). 2007. NADP Program Office,
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xvi
Kline, Jeffrey D.; Alig, Ralph J. 2001. A spatial model of land use change for western Oregon and western
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xvii
Columbia River Gorge Air Quality Study, Emissions Inventory Report. Oregon Department of Environmental
Quality. January 31, 2008.
xviii
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/invntory/overview/solutions/fuels.htm
xix
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xxii
nd
Air Pollution and Forests, Interactions between Air Contaminants and Forest Ecosystems, 2 Edition. William H.
Smith. Springer-Verlag, New York. 1990.
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xxiii
Ozone Injury in West Coast Forests: 6 Years of Monitoring. Campbell et al. USDA Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-722. June 2007.
xxiv
US. Environmental Protection Agency. Technical Support Document for Endangerment and Cause or Contribute
Findings for Greenhouse Gases under Section 202(a) of the Clean Air Act. December 7, 2009. Climate Change
Division, Office of Atmospheric Programs. Washington, D.C.
xxv
Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest. Second Edition. McCune B. and L. Geiser. Oregon State University Press.
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xxvi
Geiser L. and P. Neitlich. Air pollution and climate gradients in western Oregon and Washington indicated by
epiphytic macrolichens. Environmental Pollution. 145 (2007) 203-218.
xxvii
Geiser LH., et al. Lichen-based critical loads for atmospheric nitrogen deposition in Western Oregon and
Washington Forests, USA. Environ. Pollut. (2010), doi: 10:1016/j.envpol.2010.04.001.
xxviii
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. May 2011. Assessment of Nitrogen Deposition Effects and
Emperical Critical Loads of Nitrogen for Ecoregions of the United States. Northern Research Station, General
Technical Report NRS-80. http://nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/38109
xxix
Peterson, J. et al. Guidelines for evaluating air pollution impacts on class I wilderness areas in the Pacific
Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep.PNw-GTR-229. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station.1992.
xxx
Interagency Workgroup on Air Quality Modeling (IWAQM), Phase I Report. US EPA, National Park Service, USDA
Forest Service, and US Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. EPA-454/R-93-015.
xxxi
A Guide to Ozone Injury in Vascular Plants of the Pacific Northwest. Brace et al. USDA Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station. General Technical Report PNW-GTR- 446. September 1999.
xxxii
Oregon Forest Resources, 2001-2005. Five-year Forest Inventory and Analysis Report. USDA Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Research Station. General Technical Report. PNW-GTR-765. November 2008.
xxxiii
Assessing the Risk of Foliar Injury from Ozone on Vegetation in the Upper Columbia Basin Network.
National Park Service. 2004. http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/pubs/pdf/03Risk/ucbnO3RiskOct04.pdf.
xxxiv
Ozone Injury in West Coast Forests: 6 Years of Monitoring. Cambell, S. Wanek, R., and Coulston J. USDA Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. General Technical Report. PNW-GTR-722. June 2007.
xxxv
Acid in the Environment. Lessons Learned and Future Prospects. Visgilio and Whitelaw Editors. Springer
Science + Business Media LLC. New York, NY. 2007.
xxxvi
McNulty, S.G., et al. Estimates of critical acid loads and exceedances for forest soils across the conterminous
United States. Envion. Pollut. 149 (2007), pp. 281-292.
xxxvii
Aquatic Effects of Acidic Deposition. Sullivan, T. CRC Press. 2000.
xxxviii
Bergstrom, A. and M. Jansson. Atmospheric nitrogen deposition has caused nitrogen enrichment and
eutrophication of lakes in the northern hemisphere. Global Change Biology (2006) 12, 635–643
xxxix
Eilers, J.M., et. al. A Diatom Calibration Set for the Cascade Mountain Ecoregion. E&S Environmental
Chemistry, Inc. Corvallis, OR. 1998.
xl
Clow D.W., and Campbell, D.H., 2008. Atmospheric Deposition and Surface-Water Chemistry in Mount Rainier
and North Cascades National Parks, USA: Denver, Colorado, US Geologic Survey Scientific Investigations Report.
xli
Evidence of Enhanced Atmospheric Ammoniacal Nitrogen in Hells Canyon National Recreation Area: Implications
for Natural and Cultural Resources. Geiser, et al. J. of Air and Waste Management Association, 58: 1223-1234.
September 2008.
xlii
Geomorphology’s role in the study of weathering of cultural stone. Pope G., T. Meierding, and T. Paradise.
Geomorphology, 47 (2002). 211-225.
xliii
Geiser, L. 2004. Manual for Monitoring Air Quality Using Lichens on National Forest of the Pacific Northwest.
USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region Technical Paper R6-NR-AQ-TP-1-04. 126 pp.
xliv
USDA Forest Service. 1997. First approximation report for sustainable forest management: report of the United
States on the criteria and indicators for sustainable management of temperate and boreal forests. Washington,
D.C.
xlv
Campbell, Sally, J.; Wanek, Ron; Coulston, John W. 2007. Ozone injury in west coast forests: 6 years of
monitoring. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-722. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station. 53 p.
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xlvi
Sullivan. T. Aquatic Effects of Acidic Deposition. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press. 2000.
Morris, D.P.; Lewis, Jr. W.M. 1988. Phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Colorado mountain lakes. Freshwater
Biology. 20:315:327.
xlviii
Bergstrom, Ann-Kristen. . The use of TN:TP and DIN:TP ratios as indicators for phytoplankton nutrient
limitation in oligotrophic lakes affected by N deposition. Aquatic Sciences. Published online: 03 March 2010.
xlix
Landers, D.H. , Eilers, J. M., Brakke, D.F., Overton, W.S., Kellar, P.E., Silverstein, M.E., Schonbrod, R.D., Crowe, R.
E., Linthurst, R.A., Omernik, J.M., Teague, S.A., and Meier, E.P.: 1987: Characteristics of Lakes in the Western
United States. Vol. 1: Population Descriptions and Physico-Chemical Relationships”, EPA-600/3-86/054a, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. 176 pp.
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Deposition. Prepared for the USDA, Forest Service, Region 6. Prepared by the US Geological Survey. Denver, CO
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Eilers, J.M., et al. Limnology of Summit Lake, Washington – Its Acid-Base Chemistry and Paleolimnology. E&S
Environmental Chemistry, Inc. Corvallis, OR July 3, 1988.
lii
Eilers. J.M., Sweets, P.R., Charles, D.F., Vache, K.B., 1998. A Diatom Calibrations Set for the Cascade Mountain
Ecoregion. E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc. Corvallis, OR.
liii
Eilers, J.M., and K. Vache. Lake Response to Atmospheric and Watershed Inputs in the Goat Rocks Wilderness,
WA. E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc. Corvallis, OR December 1988.
liv
Eilers, J.M. et al. A limnological Reconnaissance of Selected Eagle Cap Wilderness Lakes and Paleolimnological
Assessments of Mirror Lake. E&S Chemistry Inc. Corvallis, OR. August 2000.
lv
Eilers, J.M., and J.A. Bennet. Umpqua Lakes Baseline Water Quality Inventory. E&S Environmental Chemistry,
Corvallis, OR. November 14, 1990.
lvi
Eilers, J.M. Sampling Deposition-Sensitive Lakes in the Mt. Jefferson and Columbia Wilderness Areas. E&S
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Clow, D.W., Campbell, D.H., 2008, Atmospheric Deposition and Surface-Water Chemistry in Mount Rainier and
North Cascades National Parks, USA: Denver, Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report
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lviii
Eilers, J., Vache, K., Eilers, B., Sweets, R. 2009. Water Quality & Biological Response to Current and Simulated
Increases in Atmospheric Deposition of Sulfur and Nitrogen to Four Lakes in the Oregon and Washington Cascade
Range. MaxDepth Aquatics, Inc. Bend, OR.
lix
Saros, J. Determining Critical N Loads to Subalpine Lakes in the Pacific Northwest. Final Report to the USDA
Forest Service. Univiersity of Maine, Climate Change Institute. September 2009.
lx
Geiser, L. 2004. Manual for Monitoring Air Quality Using Lichens on the National Forests of the Pacific
Northwest. USDA-Forest Service Pacific Northwets Region Technical Paper, R6-NR-AQ-TP-1-04. 126 pp.
lxi
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 2005. Field instructions for the annual inventory of Washington,
Oregon, California, and Alaska: supplement for phase 3 (FHM) indicators. Portland, OR: Pacific Northwest
Research Station. 136 p. http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fia/localresources/pdf/field_manuals/2005_annual_manual_supplement.pdf (May 3, 2007).
lxii
Personal Communication with Joel Thompson, Regional Coordinator for the US Forest Service West Coast Ozone
Bioindicator Monitoring, USDA Forest Service, Portland Forest Sciences Laboratory. April 4, 2012.
lxiii
Sullivan, T.J., Editor. 2012. USDA Forest Service National Protocols for Air Pollution-Sensitive Waters. GTR-WOxx. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. xxx p.
lxiv
Eagles-Smith, C. Standard Operating Procedures for the Collection of Fish Samples from Remote Lakes. U.S.
Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, Contaminant Ecology Program. June 2011.
lxv
Mercury in Solids and Solutions by Thermal Decomposition, Amalgamation, and Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry. http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/7473.pdf.
lxvi
Campbell, Sally, J.; Wanek, Ron; Coulston, John W. 2007. Ozone injury in west coast forests: 6 years of
monitoring. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-722. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station. 53 p.
lxvii
Morris, D.P.; Lewis, Jr. W.M. 1988. Phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Colorado mountain lakes. Freshwater
Biology. 20:315:327.
xlvii
Page | 96
PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan
lxviii
Bergstrom, Ann-Kristen. The use of TN:TP and DIN:TP ratios as indicators for phytoplankton nutrient limitation
in oligotrophic lakes affected by N deposition. Aquatic Sciences. Published online: 03 March 2010.
Page | 97