International Journal of Humanities and Social Science
Vol. 4, No. 9; July 2014
School Management and Students’ Academic Performance: How Effective are
Strategies being Employed by School Managers in Secondary Schools in Embu
North District, Embu County, Kenya?
Jackline Tabitha Nzoka
Doctorate student
Department of Educational Management
Policy and Curriculum Studies
School of Education
Kenyatta University
Kenya
Professor John Aluko Orodho
Associate Professor
Department of Educational Management
Policy and Curriculum Studies
School of Education
Kenyatta University
Kenya
Abstract
This study sought to analyze the strategies school managers apply to improve academic performance of students
in schools under free day secondary school education in Embu District, Embu County, Kenya. The study was
guided by the Capital School Effectiveness and Improvement Theory based on various interrelated variables such
as outcomes, leverage, intellectual capital and social capital. A descriptive survey research design was adopted.
A combination of purposive and stratified random sampling techniques were utilized to draw 54 members of the
Board of Management (BoM), 45 heads of departments and 36 members of Parents Teachers Association (PTAs)
yielding to a sample size of 135 subjects to participate in the study. Mixed methods were used to collect
quantitative data from teachers using questionnaires and qualitative data from heads of departments and
members of PTA using interviews. It was established that school managers used various strategies to improve
students’ academic performance. The strategies included: inconsistent monitoring of instructional processes and
student assessment; subsidizing Government funding through free day secondary education using income
generating activities; and uncoordinated guidance and counseling programmes. Despite these efforts, the
expected improved students’ academic performance was not realized due largely to the fact that most school
managers had not undergone management skill training. Hence, since managers who are conversant with
management practices would be more worthwhile partners of the Government of Kenya in the implementation of
policy, it was recommended that school managers should undergo intensive leadership training on all aspects of
school management for enhanced students’ academic performance to be realized (253 words).
Keywords: Management strategies, improved academic performance, Secondary schools, Embu North District,
Embu County, Kenya
Introduction
Background to the Study
There is a growing body of literature from researchers and educationists which have made an attempt to examine
the relationship between education management and students academic performance (Orodho, 2014; UNESCO,
1999; United Nations, 2013; Waweru & Orodho, 2014). The results reveal rather spurious relationship (Waweru
& Orodho, 2014).
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However, what is clear is that educational management in secondary schools involves the application of
management principles in designing, developing and effecting resources towards achievement of educational
goals (Okumbe, 2001). This effectiveness according to UNESO (2009) is judged by the extent to which schools
generally meet the expectations of the society within which they are established. Since independence, the Kenyan
government has demonstrated commitment to the provision of quality secondary school education through
allocation of financial resources, provision of trained teachers and establishment of quality assurance department
(Republic of Kenya, 2012a.2012b). According to Ohba (2009), shortage of teachers, lack of basic facilities,
community interferences, poor teaching methodology and administrative related factors such as poor management
of school resources have been noted as some of these factors.
Embu North District has a total of 24 public secondary schools, 7 boarding and 17 day schools. The performance
of schools under FDSE in Embu North District Embu County has been an average of D+ from 2007-2011
(KNEC, 2012). This is a failure because the graduates of this grade do not qualify in most careers for further
education and training (Kenya National Examinations Council, 2014). It is apparent that various intertwined
factors could be responsible for this poor performance in the district. This background prompted the undertaking
of this study on management strategies applied to enhance students’ academic performance in schools under
FDSE in Embu North District, Embu County, Kenya.
State of Art Review
Literature related to school based strategies employed by school managers to improve students’ academic
performance has revealed mixed and contrasting range of results (Croninger & Lee, 2001; Zepeda, 2004; Fullan,
1991; Lamb, 2007 ; Waweru & orodho, 2014; World Bank, 2008). Croninger and Lee (2001) reported that the
degree of teacher caring and interaction with students reported by both parents and teachers has a significant
impact on performance. In a review of effective schools in the US, Croninger and Lee (2001) found evidence that
schools with a common sense of purpose and strong communal organization involving collegial relationships
among staff and positive adult student relationships are efficient in promoting a range of academic and social
outcomes reflecting students' engagement and commitment.
There are factors that researchers and school systems point when describing quality schools and features of
schools that have improved in effectiveness. According to Zepeda (2004) and Fullan (1991), such features
include: Commitment to success for all; flexibility and responsiveness; Shared vision; climate of challenging and
stimulating teaching; strong and fair disciplinary climate. According to Lamb (2007), the most effective
programmes were: foster connectedness; increasing the trust placed in students; Provide tasks with immediate
tangible benefits; Make spaces within schools and curricula for diverse student needs. Principals in schools
achieving high retention rates and good performance, Socias, Dunn, Parrish, Muraki and Woods (2007) were clear
that these implementations should not be ad hoc.
World Bank (2008) posits that much research has demonstrated that retention and the quality of education
depends primarily on the way schools are managed, more than the abundance of available resources, the capacity
of schools to improve teaching and learning is strongly influenced by the quality of the leadership provided by the
headteacher. Concerted effort to improve school leadership is one of the most promising points of intervention to
raise retention, the quality and efficiency of secondary education across Sub-Saharan Africa. In South Africa,
leadership training for secondary school heads was to improve quality of Education. Senegal's Improvement Plans
(SIP) created in 1996, encourage enterprenoual skills of headteachers to find funding for school projects that
enhance educational quality. In Kenya, all headteachers are currently undergoing a management course at the
Kenya Management Institute (KEMI) to improve on their management skills (Republic of Kenya, 2012a).
UNICEF (2000) in Latin America, a study that included 50,000 students in grades three and four found that
children whose schools lacked classroom materials and had an inadequate library were significantly more likely to
show lower test scores and higher grade repetition than those whose schools were well-equipped (Willms, 2000).
Well managed schools contribute to educational quality and enhance retention (Graig & duParisis, 1998).
According to the Education Bill 2012, the government of Kenya is committed to ensuring that children belonging
to disadvantaged groups are not discriminated and prevented from pursuing and completing basic education
(Republic of Kenya, 2012a.2012b). The school service environment can also contribute to learning in important
ways.
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Provision of health services and education can contribute to learning first by reducing absenteeism and
inattention. Sick children cannot attend school, and evidence from China, Guinea, India and Mexico shows that
children's illness is a primary cause for absenteeism and poor performance (Carron & Chau, 1996).
The highest quality teachers, those most capable of helping their students learn, have deep mastery of their subject
matter and pedagogy (Darling-Hammond, 1997). A number of teachers in China, Guinea, India and Mexico
observed to master neither the subject matter they taught nor the pedagogical skills required for good presentation
of the material (Carron & Chau, 1996). This affects retention and educational quality since student achievement,
especially beyond the basic skills, depends largely on teacher's command of subject matter and their ability to use
that knowledge to help students learn (Mullens, Murnane & Willet, 1996).
Whether a teacher uses traditional or more current methods of instruction, efficient use of school time has
significant impact on student learning. Teachers' presence in the classroom represents the starting point. Many
teachers face transportation and housing obstacles that hinder them from getting to school on time and staying
until school hours are over (Ohba, 2009). When teachers are present, learning occurs when teachers engage
students in instructional activities, rather than attending to administrative or other non-instructional processes
(Waweru & Orodho, 2014). Many international studies have shown the opportunity to learn and the time on task
to be critical for educational quality. The quality of a school and the quality of teaching of the individual teacher
is higher in schools that are able and willing to make efficient use of the available time of its teachers and pupils
(Verwimp, 1999). According to Ngando (2011) in his study on time management behavior among secondary
school personnel in Kinango District, Coast Province, majority of teachers and students do not report to school on
the first day of opening, most teachers write their schemes of work when schools opened, went to class without
lesson plans, assemblies took longer and consumed classroom time.
Professional development can help overcome shortcomings that may have been part of teachers' pre-service
education and keep teachers abreast of new knowledge and practices in the field (UNICEF, 2000). This ongoing
training for teachers can have a direct impact on student achievement. Dialogue and reflections with colleagues,
peer and supervisor observations and keeping journals are all effective ways for teachers to advance their
knowledge (UNICEF, 2000). A programme in Kenya, the Mombasa School Improvement Project, built on this
approach to professional development showed that teachers supported with in-service as well as external
workshop training improved significantly in their abilities to use child-centered teaching and learning behaviours
(Andersen, 2000).
Good teachers are skilled not only in instructional methods, but also in evaluation and assessment practices that
allow them to gauge individual student needs. Observations in Guinea and India found that teachers trained poorly
in evaluation techniques and the reality is far from the continuous procedures recommended by official
programmes (Carron & Chau, 1996). Many teachers and education systems continue to rely on almost exclusively
on traditional paper-and-pencil tests of factual knowledge that tend to promote rote memorization rather than
higher order thinking skills (Condy, 1998). Monitoring and evaluation of learning should be a continuous process
to ensure schools meet their targets. Each district should have mechanisms for monitoring on a continuous basis
the performance of both teachers and students for remedial action early when needed (Kimbui, 2012).
Research around the world has shown that low expectations for student achievement permeate educational
systems. Rather than setting high standards and believing students can meet them, teachers and administrators in
many developing countries expect up to half the students will drop or fail. Schools committed to student learning
communicate expectations clearly, give frequent and challenging assignments, monitor performance regularly,
and give students the chance to participate in and take responsibility for diverse school activities (Graig &
duPlessis, 1998).
According to Mobegi, Ondigi and Oburu (2010), headteachers should take up their roles as quality assurance
officers in their schools and ensure that there is adequate departmental supervision. They should introduce staff
appraisal through locally designed forms to enhance standards and engage in evaluative class observation to
ensure that a variety of teaching methods apart from class discussion is utilized. Headteachers should devise
school income generating activities to alleviate current financial problems that result in student absenteeism,
transfers, indiscipline and inadequate facilities. They should frequently invite quality assurance officers to advice
on school affairs and community relations.
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Head teachers should be in constant communication with the Teachers Service Commission (TSC) to ensure that
the schools receive adequate staffing for the delivery of quality education. Headteachers should devise strategies
such as the old students' associations and organize communal fundraisers to help equip schools for retention and
delivery of quality education.
A study done by Achoka (2007) on the role of the principal, for change to take place in school, the present school
principal should be an advisor to students, teachers and the community. He /she should be in a position to identify
possible threats against retention rates and reverse the situation. He / she needs to act as a counselor to not only
the students but also parents and teachers because this could assist all parties interested in the education life of the
learner to appreciate the need to be educated. Achoka (2007) concurs with Waweru and Orodho (2014) that a
secondary school principal should endeavor to provide the best school climate to entice students to complete
schooling by making school free from violence, threats, intimidations, hatred, and witch-hunting and develop rich
co-curriculum, remedial interventions for slow learners to avoid repetition, frustration and dropout. He / he should
be a developer by putting more effort in developing academic and co-curriculum programmes that are attractive
and competitive to occupy all students while at school.
With the introduction of the free secondary education, schools get some funding from the government while
parents are required to meet various other costs such as school development projects and boarding fees (Republic
of Kenya, 2005a,2005b). The issue of finance is crucial to retention and the provision of quality education since it
determines the quality of physical facilities, teaching and learning materials, quality of teacher motivation and
teachers employed in the time of shortage (Mobegi et al., 2010). School discipline is a system of arranging
conditions for healthy learning (Okumbe, 2001). Headteachers should maintain discipline in their schools by
helping their staff and students develop unique and individual personalities with a cultural background and group
consciousness. The school administration therefore involves students to make choices in life reasonably and
independently through guidance and counselling. Kiruma (2004) in her study of secondary school strikes explains
that discipline in schools is a function of the school administration. It depends on the headteachers administrative,
supervisory, and organizational, leadership abilities and styles since he bears the general responsibility of
clarifying the school purpose and philosophy. The effects of schools in poor areas can often outweigh the impact
of family background and practices (Orodho, 2014). Further, although many constraints exist, schools can play a
role in helping parents to enhance the home curriculum and improve the quality of parental involvement in their
children's education. Strategies include; for example, partnering with organizations such as public health
providers and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), asking parents to participate in assessment of their child's
progress, offering clear, regular non-threatening communication, and including parents in decision making groups
at the school (Redding, 2000; Waweru & Orodho, 2014).
According to a background paper prepared for EFA Global Monitoring Report (2011), there is some evidence that
when teachers take a more proactive approach to a problem of poor performance and dropout, this is able to
improve the situation (Ananga, 2010). CREATE work in Southern Ghana has revealed that a few teachers in some
schools sensitive to the problem of dropout are able to encourage 'drop in'. They have achieved this by identifying
children at risk of dropping out and attended to the factors that contribute to their chances of dropping out such as,
providing writing material and food on condition that children attend school regularly.
Ipata (2011), in her study on cost saving measures on access, retention and performance in public secondary
schools in KCSE examination in Teso District found that most schools were under staffed. This contributed to
high expenditure due to employment of BoM teachers affecting the quality of teaching process, schools lacked
quality buildings, science equipment, shortage of teachers, and IGAs which would help needy students by giving
them bursaries to enhance retention and performance. Andaje (2012) in a pilot project of donating sanitary pads to
schools in Narok, it was hoped the girls' truancy would be curbed, performance would improve, they would attend
school uninterrupted and their hygiene would be guaranteed. Besides receiving the pads, they also received
panties as a way of retaining them in school. Machocho (2011), in his study on home-grown school feeding
programme (HGSFP) and its implications on access and performance in primary schools in Kathozweni District
established that, HGSFP had a positive impact on the retention and performance of pupils in schools since the
schools with HGSFP registered little or no dropout rates over the years. The pupils were able to perform well and
complete the primary school cycle.
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Statement of the Problem
Kenya has put different policies in place to make education accessible, improve transition, quality, completion
and retention rates to all her citizens. Some of these policies included: school-feeding programme in the 80s for
the primary school children to alleviate health and developmental consequences of childhood malnutrition,
increase primary school enrolment and combat school pressures that limit educational opportunities for girls
(Orodho, 2014). Despite this intervention, the problem of low performance persisted in schools because the
school feeding programme impact on attendance appeared to weaken with age (Finan, 2010).Secondary School
Bursary Fund (SEBF): in 1993 / 1994, a secondary school bursary fund was started to cushion students in the
lower income groups from the high cost of secondary education (Republic of Kenya, 2005a, 2005b). However,
this programme faced many challenges including undeserving students benefiting from the fund, very few
beneficiaries, ghost students awarded and insignificant amounts awarded to the deserving students (Republic of
Kenya, 2009).
Community Bursary Fund (CBF) was introduced to help secondary school students who were needy to continue
with education and perform well in 2003 when the NARC government came to power ( Republic of Kenya,
2004). Some needy students who were not in school were left out in this programme because it only catered for
the students who had enrolled in form one locking out deserving students who could not afford joining levies and
the ones who had dropped out (UN WOMEN, 2011). n the last seven years, the government had embarked on
Education for All (EFA) initiatives by introducing Free Primary Education (FPE) in 2003 and Free Secondary
Education in 2008 (MoEST, 2004). However, despite all the above efforts by the government, performance of
students enrolled in FDSE in Embu District has remained poor.
Purpose and Objectives of the paper
The purpose of this paper was to analyze school based strategies school managers employed to improve students’
academic performance in Embu North District, Embu County, Kenya. The study set out to answer the question:
How effective are the strategies being employed to enhance students’ academic performance in the study locale?
Theoretical Framework
The study was based on Capital Theory of School Effectiveness and Improvement. Hargreaves (2001) developed
a theory of school effectiveness and improvement based on: outcomes, both cognitive and moral; leverage: the
relationship between teacher input and education output; intellectual capital: the sum of the school's knowledge
and experience; and social capital: the networks of trust and collaboration. In this theory, Hargreaves (2001)
argues that the conventional model of measuring school effectiveness and improvement is an adequate tool for the
analysis of school success and failure. The concept of school 'ethos' helped to make sense of the correlation
between a number of school processes but it did not allow one to test the model in detail, or to predict the
performance of a school from any close analysis of identifiable factors. He proposes a new theoretical model of
schools, which provides a working model, both of effectiveness and improvement. The theory has the following
concepts:
i. Outcomes: cognitive and moral.
ii. Leverage: the relationship between teacher input and educational output, or changes in students' intellectual
and moral state resulting from the teacher's effort. Hargreaves argues that instead of teachers employing too
much effort and yielding little fruit, effective schools concentrate on effective strategies allowing a large impact
to result from relatively low effort (working smarter, not harder). Outstanding schools use combinations of
high leverage strategies.
Understanding school effectiveness involves exploring how high leverage works (Hargreaves, 2001).
ii. Intellectual capital: describes a combination of the creation of a school vision; identification of a school's
underpinning values; the conceptualization and articulation of a school-wide pedagogy; insights about school
improvement processes; and a student academic achievement across learning areas.
iv. Social capital: describes professional relationships of trust and respect; dynamics within parallel leadership
and in student wellbeing. The underpinning concept is that of relationships. High levels of social capital
strengthen its intellectual capital through sharing. Unlike financial capital, social and intellectual capital are
increased rather than depleted by passing on to others (Hargreaves, 2001).
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Hargreaves (2001) uses this model to present definitions of effective and improving schools stating that; an
effective school mobilizes its intellectual capital (especially its capacity to create and transfer knowledge) and its
social capital (especially its capacity to generate trust and sustained networks) to achieve the desired educational
outcomes of intellectual and moral excellences, through the successful use of high leverage strategies grounded in
evidence-informed and innovative professional practice. An improving school increases its intellectual capital
especially its capacity to transfer knowledge to achieve the educational outcomes of intellectual and moral
excellences, by learning to use higher leverage strategies based on evidence of 'what works' and innovative
professional practice.
This study employed capital theory of school effectiveness and improvement to analyze the strategies school
managers employ to enhance performance of students in schools under free day secondary schools in Embu North
District, Embu County. The theory is applicable in this study because all the theoretical concepts: outcomes;
leverage; intellectual capital; and social capital have a bearing on performance and quality of education. The
FDSE policy desired outcomes are to improve performance and quality education to every Kenyan child
graduating from secondary school regardless of gender, ethnic background, or socio-economic background. Using
the theory, this study sought to analyze strategies school managers employ to enhance performance of students in
schools under FDSE.
Research Methodology
This study employed a descriptive survey research design. Descriptive survey research design is USED in
preliminary and exploratory studies to allow researchers to gather information, summarize, present and interpret
for the purpose of clarification (Orodho, 2012a). Borg and Gall (1989) note that descriptive survey research
intended to produce statistical information about aspects of education that interest policy makers and educators.
Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from a defined population as representative of that
population. Any statement made about the sample should also be true of the population (Orodho, 2009b, 2012). It
is however agreed that the larger the sample the smaller the sampling error (Gay, 1992). He recommends that
when the target population is small (less than 100 members), a minimum sample of 20% is adequate for
educational research. Random sampling was used to select 9 schools and 9 deputy principals from 17 schools.
Purposeful sampling was done to select 54 BoM members, 45 HoDs, and 36 PTA members. This formed 53% of
the target population, which was in line with Gays' (1992) recommendation.
Questionnaires were used to obtain information from the BoM members, PTA members, the deputy principals and
the HoDs while interview schedules were used to obtain information from the principals. Observation and
document study confirmed information given by the school managers concerning availability of facilities like
laboratories, classes, administration offices, libraries and sanitation among others.
After the data were collected, data cleaning was done to improve the quality of the responses. They were coded
and entered in the computer for analysis using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0.
Qualitative data were analyzed qualitatively using content analysis based on analysis, meanings and implications
emanating from respondents' information and documented data. As observed by Gray (2004), qualitative data
provide rich descriptions and Simple descriptive statistics analyzed quantitative data. The statistics used included
frequency counts, means and percentages. As Martin and Acuna (2002) and Orodho ( 2009b)observe, SPSS
version is able to handle large amounts of data, and given its wide spectrum of statistical procedures purposefully
designed for social sciences, it is also quite efficient. The results of data analysis were presented using frequency
distribution tables and bar graphs.
Findings and Discussions
Level of Preparedness of School Managers to Perform Management Responsibilities
Gender of respondents
Based on the information carried in Figure 1, it was established that the gender of principals and deputy
principals was skewed in favour of males with 87.70% and 71.4 % of the principals deputy principals ,
respectively being males . In fact less than 15 percent and 30 % of the sampled principals and deputy principals,
respectively, were females. It was also established that two thirds of the boards of governors were male and
33.30% were female in line with the constitutional expectations on the gender composition of elected officers.
However, slightly over half of the parents were males.
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It was also encouraging to note that there was equal representation of gender amongst the heads of departments at
50% each. However, it was evident that males dominated top school management positions.
It was also discouraging to note that in half of the schools, the principals and deputy principals were of the same
gender of either female or male. This is against the education policy which, according to MoEST (2007), in the
management of day mixed secondary schools, the principal and the deputy principal must be of opposite gender to
handle mixed gender issues of the students. This policy lapse could negatively affect the performance of the
students in the mixed day secondary schools.
Level of Formal Education
The educational level of the respondents is portrayed in Table 1. Results in the Table revealed that majority of the
principals, deputy principals and Heads of Departments constituting 84.5% 85.75, and 81.05, respectively, held
university degrees. A small number of respondents, constituting 15.50%, 14.30%, 13.40%, 2.75% and 17.70% of
principals, deputy principals, and members of the board, parent representatives and heads of departments,
respectively held diplomas certificates. Majority of the board members had secondary education 73.30%, with the
rest, constituting 13.30%, had primary level of formal education. The implication of the findings reported in this
section is that all schools in the study locale are staffed with human resource of acceptable and relevant academic
qualification. In addition, the members of the Board of management (BoM) similarly had relevant academic
qualification of up to secondary school level as stipulated in the Education Act 2013 No.14 of 2013 ( Republic of
Kenya, 2013).
Table 1: Level of Education of School Managers
Respondents
Principals
Deputy principals
BoM
FT As
HoDs
Masters %
2.30
Bachelors %
Diploma %
84.50
85.70
15.50
14.30
13.40
2.75
16.70
81.00
Secondary % Primary %
73.30
10.00
13.30
87.25
The parents' representatives had the lowest academic qualifications with 87.25% holding primary education and
10% holding secondary education. However, this level was not very low to have a negative effect on the
schooling of their children.
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According to a study done by Demi et al., (2010), parents' educational attainment and income have an effect on
children's educational attainment; hence the poor performance of students in schools under FDSE due to the low
levels of education of the PTA members.
Management Training
Figure 2 carries information on the level of training on management by the school managers. Results from the
figure indicates that 26.70%, 45.20%, 71.40% of the board members, heads of departments and deputy principals,
respectively, had been trained in management. The information indicates that 73.30% of the board members,
54.80% of the heads of departments and 28.60% of the deputy principals had not been trained in management.
Figure 3: Training Levels of School Managers
Most members of the Board of Managent did not have managerial skills probably because of their relatively low
level of formal education or lack of exposure to such relevant training. Yet, the policy of the Government is to
have these BoM members trained through the Kenya Educational Managent Institute (KEMI) .This could be a
contributing factor to poor academic performance of students in schools under FDSE because for school managers
to acquire management skills and implement them competently they need training in management (Robbin,
2003). However, a good number of deputy principals and heads of departments had trained in management which
may not have been adequate and /or intensive. It is thus arguable that school managers who are conversant with
management practices are more worthwhile partners of the Government in implementing policies that enhance
students academic performance.
The management Strategies Employed to Enhance Performance
Management of Teaching and Learning
Research studies have demonstrated that the type of teaching methods employed influence students academic
performance. In this study, slightly over of the teachers in the study locale used lecture method, 26.20% used
demonstration method and 16.70% used both methods. The teachers and principals concurred that teaching
methods used in most of the sampled schools encouraged students to be passive. The teachers on their part
reported that the principals hardly monitored the teaching and learning process in their respective schools. It was
evident across the schools sampled that there was inconsistent instructional supervision and monitoring of student
learning through consistent and more practical assessment procedures. This could have contributed to poor
performance because student passivity does not enhance learning and active learning helps students to learn
independently and perform well Macttemer & Crawford, (2007). According to a research done by Mobegi et al.,
(2010) in Gucha District, Kenya, principals should ensure that there is adequate departmental organization and
supervision and engage in classroom supervision to ensure that a variety of teaching methods are used.
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Internal School Assessment
To determine to what extent school managers were committed to success, the researcher sought information from
the heads of departments. They were asked to give the number of examinations students sat each term. Of the
heads of departments interviewed, 97.60% reported students sitting two and three examinations and this is a good
way of evaluating students' performance by the teachers.
Combined results of mode of instruction and student assessment indicate that there were inconsistent instructional
processes and student assessment strategies in most schools that participated in the study. As a result, it is
arguable that this may not have assisted to improve students' academic performance. This finding is rather
contrary to what other scholars had earlier established. For instance, according to Cunha & Heckman (2006),
schools need to adopt multi-faceted approaches, no single strategy works alone to increase student engagement
and performance. Similarly, observations in Guinea and India found that teachers trained poorly in evaluation
techniques and in instructional methods, were not able to gauge individual student learning needs, hence could
not produced the desired enhanced students academic performance (Carron & Chau, 1999; Orodho.2014). This
may have been the case because this study revealed that many teachers continued to rely almost exclusively on
traditional paper-and-pencil test of factual knowledge that tends to promote rote memorization rather than higher
order thinking skills (Condy, 1999). It was also evident that monitoring of curriculum instruction by principals
was erratic in most schools, yet monitoring and evaluation of learning should be a continuous process to ensure
schools meet their targets.
Alternative Sources of Funds
Respondents were requested to indicate the types of alternative sources of income used to supplement government
funding, and results displayed in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Types of Income-Generating Activities
According to the PTAs interviewed, 50% reported having-income generating activities in their schools and 50%
reported not having them. Out of the sampled schools, 20% practised dairy and tea farming, 30% practised coffee
and dairy farming, 10% practised dairy farming and 40% practised coffee farming as income- generating
activities. The study revealed that only half of the schools had income-generating activities and that they were
practised on small scale. Although schools under FDSE have embraced IGAs, the study reveals that the practice is
on small scale and cannot subsidize the free learning funds enough to improve facilities and good performance of
students hence the performance has remained poor. Finance is crucial to retention and performance of students
since it determines the quality of physical facilities, teaching and learning materials, quality of teacher motivation
and teachers employed in the time of shortage (Mobegi et al., 2010; Getange & Orodho,2014).
Information on presence of alumni in schools was sought, 21.40% of the board members interviewed reported
presence of old students' organizations in their schools while 78.60% reported not having them.
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The study revealed that few day secondary schools had alumni to help them raise funds to subsidize the free
secondary education funds thus performance has remained poor. The issue of finance is crucial to retention and
performance of students since it determines the quality of physical facilities, teaching and learning materials,
quality of teacher motivation and teachers employed in the time of shortage (Mobegi et al., 2010).
Guidance and Counseling
Figure 4 carries information on the status of guidance and counseling in schools reached by the study. According
to the deputy principals interviewed, 50% of the schools had guidance and counselling committees, 33.30%
involved all the teachers and 16.70% invited guest speakers who are professionals in different fields. The study
revealed that although guidance and counseling had been embraced in most of the day secondary schools, it was
not effective because only half of the schools had guidance and counselling committees with the rest involving all
the teachers in the school and inviting experts.
It was thus evident that the guidance and counseling strategies were not effective because students need constant
guidance and this may have led to poor performance. Yet, guidance and counseling is a good way of maintaining
discipline in schools because students make choices in life reasonably and independently.
Figure 4: Guidance and Counseling
The finding implies that the guidance and counseling strategy, although touted as very important in molding
learners’ character and preparing them for improved academic attainment, was not effective. This was contrary to
research findings that underscore the importance of G&C in the sense that students need constant guidance and
this may have led to poor performance. Guidance and counseling is a good way of maintaining discipline in
schools because students make choices in life reasonably and independently (Okumbe, 1986).
In the same vein, a study done on the implications of guidance and counseling by Achoka (2007) on the role of
the principal indicated that , for change to take place in school, the present school principal should be an advisor
to students, teachers and the community. He /she should be in a position to identify possible threats against
retention rates and reverse the situation. He / she needs to act as a counselor to not only the students but also
parents and teachers because this could assist all parties interested in the education life of the learner to appreciate
the need to be educated. This line of argument is also consistent with Demi et al. (2010) who similarly counsel
that a secondary school principal should endeavor to provide the best school climate to entice students to
complete schooling by making school free from violence, threats, intimidations, hatred, and witch-hunting and
develop rich co-curriculum, remedial interventions for slow learners to avoid repetition, frustration and dropout.
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He / he should be a developer by putting more effort in developing academic and co-curriculum programmes that
are attractive and competitive to occupy all students while at school.
Management of Health s of Students
On the availability of health facilities, 50% of the principals said the students visited public dispensaries, 33.30%
reported stocking painkillers in their schools and 16.70% of parents took responsibility of their children's medical
needs. It was evident that most day secondary schools lacked basic health facilities to cater for the students and
other members of staff in the affected schools. The best they could do was to stock painkillers for emergency
purposes before the students visited the local public dispensaries for treatment or their parents took them to other
hospitals.
The school service environment can also contribute to learning in important ways. Provision of health services
and education can contribute to learning first by reducing absenteeism and inattention. Sick children cannot attend
school, and evidence from China, Guinea, India and Mexico shows that children's illness is a primary cause for
absenteeism and poor performance (Carron & Chau, 1996). The consequence of the poor management of
students’ health in affected schools was that most students these institutions missed classes as they left school to
seek medical attention and this may have led to their poor academic performance. This is because research studies
have convincingly established that the health and academic performance of the learner is directly related. Health
services contribute to learning by reducing absenteeism and inattention because sick students cannot attend school
and cannot learn and this lowers their performance (Carron & Chau, 1996).
Conclusion and Recommendations
The thrust of this study was to reach a verdict on whether or not the management strategies being applied in Embu
North were effective in enhancing students’ academic performance. On the whole, the results of the findings
reported in this paper have reached verdict that these strategies are not effective. A short recapitulation is
necessary to qualify the verdict reached. First, while most school principals and their deputies possessed the
required academic qualifications and reported that they had undergone some management training in the past , the
mastery of leadership and /or management skills were not being demonstrated on the ground. It was apparent that
any teacher could be promoted to the position of principal or deputy principal purely on account of the academic
qualifications as well as number of teaching experience.
Secondly, there were inconsistencies in instructional supervision by school principals and uncoordinated guidance
and counseling practices in the sampled schools. As a result, lecture and demonstration methods were used to
teach and in some schools, students sat for less than two or three internal examinations every term. These
strategies were not effective in translating to enhanced students academic performance.
Third although some of the schools had started income generating activities, these were not very effective in
supplementing the Government grants through free day secondary education initiatives in the country the school
facilities in some schools remained un-conducive to effective learning.
Fourth, although guidance and counseling was in place in most the schools, they were not well run due to lack of
specialist teachers in the area of G&C. Each district should have mechanisms for monitoring on a continuous
basis the performance of both teachers and students for remedial action early when needed (Kimbui, 2012).
Finally, it was noted that most schools lacked funds to provide health facilities for their students in school leading
to absenteeism as they sought medical attention outside the school compound and this may have led to poor
academic performance of students. Investing more in health, nutrition and educational programmes , especially
health promotion and disease prevention , like vaccinations and good hygiene, is a smart strategy to empower the
youth and improve educational attainment as well as stronger societies and economies( United Nations,2013;
Orodho,2014). As a consequence, the healthy adults work longer and more regularly, earning higher and more
regular wages, and therefore contribute to the socio-economic development not only of their areas but the country
in general (United Nations, 2013; Orodho,2014).
This suggests that school managers lacked appropriate knowledge and skill that take advantage of the powerful
synergy between psychosocial stimulation and nutrition suggests that integrated attention to the young child is
critical and that early childhood is the most cost-effective period for investment in education. Later interventions
with schoolchildren are useful remedial measures where children have suffered early insults and continue to suffer
from malnutrition.
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In a nutshell, we reach the verdict that the management strategies currently being used to enhance students’
academic performance were not effective in the study locale of Embu North District, Embu County.
On the basis of the findings of this study it was recommended that:
First, training of school managers; it is strongly recommended that other than academic qualifications (such as
bachelors or masters degree) and number of teaching experience, there was need for the inculcation of leadership
skills through intensive skill training through KEMI. Similarly, members of the Board of Management should
undergone relevant training on school management in order for them to effectively complement the work of
principals and their deputies in school management.
Secondly, all day secondary schools to start income-generating activities and form organizations for old students
to help raise funds to subsidize the government funding. In addition, the FDSE fund should be increased and be
disbursed regularly and without much delay.
Finally, each school should put in place an operational guidance and counseling unit. The individual schools
should work out modalities of training their teachers and allocating them less teaching responsibilities so that they
can concentrate on the G&C duties. This cadre of teachers should be well remunerated in order to motivate and
retain them in schools.
Acknowledgement
The accomplishment of this paper was largely due to the encouragement and advice of Professor John Aluko
Orodho of Department of Educational Management Policy and Curriculum Studies School of Education, Kenyatta
University. His immense input in this work made me to incorporate him as a co-author to extent his academic
mentorship in techniques of publication.
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