Priscilla David
Catherine Cook-Cottone
Raj Sharman
H. Raghava Rao
Shambhu Upadhaya
University at Buffalo, SUNY
Objectives of the Study
• To study the transition of first responders from normal incident
response to disaster level patterns
• To analyze the data collected from first responders from the
October 2006 Snow Storm in Buffalo to understand their
transition
Saturday, May 28, 2016
University at Buffalo, SUNY
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Grounded Theory
 The Perspective of the First Responder
 Open Coding (naming phenomenon)
 Axial Coding (process of relating codes to each other)
 Selective Coding (finding core categories and themes)
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University at Buffalo, SUNY
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Questions Under Study
 During the October Storm, first response infrastructure
shifted from normal simple incident response patterns to
disaster level patterns
(a) Describe how you knew the transition was needed.
(b) Describe how the functions of your unit changed during
and after this transition.
 Please describe the most difficult tasks during the
transition from normal simple incident response patterns
to disaster level patterns during the October Storm.
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University at Buffalo, SUNY
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Problems in Evolving Disaster Response Systems
Communication systems
 Comfort et al., (2004): state that when one method or
process fails, the normal psychology of man is to opt for the
next method thus overcrowding that method which causes
the failure of the alternative method.
 Auf der Heide (2006):


reports that in some EMS a common radio frequency for
communication has not been established.
In the event of a disaster, communication problem are a huge
hindrance when one emergency response team is trying to
communicate with another.
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University at Buffalo, SUNY
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Problems in Evolving Disaster Response Systems
Coordination systems
 Coordination by plan: Definite procedure that has to be
followed by the EMS; experience success or additional
challenge based on their activity.
 Coordination by feedback: Errors and successes of incidents
are noted; lessons are learned from past experience
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University at Buffalo, SUNY
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Coordination Problems:
Unexpected Help
 Unexpected help: Instant rescue operations are performed by
those who are present on the scene, the civilians.
 Their attempts to respond to the disaster are often not well coordinated;
lead to impairment of the organizational efficiency during a disaster.
 Unexpected help: Auf der Heide (2006): Help comes from
unexpected sources when it may not be required. Having more
help than for which was planned, leads to the additional
coordination problem.
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University at Buffalo, SUNY
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Coordination systems
(discussions from Comfort et al., 2004)
 Training and education guides the responders during
uncertainties
 Three types of responses during disaster recovery:



Blind response occurs when the responders do not have
information about the time and severity of the specific call or
need.
Time-based response is when information is available to
responders based on time of demand (first come first serve
basis).
Severity-based response occurs when information is provided
about the time and severity of the incident wherein severity is the
predominant factor (calls would be triaged)
 If resources are used to the maximum and not conserved at the
preliminary stage, they are exhausted and are not able to work
to the best of their ability at progressing stages of the disaster.
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University at Buffalo, SUNY
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Problems in Evolving Disaster Response Systems
Flexible leadership and first responder role adaptation
 Waugh & Streib (2006): Rigid method of hierarchical decision
making is not effective.
 Kelly (1995): Flexibility may also play a role in FR efficacy.
FRs often perform tasks beyond their roles and responsibilities.
 Waugh & Streib (2006): Role adaptation and intensification is
experienced in most disaster response situations
Saturday, May 28, 2016
University at Buffalo, SUNY
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Questions Under Study
 During the October Storm, first response infrastructure
shifted from normal simple incident response patterns to
disaster level patterns
(a) Describe how you knew the transition was needed.
(b) Describe how the functions of your unit changed during
and after this transition.
 Please describe the most difficult tasks during the
transition from normal simple incident response patterns
to disaster level patterns during the October Storm.
Saturday, May 28, 2016
University at Buffalo, SUNY
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Saturday, May 28, 2016
University at Buffalo, SUNY
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Theoretical Construct: Event Indicators
Concepts
Category
Response
Apparent Magnitude of destruction
Magnitude and Complexity of
event
“Could visibly see the devastation”
Magnitude of event
Complexity of the event
“The overall scale & severity of damage
to widespread area”
“Complexity and extent of the event
made this obvious”
Theoretical Construct: Impact Indicators
Concepts
Loss of Electricity
Category
Civic infrastructure effects of
event
Driving Ban
Disconnection of Cellular Services
Limitations of travel for responding
units
Need to assist public
Community Impact
Resource Demands
Overwhelming Emergency calls
Inability to keep up with emergency
calls
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“This was very obvious- driving ban, no
power”
“Cell phone services swamped”
“We were unable to get our vehicles out
of station”
Impact on the public (Panic, etc)
Need for more resources
Response
“Major power outage”
University at Buffalo, SUNY
“Assist the public with utility problems
and transport the sick”
“One was able to tell there was a
widespread panic”
“When more resources were needed and
the call volume kept rising”
“The storm produced a tidal wave of
calls”
“Call volume increased. Late response
increased”
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Theoretical Construct: Experience Indicators
Concepts
Category
Response
Assessment based on experience
Experience as responder
Communicated about the storm
Indicators apparent in operating
procedures
“The disaster level was greater than
we had ever experienced before”
“Town-wide communications of the
state of the Town”
“When the emergency response
team was activated”
“By direct orders through
supervisors”
Shift in response plan
Leadership
Theoretical Construct: Responder Role Change
Concepts
Category
Response
Specific change in role
Role Adaptation – Type of work
changed
“We were tasked with functions not
part of our normal duties”
“Immediate emergency care to more
of an assistance team”
“went from primarily enforcing the
law to helping people with home
problems”
“At work we just extended shifts”
“The functions stayed primarily the
same, the scale just became larger”
“Call volume increased. Late
response increased”
“Response to specific calls became
more difficult because trees, snow”
Shift from emergency care to
assistance
Shift from normal operation to
public service & assistance
Augmented work shifts
Same Function but increase in
magnitude
Role Intensity
Handling increased calls
Changes in Response Time
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Increased Difficulty in Role
Performance
University at Buffalo, SUNY
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Theoretical Construct: Integration of Response
Concepts
Category
Response
Increased Coordination (among
Responders, departments)
Coordination, Collaboration and
Emergency Operation Plan Activation
“Everybody worked well together”
“Unit's came together in a timely
manner”
“We were split up into teams”
Different units came together
Responders split into teams
“Smoothly”
Type of Transition in the functions of
the unit
Increased need for resources
Resources and support from outside
“more man power”
Insufficient amount of resources
“resources became low”
Functions changed to increased
information communication with
public
“communication with residents ”
Functions did not change( Required
outside assistance)
“We just integrated outside assistance
were needed”
“able to release a few personnel at a
time”
“More technology in form of
communications”
Personnel relief and respite
Increased Communication (among
Responders, departments)
Communication and coordination
issues
Problems in Communication (among
Responders, departments)- Negative
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University at Buffalo, SUNY
“Transportation and communication
problems”
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Theoretical Construct: Disaster Impact
Concepts
Category
Response
Work around for failed systems
Failed Systems
Most difficult period during the
storm
Responder mobility issues
Storm Impact
“Setting up work arounds for failed
systems”
“This was the most difficult first 8
hours of the storm”
Impact of Driving Ban
Theoretical Construct: Resource Demands
“Getting through all of the damage
was difficult”
“Trying to re-open our facility when
there were still community driving
bans”
Concepts
Category
Response
Resource Management (Managing the
available)
Need for Resources
Physical Resource Needs
“Deployment of man power”
Unavailability of TechnologyElectricity Loss
Extended shifts
Responder Needs
Personal needs of the Responder
Training
Saturday, May 28, 2016
University at Buffalo, SUNY
“Getting man power to handle the
severe volume”
“Dealing with power outage and access
to pre existing programs.”
“I worked 27 hours in a row after
coming off a 12 hour shift”
“Sleeping in the hall without family on
cots for 2 days”
“Trying to prepare personnel and
equipment to do a job”
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Theoretical Construct: Community Issues
Concepts
Category
Response
Protect the public and provide
care/service to them
Concern for safety and community
“prevent the public from
electrocution hazards ”
“Making sure home life was ok ”
Concern for family safety
Delayed response times
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Delays
University at Buffalo, SUNY
“Response time to storm victims
was much greater”
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Conclusion
 The qualitative analysis of the FR reports regarding the Buffalo October storm
suggests that there are three are three major areas to consider when working
towards understanding the nature of the transition to a disaster-level response:
 disaster-indicators

FRs must be good assessors of event-specific-indicators
 dynamics-in-transition
 disaster-impact
 i.e., civic-infrastructure-effects, community-impact, and resources-demands
 use FR experience to evaluate these data.
 Also critical is the ability of FRs to negotiate the dynamics of the transition
to a disaster.
 requires role flexibility and adaptation as FRs respond to increases in the
intensity of their work as well as increases complexities of role performance.
 the dynamics-in-transition appear to include substantial coordination and
communication demands.
 the transition to a disaster level response hinges on the actual disaster impact.
That is, the impact on systems, physical resources, responders, and the
community.
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University at Buffalo, SUNY
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