INTEGRATED FINAL REPORT OF PLEC WORK IN GHANA
AUGUST 1992 - FEBRUARY 2002
Reported by
Edwin A. Gyasi
(Leader, southern Ghana PLEC group and Co-ordinating Leader, WAPLEC)
With assistance of
Felix Asante
(WAPLEC Administrative and Research Officer)
and
Yaa Asiedua Gyasi
(Ag. WAPLEC Secretary and Temporary Research Assistant)
University of Ghana, Legon
March 2002
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In Ghana PLEC work started in 1993 with a pilot study of environmental changes and
farmers reactions to them with reference to sites within the southern sector of the semi-humid
forest-savanna transition zone. The study resulted in:
 a technical report;
 a workshop;
 a published scientific paper;
 a book; and,
 creation of contacts with farmers and others for further work.
Subsequently, but most especially from 1997, work became more applied with a focus on
agrodiversity conservation through a participatory approach led by farmers with support of
scientists. A major output is establishment of five principal agrodiversity demonstration sites
and two subsidiary ones. They are located in the three main agroecological zones (humid
forest, dry savanna and semi-humid forest-savanna mosaic), and managed by over 1300
farmers who include experts in biodiversity conservation. PLEC has organized the farmers
into associations that serve as a medium for:
 farmer - scientist interactions and collaborative work;
 farmer - to - farmer interactions including exchange of knowledge and germ-plasm;
 reaching out to farmers and sensitizing them to issues of conservation and development;
 mobilizing the latent knowledge, energy and other resources of farmers for the purpose of
conservation and development;
 tapping or accessing external support for farmers;
 carrying out demonstrations; and,
 in general, empowering farmers politically, socially and economically.
Through the farmer associations PLEC interventions have achieved the following:
 by systematic assessment involving scientists and over 50 farmer expert ethno-botanists,
scientific insights into plant-biodiversity;
 identification of over 12 traditional farm management practices that favour biodiversity;
 promotion of use of the practices identified as favouring biodiversity, and of other modes
of conservation.
As a result of the conservation promotion drive, mulching with chopped vegetation in a
practice called oprowka (or proka), which avoids ecologically destructive burning, is on the
increase, as are the following practices:
 management of assorted yams within agroforestry systems;
 usage of forests conserved nearby for beekeeping, honey and wax, which has grown to
involves over 70 households with great prospects for further expansion;
 establishment of woodlots and plant nurseries which yield poles, firewood and seedlings
in commercial quantities;
 conservation and production of local varieties of rare domestic fowls and rice, Oryza
glaberrima, on a commercial scale;
 management of medicinal plants within conserved forest or arboretum;
2



growing of foodcrops among trees conserved in situ in farms;
propagation of plantain and certain other crops through the split-corm technique; and,
grafting and budding of plants.
Because of the commercial orientation of these and other conservation practices encouraged
by PLEC, rural livelihoods and incomes are being improved. The process is encouraged by
enthusiastic response of farmers to other value addition or income generating activities,
notably the following, which are promoted by PLEC to motivate farmers to conserve:
 processing of cassava, a primary cash crop, into flour for bread and pastry, which
involves a sizeable number of females;
 spinning and weaving of cotton, another important cash crop, into cloth by youthful
women, which is helping to curb rural out-migration;
 raising of snails, a delicacy in some of the demonstration sites; and,
 piggery, introduced as the nucleus of a swine dispersal project.
Enrichment of biodiversity through PLEC interventions, above all those focused on
promotion of agrodiversity and related activities, is manifested, among other things, by:
 an apparent increased plant pollination and utilization of nectar by bees kept in home
gardens and forests conserved nearby;
 conservation and development of arboreta harboring various species of medicinal plants;
 production of rare types of yam, Dioscorea, within agroforestry systems;
 integration of citrus and oil palms into traditional systems of food cropping;
 development, by a local farmer, of an unique system of crop management based on a
combination of traditional and modern practices that has become a model because of its
biodiverse character and high productivity;
 regeneration of deforested areas;
 a revival of the traditional agroforestry practice of growing crops alongside trees
conserved in situ within farms; and,
 increased number of biodiverse school gardens.
Against this background and recalling the enthusiasm of farmers and their children for PLEC
work, the demonstrated commitment of scientists to the PLEC cause, the co-operation and
support of government, and the capacity developed by PLEC for improvement of rural
livelihoods through agrodiversity, we can confidently expect the PLEC initiative to be
sustained.
3
INTEGRATED FINAL REPORT OF PLEC WORK IN GHANA
AUGUST 1992 -FEBRUARY 2002 
Reported by Edwin A. Gyasi (Co-ordinating Leader, WAPLEC) with assistance of Felix
Asante (WAPLEC Administrative and Research Officer) and Yaa Asiedua Gyasi (Ag.
WAPLEC Secretary and Temporary Research Assistant)
1. HISTORICAL CONTEXT
1.1
Background
Many events occur by chance rather than by design. So it was with the start of PLEC work in
Ghana and elsewhere in West Africa. It all is rooted in a chance encounter between Professor
Edwin Gyasi and Emeritus Professor Harold Brookfield, which culminated in the
participation of Gyasi in the maiden meeting of PLEC during the 27th International
Geographical Congress (IGC) of the International Geographical Union (IGU) in August 1992
in Washington, D.C.
Following a request by Brookfield in subsequent correspondence, Gyasi assembled about 12
Ghanaian scientists for a meeting with Brookfield and Dr. Juha Uitto of the UNU (United
Nations University) on the prospective research project, ‘Population, Land Management and
Environmental Change (PLEC)’, during a UNU conference on the Sub-Sahara African
environment in Accra, Ghana, in March 1993.
A major outcome was the commissioning of Edwin Gyasi by the UNU in the later part of
1993, to lead a team of scientists to carry out a pilot PLEC study on production pressures and
environmental changes with special reference to the southern sector of Ghana’s forestsavanna transition zone. The study focused on three sites, Yensiso, Sekesua and Amanase,
which are described in subsequent sections. It was carried out between August 1993 and
January 1994 with a $5,000 UNU seed money. The under listed scientists from the
University of Ghana were the principal researchers:
 Edwin A. Gyasi (Leader/Co-ordinator);
 Gotfried T. Agyepong;
 Elizabeth Ardayfio-Schandorf;
 Lewis Enu-Kwesi;
 John S. Nabila; and,
 Emmanuel Owusu-Bennoah.
1.2.
Progression of PLEC work in pre-GEF phase
Main outputs of the pilot study were:
a) the research study report, ‘Environmental Endangerment in the Forest-Savanna zone of
Southern Ghana’ (Prepared for the UNU in January 1994 by E. A. Gyasi, G. T.
Agyepong, E. Ardayfio-Schandorf, L. Enu-Kwesi, J. S. Nabila and E. Owusu-Bennoah
with assistance of S. K. Kufogbe and technical advice by G. Benneh);

Based on information from PLEC-Ghana records and from various study reports of PLEC-Ghana work in southern, central and northern
Ghana by Edwin A. Gyasi (Leader, southern Ghana PLEC Group and PLEC-Ghana), Lewis Enu-Kwesi, Essie T. Blay, William Oduro
(Leader central Ghana PLEC group), Gordana Kranjac-Berisavljevic (Leader northern Ghana PLEC group) and other PLEC Ghana
scientists.
b) the workshop, ‘Environment, Biodiversity and Agricultural Change in West Africa’,
which was hosted in October 1994 at the University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, by the
embryonic PLEC-Ghana with collaboration of UNU/INRA (United Nations University
Institute for Natural Resources in Africa) and funding by the UNU and TWA (Third
World Academy of Sciences);
c) the scientific paper, ‘Production pressure and environmental change in the forest savanna zone of Southern Ghana’, (Authored by Edwin A. Gyasi, G. T. Agyepong, E.
Ardayfio-Schandorf, L. Enu-Kwesi, J. S. Nabila, and E. Owusu-Bennoah for publication
in 1995 in Global Environmental Change 5 (4), 355 - 366);
d) the book, ‘Environment, Biodiversity and Agricultural Change in West Africa:
Perspectives from Ghana’, (Edited by Edwin A. Gyasi and Juha I. Uitto, and published by
the United Nations University Press, Tokyo); and,
e) creation of contacts with farmers and other people at the grassroots for further PLEC
work.
The following developments followed the initial pilot study phase:
 an extension of work from the sites in the semi humid forest-savanna zone of southern
Ghana to include sites in the interior humid forest and semi-arid savanna zones located
respectively in the central and northern sectors of the country (Fig. 1), and to other sites in
the Republic of Guinea;
 systematic mapping of sites and their settlements;
 integration of more scientists from the University of Ghana, and of additional ones from
the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology and University for
Development Studies, both in Ghana, and the Université de Conakry in the Republic of
Guinea; and,
 increased institutional collaboration, especially with:
 UNU/INRA, whose Director was appointed a PLEC-Ghana Technical Advisor;
 Ghana’s Ministries of Environment, Science and Technology, Food and Agriculture
and Lands and Forestry, each of which came to be formally represented on PLECGhana by an official nominated by the Ministry;
 Regional and District administrative authorities of the PLEC operational areas;
 Ghana’s Council for Scientific and Industrial Research; and,
 various NGOs, notably Ghana Rural Reconstruction Movement (Gh.R.R.M), and
Ghana Association for the Conservation of Nature (GACON).
By the end of 1997, the following additional developments had occurred:
 an increase in the number of scientists involved in the basically investigative and
information generating PLEC work, from the initial core of six concentrated in southern
Ghana, to nearly 30 (including associates), with representation in all three sectors of the
country namely, southern, central and northern (Table 1; also Tables 2 - 4);
 a growth in the number of farmers in all the three sectors (Table 1; also Tables 2 - 4); and,
 increase in financial support from the initial $5,000 to an average of $22,158 per annum,
with the UNU as the principal source (Table 5).
From about 1997, work emphasis shifted on to:
 identification of those aspects of farmer land usage that appear to be particularly effective
for conservation of agrodiversity (i.e. of biodiversity within agriculture); and,
5

applied work that involves demonstration of sustainable management of agrodiversity at
the study sites, in a process of their development into ‘demonstration sites’ to foster
agrodiversity conservation, and analysis and dissemination.
6
Table 1: Time series representation of involvement of various categories of people in PLEC work in Ghana (1993 - 2001/2002)
Category of personnel
SCIENTISTS
FARMERS
STUDENTS
OTHER
SUPPORTING
STAFF
1993
1994
Core
6
10
Associates/collaborating
0
3
PLEC members
0
0
Associates/collaborating
10
15
Assistants
4
N/A
PLECsupported/sponsored
0
0
Administrative
0
0
Technical & others
3
23
TOTAL
N/A: Not available
Source: PLEC-Ghana records, University of Ghana, Legon
1995
12
(10M: 2F)
10
(9M: 1F)
20
(18M: 2F)
3
(3M: 0F)
N/A
1996
16
(14M: 2F)
14
1997
17
(15M: 2F)
13
203
390
3
3
N/A
N/A
0
0
0
3
3
(3M: 0F)
N/A
2
(2M:0F)
N/A
2
(2M: 0F)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
M : Male
F: Female
1998/99
1999/2000
2000/2001
2001/2002
15
(13M: 2F)
14
(12M: 2F)
770
27
23
(17M: 6F)
16
(15M: 1F)
952
19
(14M: 5F)
25
(24M: 1F)
>1,319
52
(35M: 17F)
22
(19M: 3F)
2
(2M: 0F)
3
(2M: 1F)
16
(15M: 1F)
1,086
62
(39M: 3F)
48
(42M: 6F)
2
(2M: 0F)
3
(2M: 1F)
16
(15M: 1F)
>1,494
18
897
8
(6M: 2F)
22
>23
3
(2M: 1F)
3
(2M: 1F)
12
(12M: 0F)
847
6
(5M: 1F)
3
(2M: 1F)
13
(13M: 0F)
>1,028
41
Table 2: Time series representation of involvement of various categories of people in PLEC work in southern Ghana (1993 - 2001/2002)
Category of personnel
1993
1994
SCIENTISTS
Core
6
10
0
3
FARMERS
Associates/
collaborating
PLEC members
0
0
10
15
STUDENTS
Associates/
collaborating
Assistants
PLEC-supported/
sponsored
Administrative
0
0
0
0
3
3
23
N/A
OTHER
SUPPORTING
STAFF
Technical &
others
TOTAL
N/A
1995
8
(6M: 2F)
8
(7M: 1F)
20
(18M: 2F)
N/A
1996
1997
8
7
(6M: 2F)
(5M: 2F)
8
8
(7M: 1F)
(7M: 1F)
107
247
(75M: 2F) (145M: 102F)
N/A
N/A
4
(3M: 1F)
0
4
(3M: 1F)
0
4
(3M: 1F)
0
3
(3M: 0F)
4
(4M: 0F)
N/A
2
(2M: 0F)
4
(4M: 0F)
N/A
2
(2M: 0F)
4
(4M: 0F)
N/A
1998/99
6
(4M: 2F)
8
(7M: 1F)
338
(185M: 153F)
1
(1M: 0F)
3
(2M: 1F)
0
3
(2M: 1F)
4
(4M: 0F)
363
(205M: 158F)
1999/2000
7
(4M: 3F)
6
(6M: 0F)
355
(190M: 165F)
7
(5M: 2F)
6
(5M: 1F)
3
(3M: 0F)
3
(2M: 1F)
5
(5M: 0F)
392
(220M: 172F)
2000/2001
7
(4M: 3F)
6
(6M: 0F)
361
(180M: 181F)
30
(25M: 5F)
6
(6M: 0F)
2
(2M: 0F)
3
(2M: 1F)
7
(6M: 1F)
422
(231M: 191F)
2001/2002
7
(4M: 3F)
9
(9M: 0F)
>361
30
(25M: 5F)
6
(6M: 0F)
2
(2M: 0F)
3
(2M: 1F)
8
(7M: 1F)
>427
N/A: Not available
Source: PLEC-Ghana records, University of Ghana, Legon
8
Table 3: Time series representation of involvement of various categories of people in PLEC work in central Ghana (1993 - 2001/2002)
Category of personnel
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998/99
1999/2000
2000/2001
2001/2002
5
(5M: 0F)
5
(5M: 0F)
95
(33M: 62F)
5
(5M: 0F)
3
(3M: 0F)
128
(43M: 85F)
5
(5M: 0F)
4
15
182
(46M: 135F)
252
(54M: 198F)
12
(10M: 2F)
9
(7M: 2)
400
(58M: 342F)
8
(7M: 1F)
15
(14M: 1F)
767
(79M: 688F)
4
(2M: 2F)
16
>6
3
(2M: 1F)
0
3
(3M: 0F)
217
3
(2M: 1F)
0
5
(5M: 0F)
>324
4
(2M: 2F)
11
(8M: 3F)
0
14
(6M: 8F)
38
(32M: 6F)
0
0
7
(7M: 0F)
443
0
6
(6M: 0F)
848
(144M: 704F)
SCIENTISTS
Core
N/A
N/A
FARMERS
Associates/
collaborating
PLEC members
2
(2M: 0F)
N/A
N/A
N/A
2
(2M: 0F)
1
(1M: 0F)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
STUDENTS
Associates/
collaborating
Assistants
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
PLEC-supported/
sponsored
Administrative
Technical & others
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0
0
0
0
0
N/A
0
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
OTHER
SUPPORTING
STAFF
TOTAL
10
33
N/A: Not available
Source: PLEC-Ghana records, University of Ghana, Legon
9
Table 4: Time series representation of involvement of various categories of people in PLEC work in northern Ghana (1993 - 2001/2002)
Category of personnel
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
5
(5M: 0F)
2
(2M: 0F)
15
(5M: 10F)
N/A
SCIENTISTS
Core
FARMERS
Associates
/collaborating
PLEC members
2
(2M: 0F)
1
(1M: 0F)
N/A
STUDENTS
Associates/
collaborating
Assistants
3
(3M: 0F)
N/A
3
(3M: 0F)
1
(1M: F)
15
(8M: 7F)
3
(3M: 0F)
N/A
PLEC-supported/
sponsored
Administrative
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Technical & others
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
OTHER
SUPPORTING
STAFF
TOTAL
N/A
1998/99
4
(4M: 0F)
2
(2M: 0F)
250
(150M: 100F)
3
(3M: 0F)
3
(3M: 0F)
0
0
5
(5M: 0F)
267
(167M: 100F)
1999/2000
5
(4M: 1F)
2
(2M: 0F)
290
(170M: 120F)
10
(5M: 5F)
2
(2M: 0F)
0
2000/2001
2001/2002
4
(3M: 1F)
1
(1M: 0F)
191
4
(3M: 1F)
1
(1M: 0F)
>191
18
(8M: 10F)
5
(5M: 0F)
0
18
(8M: 10F)
4
(4M: 0F)
0
0
0
0
3
(3M: 0F)
312
(186M: 126F)
2
(2M: 0F)
221
2
(2M: 0F)
>220
N/A: Not available
Source: PLEC-Ghana records, University of Ghana, Legon
10
Table 5: Quantum and source of funding for PLEC work in Ghana since 19931
YEAR
AMOUNT ($)
1993
5,000
United Nations University
2,500
United Nations University
15,680
Third World Academy of Sciences
3,700
United Nations University
1994
SOURCE
1,000
2,000
United Nations University
35,000
do-
7,250
-do-
1996
13,000
United Nations University
1997
8,500
United Nations University
1998/1999
188,590
United Nations University
1999/2000
130,088
United Nations University
13,626
-do-
139,000
United Nations University
2,365
-do-
85,000
United Nations University
18,339
-do-
1995
2000/2001
2001/2002
1
-do-
Excludes funds channeled through Ghana for PLEC work in the Republic of Guinea.
1.3.
Site selection
In Ghana the primary focal areas of PLEC work are:
 Gyamfiase-Adenya (originally named Yensiso site), Sekesua-Osonson (originally named
Sekesua) and Amanase-Whanabenya (originally named Amanase), all located within the forestsavanna mosaic zone of southern Ghana;
 Jachie, which together with Tano-Odumasi, a subsidiary site, and the suspended sites,
Nyameani, Boabeng-Fiema and Bofie, is located in the humid forest-zone in central Ghana;
and,
 Bongnayili-Dugu-Song (originally named Dugu, then Dugu-Song), which together with a
subsidiary site, Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre (originally a primary site named Bawku-Manga, but
later redesignated a subsidiary site and given the current name, Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre is
located in the interior savanna zone in northern Ghana (Fig. 1).
In southern Ghana the PLEC work has focused without change on the three pilot sites (GyamfiaseAdenya, Sekesua-Osonson and Amanase-Whanabenya, all in the Eastern Region) since the
inception stage in 1993. In central Ghana where fieldwork started in 1994, the original plan to
proceed concurrently at four scattered sites (Jachie, Nyameani, Boabeng-Fiema, and Bofie, all in
the Ashanti Region) quickly proved to be over-ambitious. Therefore effort was concentrated at the
readily accessible Jachie and, later, extended to the equally readily accessible Tano-Odumasi. In
northern Ghana as in central Ghana, the work started in 1994, initially with Bawku-Manga
(redesignated Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre) in the Upper East Region as the only site. From about
1998/99, work there was de-emphasized in favour of the more readily accessible Bongnayili-DuguSong in the Northern region.
The focal sites are in various stages of development from study sites into demonstration sites under
the management of farmers with the support of nearby scientists drawn principally from the
following institutions:
 University of Ghana, Legon, Legon/Accra, in case of southern Ghana;
 Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, in case of central Ghana;
and,
 University for Development Studies, Tamale, in case of northern Ghana.
In accord with PLEC-Ghana’s operational definition of a ‘demonstration site’, each of the three
sites in southern Ghana (Gyamfiase Adenya, Sekesua-Osonson and Amanase-Whanabenya) and the
principal one in northern Ghana (Bongnayili-Dugu-Song) measures approximately 10x10 km. =
100 sq. km. Such an area is small enough to facilitate focused in-depth fieldwork, but large enough
to show significant internal agroecological variations and to permit study by aerial photographs and
satellite imagery. Because the boundaries of the rest (Jachie and the subsidiary site, Tano-Odumasi
in central Ghana, and Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre the subsidiary site in northern Ghana) have not been
established, their precise area coverage cannot be determined. However each is estimated to
measure less than 100 sq. km.
Within each site lie sub-sites, the specific focal sites of demonstration activities. Mainly
geographical proximity or accessibility and availability of researched knowledge of the agricultural
landscape informed the choice of the eventual focal sites.
The first step in the process of demonstration site development is identification of the site for study
as a potential demonstration site on the basis of the following parameters:
 richness of existing agricultural biological diversity;
 extent of threat to the diversity; and,
 level of documented knowledge about the site.
If the agro-bio-diversity is found to be rich, but under threat, then further studies of the agroecological conditions may proceed using as a starting point whatever documented information there
might be.
In the initial, investigative studies, as in subsequent applied work, it is important to involve local
people, especially chiefs and other leaders and those who possess good knowledge of the agroenvironmental history and situation in general. These key personalities may later serve as
facilitators in any applied work.
An important initial step is participatory mapping of settlements with involvement of local farmers
to, among other things, serve as a basis for creation of geographical information system (GIS)
towards standardized database for demonstration sites (Abdulai et al. 1999).
Investigative studies are followed by applied work that may involve any of the following:
12





consolidation of local contacts, including formalization of selected local people as facilitators or
expert farmers for demonstrations;
dialogue through group discussion with farmers to determine relevant needs on a prioritized
basis;
organization of farmers and other local users or managers of the land resources into farmers
associations to facilitate popular PLEC scientist-farmer interactions;
promotion of farmer-led conservation measures; and,
gradual collaboration with agricultural extension agents and other appropriate governmental
and non-governmental agents.
Expert farmers i.e. smallholder farmers who successfully solve production problems by using
biodiversity are “the keystone of the PLEC programme and the most fundamental resource in
PLEC’s demonstration activities” (Pinedo-Vasquez et al. 2001: 12).
A discussion of PLEC activities and their outputs within the established demonstration sites is
presented below and in three separate summary reports of PLEC in southern, central and northern
Ghana with special reference to history, demonstration site development activities and
achievements (Gyasi 2002a; Kranjac-Berisavljevic 2002; Oduro 2002).
1.4.
Progress of PLEC work within the four GEF-PLEC years
The four-year period, 1998/99 - 2001/02 witnessed a phenomenal increase in PLEC activities
especially in the demonstration sites. Mainly this positive trend was a result of substantial infusion
of GEF funding. It averaged $144,252 per annum, compared to the average of $22,158 in the preGEF period (Table 5).
The mobilization of farmers for the PLEC cause, in line with the grassroots participatory approach,
was a catalytic activity. It was facilitated by PLEC scientists and progressive local farmers and
community leaders as elaborated upon in section 3 below. Identification of those local contacts
was through close social interaction by regular visits.
In each site farmers, including experts (Tables 6 - 8), are organized into associations of PLEC
farmers with elected executive to mediate PLEC work. Presently overall membership of the
associations in Ghana is over 1,300, having increased from 20 in their initial formative years
around 1996/97 in southern Ghana (Table 1). In Jachie, central Ghana, the membership has been
almost exclusively female (Table 9). Elsewhere, there is a change from male dominated
membership towards greater gender balance (Tables 10 and 11).
Through the farmer associations, and with the support of the increased numbers of PLEC scientists
and their assistants including students and technicians (Tables 1 - 4) work at the sites progressed
systematically from the initial focus on understanding baseline agroecological conditions and on
establishing social contacts, through the following stages under GEF funding and logistical support:
 assessment of biodiversity and agrodiversity;
 identification of traditional, indigenous or local systems of managing and conserving
biodiversity, especially in an agricultural context;
 conservation promotion; and,
13

promotion of economic activities that motivate farmers to conserve, all in the general PLEC
quest for models of conserving biodiversity.
Outputs from these activities are discussed in sections 3 and 4 below.
Table 6: Sample of expert farmers in southern Ghana
No.
GYAMFIASE-ADENYA
SEKESUA-OSONSON
AMANASE-WHANABENYA
1.
Mr. Amponsah Kissiedu
Mr. Emmanuel Nartey
Mr. S. Y. Freeman
2.
Mr. Yaw Apeti
Mr. Odorkor Agbo
Odikro Kwaku Fokuo
3.
Mr. Henry Darkey
Mr. Joseph Aye-Kene
Opanyin Kwame Tete
4.
Ex. Sgt. Kwabena Asiedu
Mr. Emmanuel Giantey
Opanyin B. A. Mfamfo
5.
Ex. Sgt. E. K. Nyame
Mr. Francis Agbuanor
Mr. Haruna Affoh
6.
Mad. Florence Akoto
Mr. Ogborjor Tetteychu
Mr. E. D. Koomson
7.
Mr. Dan Opoku
Mr. Sakitey Akor
Mr. Adjetey Kwabena
8.
Mad. Avume
Ex. Sgt. Osom Djeagbo
Mad. Gladys Donkie
9.
Mr. Bossman Kwapong
Mr. Rex Kwao
Mad. Rosamond Appiah
10.
Mad. Victoria Odum Asiedu
Mad. Mary Mangbi
Mr. Wisdom Adjei
Table 7: Sample of expert farmers in central Ghana
No.
JACHIE
TANO-ODUMASE
1.
Mad. Cecilia Osei
Mr. J. C. Oppong
2.
Mad. Ama Nyame
Mr. Otuo Acheampong
3.
Mad. Elizabeth Serwaa
Mad. Comfort Oppong
4.
Mad. Hannah Fofie
Nana Owusu
5.
Mad. Georgina Agyapong
Mr. Edward Frimpong
6.
Mad. Faustina Obimpeh
Mr. Nana Koduah
7.
Mad. Margaret Duah
8.
Mad. Gladys Osei
Table 8: Sample of expert farmers in demonstration sites in northern Ghana
No.
Bongnayili-Dugu-Song
Binguri-Nyorigu-Gonre
1.
Mr. Abdulai Sumani
Mad. Gifty Akparibo
2.
Mad. Senatu Seidu
Mr. Yusifu Daija
3.
Mr. Bakaria Kasim
Mr. Fureini Fuseini
4.
Mad. Samatu Ibrahim
Mr. Adam Yakubu
5.
Mad. Wumbei Alhassan
Mad. Apuzele Asaaba
14
Table 9: Membership of Jachie PLEC Women Farmers Association: 1996-2000/01
Year
1996
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2001/02
Gender
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
Total
1
44
1
60
1
91
1
142
1
268
0
600
Grand
Totals
45
61
92
143
269
600
Source: From Jachie PLEC Women Farmers Association records
Table 10: Membership of Associations of PLEC Farmers in Gyamfiase-Adenya, Sekesua-Osonson
and Amanase-Whanabenya: 1996-2000/01
Year
1996
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2001/02
Gender
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
Total
18
2
75
32
145
102
185
153
190
165
180
181
Grand
Totals
20
107
247
338
355
361
Source: Figures supplied by the Associations
Table 11: Membership of Association of PLEC Farmers in Tano-Odumasi: 1996-2000/01
Year
1996
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2001/02
Gender
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
Total
32
18
42
25
45
45
53
56
57
74
79
88
Grand
Totals
50
67
90
109
131
167
Source: Records of Tano-Odumase PLEC Farmers' Association
By engendering relevant ideas and empirical information, the meetings, fairs and farm visits (Table
12, Plates 1, 2 and 3) facilitate the process of developing optimal methods of managing
biodiversity.
A major constraint on work is the inability of scientists to visit the field as frequently as necessary
in order to sustain interactions with farmers. This constraint arises from of other work obligations.
It may be overcome through a core of full-time PLEC scientists acting in collaboration with parttime associate scientists. A second constraint is long trekking distance to farmed areas. More
personnel and logistical support may remove this. A third constraint is a lack of taxonomists, social
anthropologists and experts in environmental economics. The solution lies in capacity
enhancement through training and motivation. A fourth constraint is difficulty in convincing
farmers to sacrifice short-term higher monetary gains expected from monocultures for the longterm security that agricultural diversification is assumed to offer. This constraint can only be
removed sustainably by demonstrating the value of diversification. A constraint on data analysis
and on reflections is excessive reporting demands by the UNU. An obvious possible solution is for
the issue of the manner of reporting to be reviewed.
15
Other problems are associated with interpretation in local vernaculars of certain technical English
expressions, such as ‘agro-bio-diversity’, 'sustainable development', and 'demonstration site'. A
possible solution lies in intensified linguistic research in area of biodiversity management. Another
problem is the frustration arising from the inability to meet the overly high farmer expectation of
PLEC support to reduce the endemic economic poverty and to stimulate development of the rural
poor. This problem might best be tackled by increased support for economic ventures that generate
income while conserving biodiversity as PLEC is trying to achieve in all the sites.
16
Table 12: PLEC - related meetings in southern Ghana: 1993 - 2001/2002
Nature/type of meeting
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998/1999
1999/2000
2000/2001
2001/2002
WORKSHOP (National and Regional)
N/A
1
1
N/A
N/A
1
N/A
1
1
MEETINGS OF PLEC SCIENTISTS &
GOVERNMENT REPRESENTATIVES
(Shown by no. of days)
N/A
N/A
N/A
1
1
6
9
6
4
MEETINGS WITH FARMERS (shown
by no. of days)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
23
14
11
12
FIELD DAYS (including fairs and
demonstrations shown by no. of days)
N/A
N/A
N/A
1
N/A
56
49
62
54
There were similar meetings in central and northern Ghana, even though records of them are not available
N/A: Not available
Source: PLEC records, University of Ghana, Legon
17
2 THE SITES
2.1 General characteristics
A major characteristic of the sites is the considerable pressure exerted on biophysical
resources by the predominantly agricultural population. In the southern Ghana sites
densities range from an estimated 105 to over 180 per sq. km, compared to a national
average of 70. In central Ghana the range is in the order of 145 to 165+ and 80 - 120+
sq. km respectively. Numbers of people per household average 7 in central Ghana, 9
in the south, and as much as 14.5 in the north. The exceptionally high figure for
northern Ghana may be related to the fact that the living compound houses there often
contain more than one household. In southern Ghana numbers of people below 18
years average 4 per household. In the central sector those below 14 years plus those
aged more than 65 years comprise 39.3 per cent of the population. In the northern
sector 42.1 per cent of the population is made up of those aged below 14 years and
those above 60 years. All these household statistics indicate a high dependency ratio.
In northern Ghana, pressure on biophysical resources is exacerbated by large numbers
of cattle, goats, sheep and other grazing livestock. In all the sites a major source of
pressure on biophysical resources is demand for foodstuffs, fuelwood and other
primary commodities from nearby urban centres (Tamale and Bawku in northern
Ghana, Kumasi in the central sector, and Accra and other coastal towns in the south).
In the past, much of the production pressure placed on the southern and central sectors
originated from outside Ghana. It took the form of demand for mineral resources and
primary agricultural and forest products, notably palm oil, cocoa and timber. The
effects persist, especially in the form of deforestation, soil deterioration and changing
agrodiversity.
2.2 The sites in southern Ghana
Additional characteristics of the sites in southern Ghana are shown in Appendices 1,
2, and 3, and in various reports by PLEC-Ghana to the UNU on population and
biodiversity and its management within the sites and on their development into
demonstration sites.
All the three sites are situated in the Eastern Region within the forest-savanna zone,
which, like the rest of Ghana, is situated on a dissected ancient plateau of
metamorphosed and sedimentary rocks. Gyamfiase-Adenya is located in the
Akuapem North District, Sekesua-Osonson in Upper Manya Krobo District and
Amanase-Whanabenya in Suhum-Kraboa-Coaltar District (Figs. 2 - 4). They were
founded in the early parts of the 20th century by migrant cocoa farmers.
Average annual rainfall ranges between 1200 and 1450 mm. It is bimodal. Soils are
predominantly ochrosols. Natural vegetation is characterized by a mosaic of forest
and savanna species. This represents a transition from the reported original thick
semi-deciduous forest. The dominance of herbaceous species interspersed by few
trees in an area reportedly covered by forest in the past, is a measure of the floristic
change (Gyasi et al. 1995; Enu-Kwesi, 1997). Despite growing monocultures, there
still is high agrodiversity. This reflects the transitional nature of the ecosystem, which
permits cultivation of crops adapted to humid and dry conditions. It also reflects the
great ethnic and cultural diversity resulting from migration (Gyasi, forthcoming).
18
Gyamfiase-Adenya (Fig. 2) is settled predominantly by the native Akuapem people
and Ayigbe and Ewe migrant farmers on basis of a mosaic land holding pattern in
Akuapem district, cradle of Ghana’s cocoa industry. In Sekesua-Osonson (Fig. 3) in
Upper Manya Krobo district the inhabitants are predominantly offsprings of Krobo
migrant cocoa farmers. They settled there on basis of their patrilineal linear huza land
holding arrangement. Amanase-Whanabenya in Suhum-Kraboa-Coaltar district (Fig.
4) is settled by a mix of offsprings of migrant Akuapem and Siade (or Shai) people
and a growing component of more recent migrant Ayigbe settler farmers. They did so
on basis of both the mosaic and linear land holding arrangement. Suhum-KraboaCoaltar district forms part of the historic southern Akyem cocoa frontier. As in
Akuapem, the inheritance system is both patrilineal and matrilineal.
Farming by smallholders is the main occupation. They grow mainly food crops,
foremostly cassava, Manihot esculenta through the bush fallow system. Other crops
include maize, plantain, cocoyam and oil palm. In a sample survey, the following
field types or land use stages were the most frequently encountered:
 annual mixed cropping;
 agroforest;
 house/home garden; and,
 fallows, dominated by Chromolaena odorata, a notorious weed (Gyasi 2000b).
The farms are both owner-operated and tenant-operated. They rarely measure more
than 2 ha per unit, and tend to be fragmented. Farmers commonly complain about
declining soil fertility. This is associated principally with over cropping and soil
erosion, especially in hilly areas. It is most pronounced in Sekesua-Osonson followed
by Gyamfiase-Adenya.
Soils are regenerated mainly by bush fallowing or land rotation, use of household
refuse and oprowka, a traditional method of mulching whereby vegetation cleared to
make way for farming is chopped and left in-situ to decompose without burning.
In Gyamfiase-Adenya and Amanase-Whanabenya, the burden of farming is shared
between the men and the women. It falls mainly on men in Sekesua-Osonson.
Mainly the owner and his/her family operate farms. Other forms of labour include
that hired, especially for land clearing and weeding. Also common is the nnoboa
system whereby farmers work in each other's farms on a reciprocal basis. There is
considerable division of labour. Mainly males clear land, whiles its preparation is
mainly by females as are transportation of produce to home and the market. However
the tasks of planting, weeding and harvesting are shared more or less equally among
the males and females.
Trading, especially in farm produce and small manufactures by females is the second
most important occupation. Other economic activities include cassava processing,
distilling of akpeteshie, a local gin, and extraction of oil from the fruit and kernel of
the oil palm.
19
20
21
22
In each of these three predominantly rural sites, overall population numbers are
estimated to be in excess of 10,000. Females outnumber males in AmanaseWhanabenya and Gyamfiase-Adenya. The reverse is the case in Sekesua-Osonson.
Based upon past reports and more recent field observations by PLEC scientists, the
population appears to be highest in Amanase-Whanabenya, followed by Yensiso and
then Sekesua-Osonson. Together with demand from Accra and other nearby urban
towns for the food crops, charcoal, fuelwood and other primary produce, the fairly
high population density exerts considerable pressure on the biophysical resources.
This factor plus population migration underlies the dynamic character of
agrodiversity, which involves both positive and negative changes in crops and ways of
managing them.
Conservation of the natural biota is by bush fallow, intercropping among trees left in
situ, sacred groves of forest, taboos, sanctions and reverance for certain species of
plants.
2.3 Sites in central Ghana
A generalized characterization of the two sites, Jachie and Tano-Odumasi, in central
Ghana is embodied in Appendices 4 and 5 and in reports to the UNU (Oduro 2002).
Both sites are situated in the humid forest zone in Ashanti Region. Jachie, the
principal site, is in the Bosomtwe-Atwima-Kwanwoma District, and Tano-Odumasi,
the subsidiary site, in the Afigya-Sekyere District (Fig. 1). Jachie is hilly, and TanoOdumasi hilly-to-undulating. Soil erosion is a severe problem especially within
Jachie town.
Climatic and biophysical characteristics are similar to those in southern Ghana.
Average annual rainfall ranges between 1500 and 1600mm. It is bimodal. Soils are
predominantly ochrosols and ochrosols-oxysols integrade. The natural vegetation is
of the moist semi-deciduous type. Herbaceous species are expanding at expense of
trees.
Over 90 per cent of the people are Asante (Ashanti), with the Asantehene (Ashanti
King) as the overlord. They own the land on basis of a matrilineal system, wofade.
The rest of the population is made up of migrants, mostly settlers from northern
Ghana. They have access to land mainly through leaseholds.
Farming of a small-scale nature engages about 90 per cent of the population. It
involves both males and females who farm either on an individual basis or jointly as
man and wife. In Jachie because of an exceptionally high out-migration of the males,
74 per cent of the farmers are females, which has important implications for farm
management. As in southern Ghana sites, food crops, notably cassava and maize,
have superseded cocoa as the leading cash crop. They are raised mainly through the
bush fallow system. Land use is dominated by the following types:
 annual mixed cropping;
 fallow-shrub; and,
 home gardens.
An individual farm unit or plot rarely exceeds 1 ha. There are various methods of
regenerating soil fertility. The leading ones are green manuring, use of poultry
manure, mulching and land or bush fallow.
23
Where males are available, they clear and prepare the land for farming. Weeding,
harvesting, and transportation are carried out by both males and females, as is
marketing, which, elsewhere, is carried out principally by females.
Mainly access to farming land is achieved freely by those who own it, typically, on a
group or extended family basis. Other modes are sharecropping, hiring, gift and
purchase as in the southern Ghana sites.
Trading is the second most important occupation. It involves mainly selling of farm
produce and items of food and drink prepared by the traders themselves, and peddling
of other items bought. Dressmaking and hairdressing are also important, as are
carving, carpentry, masonry and other artisanal work. These and other off-farm
activities help to minimize the pressures on agricultural land, which are associated
with growing population and rapid urbanization of Kumasi, the nearby second largest
urban centre in Ghana.
Methods of conserving the biota are essentially the same as those described for
southern Ghana.
2.4
Sites in northern Ghana
Appendices 6, 7 and 8 provide a summary of characteristics of Bongnayili-DuguSong and Benguri-Nyorigu-Gonre, respectively the primary and subsidiary sites in
northern Ghana. More information is contained in the PLEC-Ghana reports to the
UNU (Dittoh and Yakubu 2002).
Both sites are located in the dry interior savanna zone. Bongnayili-Dugu-Song is
within the guinea savanna portions in Tolon-Kumbungu in western Dogomba area of
the Northern Region (Fig. 5). Benguri-Nyorigu-Gonre is within the Sudan savanna
portions in Bawku-East in the Upper East Region (Fig. 1).
A much drier climate characterizes the two sites, most especially in Benguri-NyoriguGonre. The essentially single maximum (uni-modal) rainfall averages 800 mm in
Benguri-Nyorigu-Gonre and 1092 mm in Bongnayili-Dugu-Song. Predominantly
soils are savanna ochrosols and lixisols of the Tekyiman-Tampu association. They
occur over a generally rolling/undulating - to - flat terrain. Though not particularly
fertile because of humus deficiency, they nevertheless, are suitable for farming. The
natural savanna vegetation is dominated by grass dotted by trees, most commonly
sheabutter, Butyrospermum paradoxum, and dawadawa, Parkia clappertoniana. A
major threat to the biota is bush fires. They are associated mostly with vegetation
clearance by burning for farming, game and ceremonial purposes.
In Bongnayili-Dugu-Song the people are mostly patrilineal Dagbon. Their overall
head is Ya-Na, the secular paramount chief, who together with sub-chiefs, control
land with the Tindana, the spiritual head, who exercises only spiritual functions with
respect
24
Figure 5: Map showing the Bongnayili-Dugu-Song demonstration site
25
to land. This is in contrast to the situation in Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre where the
Tindana plays a more central role in land control, and where the people are mostly
Kusare, Busanga and Mossi. There are political conflicts and social tensions
associated with chieftaincy.
Small-scale agriculture engages 62.5 per cent of those employed in Bongnayili-DuguSong, and 72.1 per cent in Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre. A diversity of crops is grown,
typically intermixed. Foremost among them are maize, yam and millet in BongnayiliDugu-Song, and millet, rice and groundnut in Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre. Farms may be
categorized into the following:
 intensive intercropped compound farms, which are adjacent to living compounds,
sustained by household refuse, and best developed in Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre and
other sectors of the Upper East Region;
 distant/bush farms that are located some distance away in the bush;
 lowland/irrigated farms; and,
 grazing lands.
In the dry ‘harmattan’ season, production of onions and other vegetable through
irrigation in valley bottoms assumes special significance in Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre.
In terms of the land use categorization recommended by PLEC's Biodiversity
Advisory Group (BAG), annual cropping, native forests and fallow lands are the most
important.
Based on a sample survey, the farms range in size from approximately 1.6 to 3.2 ha in
Bongnayili-Dugu-Song and 0.33 to 2.2 ha in Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre. Total size of
agricultural holdings per household is much larger than in sites in southern and central
Ghana. Livestock farming involving grazing animals, notably cattle, goats and sheep,
occupy far more space in the northern Ghana sites than in the southern ones.
Similarly poultry farming features more significantly in the northern Ghana sites.
Severe land degradation is manifested by soil erosion, overgrazing, deforestation,
declining soil fertility and low agricultural productivity, especially in NyoriguBenguri-Gonre. It is associated with bush fires, overgrazing and human population
pressure. Another factor is outmigration of the most able labour, predominantly
youthful girls, who move out to serve mainly as kayayei, porters or carriers of load
especially in Accra. In Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre, prospects of optimal land resources
management are threatened by ethnic conflicts.
Farm work is shared in about equal proportions between men and women. However
harvesting of the sheanut and dawadawa and their processing into sheabutter and food
condiment respectively, are primary responsibility of women, as is the processing of
groundnut/peanut into oil. Mainly male children are shepherds, whiles their female
counterparts support their mothers in carrying out household chores. Trading and
food preparation on a commercial basis are important as are processing of harvested
rice and commercial production of rafters.
In both sites females outnumber males. But males dominate headship of households
by a ratio of 20:1 in Bongnayili-Dugu-Song and 17:1 in Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre.
There is a high dependent population. It is estimated at 44.5 per cent in BongnayiliDugu-Song, and 39.7 at Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre. Pressure of population is high. It is
reflected by:
 the average household size, which is 17 persons in Bongnayili-Dugu-Song and 12
in Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre;

the population density of 100 persons per sq. km. in Bongnayili-Dugu-Song and
120 in Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre; and,
 the annual population growth rate of 2.5 per cent in Bongnayili-Dugu-Song, and
3.02 per cent in Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre.
Besides its degradative effects on biophysical resources, the population pressure leads
to the high out-migration especially in Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre.
3.
ACTIVITIES AND EVALUATION OF OUTCOMES AT SITES
3.1
Growth of a population of participating farmers
Mobilization of farmers for conservation is a key PLEC activity. In this exercise the
following categories played a leading role with the support of scientists in Ghana:
 chiefs and other community leaders, notably the late Nana Oduro Darko II of
Gyamfiase-Adenya; and,
 expert, environmentally conscious farmers such as:
 George Amponsah Kissiedu, the pioneer PLEC farmer of Ghana who is
resident in Gyamfiase-Adenya;
 Salathiel Yemotey Freeman, leader of the PLEC farmers in AmanaseWhanabenya;
 Emmanuel Kwadwo Nartey, a leading exponent of the PLEC cause in
Sekesua-Osonson;
 Cecilia Osei, leader of the PLEC women's group in Jachie, and,
 Abdulai Sumani, leader of the PLEC farmers in Bongnayili-Dugu-Song (Gyasi
2001).
When the PLEC work started in 1993, the participating farmers were only
collaborative, numbering 10, all concentrated in southern sites(Table 1; also Tables 2
- 4). Four years later, the figure had increased to nearly 400 in 1997, with
representation in all the three sectors - southern, central and northern. This
development largely reflects the cumulative effects of increased UNU financial
support (Table 5) and of the commitment of scientists and of a core of visionary and
exceptionally dedicated farmers of the likes of those noted in the preceding paragraph.
Under the greater GEF support, and with the increased popular perception of PLEC as
a medium for biophysical agricultural and general rural improvements, the numbers of
participating farmers had, in the year 2001/02 increased to nearly 1,400 with the
highest concentration in central Ghana, followed by southern and northern in that
order (Tables 1 - 4). They included 1,319 registered members.
Associations of PLEC farmers, each having a constitution (either written or
unwritten), an elected executive (Chairman, Secretary, Financial Secretary, Treasurer,
Women’s Organizer, etc) and Patron, serve in the sites as the medium for:
 farmer-scientist interactions and collaborative work;
 farmer-to-farmer interactions including exchange of knowledge and germplasm;
 reaching out to farmers and sensitizing them to issues of conservation and
development;
 mobilizing the latent knowledge, energy and other resources of farmers for the
purpose of conservation and development;
 tapping or accessing external support for farmers;
 carrying out demonstrations; and,
 in general, empowering farmers politically, socially and economically.
27
In Jachie because of an unusually high out-migration of youthful males the
association of PLEC farmers is made up entirely of females.
Generally female membership shows a rising trend. In sites of mixed male-female
membership, female members are organized into sub-groups, such as the GyamfiaseAdenya Bowohommoden Kuw, to address issues that primarily concern females.
3.2
Expert farmers and links with other organizations
Among the membership of the PLEC farmer associations are expert farmers. Tables 6
- 8 provide a sample of them. Expert farmers are identified or spotted by:
 seeking views of farmers as to whom they consider to be exceptionally
knowledgeable in various areas of resource management, notably conservation of
particular species of crops, soils management, and identification, utilization and
conservation of medicinal plants;
 observing and monitoring how a farmer actually manages biophysical resources in
the field; and,
 listening to a farmer's stories and impressions about natural conditions and how
they relate to agriculture.
Capacity of the associations is strengthened by bank accounts opened by them with
advice of PLEC, and by links developed with government as well as nongovernmental organizations. In all the three geographical sectors (southern, central
and northern) where PLEC operates in Ghana, the organizations include the following
governmental ones:
 District Assemblies; and,
 Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), Ministry of Lands, Forestry and
Mines (MLFM) including its Savanna Resources Management Project (SRMP)
component, and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the Ministry of
Environment and Science (MES), and the Ministry of Education.
There also is collaboration with schools, especially Junior Secondary Schools. They
include those at:
 Adenya, Otwetiri, Amanase, Akatawia, Bormase and Sekesua in southern Ghana;
 Jachie and Tano-Odumasi in central Ghana; and,
 both sites in northern Ghana.
Collaboration with NGOs is growing. In southern Ghana the NGOs involved include
the following:
 Ghana Rural Reconstruction Movement (GhRRM);
 Heifer Project International (HPI); and,
 Roman Catholic Church.
The Ghana Association for the Conservation of Nature (GACON) is the principal
collaborating NGO in central Ghana. It is ILEIA-NGLWG (Information Centre for
Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture Working Group) in northern Ghana.
3.3
PLEC interventions through the farmer associations and outcomes
3.3.1 Developmental stages
It is recalled that under GEF funding the various PLEC field activities including
interventions, have developed through the following stages through farmers,
especially their associations, with support of scientists and government and nongovernment agents:
28


assessment of biodiversity and agrodiversity;
identification of traditional, indigenous or local systems of managing and
conserving biodiversity, especially within an agricultural context;
 conservation promotion; and,
 promotion of economic activities that motivate farmers to conserve, all in the
general PLEC quest for optimal ways of managing biodiversity.
Outcome of the activities are discussed next according to their four developmental
stages, with special reference to the role of the farmer associations in generating those
outputs:
3.3.2 Biodiversity and agrodiversity assessment
Assessment of biodiversity including the agrodiversity component has assumed
various forms. They include the following:
 systematic inventorying of plants by their form, and local, English and Scientific
names, as well as by their uses according to land use categories recommended by
the PLEC Biodiversity Advisory Group (BAG; Zarin et al. 1999) as reported to
the UNU by Enu-Kwesi and Vordzogbe (2002);
 systematic inventorying of specific crops, above all, yams, Dioscorea spp.
according to their types (morphological characteristics), names, ways of managing
them, etc, as reported to the UNU by Blay (2002; Plate 4), and KranjacBerisavljevic and Gandaa (2002);
 a Gyasi and Enu-Kwesi led survey of the spatial structure, floral composition,
ownership and other characteristics of home gardens in southern Ghana whose
results analysis is still awaiting completion (Gyasi and Enu-Kwesi 1998);
 studies by Gyasi on biodiversity and other aspects of biophysical status relative to
resource tenure (1999, 2002c); and,
 a trees-and-food crops compatibility study by Asafo et al. (2002).
In all these, the following roles of the farmers associations were pivotal:
 popular sensitization of the purpose of the field surveys and studies;
 identification of the expert farmers having exceptional knowledge of
characteristics uses and history of plants; and,
 encouraging involvement of the over 50 identified local ethno-botanist experts in
the actual survey and verification of results.
Among the outcomes, as elaborated upon in section 4 below in accord with UNU
reporting format, are the following:
 improved knowledge of diversity, quantum and uses of plants and of threat to
them;
 increased self-esteem of farmers arising from explicit recognition of the value of
their ethno-botanical knowledge by scholars;
 popular awareness of a need to conserve rare biotic species;
 bridging of the gap between systematic scientific knowledge and traditional
knowledge; and,
 documented findings.
A further measure of impact is the integration into local vocabulary scientific terms
such as 'transect', 'biodiverse', 'biodiversity', 'agrodiversity', 'value addition', and 'in
situ'. In situ is a term used by children of farmers as a nickname for the Co-ordinating
Leader, Edwin Gyasi.
3.3.3 Identification of traditional ways of conservation
29
In Ghana a major objective of PLEC work seeks to identify traditional ways of
conserving biodiversity to serve as a basis for development of resource management
models. Identification made over the past five years was by on-farm observations by
scientists, by eliciting views of farmers, and by experiments (e.g. Asafo et al. 2002),
all through farmer associations with expert farmers playing a central role. Outcomes
are embodied in various papers and study reports (Anonymous 2002; Dittoh and
Yakubu 2002; Gyasi 2001, 2002a, 2002b, 2002c; Kranjac-Berisavljevic 2002; Oduro
2002). They include the farm management practices identified as favouring
biodiversity. These are summarized in Table 13 and highlighted below:
 minimal tillage and controlled use of fire;
 mixed cropping, crop rotation and mixed farming;
 traditional agroforestry;
 oprowka, a no-burn farming practice and method of mulching;
 bush fallow;
 home gardening;
 usage of household waste and manure to fertilize soils;
 use of livestakes;
 staggered harvesting of crops;
 storage of crops in situ in the soil for future harvesting.
Some of the identified management practices feature centrally in PLEC-sponsored
conservation promotion.
30
Table 13: Identified traditional farm management practices/regimes that favour
biodiversity
PRACTICE/REGIME
MAJOR ADVANTAGE
1. Minimal tillage and controlled use of Minimal disturbance of soil and biota
fire for vegetation clearance
2. Mixed cropping, crop rotation and Maximize soil nutrient usage; maintain crop
mixed farming
biodiversity; spread risk of complete crop loss;
enhance a diversity of food types and nutrition;
favours soil regeneration
3. Traditional agroforestry: cultivating
crops among trees left in situ
Conserves trees; regenerates soil fertility through
biomass litter. Some trees add to productive
capacity of soil by nitrogen fixation
4. Oprowka, a no-burn farming practice
that involves mulching by leaving
slashed vegetation to decompose in
situ
Maintains soil fertility by conserving and stimulating
microbes and by humus addition through the
decomposing vegetation; conserves plant propagates
including those in the soil by avoidance of fire
5. Bush fallow/land rotation
A means of regenerating soil fertility and conserving
plants in the wild
6. Home gardening
Conserves a diversity of plants including medicinal
ones and those used for food
7. Usage of household refuse and manure Sustains soil fertility for a diversity of crops
in home gardens and compound farms
8. Use of nyabatso, Neubouldia laevis as The basically vertical rooting system of nyabatso
livestake for yams
favours expansion of yam tubers, while the canopy
provides shade and the leaf litter mulch and humus.
It also, is suspected that nyabatso fixes nitrogen
9. Staggered harvesting of crops
Ensures seed stock and food availability
10. Storage of crops notably yams, in situ, Secures seed stock and enhances food security
in the soil for future harvesting
Source: PLEC fieldwork since 1994
31
3.3.4 Conservation promotion
Among the major activities of PLEC-Ghana is support for expert farmers through
their farmer associations to promote biodiversity conservation by demonstrations in
relevant traditional as well as modern ways of management. Foremost among the
management practices is oprowka.
By burning off vegetation, a primary source of soil nutrient and a habitat for
pollinators and wildlife in general, indiscriminate use of fire for land preparation
contributes significantly towards biodiversity erosion in periodically cropped areas.
The practice of oprowka minimizes this problem. Oprowka (or its dialectal variation,
proka) is an Akan - Twi word that literally translates 'add to by rotting'. It is used to
describe the farming practice whereby the vegetation cleared in course of land
preparation is left in place without burning, and the crops subsequently planted within
it so that they may benefit from the moisture conserved and humus generated by the
vegetation mulch (Table 13; Plate 5). It is practiced mainly in demonstration sites
located within the semi-humid forest-savanna and humid forest zones of southern and
central Ghana.
Recognizing that it favours biodiversity, but is dying out, through demonstrations by
expert farmers (Plate 6), PLEC has sought to revive and encourage oprowka and other
practices that conserve biodiversity, notably the following:
 management of yams within agroforestry systems - (southern Ghana; Plate 7);
 establishment of a plot for propagating yams and demonstrating their management
- (northern Ghana);
 conservation and management of indigenous varieties of rice Oryza glaberrima (northern Ghana; Anane-Sakyi and Dittoh 2001; Tanzubil and Dittoh 2002);
 management of medicinal plants within conserved forest or arboretum - (southern
and central Ghana);
 management of trees within farms under food crops - (all sectors);
 management of woodlot -(central Ghana);
 regeneration of forest -(southern Ghana; Plate 8);
 the split-corm technique of propagating plantain and other crops - (southern
Ghana; Plate 9);
 management of plants in nurseries - (all sectors);
 management of rare local breeds of the domestic fowl under semi-intensive
conditions - (central Ghana);
 grafting and budding of plants - (all sectors);
 composting -(southern and northern Ghana); and,
management of citrus and oil palms - (southern Ghana).
At Jachie in central Ghana, women from the farmer association are organized into
groups numbering 4 - 10, each for purposes of seedling production in the association's
nursery. There, a principal benefit from the woodlot owned by the farmer association
is a broadening of the income base. At Bongnayili-Dugu-Song in northern Ghana, by
end of the year 2001, over 40 members of the farmer association had acquired
proficiency in plant grafting and budding under a PLEC-sponsored training
programme. At Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre, also located in northern Ghana, through the
PLEC-sponsored female farmer-led demonstrations, growing of the rare local
varieties of rice is spreading among farmers.
32
In the year 2001 in southern Ghana, demonstrations numbered over 30. They
involved over 20 expert farmers including those sponsored by PLEC to receive
training in modern farm management at the University of Ghana Agricultural
Research Station at Okumaning. Extension agents of the Ministry of Agriculture and
by representatives of the Environmental Protection Agency, Ministry of Lands,
Forestry and Mines and Ministry of Education attended demonstrations, which often
were accompanied by video shows. An indication of success is the substantial
numbers of people who learnt directly from the demonstrations. They include over
1,000 farmers and school children in southern Ghana. A second indication is the
subsequent demonstrations by beneficiaries of the original demonstrations for the
benefit of others in a kind of spontaneous, informal farmer-to-farmer or trainee
training potential-trainer arrangement. The demonstrations involve movement of
expert farmers not only from one location to another within a demonstration site, but
also between sites, notably, the regular movements between sites in southern Ghana,
and the occasional ones between southern Ghana sites and Jachie in central Ghana.
Movements often involve exchange of germplasm among farmers. A third indication
of success is the claim that the farmer-led demonstrations are enhancing popular
awareness and adoption of a diversity of farm management practices that hold promise
of securing food and improving rural livelihoods by protecting the primary production
base. This claim requires quantitative verification. However its credibility is
enhanced by visible improvements in livelihoods and lifestyles of some of some of the
PLEC farmers. A revealing case in point is George Amponsah Kissiedu, the pioneer
PLEC-Ghana farmer resident at Adenya in Gyamfiase-Adenya. His highly biodiverse
home garden developed on basis of PLEC-inspired traditional and modern
management principles is not only a model of its kind, but, perhaps much more
importantly, the garden has generated income enough to enable him to integrate cattle
into his agricultural enterprise, and to support expansion and diversification of his
wife’s food crop farm, and of another farm jointly owned and managed by the couple.
3.3.5 Promotion of activities that motivate biodiversity conservation
The PLEC purpose of biodiversity conservation can hardly be sustained unless
farmers are motivated to pursue it. It is for this reason that, through the farmer
associations, PLEC Ghana seeks to promote economic activities that generate more
value from conserved biodiversity, or that generate income in some other ways that
encourage conservation.
Table 14 summarizes the key PLEC sponsored value generating activities those that
appear to have registered the greatest impact are:
 beekeeping in southern Ghana;
 woodlot operation, semi-intensive commercial raising of breeds of rare local
domestic fowl and processing of cassava into flour in central Ghana; and,
 spinning and weaving of cotton in northern Ghana.
33
Table 14: PLEC-sponsored value generation activities carried out through farmer associations in Ghana
ACTIVITY
1. Plant nursery operation
OWNERSHIP & OPERATION
Farmer Association
Privately by individuals
2. Snails farming
3. Dry season vegetable gardening by
irrigation
-doFarmer Association
4. Woodlot operation
-do-
7. Semi-intensive commercial raising
of rare local domestic fowl
Initially by Farmer Association
Eventually to involve private
individuals
Initially by Farmer Association
Eventually to involve private
individuals
Farmer Association
Privately by individuals
8. Beekeeping
Privately by individuals
5. Piggery
6. Sheep
9. Processing of cassava into flour for
bread and pastry
10. Spinning and weaving of cotton
Source: PLEC records and field observations
-do-do-
LOCATION
All sites
southern & central Ghana
Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre,
northern Ghana
Jachie, central Ghana and
Bongnayili-Dugu-Song
Gyamfiase-Adenya,
southern Ghana
Amanase-Whanabenya,
southern Ghana
Jachie, central Ghana
All demo. sites except
Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre,
northern Ghana
-doBongnayili-Dugu-Song
OUTPUT/IMPACT STATUS
Started yielding income from selling of seedlings
Assorted seedlings raised contributes to floral diversity
Expected commercial output yet to be attained
In a process of quantitatively enriching faunal diversity
Off-farm season employment and income
Enhancement of crop-plant biodiversity
Generates income from selling of poles
Fodder for livestock
Time saved by avoiding need to fetch wood from far
away
Demonstrates that impoverished soils can still be put to
productive use
Raised popular esteem of PLEC
Popular income generation through planned nuclear
'swine dispersal' arrangement
Adds to faunal diversity
Income generation through selling
Adds to faunal diversity
Already income yielding
Adds to faunal diversity
Already yielding honey
Honey will eventually yield wax
Pollination capacity increase
Value addition to conserved forest
Improved income
Value addition to cassava
Market for cassava, a major crop
Employment and income for young women
Market for cotton, a major cash crop
Beekeeping has caught on the most at Sekesua-Osonson in southern Ghana. In the
course of PLEC field work there, the attention of scientists was drawn to a practice
whereby traditional beehives, made of earthen pots and modern ones made of hard
wood, are used to attract bees for the purpose of honey production within a secondary
forest conserved in the backyard and an agroforestry patch that was similarly located.
PLEC sought to expand this enterprise on a commercial scale by supplying wooden
hives (Plate 10) to replace the fragile earthen ones and to increase the numbers of
wooden ones among a larger number of farmers. The purpose was to generate more
value from the secondary forest and agroforestry patches located immediately behind
many housing units. With PLEC financing, in the year 2000/01 25 wooden hives
were constructed and distributed as follows: 15 for 6 households, and 10 for a pool
managed by the farmer association itself. This was followed by provision of more
support in the form of beekeeping training and equipment including boots, protective
clothing and over 300 wooden hives by the NGO, Heifer Project International (HPI)
which collaborates with PLEC. As a result of this development and further support by
PLEC, beekeeping expanded to involve approximately 70 households. Reported
initial harvest amount to 25 gallons valued at ¢1,250,000 (=$170 approximately).
Since the pioneering effort in Sekesua-Osonson, beekeeping has spread to AmanaseWhanabenya, and the ground prepared for extension to Gyamfiase-Adenya, all in
southern Ghana, with provision of training by pioneer beekeepers of SekesuaOsonson.
Demonstration of beekeeping is among the activities carried out in the PLEC
multipurpose plant nursery managed by the PLEC women association with the
support of scientists at Jachie in central Ghana. Women are trained in beehive
management and in harvesting and processing of honey and bee-wax. However
information is lacking on the extent to which beekeeping is practiced there and at
Bongnayili-Dugu-Song in northern Ghana, where PLEC similarly promotes this
activity. In Jachie the woodlot of teak (Tectona grandis) and Cidrella, which was
initiated by the association of female farmers in 1993, generates income principally
from sales of poles. It generates other benefits as well. According to one report,
“Today the woodlot has become one of the major breakthroughs for the [PLEC]
project. Increased availability of adequate electric poles and fuel wood has
established goodwill for the project in the eyes of the villagers, winning their trust…”
(Oduro 2002:11).
Similarly the PLEC-supported project in breeding of local varieties of the domestic
fowl generates income for the farmer association as well as for its individual female
members, as does the PLEC-supported project focused on adding value to cassava, the
main cash crop, through its processing into flour for bread and pastries.
In northern Ghana, a PLEC-sponsored programme aims at providing employment
skills to stem out-migration of youthful females by training them in spinning and
weaving. This activity draws on skills of experienced underemployed or basically
idle elderly women. As at March 2001, 42 females from 4 communities had benefited
from the scheme, which operates under the auspices of Dugu Suglo Mali Nyori
Ginning Association, the women’s branch of the PLEC farmers’ association in
Bongnayili-Dugu-Song.
In all the three sectors (southern, central and northern Ghana) plant nurseries owned
on an individual private basis, and on a group basis by farmers associations yield
income from sales of assorted seedlings. During one farming season at GyamfiaseAdenya alone, sales of oil palm seedlings from a nursery operated privately by the
farmer George Amponsah Kissiedu, fetched a reported profit of more than ¢1,000,000
($140), whiles profit from sales of a mix of oil palm and other seedlings from a PLEC
nursery operated by the farmer association amounted to over ¢2,000,000 ($280
approx.).
In Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre in northern Ghana the female group obtained profit of an
unknown amount from PLEC-supported dry season vegetable gardening initiated to
supplement revenue from PLEC-assisted cultivation of rare varieties of local rice.
Other PLEC-supported income ventures managed by farmer associations have yet to
yield. They include a piggery at Bewase, which is planned to serve as the nucleus of a
‘swine dispersal project’ for farmers in Gyamfiase-Adenya demonstration site in
southern Ghana. One of the two initial stock of sows is pregnant. A sheep project at
Aboabo aims at producing rams for public sale and parent stock for supply to PLEC
farmers on a credit basis to stimulate the livestock industry as a supplementary
activity to food farming. Soon expected is harvesting of rafters and firewood from the
woodlot owned by the association of farmers at Bongnayili-Dugu-Song. Other
relevant ventures involve snail, fish and mushroom farming, raising of the grasscutter
and production of a mix of local and exotic/hybrid breeds of the domestic fowl.
A fair of a diversity of rare traditional dishes hosted in 1999 at Sekesua by the
coalition of associations of PLEC farmers in southern Ghana was a successful
demonstration of the value of agrodiversity and a motivation for conservation of rare
crops used for vanishing local dishes (Plate 2; Gyasi 2000). It attracted over 1,000
visitors. They included local farmers and school children and the foreigners,
Professor Michael Stocking, a PLEC Scientific Co-ordinator, and Mr. Liang Luohui,
PLEC Managing Co-ordinator at UNU Headquarters, Tokyo.
4. EFFECT
OF
PLEC
SPONSORED
AGROBIODIVERSITY ON BIODIVERSITY
MANAGEMENT
OF
4.1. Assessment of biodiversity within agricultural landscapes
A major charge of PLEC scientists is assessment of biodiversity in agricultural
landscapes. In Ghana, the general approach involved a sample survey by
questionnaire to determine characteristics of land-use and field types of households in
the demonstration sites. A modified version of the land-use categories recommended
by PLEC’s Biodiversity Advisory Group (Zarin et al. 1999) was used. This was
followed by systematic inventorying of plants by quadrants within a sub-sample of the
identified land-use types following methodologies recommended by PLEC’s BAG
and STAT (Scientific and Technical Advisory Team). Additionally impressions were
obtained through field inspections and conservations with farmers. By leading
scientists to fields, identifying plants by their local names and uses and showing land
boundaries, the farmers played a central role in the assessment. In southern and
northern Ghana, because of their significance as a food item, yams, Dioscorea spp.
received special attention.
Preliminary results of analysis of information generated are available mainly for
southern Ghana. The most frequently encountered land-use types were:
 annual cropping;
 agroforest;
 house/home garden; and,
 fallow (Gyasi 2002b).
36
In terms of plant species richness, the following categories of land use were highest:
 shrub-dominated fallow;
 native forest; and,
 agroforestry, including the home garden type, which is most commonly found in
Sekesua-Osonson (Enu-Kwesi and Vordzogbe 2002; Gyasi 2002b, forthcoming).
A pertinent question centres on the effects that PLEC-sponsored management
practices might be registering on biodiversity within these and other land use types in
terms of maintenance and enrichment?
4.2. Effects
4.2.1. Southern Ghana
Pilot PLEC studies in southern Ghana attribute both positive and negative changes in
biophysical environment including biodiversity to impact of normal human activities
most especially agriculture (Gyasi et al. 1995; Gyasi and Uitto 1997). Recent work
confirms this view (Enu-Kwesi and Vordzogbe 2002; Gyasi, forthcoming). For
example from their recent systematic survey of biodiversity and agrodiversity in
PLEC demonstration sites in southern Ghana, Enu-Kwesi and Vordzogbe have
reported that:
"Generally, conversion of native forest to/for other purposes e.g.
agriculture, woodlot, orchard and plantation development results
in a decrease or less of species richness.
Although
permitting/allowing repair/rehabilitation through regeneration
appear to result in an increase in/of species as noted in the case of
shrub-dominated fallow (176) and emerging agroforest (131)"
Enu-Kwesi and Vordzogbe 2002: 2).
The point is underscored by their further report that:
"Though such conversions of native forest vegetation to other field
types such as ones inventoried in this study result in relatively
lower species richness… with the lowest numbers of species seen
in the following field types: monocrop farm - maize/cassava (89);
citrus orchard (85); woodlot (73) and grass-dominated fallow
(67); implying that the reduction in species richness is due either
wholly or partially to the conversion processe(s) [sic] and
management" (Enu-Kwesi and Vordzogbe 2002: 3).
Even so, interventions through PLEC-sponsored management of agrodiversity seems
to be registering some positive impact on biodiversity. In section 3.3.5 above, the
story is told of the growing popularity of the PLEC-supported practice of using home
gardens and forests conserved near houses to keep bees for honey and wax.
Obviously this represents a significant development because it entails enrichment of
biodiversity and a rise in its value by increased plant pollination and utilization of
nectar by bees in home gardens and forests. Over 70 farmers and their families
manage such home gardens and forests in Sekesua-Osonson and AmanaseWhanabenya. Prospects are promising for further expansion in those demonstration
sites and elsewhere within other sites where PLEC is encouraging popular awareness
of beekeeping as a means of livelihood, in addition to facilitating capacity
enhancement for this activity.
An arboretum, a secondary forest of rich species of medicinal plants conserved by Ex.
Army Sgt. Osom Djeagbo, a PLEC expert farmer at Bormase (Sekesua-Osonson
demo. site), is one of the more significant land use types. It is a primary source of
37
herbs for traditional medicine in the Bormase community and germplasm for
conservationists there and elsewhere. Osom Djeagbo's resolve to conserve the
arboretum is strengthened by PLEC's keen interest in it, by the explicit recognition of
its value by PLEC scientists, by the increased numbers of visiting researchers and
other visitors, and by token PLEC financial and material incentive through the
Sekesua-Osonson PLEC Farmers Association. His model inspired a similar
arboretum in development by the Amanase-Whanabenya PLEC Farmers Association
on a parcel of land dedicated by Alex Asamoah Ampofo, a PLEC expert farmer at
Whanabenya. Ghana's National Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine is
collaborating in the development process.
Cultivation of assorted yams on basis of traditional agroforestry principles is highly
developed among Krobo farmers of Sekesua-Osonson (Blay 2002). Henry Darkey
draws inspiration from it. He is a tenant farmer who manages an agricultural holding
within a grassy landscape formerly dominated by forest near Bewase in GyamfiaseAdenya demonstration site. Under PLEC inspiration, he combines elements of the
traditional Krobo agroforestry system with the oprowka mulching and no-burn
practice to grow yams in a way that is apparently enriching soils and plant
biodiversity in addition to the reported income improvement.
It is hoped that the experiences of Henry Darkey and the profound insights provided
by Blay's study (Blay 2002) into types of yams and their management in SekesuaOsonson, will serve as a basis for development of place-specific models of
management that maximizes yam yield whiles conserving biodiversity on a
sustainable basis.
As part of its farm income improvement programme through crop diversification, a
major PLEC-Ghana activity is promotion of integration of citrus and oil palms into
food cropping, a dominant land use type. In southern Ghana, focus of the initial
effort, the programme is enhancing crop-biodiversity and prospects of farm incomes
through four of such farms, which carry citrus plus a mix of traditional crops, and are
owned by association of PLEC farmers in each of the three demonstration sites.
Additional farms that carry citrus or oil palms or both, plus a mix of traditional crops,
are owned privately by over 40 individual PLEC farmers.
To further help improve agrodiversity in a manner that enhances both biodiversity and
farm incomes and also discourages monocultures, a Ghana PLEC strategy seeks to
combine traditional intercropping practices with modern cropping practices including
planting in rows. The foremost exponent of this strategy is George Amponsah
Kissiedu, the pioneer PLEC farmer, who is resident at Adenya. His home garden
developed on a traditional and modern management principles is a model of its kind
in terms of crop productivity and contribution to biological diversity. Productivity is
enhanced by row planting and balanced use of soil nutrients by the different crops.
The diversity of crops ensures both food and economic security by spreading risk of
production failure whiles, at the same time, enriching biodiversity. These then are the
ingredients that make Amponsah's home garden a model that attracts other farmers
including their school-going children. His model is inspiring similar gardens. They
include those established by school children of Adenya and Otwetiri Junior Secondary
Schools in Gyamfiase-Adenya demonstration site. Similarly, because of its apparent
positive effects on soils and biodiversity, a secondary forest regenerated from a grassy
patch within the agricultural holding of Ex-Police Sergeant Nyame at Duasin in
Gyamfiase-Adenya serves as a model and attracts and inspires other people as does a
similar forest of more mature character regenerated within an agricultural holding of
38
S. Y. Freeman, a leading PLEC farmer at Whanabenya in Amanase-Whanabenya
demonstration site.
Another major PLEC biodiversity enhancing intervention focuses on improving and
propagating the threatened traditional agroforestry practice of growing a mix of food
crops among tress left in situ in periodically cropped fields. The following are key
elements of the effort:
 trees-and-food crops compatibility experiment, and studies on optimal spacing of
crops relative to trees (Owusu-Bennoah and Enu-Kwesi 2000a; Asafo et al. 2002);
 a PLEC-sponsored model biodiverse farm of endemic and exotic species, which is
managed along both traditional and modern principles by the Gyamfiase-Adenya
PLEC Farmers' Association with support of PLEC scientists; and,
 campaigns through PLEC farmer associations urging farmers to practice
agroforestry.
A result is increased adoption of agroforestry. It is exemplified by a conspicuous rise
in numbers and varieties of trees in foodcrop farms along the Adenya-to-Gyamfiase
road.
In southern Ghana as in central part, snails, a prized source of meat that occurs in the
wild under humid conditions, have come under threat by overfarming and habitat
destruction. To counter the threat, PLEC provides support for snail farming within
homes and forests conserved nearby. With such support, Bossman Kwapong, a PLEC
expert farmer, is enriching biodiversity and enhancing income prospects by raising
snails on a semi-intensive basis under the shade of an uniquely huge tree in a
secondary forest conserved within his land holding at Obom in Gyamfiase-Adenya
demonstration site. Daniel Nuertey is doing similarly on a smaller scale at Sekesua in
Sekesua-Osonson demonstration site, just as S. Y. Freeman aims at achieving by
using his 'PLEC Forest' regenerated at Whanabenya in Amanase-Whanabenya. At
Whanabenya a PLEC-supported intensive snail farm is in development within home
of Alexander Asamoah Ampofo (Plate 11). Similar home-based snail farms are
planned by other PLEC farmers.
4.2.2. Central and northern Ghana
Because of a relative lack of relevant information at this stage, it is difficult to
evaluate comprehensively the impact of PLEC interventions on biodiversity in central
and northern Ghana. The necessary agrodiversity information is still in analysis.
However available information indicate a generally positive impact.
At Jachie demonstration site in central Ghana, the 10 hectares woodlot established by
the PLEC female group has generated effects that bear positively on biodiversity.
They include improvement of impoverished soils and spread of fast-growing species
of the trees, Tectona grandis (teak) and Cidrella, which were hitherto uncommon or
completely absent. Biodiversity is enriched by the collection of rare medicinal plants
from the wild by PLEC female farmers for conservation in a food crops and medicinal
plant arboretum established by the farmers at Jachie. At the same place, diversity of
livestock is being improved through a PLEC-assisted programme focused on
promoting rearing of local chickens, goats and sheep as well as rabbits, whiles a water
pond rehabilitation programme is enhancing aquatic life forms. Tano-Odumasi, the
subsidiary site in central Ghana, has experienced a reported 25 per cent increase in the
number of biodiverse home gardens. In both sites (Jachie and Tano-Odumasi),
watersheds, a fundamental basis of biodiversity, are being strengthened through the
use by PLEC farmers of plants from their nurseries for rehabilitation of degraded
39
portions. This is helping to enrich the flora through integration of new plants, and
improve soils through increased biomass and a check on erosion by more trees.
In northern Ghana, the greatest impact appears to have been registered in the area of
yams and rice biodiversity. At Bongnayili-Dugu-Song site, detailed morphological
characterization of 23 types of yam identified by PLEC scientists was carried out by
them in a special PLEC farm established for that purpose, and also for the purpose of
demonstrating yams management and propagating the various types among farmers
(Kranjac-Berisavljevic and Gandaa 2000, 2002). Outcomes are enhanced popular
awareness of rare species and a concomitant increased commitment to their
conservation by farmers.
At Nyorigu-Benguri-Gonre (Bawku-Manga), with PLEC support, women are leading
conservation of indigenous varieties of the African rice, Oryza glaberrima (AnaneSakyi and Dittoh 2001; Tanzubil et al. 2002).
By supporting farmer conservation and rehabilitation of native forests, which are mini
bio-reserves within agricultural areas, PLEC interventions help to enrich biodiversity.
Foremost among the forest patches involved are sacred groves at Jachie, TanoOdumasi and Gyamfiase-Adenya. Like other land uses of their kind, sacred groves
are protected and improved by vigilance, sanctions, firebelts, buffer zones and
replanting with PLEC support. From their analysis of biodiversity and agrodiversity
in southern Ghana, Enu-Kwesi and Vordzogbe inferred that "protection confers a
lower change in species composition in any land use stage particularly a Native forest,
provided the area is not disturbed" (Enu-Kwesi and Vordzogbe 2002: 4).
4.2.3. Ubiquities
Some of the PLEC-supported activities are ubiquitous as they occur in virtually all
sites. They include operation of plant nurseries and conservation of forests including
those regarded as sacred. Seedlings from nurseries owned and managed by
associations of PLEC farmers are used to rehabilitate watersheds at Jachie and TanoOdumasi in central Ghana, which help to strengthen a fundamental basis and quantum
of biodiversity. A similar effect is being achieved by use of seedlings raised by PLEC
farmers to rehabilitate deforested areas around Kaja waterfall at Prekumase and
another at Bormase, all in Sekesua-Osonson. According to one report, at Jachie alone,
the period 1996-2001 witnessed an 80 per cent increase of the nearly 20,000 seedlings
raised by the PLEC women's group in 1993 when the nursery started (Oduro 2000).
In all sites integration of a variety of seedlings from nurseries into food crop farms is
enriching biodiversity. The trees include: teak; Cassia siamensis; neem; cedar; citrus;
mangoes; and oil palms.
4.2.4. Failures
But, the PLEC -Ghana effort is not all a success story.
In a hilly area near Ebedwo, a village in Gyamfiase-Adenya demonstration site, an
attempt to strengthen the basis of agriculture and biodiversity by scientists with cooperation a local farmer through the use of Vetiveria fulvibarbis, a type of grass, to
check erosion failed. This was so partly because of weather failure. A more
fundamental reason was objection of landowners to the introduction of a foreign grass
in an environment they traditionally perceive as forest. A similar attempt at using
stone lines to check soil erosion near the same village and at Sekesua in SekesuaOsonson demonstration site, could also not be sustained, despite a positive effect
manifested by visible significant accumulation of soils behind the stone filters. That
40
attempt could not be sustained mainly because farmers were not used to the drudgery
of carrying stones and lining them systematically along hill contours with aid of an
'A-frame', a device which is simple to construct but ponderous to use.
5. CONDITIONAL RESULTS OF OTHER FORMS OF DATA ANALYSIS
AND UNCONCLUDED ACTIVITIES THAT MAY BE FOLLOWED
5.1. Discussion coverage
In this section (5) we are required to “Briefly describe and present firm or conditional
results on other forms of data analysis undertaken [by PLEC-Ghana]", including
“results from activities that have been generated because of the PLEC demonstration
site, but not directly funded by PLEC (e.g. student dissertations; visits by policymakers; spontaneous farmers' initiatives). Also required to be discussed are
unconcluded or inconclusive activities that may need to be followed up.
5.2. Students' theses
A limited number of students have taken advantage of their association as research
assistants with PLEC, to draw on PLEC ideas and empirical information from PLEC
research to facilitate production of graduate theses. As shown in Table 15, the
students are based in the University of Ghana, (U.G, southern Ghana), administrative
centre of PLEC work in Ghana and West Africa as a whole. Foremost among the
theses involved, is the one on 'adaptation of farmers to climate change' produced by
Felix Asante, WAPLEC Administrative and Research Officer. The thesis provides
new useful insights into kinds of strategies pursued by farmers to cope with climatic
variations, especially in capricious environments such as the forest-savanna ecozone
he used for his case study. It has been accepted for award of an M.Phil. degree by the
University of Ghana. Among the three theses involved is one by a female student.
Besides these post-graduate theses, are some long essays for Bachelors degree that
draw significantly on PLEC information through association with PLEC work in
southern as well as central and northern Ghana.
Table 15: Graduate theses drawing on PLEC ideas and empirical information
CANDIDATE/
AUTHOR
1. Felix Asante
2. Rosina Ami
Dzokoto
3. Kofi Amoako
THESIS TITLE/
AREA
Adaptation of farmers to
climate change: a case
study of selected farming
communities in the forestsavanna transitional zone
of southern Ghana
Evolution, adaptations and
sustainability of small
farmer systems: a case
study of the shallot-centred
farming system, Angloga
Minisett technique of
producing seed yam for
both rare yam production
and
germ-plasm
conservation using plant
growth regulators (PGRs)
STATUS
DEGREE
UNIVERSITY
Completed
M.Phil
University of
Ghana, Legon
Completed
M. Phil
University of
Ghana, Legon
Yet to be
completed
M. Phil
University of
Ghana, Legon
41
Other theses are PLEC-funded. The major beneficiary is the M.Phil thesis
'Agroecological Studies in the PLEC Demonstration Site centred on GyamfiaseAdenya in southern Ghana', which is nearing completion for submission to the
University of Ghana. Preliminary findings are embodied in Asafo et al. 2002.
5.3. Further analysis
Publications based upon research findings of scientists are an important feature of
PLEC work output in Ghana. Appendix 9 shows a selected list of the publications.
They cover a wide range of subjects including those related to:
 changes in agro-environment including farmer and gender roles and responses of
the farmers;
 mapping of focal areas of PLEC work;
 progress of experiments; and,
 reports of conservation work and workshops.
The publications feature mostly in PLEC News and Views. They need to be
developed through further analysis for publications in peer reviewed scientific
journals and books such as the forthcoming book, MANAGING BIODIVERSITY:
THE TRADITIONAL WAY IN WEST AFRICA - Methodologies and Policy
Lessons for Sustainable Resource Use, whose edition is led by Ghana.
Deserving of special attention in future research work are analysis and/or further
investigations in respect of the following publications:
 the substantial information generated from a home garden survey in 1998 (Gyasi
and Enu-Kwesi 2000);
 climatic variation and changes in agriculture with special reference to its
biological diversity (Asante 2000; Ofori-Sarpong 2000);
 relationship between biodiversity and soils condition (Owusu-Bennoah and EnuKwesi 2000a, 2000b);
 yams in agroforestry systems and in savanna agro-ecosystems (KranjacBerisavljevic and Gandaa 2000; Blay 2002);
 resource tenure, and biophysical status with special reference to biodiversity
(Gyasi 1999, 2002c);
 roles of gender in agro-bio-diversity management (Ardayfio-Schandorf and
Awumbila 2000);
 adoption patterns of PLEC encouraged conservation interventions; and,
 value gained from PLEC encouraged conservation interventions, with special
reference to improvements in rural livelihoods.
5.4. Visits by policy makers and others and spontaneous farmer initiatives
Visits by policy makers, especially those of the government of Ghana, are a growing
feature. Perhaps the most memorable one is the visit to Gyamfiase-Adenya by Hon.
Dornu-Nartey, a former Deputy Minister of State (Lands and Forestry). Similar visits
by Regional and District level agents (most especially agricultural extension agents)
occur in all the three geographical sections (southern, central and northern Ghana).
In 1995 a former Chief of Gyamfiase, the Late Nana Oduro Darko II, who was patron
and a founding and inspiring member of Gyamfiase-Adenya PLEC Farmers'
Association, made a memorable visit to the PLEC office and various Departments in
the University of Ghana, Legon. He was accompanied by an eight-member entourage
42
made up of a linguist and farmers. Since then, other spontaneous visits by farmers to
PLEC offices there and elsewhere, have become routine, a virtual weekly affair in the
case of southern Ghana. Similarly through telephone calls and occasionally faxed
messages, farmers maintain regular contacts with the PLEC administrative office at
Legon.
An important initiative of the farmers was their participation in AGRIFEX, ‘Ghana’s
first 'International Food and Agriculture Trade Fair', which was organized by the
Ministry of Food And Agriculture in conjunction with the Ghana Trade Fair Company
in December 2001 at Accra. The diversity of plants and photographs of PLEC
activities exhibited by associations of farmers from southern, central and northern
Ghana attracted considerable interest including that of the Minister of Food and
Agriculture and the Minister of Youth and Sports who opened the Fair on behalf of
Ghana’s President. During the opening ceremony, at the invitation of the Minister of
Food and Agriculture, songs were rendered by school children of Otwetiri Junior
Secondary School with which PLEC collaborates in Gyamfiase-Adenya site. The
songs included one specifically composed by the school in honour of PLEC farmers.
They impressed just as they did when they were rendered by the children at the 6 th
WAPLEC Regional Workshop, which was opened by the same Minister in October
2001 at Legon. The lasting impression made prompted the Minister's subsequent
invitation for a repeat performance by the children at AGRIFEX.
Additionally PLEC farmers have, on their own, arranged to be featured on radio and
TV programmes. Other spontaneous activities by farmers associations include
establishment of links with governmental organizations, notably the following:
 the National Plant Genetic Resources Centre, through exchange of visits and germ
plasm;
 Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Forestry Department and other government
establishments for seedlings and technical advice;
 ADRA (Adventist Development and Relief Agency), through especially support
by ADRA; and,
 rural banks, through especially exchange of visits between bank officials and
farmers aimed at exploring possibilities of extending bank credit facilities to
support PLEC-oriented economic activities.
However the impact of all these on the PLEC biodiversity conservation initiative
needs to be evaluated.
6. SUSTAINABILITY OF PLEC WORK
6.1. A challenge
A major challenge or concern centres on sustainability of PLEC work, initiatives and
ideals beyond the year 2002 when GEF funding ceases. Various factors and
considerations appear to favour sustainability. They are grouped into:
 the strengthened sensitization to conservation and the concrete interventions to
enhance conservation at the farmer level;
 the satisfaction derived by the scientists and other researchers from PLEC work;
 the training of a cadre of University level students in PLEC methodologies and
sensitization of secondary school children to the PLEC purpose;
 the interest in PLEC work demonstrated by government and non-government
officials; and,
43

the proposed institutionalization of PLEC in the form of a University of Ghanabased research centre.
6.2. Farmer level sensitization and interventions
A primary achievement of the PLEC work is the strengthened sensitization of over
1300 core farmers to the need for biodiversity conservation, and to possible ways of
achieving it. As the farmers are convinced of the necessity of biodiversity
conservation, they can be expected to carry it forward by example and demonstrations
for their own benefit and also for that of other farmers. The prospects of this
expectation materializing is enhanced by the value that farmers demonstrably derive
from conserving biodiversity (e.g. the security imparted by crop diversification), and
by the potential gains from such activities as beekeeping in conserved forests, which
PLEC interventions have demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt. It should be further
enhanced by the strong probability of credit extension engendered by the successful
operation of bank accounts by farmer associations.
Other relevant factors that may drive PLEC work forward at the farmer level include:
 the keen interest demonstrated by school-going children of farmers; and,
 the heightened self esteem of farmers arising from their enhanced recognition as
custodians and managers of biodiversity and the primary resources that underpin
the national economy.
6.3. Satisfaction derived by researchers
A striking feature of PLEC work has been commitment of the scientist and other
researchers despite heavy workload and limited financial rewards. Evidently, the
researchers see the work as inherently useful and satisfying because of its focus on
biophysical conservation, which helps to strengthen the ecological basis of
development, thereby enhancing the prospects of reducing rural poverty. Nothing else
explains more the intense insolation, heavy rainfall, risks of snake bite and often poor
shelter and unfamiliar meals consistently endured by the researchers in course of field
work. This positive attitude is encouraged by a genuine appreciation by farmers of
the research effort. It is demonstrated by offer of free meals, food items and
refreshments by the farmers, and by their honouring of the WAPLEC Co-ordinating
Leader, Edwin Gyasi, during his recent Professorial Inaugural Lecture. A similar
honouring is planned for two other leading PLEC scientists.
Boosted by increased financial incentive, the demonstrated commitment of scientists
is destined to play a major role in propelling PLEC forward.
6.4. Role of university and secondary school students trained in and sensitized to
PLEC
Through apprenticeship by involvement in administrative and research work, a
sizeable cadre of young university students and graduates has been sensitized to the
PLEC purpose and trained in its methodology. They can be expected to play an
increasingly leading role in carrying the PLEC message forward.
Similarly, through meetings, talks, video shows and other forms of communicating,
school children have been sensitized to PLEC. Indeed with PLEC support, school
children have established gardens modeled on PLEC principles in their schools.
These school children, obviously, are potential future messengers of PLEC.
44
6.5. Interest of government and non-government organizations
Since the inception of the PLEC effort, government interest in it has been consistent.
Government representatives on PLEC regularly attend meetings and other events of
PLEC. Its field agents are active participants in PLEC field activities. Through its
departments, government provides material and technical support to PLEC farmers.
Ministers of state participate in PLEC workshops including those involving field
visits. Furthermore, Ministers have on many occasions pledged support for what
PLEC stand for. Therefore, there is a solid reason to believe that the PLEC idea would
be sustained by continued government support (Gyasi 2002).
Similar support and collaboration can be expected from such non-government
organizations as UNU/INRA, GhRRM and HPI International whose interest in PLEC
is equally consistent.
6.6. Institutionalizing PLEC: CARPLEC
Among PLEC circles within Ghana, the view is strongly held that a sure way of PLEC
is to restructure it into a Centre headed by a permanent core staff of Research Fellows
and a complement of administrative and technical staff all headed by a Director to coordinate work in West Africa. Other researchers would be integrated into the Centre
as part-time research associates. This envisioned arrangement stands to increase
output by a permanent staff working in association with part-timers, and by attracting
more funding because of a sharper identity. It enjoys support of the Republic of
Guinea, the second country where PLEC work is focused in West Africa.
The University of Ghana is proposed as host of the Centre, which is provisionally
labeled 'Research on People, Land Management and Environmental Change
(CARPLEC)'. A written proposal towards establishment of CARPLEC is nearing
completion (Gyasi 2002).
Envisaged sources of funding for establishment of CARPLEC and other PLEC
activities include the Ghana government and international donor agencies such as
GEF, EU, USAID, DANIDA, IDRC, FAO and IFPRI.
Through applied research work, the Centre, CARPLEC, will complement the
promotion of research on optimal ways of managing natural resources in Africa by
UNU/INRA. PLEC-Ghana looks up to the UNU to provide initial seed money for the
Centre.
REFERENCES
Abdulai, A. S., E. A. Gyasi and Kufogbe, with assistance of P. K. Adraki, F. Asante,
M. A. Asumah, B. Z. Gandaa, B. D. Ofori and A. S. Sumani (1999) Mapping of
settlements in an evolving PLEC demonstration site in northern Ghana: an example in
collaborative and participatory work PLEC News and Views 14: 19-24
Anane-Sakyi, C. and S. Dittoh (2001) Agro-biodiversity conservation: preliminary
work on in situ conservation and management of indigenous rice varieties in the
interior savanna zone of Ghana PLEC News and Views 17: 31-33
45
Anonymous (2002) Findings on the Management and Organization of Agrodiversity
in Central Ghana Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study report to the United Nations
University, Tokyo
Ardayfio-Schandorf E., and M. Awumbila (2000) Gender and agrodiversity in
southern Ghana: preliminary findings PLEC News and Views 15: 23-26
Asafo, L., E. Laing and L. Enu-Kwesi (2002) Effect of some Traditional Farming
Practices on the Growth and Yield of some crops Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study
report to the United Nations University, Tokyo.
Asante, Felix (2000) Adaptation of Farmers to Climate Change: A case study of
selected Farming Communities in the Forest-Savanna Transitional Zone of Southern
Ghana M.Phil. Thesis, Graduate School and Department of Geography and Resource
Development, University of Ghana, Legon.
Blay, E. T. (2002) Diversity of Yams and Vegetables in PLEC Demonstration Sites in
Southern Ghana Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study report to the United Nations
University, Tokyo
Dittoh, S. and B. Yakubu (2002) Management and Organization of Agro-biodiversity
at PLEC Demonstration Sites in Northern Ghana Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study
report to the United Nations University, Tokyo
Enu-Kwesi, L. (1997) Floral and faunal diversity In Gyasi, E. A. and J. I. Uitto (eds.
1997) Environment, Biodiversity and Agricultural Change in West Africa: Perspective
from Ghana Tokyo: United Nations University Press, pp. 64-75.
Enu-Kwesi, L., D. Amirou, V. V. Vordzogbe and D. Daouda (2002) Comparative
Management of Savanna Woodland in Ghana and Guinea Unpublished PLEC-Ghana
study report to the United Nations University Tokyo.
Enu-Kwesi, L., and V. V. Vordzogbe (2002) Biodiversity and Agrodiversity
Inventory (with review of causes of land degradation in southern Ghana) Unpublished
PLEC-Ghana study report to the United Nations University, Tokyo
Gyasi, E. (1999) Claim that tenant-farmer do not conserve land resources: counter
evidence from a PLEC demonstration site in Ghana PLEC News and Views 12: 10-14
Gyasi, E. A. (2000) Demonstrating the value of Agro-diversity. Report of a show of
Traditional Foods based on vanishing Biotic species, Hosted by southern Ghana
Association of PLEC Farmers under the United Nations University Project on People
Land Management and environmental Change (UNU/PLEC), at Sekesua, Upper
Manya Krobo, Ghana, 05 November 1999
Gyasi, E. A. (2001) Development of demonstration sites in Ghana PLEC News and
Views 18; 20-28
Gyasi, E. A. (2002 a) Summary Report of PLEC Work with special reference to
History, Demonstration site Development/Activities and Achievements in Ghana with
special reference to the south. Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study report to the United
Nations University, Tokyo
46
Gyasi, E. A. (2002b) Management regimes (including; how the regimes relate to
biodiversity and biophysical status of land; and quantitative analysis of relationship
between farm management practices and biodiversity according to appropriate land
use types in southern Ghana Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study report to the United
Nations University, Tokyo
Gyasi, E. A. (2002 c) How System of Resources Access and Distribution relates to
Use of land (with special reference to Biodiversity and Biophysical status) in southern
Ghana Unpublished study report to the United Nations University, Tokyo
Gyasi, E. A. forthcoming Traditional systems of conserving biodiversity within
agriculture; their changing character and relevance to food security in forthcoming
book Cultivating Biodiversity edited by H. Brookfield with C. Padoch and M.
Stocking, assisted by Helen Parsons. London: ITDG Publishing
Gyasi, E. A. and L. Enu-Kwesi (2000) Promotion and Monitoring of Home Gardens,
Plant Nurseries and On-farm Conservation of Trees. Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study
report to the United Nations University, Tokyo
Gyasi, E. A. and J. I. Uitto (eds. 1997) Environment, Biodiversity and Agricultural
Change in West Africa: Perspectives from Ghana. Tokyo, United Nations University
Press
Gyasi, E. A., G. T. Agyepong. E. Ardayfio-Schandorf, L. Enu-Kwesi, J. S. Nabila and
E. Owusu-Bennoah (19994) Environmental Endangerment in the Forest-savanna
zone of southern Ghana. A PLEC study report for the UNU
Gyasi, E. A., G. T. Agyepong. E. Ardayfio-Schandorf, L. Enu-Kwesi, J. S. Nabila and
E. Owusu-Bennoah (1995) Production pressure and environmental change in the
forest-savanna zone of Ghana Global Environment Change 5 (4); 355-366
Kranjac-Berisavljevic, G. (2002) Summary report of PLEC work with special
reference to History, Demonstration Site Development/Activities and Achievements
in Northern Ghana. Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study report to the United Nations
University, Tokyo
Kranjac-Berisavljevic, G. and B. Z. Gandaa (2000) Collection of yam types at
Bongnayili-Dugu-Song main demonstration site in Northern Ghana. PLEC News and
Views 15: 27-30
Kranjac-Berisavljevic, G. and B. Z. Gandaa (2002) Sustaining Diversity of yams in
Northern Ghana. Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study report to the United Nations
University, Tokyo
Ofori-Sarpong, E. (2000) The Effect Climate Change and Biota in the Southern
Ecotone Zone in Ghana. Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study report to the United Nations
University, Tokyo
Oduro, W. (2002) Summary Report of PLEC-GEF Work with special reference to
History, Demonstration site Development/Activities and Achievements in Central
Ghana. Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study report to the United Nations University,
Tokyo
47
Owusu-Bennoah, E., and L. Enu-Kwesi (2000 a) Investigating into trees that combine
effectively with field crops. PLEC News and Views 15:20-22
Owusu-Bennoah, E., and L. Enu-Kwesi (2000 b) Soil Conservation Practices to
control Soil and Biodiversity Losses in Farming. Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study
report to the United Nations University, Tokyo
Pinedo-Vasquez M., E. A. Gyasi and K. Coffey (2001) PLEC demonstration
activities: a review of procedures and experiences. PLEC News and Views 17: 12-30
Tanzubil, B., J. S. Dittoh and G. Kranjac-Berisavljevic (2002) In-situ Conservation of
Indigenous Rice Varieties at Bawku Manga in the Sudan savanna zone of Ghana.
Unpublished PLEC-Ghana study report to the United Nations University, Tokyo
Zarin, D. J., Guo Huijin and L. Enu-Kwesi (1999) Methods for the assessment of
plant species diversity in complex agricultural landscapes: guidelines for data
collection and analysis from the PLEC Biodiversity Advisory Group (BAG) PLEC
News and Views 17: 12-30
48
Appendix 1: Demonstration site population in southern Ghana
Name of
Popuation
Growth
Region
District
demo. site
Nos./size*
rate
Density*
1. GyamfiaseAdenya
>10,000
>1.5% p.a
Eastern
Region
>100/sq.
km
2. AmanaseWhanabenya
>10,000
>1.0% p.a
-do-
3. SekesuaOsonson
>10,000
>1.5% p.a
-do-
Akuapem
North
District
SuhumKraboaCoaltar
District
Upper
Manya
Krobo
District
Gender
M
F
46%
-do-
-do-
PRINCIPAL OCCUPATION**
Farming
Trading
54%


46.7%
53.3%


47.5%
52.5%


Other



cassava processing
akpeteshie distilling
palm oil extraction




cassava processing
akpeteshie distilling
palm oil extraction
sand winning




akpeteshie distilling
palm oil extraction
cassava processing
pottery
Source: * Official reports and field observations by PLEC scientists
** PLEC sample surveys
Appendix 1 cont.
Name of demo.
ETHNIC COMPOSITION */**
site
(Rank)
RESOURCE TENURE
LAND
TREES
Ave
Headship
HOUSEHOLD **
AGE
Occupation by gender
Below Above
49
Akuapem
Ewe
Krobo
Shai
1.GyamfiaseAdenya
1st
1st
-
-
2. AmanaseWhanabenya
1st
3rd
-
2nd
3. SekesuaOsonson
-
2nd
1st
-
Other
Tenan
t
Non
Tenan
t
Land
Owne
r
Tenan
t



-do-


-do-


People
from
norther
n
Ghana
.
size
MaleFemale
ratio
18yrs.
70
yrs.
Farming
Tradin
g
Other

8
80:20%
35%
9.5%
M/F
F
M/F


7
71:29%
48.9%
4.4%
M/F
F
M/F


10
83:17%
36%
6.6%
M/F
F
M/F
Source: * Official reports and field observations by PLEC scientists
** PLEC sample surveys
50
Appendix 2:Special table on development of demonstration sites and achievements within them in southern Ghana
Central
Area
Climate
Demo.
site Municipality
Region/
Country
Cluster
Longitude and sampled
name
Province
Latitude
(Ha.)
General Ave. Rainfall
1. Gyamfiase Adenya
2. SekesuaOsonson
Akuapem
North
Manya Krobo
Eastern
Region
Ghana
West
Africa
00 101 0511 W
50 571 2611 N
-do-
-do-
-do-
00 111 0011 W
0
1
Several
hectares
-do-
Semi
humid
1,300mm
-do-
1,200mm
11
6 19 05 N
3.
3.
AmanaseWhanabenya
SuhumKraboaCoaltar
-do-
-do-
-do-
00 261 3811 W
50 591 3011 N
-do-
-do-
1,450mm
Land/geological/
Geomorphic
Process
Moderately
Folding, dissection
undulating & by erosion, &
hilly
sedimentation
Topography
Hilly,
moderately
undulating
Moderately
undulating &
hilly patches
-do-
-do-
51
Appendix 2: cont.
Demo.
site Main soil type
name
1. GyamfiaseAdenya
2. SekesuaOsonson
3. AmanaseWhanabenya
Forest ochrosols,
& forest ochrosoloxysol integrade
-do-
-do-
3
dominant No. of 3 dominant land use 3 dominant
crops
species stages
systems
(By rank)
1. Cassava
2. Maize
3. Plantain

1. Cassava
2. Maize
3. Yam

1. Cassava
2. Maize
3. Plantain




land
use Area
(Ha)
Total
Population.
Average
household
size
Annual
mixed 
cropping

Fallow
Home garden

10,000
Bush fallow
Non-agroforestry
home garden
Free range livestock
keeping
>10,000
8
Annual
mixed 
cropping

Fallow
Home
garden 
agroforestry
Bush fallow
Home
garden
agroforestry
Free range livestock
keeping
-do-
-do-
10


Bush fallow
Non-agroforestry
home garden
Free range livestock
keeping
-do-

-do-
-do-
7
52
Appendix 2: cont.
Demo site name
1. GyamfiaseAdenya
Year Established
Study site Demo. site
1993
2. SekesuaOsonson
-do
3. AmanaseWhanabenya
-do-
1998
-do-
-do-
Conserved
forest
DEMO. ACTIVITIES AND OUTPUTS
Agroforestry
Bee
Home
Biodiverse
& farms with keeping
garden farm
trees
Private
Nursery
Group
nursery
Other income generating
4
2








Piggery
Fish farming
Cassava processing
0
1








Bead making
Vegetable farming
Cassava processing
0
2










Poultry
Vegetable farming
Citrus farming
Sheep rearing
Cassava processing
53
Appendix 3: Management regimes at demonstration sites in southern Ghana
Soil fertility regeneration/
conservation techniques
Demo. site
3
most Up to
popular
others
1. GyamfiaseAdenya
Food crop Up to 3
planting
principal
Land tenure
mode
crop
water
3
Tenancy
Non
sources
tenancy

Bush

Crop
fallow
rotation
 Househol
d refuse
 Oprowka
mulching
Inter Rain
mixture
 Well

Sequenti  Strea
al
m
&

Line/ro
other
w planting
surface
water
bodies
 Dew
-do-
3. AmanaseWhanabenya
-do-
Crop
rotation

Chemi
cal
fertilizer

Crop
rotation
Weed control
Conservation
Land
owner
Tenant


2. SekesuaOsonson
Tree tenure




Up to 3
principal
ones
 In situ in  By
farms
cutlass
and hoe
 Bush fallow
 Burning
 Forest
conservation
 Sundrying of
 Coppicing
cleared
 Taboos and
weeds
reverence
Up to
others

3
Manual
uprooting
 Burying
-do-
-do-




-do-
-do-
-do-
-do-
-do-




-do-
-do-
-do-
Appendix 3: cont.
Gender division of labour
On farm pest control
Harvesting
storage
Land
clearing
Land
prep.
Plant
ing
Weed
ing
Harvest
ing
Transp.
of
produce
to house/ Market
market ing
Nnobo
a
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
3rd
2nd
P
S
P
S
P
P
P
P
P
P
S
P
S
P
and
Labour
Demo. site
Principal one
1.GyamfiaseAdenya


Other
Self & Hire
family d
Ash
 Mixed
 Manual
cropping
harvesting
Solution
1st
of
neem  Pesticide  Staggered
tree leaves s esp. for
yams harvesting
& seeds
vegetables
through in situ
storage
 Traps
underground
 scarecro
 Storage
in
w
barns
 Underground
burying
 DDT & other
agrochemicals
2. SekesuaOsonson
-do-
-do-
-do-
1st
3rd
2nd
P
S
P
S
P
P
P
P
P
P
S
P
S
P
3. AmanaseWhanabenya
-do-
-do-
-do-
1st
3rd
2nd
P
S
P
S
P
P
P
P
P
P
S
P
S
P
Source: PLEC field studies
P: Principally responsible
S: Subsidiarily responsible
55
Appendix 4: Special table on development of demonstration sites and achievements within them in central Ghana
Demo.
name
site Municipality
Region/
Province
Country
Cluster
Central
Longitude
Latitude
Area
and sampled
(Ha.)
Climate
Topography
General Ave.
Rainfall
1 15 1 46 W.
1. Jachie
BosomtweAtwima
Kwanwoma
District
Ashanti
Region
Ghana
West
Africa
6 24 6 43 N
Several
hectares
Land/geological/
Geomorphic Process
Semi
humid
1,600mm
-do-
1,500mm
Hilly,
Upper/Lower Birimian
moderately
rock/granite
rock
undulating & formation
hilly
10.25’1 10 401 W
2.TanoOdumasi
Afigya
Sekyere
District
-do-
-do-
-do-
-do60.501 70 101 N
Moderately
undulating,
hilly
Voltain
formation/Dahomeyan
formation
56
Appendix 4: cont.
Demo.
name
1. Jachie
site Main soil type
3
dominant No. of 3 dominant land use 3 dominant
crops
species stages
systems
(By rank)
Forest ochrosols & 1. Cassava
forest
ochrosol- 2. Maize
oxysol integrade
3. Plantain



2. TanoOdumasi
-do-
1. Cassava
2. Maize
3. Yam



land
use Area
(Ha)
Annual
mixed 
cropping

Fallow-shrub
dominated

Home garden
Uncertain
Bush fallow
Home
gardenagroforestry
Annual cropping
Annual
mixed 
cropping

Fallow-shrub
dominated

Home garden
Bush fallow
Home
garden
agroforestry
Orchard plantation
-do-
Total
Population.
Average
household
size
>10,000
7
6711
7
57
Appendix 4: cont.
Demo site name
Year Established
Study site Demo.
site
Private
Nursery
Group
nursery
Conserved
forest
DEMO. ACTIVITIES AND OUTPUTS
Agroforestry
Bee
Home
Biodiverse
& farms with
keeping
garden farm
trees
Other income generating
1. Jachie
1996
1998
0
1
1






Poultry farming
Cassava processing
2. Tano-Odumasi
1996
-do-
0
1
1








Cloth-dyeing
Vegetable farming
Fish farming
Citrus farming
58
Appendix 5:Management regimes at demonstration sites in central Ghana
Demo
site
Soil fertility regeneration Food
/conservation techniques crop
plantin
g
mode
Princip Land tenure
al crop
water
sources
Three
most
popular
Three
others
Tenancy
1. Jachie
1.Poultry &
green
manure
2.Mulchin
g
3.Improved
fallow
1.tree
planting
2.natural
regeneration
3.plant cover
Mixed
or
scattere
d
Line
plantin
g
Mono
croppin
g
Rain-fed
2.TanoOdumasi
1.natural
regeneratio
n
2.green
manure
3.manure
1.fertilizer
2.manageme
nt of trees on
farms
Mixed
or
scattere
d
Line
plantin
g
Rain-fed
Nontenancy
Trees Tenure
Weed control
On farm pest control
Up
to Up
to Principa
three
three
l ones
principal others
ones
Land
owner
73.5% of 2.7% of Land
responde responde owner
nt
nt
controlle
d
Tenan
t
Other
Conservatio
n
1.Cutlass
No
Done by the 2.hoe
3.weedicd
contro community
e
l over
trees
None
mentione
d
None
mentione
d
None
mentione
d
1.cutlass
None
2.weedicid mentione
e
d
3.hoe
59
Appendix 5: cont.
Gender division of labour
Labour
Self&
family
Hired
nnoboa
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
Transport of Marketing
prod to
House
/market
M
F
M
F
12%
60%
5%
*
-
*
-
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
-
*
-
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Demo site
Jachie
TanoOdumasi
Land
clearing
Land
prep
Planting
Weeding
Harvesting
* -- Persons involved in activity. Most of the tasks are performed by both males and females except land clearing and land preparation, which require a lot of physical
strength.
60
Appendix 6: Demonstration site population in northern Ghana
Population
Nos./ Size
Growth
Rate
Region
District
Density
Gender
M
F
1. Bongnayili-DuguSong
1,648
2.5%
Northern Region
TolonKumbungu
100 persons/sq Km
727
798
√
2. Benguri-NyoriguGonre
764
3.02%
Upper East Region
Bawku-East
120 persons/sq. Km
320
394
√
Name of Demo.
Site
PRINCIPAL OCCUPATION
Farming
Trading Other
61
Appendix 6:cont.
Name of
demo. site
ETHNIC COMPOSITION
(Rank)
Akuapem
Ewe
Krobo
Shai
RESOURCE TENURE
LAND
TREES
Other
Tenant
Non
Tenant
Land
Owne
r
Tenant
Ave.
size
1. BongnayiliDugu-Song
Dagomba


17
2. BenguriNyoriguGonre
Kusasi
Busanga
Mossi


12
Headshi
p
MaleFemale
ratio
HOUSEHOLD
AGE
Occupation by gender
Below Above
18yrs. 70 yrs. Farmin Tradin Other
g
g
20:1
611
123


17:1
253
50


62
Appendix 7: Special table on development of demonstration sites and achievements/impacts within them in northern Ghana
1.
Demo.
name
2.
4.
5.
6.
Region/
Province
Country
Cluster
Central
Area
Longitude and sampled
Latitude
(Ha.)
General Ave. Rainfall
Topography
Tamale
Northern
Region
Ghana
West
Africa
Long. 1˚ 04΄
Lat. 9º 31'
30
Guinea
Savanna
1,092 mm
Generally flat
?
Bawku
Upper
East
Region
-do-
-do-
Long. 0º 9'W
Lat. 10º35'N
17
Sudan
Savanna
800 mm
Slightly
undulating/
rolling
?
site Municipality
1. BongnayiliDugu-Song
2. Benguri NyoriguGonre
3.
7.
8. Climate
9.
10.
Land/geological/
Geomorphic
Process
63
Appendix 7: cont.
Demo.
name
site 11.
Main soil type
1.
Bongnayili- Tekyiman-Tampu
Dugu-Song
Association
2. BenguriNyoriguGonre
Lixisols
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
3
dominant No. of 3 dominant land use 3 dominant
crops
species stages
systems
(By rank)
land
use Area
(Ha)
17.
18.
Total
Population.
Average
household
size
Maize
Yam
Millet
83



Annual cropping
Native forests
Fallow



Compound farms
Bush farms
Dry season gardening
1,648
17
Millet
Rice
Groundnut
N/A


Annual cropping
Fallow



Upland farms
Valley farms
Irrigated farms
764
12
64
Appendix 7: cont.
Demo site name
1. BongnayiliDugu-Song
19.
Year Established
Study site Demo.
site
1995
1996
20.
Private
Nursery
-
Group
nursery
Conserved
forest


DEMO. ACTIVITIES AND OUTPUTS
Agroforestry
Bee
Home
Biodiverse
& farms with keeping
garden farm
trees

Other income generating





2. BenguriNyorigu-Gonre
1996
1997

Spinning and weaving
Shea butter extraction
Groundnut oil extraction
Rice
processing
and
marketing
Commercial production of
rafters
Dry season
production
vegetable
65
Appendix 8: Management regimes at demonstration sites in northern Ghana
Demo. site
Soil fertility regeneration/
conservation techniques
3
most Up to
popular
others
1. BongnayiliDugu-Song

Crop
rotation
 Ridging
 Compost
ing
Food crop Up to 3
planting
principal
Land tenure
mode
crop
water
3
Tenancy
Non
sources
tenancy

Non
burn
 Compos
ting
 Incorpor
ation
of
crop
residue
Mixed
stand

Tree tenure
Weed control
Conservation
Land
owner
Up to 3 principal Up to 3
ones
others
Tenant

Rain







2. BenguriNyoriguGonre




Farmyar
d manure
Nonburn
Compost

Mixed
stand
Pure
stand
(rice)



Rain
Dugou
ts
Irrigati
on dams



Community

woodlots

Individual
woodlots

Conserved
forest (sacred
grove)
In
situ
protection of
economic
trees
Community
nursery
Stone
bunding
Individual
protection of
economic
trees


Hoe
Hand picking
(rice)
Growing crops
that
suppress
weeds (tall crop
varieties)
Hoe
Hand picking
(rice)
66
Appendix 8: cont.
Gender division of labour
On farm pest control
Harvesting
storage
Labour
Demo. site
Principal one
1.BongnayiliDugu-Song

Other
Agrochemica 
ls
Crop
rotation
*Harvesting
-Manual
*Storage-Cereals: Locally
constructed silos
in houses
-Roots and tubers:
Huts
Land
clearing
Land
prep.
Plant
ing
Weed
ing
Harvest
ing
Transp.
of
produce
to house/ Market
market ing
and
Self & Hire
family d
Nnobo
a
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F

















on
farms or
home
&
sometime
s
undergro
und
(yam)
67
2. BenguriNyoriguGonre
-do-
*Harvesting
-Manual
*Storage-Cereals: Locally
constructed silos
in houses
-Roots and tubers:
Huts on farms or
home

















68
Appendix 9: Selected list of publications based on PLEC research by PLEC scientists
in Ghana
Abdulai, A. S., E. A. Gyasi and Kufogbe, with assistance of P. K. Adraki, F. Asante, M. A. Asumah,
B. Z. Gandaa, B. D. Ofori and A. S. Sumani (1999) Mapping of settlements in an evolving
PLEC demonstration site in northern Ghana: an example in collaborative and
participatory work PLEC News and Views 14: 19-24
Anane-Sakyi, C. and S. Dittoh (2001) Agro-biodiversity conservation: preliminary work on in situ
conservation and management of indigenous rice varieties in the interior savanna zone of
Ghana PLEC News and Views 17: 31-33
Ardayfio-Schandorf E.(1994) Women as farmers in Ghana PLEC News and Views 2: 19-21
Ardayfio-Schandorf E., and M. Awumbila (2000) Gender and agrodiversity in southern Ghana:
preliminary findings. PLEC News and Views 15: 23-26
Enu-Kwesi, L. (1997) Floral and faunal diversity In Gyasi, E. A. and J. I. Uitto (eds. 1997)
Environment, Biodiversity and Agricultural Change in West Africa: Perspective
from Ghana Tokyo: United Nations University Press, pp. 64-75.
Gyasi, E. A. (1993) Environmental endangerment in the forest-savanna zone of southern Ghana
PLEC News and Views 1: 14-15
Gyasi, E. A. and the editor (1995) West African Regional Workshop PLEC News and Views 4: 8-9
Gyasi, E. A. (1996a) WAPLEC activities in 1995 and early 1996, including a workshop in northern
Ghana PLEC News and Views 6: 2-3
Gyasi, E. A. (1996b) Land holding and its relationship with biophysical status: case study of tenancy
and non-tenancy farming in Ghana PLEC News and Views 7: 21-25
Gyasi, E. A. (1998) PLEC experiences with participatory approach to biophysical resources
management in Ghana PLEC News and Views 10: 27-31
Gyasi, E. (1999) Claim that tenant-farmer do not conserve land resources: counter evidence from a
PLEC demonstration site in Ghana PLEC News and Views 12: 10-14
Gyasi, E. A. (2001) Development of demonstration sites in Ghana PLEC News and Views 18; 20-28
Gyasi, E. A. (2002) Traditional systems of conserving biodiversity within agriculture: their changing
character and relevance to food security In H. Brookfield, C. Padoch, H. Parsons and M.
Stocking (eds), Cultivating Biodiversity: The Understanding, Analysis and Use of
Agrodiversity. London, ITDG Publications [in press].
69
Gyasi, E. A., G. T. Agyepong. E. Ardayfio-Schandorf, L. Enu-Kwesi, J. S. Nabila and E. OwusuBennoah (1995) Production pressure and environmental change in the forest-savanna
zone of Ghana Global Environment Change 5 (4); 355-366
Gyasi, E. A. and L. Enu-Kwesi, (1996) Collaborative Agroecosystems Management Project ('CAMP'):
a proposed community-based initiative in Ghana, by WAPLEC in collaboration with the
Chief and People of Gyamfiase PLEC News and Views 6: 11-13
Gyasi, E. A. and J. I. Uitto (eds. 1997) Environment, Biodiversity and Agricultural Change in
West Africa: Perspectives from Ghana Tokyo United Nations University Press
Kranjac-Berisavljevic, G. and B. Z. Gandaa (2002) Collection of yam types at Bongnayili-Dugu-Song
main demonstration site in Northern Ghana PLEC News and Views 15: 27-30
Laing, E. (1999) Attributes required of the New Expert PLEC News and Views 14: 8
Oduro, W (2002) Genesis and purpose of the women farmers' group at Jachie, central Ghana, In H.
Brookfield, C. Padoch, H. Parsons and M. Stocking (eds), Cultivating Biodiversity: The
Understanding, Analysis and Use of Agrodiversity. London, ITDG Publications [in press].
Owusu-Bennoah, E., and l. Enu-Kwesi (2000) Investigating into trees that combine effectively with
field crops PLEC News and Views 15:20-22
Pinedo-Vasquez, M., E. A. Gyasi and K. Coffey (2001) PLEC demonstration activities: a review of
procedures and experiences PLEC News and Views 17: 12-30
PLEC Farmers of Gyamfiase-Adenya (1998) Reports from Farmers on Demonstration sites in Ghana
PLEC News and Views 11: 23-25
Zarin, D. J., Guo Huijin and L. Enu-Kwesi (1999) Methods for the assessment of plant species
diversity in complex agricultural landscapes: guidelines for data collection and analysis
from the PLEC Biodiversity Advisory Group (BAG) PLEC News and Views 17: 12-30
70