1 January 1981 Contemporary History / No 2
The European Union
8 May 1945 5 June 1947 The war ends
3 September 1953 Convention on Human Rights
Marshall Plan
Germany’s unconditional surrender
ends World War II in Europe.
The Marshall Plan “European Recovery
Program” endorses economic co­
operation among European countries.
The “European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights
and Fundamental Freedoms” enters into force after ratification by
the members of the Council of Europe.
4 April 1949 NATO
Twelve countries form the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),
a military alliance under the leadership of the United States.
33 states from Western and Eastern Europe,
the United States and Canada sign the Helsinki
Accords, the final document of the Conference
on Security and Cooperation in Europe. The
signatories pledge to guarantee human rights,
uphold the self-determination and non-discrimination of all peoples, renounce the use of
violence, respect the inviolability of national
borders, and pursue the peaceful settlement of
conflicts.
The United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark join
the European Community. Negotiations also pave
the way for Norwegian membership, but the proposal is rejected by Norwegians in a popular referendum held on September 25th, 1972.
1956 Uprisings
Democratic uprisings in Hungary and
Poland are violently suppressed.
1956 Eurovision
19 June 1946 Churchill’s proposal
5 May 1949 Council of Europe
In Zurich, Churchill proposes
the founding of the United States
of Europe.
Ten countries found the Council of Europe. By
2012, it had 47 members.
1951 — 1957 Six founding member states
23 October 1954 Paris Agreements
In the 1950s, Belgium, West Germany, France,
Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands sign three
treaties that establish the European Coal and
Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic
West Germany is accepted as a member of NATO
and of the newly created Western European Union
following the failure of the European Defense
Community­ (“Paris Agreements”).
Prague Spring
4 January 1960 Trade
Energy Community (EAEC, or Euratom). The six
founding member states form the ­nucleus for
The Czech reform movement is
violently suppressed by troops
from the Warsaw Pact countries.
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA)
is set up as a counterbalance to the European
Economic Community.
the gradual development of the European Union.
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
ria during a conference in Copenhagen. Membership candi-
former GDR join the European Community.
dates must demonstrate a stable democratic order, rule of
law, and a competitive and market-based economy. They
must also accept the full body of existing European law –
called “acquis communautaire” – and incorporate
it into domestic law.
1973
1974
1975
grey = stages of integration of the EC and
the EU (common policies, treaties and
their content/aims/consequences)
1 May 2004 First Eastern expansion
20 March 2003 Iraq war
light grey = additional European institutions or important events
Five Central European states (Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia,
the Czech Republic and Hungary), three Baltic states
(Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) and the Mediterranean islands
of Cyprus and Malta join the European Union. The EU’s
eastward expansion completes the unification of Western
and Eastern Europe. The new member states hope for
political stability and economic prosperity through the
adoption of market-based economies and free access to
the European single market.
The (second) Iraq war under the leadership of the United States and Britain
­divides European allies. The EU countries
do not agree on the question of military
intervention, and thus cannot find a
common voice in matters of foreign and
security policy.
1 January 2007 Second Eastern expansion
1976
1977
1978
Bulgaria and Romania join the European Union. The EU
now encompasses 27 states and 500 million people.
Northern expansion
Finland, Sweden and Austria join the European
Union. The only remaining Western European
countries without EU membership are Switzerland,
Iceland, Norway and several small enclaves.
11 September 2001 9 / 11
1980
Airbus A380
The world’s largest civilian aircraft,
the Airbus A380, completes its
maiden flight. Airbus is a subsidiary
of EADS, the largest European air
and space corporation.
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
8 December 2008 Atalanta
A reactor at the Soviet nuclear plant in
Chernobyl explodes. Large parts of
Europe are subsequently exposed to
higher levels of radiation.
24 March 1999 War in Kosovo
17 July 1995 Srebrenica massacre
The EU launches a multinational
military mission to combat piracy off
the coast of Somalia.
NATO launches air strikes against Serbian troops
to protect the Albanian population of the Kosovo
region. The military campaign is not sanctioned
by a UN mandate.
8,000 men and boys are massacred by the Serbian
army near the Bosnian town of Srebrenica. The massacre is widely seen as the most serious war crime in
Europe since the end of World War II.
1981 — 1994 Twelve member states
1979
2012 European capital of culture
1995 — 2004 15 member states
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2011 20 October 2011 Refugees in Lampedusa­
Galileo
More than 40,000 refugees from
Tunisia, Egypt and Libya arrive on
the Italian island of Lampedusa.
They have fled from unrest and civil
war in North Africa. Many drown
while crossing the Mediterranean.
Human rights organizations criticize
the insufficient provision of shelter
and the actions of the European
border patrol agency Frontex.
The first satellites of the European geo-positioning system
“Galileo” are launched into
space. The system will eventually include 30 orbital satellites
and will be completed in 2014.
12 October 2012 60 years of peace
The EU is awarded the Nobel
Peace Prize.
1 July 2013 Third Eastern expansion
Croatia will join the EU on July 1st, 2013 as the
union’s 28th member.
2007 — 2013 27 member states
2004 — 2006 25 member states
2001
An annual “European capital of culture” has been designated since 1985. In 2012, Guimarães (Portugal) and
Maribor (Slovenia) receive the distinction. In 2013, the title
passes to Marseille (France) and Košice (Slovakia).
27 April 2005 Terror attacks on the World Trade Center
in New York and on the Pentagon in
Washington spark international outrage
and lead to a wave of support for the
United States.
26 April 1986 Official lists detail prohibited substances in cosmetics (“negative
list”) and the preservatives, colourings and UV filters that are allowed (“positive lists”). The guidelines have been changed seven
times and have been updated more than forty times since August­
2008.
1972
Germany is unified. The five federal states of the
Chernobyl catastrophe
1973 — 1980 Nine member states
1964
The European Council agrees on specific membership crite-
The Berlin Wall falls. It was a symbol
of the division of Europe.
27 July 1976 Cosmetics guidelines
1951 — 1972 Six founding members
1945
21 — 22 June 1993 Copenhagen criteria
3 October 1990 German unification
Fall of the Berlin Wall
Several European railroad companies introduce a cheap ticket
option for people aged 21 or
under to explore Europe by train.
In 1976, the cutoff age is raised to
23 years. In 1979, it is raised
again to 26 years.
1968 recognition of Cyprus and in the area of human rights.
9 November 1989 InterRail
light blue = EU expansion (addition of new
members)
state. Negotiations with Turkey remain complicated. Disagreements exist in relation to the
1 January 1995 1 March 1972 Lys Assia from Switzerland is crowned
as the first winner of the Grand Prix
Eurovision de la Chanson. The music
competition is renamed “Eurovision
Song Contest” in 1992.
the accession process and will probably join the EU on July 1st, 2013 as the 28th member-
during the attack and 2,051 are injured.
1 August 1975 Helsinki Accords
1 January 1973 First expansion
Colours:
Membership negotiations with Croatia and Turkey commence. Croatia has now completed
attack on the Atocha train station in Madrid. 191 people die
Spain and Portugal join the EC. It now has twelve
members. In 1974, the “carnation revolution” had
ended dictatorial rule in Portugal. In 1975, the
death of Caudillo Francisco Franco had allowed
for democratic development in Spain as well. In
1977, both countries requested EC membership. Negotiations were long and difficult: Economic and social conditions on the Iberian peninsula
differed starkly from those in “old”
EC countries.
civilian and democratic government to power
in Greece. Membership negotiations were
quickly resumed, partly with the intention of
stabilizing the young Greek democracy.
Membership negotiations with Croatia and Turkey
Islamist Al Qaeda terrorists from Morocco launch a bomb
Second Southern expansion
Greece joins the EC as the tenth memberstate­. Greece had been ruled by a military junta
since 1967, which had prevented participation
in the process of European integration. However, in 1974, the Cyprus crisis brought a
­— Legend
3 October 2005 11 March 2004 Terror attacks in Madrid
1 January 1986 First Southern expansion
2007
2008
2009
2010
in 2013 28 states
2011
2012
2013
2014
Abbreviations:
ACP = African, Caribbean and Pacific states
CAP = Common Agricultural Policy
CFSP = Common Foreign and Security Policy
CSCE = Conference on Security and
Cooperation in Europe
EAEC / Euratom = European Atomic Energy
Community­
EC = European Community
ECB = European Central Bank
ECJ = European Court of Justice
ECSC = European Coal and Steel Community
EDC = European Defense Community
EEC = European Economic Community
EFSF = European Financial Stability Facility
EFTA = European Free Trade Area
EMS = European Monetary System
EU = European Union
IMF = International Monetary Fund
NATO = North Atlantic Treaty Organization
PJCCM = Police and Judicial Cooperation in
Criminal­Matters
SEA = Single European Act
UN = United Nations
WEU = Western European Union
Additional information on European terminology
is available in the “pocket europa” booklet.
Euro crisis and “rescue funds”
1 July 1968 European Customs Union
The last tariffs within the European Community are abolished­
(originally planned for December 31st, 1969). A common
customs code is introduced for the EC borders.
7 October 1958 30 August 1954 European Defense Community fails
23 July 1952 ECSC Treaty
The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) is
formally inaugurated. Belgium, France, West Germany,
Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands agree to have
their respective coal and steel industries supervised by
a single independent regulatory authority (Treaty of
Paris, April 18th, 1951). The agreement marks the
beginning of Europe’s first supranational organization.
9 May 1950 Schuman Plan
The French foreign minister, Robert Schuman, proposes the founding of a European
Coal and Steel Community. He suggests that all German and French coal and steel
production be governed by a common, supranational authority (see: July 23rd, 1952).
Schuman’s idea is based on the conviction that economically interdependent
states will strive to maintain peace and resolve disagreements by non-violent means.
The Schuman Plan was intended as the first step towards a more unified Europe
and is often described as the “birth certificate” of the European Union. May 9th is
now celebrated as “Europe Day”.
After the outbreak of the Korean War, the United States demand military support from Germany. France is opposed to
German rearmament and proposes the integration of European military forces (including a rearmed German military). In 1954, the six founding member states sign a treaty that aims to establish a European Defense
Community (EDC). On August 30th, the plan fails when
the treaty is rejected by the French National Assembly.
Judiciary
Luxembourg.
1 July 1965 — 28 January 1966 The Merger Treaty enters into force on April 8th, 1965. The
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC),
the European Economic Community (EEC) and the
European Atomic Energy ­Community (Euratom)
are combined to form the European Community (EC).
All three unions are subsumed under a single
Council of ­Ministers and under the EC Commission.
“Empty chair politics”
14 January 1962 Common Agricultural Policy
A common agricultural market is instituted to secure adequate income
levels for farmers, steady food supplies, and appropriate prices for
25 March 1957 Treaty of Rome
7 — 10 June 1979 First Lomé Convention
The EC signs a cooperation agreement with 46 African,
Caribbean and Pacific states in Lomé (Togo). It establishes
financial support programmes and tariff-free access to
European agricultural markets. In 2000, the Cotonou Agreement (signed in Cotonou, Benin) expands European
development cooperation to include 79 ACP states.
26 March 1995 Schengen Agreement
Citizens of the nine EC member states
are called on to elect representatives to
the European Parliament for the first
time. The parliament is the only EU
organ elected directly by the people.
consumers. Guaranteed prices are established for agricultural products. If
market prices drop, the European Community agrees to purchase food
at pre-set price levels. Tariffs and subsidies protect European agriculture against international competition.
The French President, Charles de Gaulle, rejects reform proposals to finance the Common
Agricultural Policy. France absents itself from
all meetings of the Council of Ministers, thus
rendering European institutions virtually
inoperative­.
The educational Programme “Erasmus” facilitates
20 February 1979 Cassis-de-Dijon verdict
The German grocery chain “Rewe” sues against restrictions
that prevent the import of French cassis (a blackcurrant liqueur)
from Dijon. The European Court of Justice overturns the import
prohibition. The verdict leads to the so-called “Cassis-de-Dijon principle”: products on sale in one EU country can also be sold in all
other member states without restrictions. The free movement
of goods within the European economic area cannot be restricted
unless grave health and environmental concerns make such­
1 July 1987 pean Atomic Energy Community aims to develop a European nuclear industry to meet rising energy demands and to reduce dependency on foreign oil imports.
29 May 1986 European flag
The EC adopts the flag of the Council of
Europe: A circle of twelve stars on a blue
background symbolizes solidarity and
harmony among the peoples of Europe.
13 March 1979 European Monetary System
28 / 29 January 1966 Luxembourg compromise
The crisis of the EEC – a result of the French “empty chair politics” in
the Council of Ministers – ends with the “Luxembourg compromise”. From
now on, the Council of Ministers can reach decisions by simple majority
vote unless a country submits a veto based on “vital national interests”.
The Treaty of Nice enters into force. Its most
important provisions: The composition of the
European Commission changes, and votes are
weighted differently within the Council of Ministers (starting in 2004).
(with the exception of the UK and Ireland) and Norway, Iceland and Switzerland.
The European single market is completed. The free
flow of goods, services, capital and people within
the European Community is guaranteed. The “four
freedoms” are intended to increase prosperity and
foster competition among EC member states.
1 May 1999 Amsterdam Treaty
The Amsterdam Treaty enters into force. It forms the basis
for institutional reforms of the European Union and paves
the way for the addition of new EU members.
Single European Act
­restrictions unavoidable.
The European Monetary System (EMS) enters into force. Its aim is to
ensure stable exchange rates among EC (with the exception of UK).
The EMS also introduces the European Currency Unit (ECU) as the
unit of account within the European Community.
1 January 1993 Single market
1985 Butter mountains
Price guarantees under the Common Agricultural Policy induce many farmers to
turn their farms into small agricultural factories, which leads to over-production.
Supply greatly exceeds market demands, and warehouses in the EG are filled
with “mountains” of butter, grain, and meat. In 1985, one million tons of butter,
16 million tons of grain, 870,000 tons of beef and 520,000 tons of dry milk are
stored in EC warehouses.
The Single European Act (SEA) – a
comprehensive reform agreement
– enters into force. It aims to realize
a single European market by December 31st, 1992 and abolishes the paralyzing process of consensus-based
decisions. A qualified majority is now
sufficient to make decisions at the
European level. The European Parliament has joint decision-making power
in some policy areas.
1 January 1999 Eurozone
The Maastricht Treaty enters into force and establishes the “European
Union”. It is based on three pillars: the European Community (EC),
a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and Police and
­Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters (PJCCM). The most important
aspect of the treaty is the decision to institute the Euro as a single
currency. The treaty also introduces the idea of European citizenship
with rights of residence and the right to vote in municipal and European elections. Additional agreements aim to increase
the effectiveness of the EU in foreign policy matters and to intensify
cooperation between EU member states.
Belgium, Germany, Finland, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal and Spain agree to
introduce the Euro as their official currency. The European
Central Bank (ECB) is established in Frankfurt. Its primary
goal is to guarantee price stability within the Eurozone.
21 — 23 June 2007 15 September 2008 The European Constitution fails
Lehman Brothers collapses
The “Treaty establishing a Constitution for
Europe” was signed in Rome on October
29th, 2004 by the heads of state of the EU.
The constitution was drafted with the aim of
making the enlarged union more effective,
more transparent and more attuned to its
The collapse of the US investment bank
Lehman Brothers sends shock waves
through the global financial system. The
bursting of the American “housing bubble”
sparks a global financial and economic
crisis. At least 15 trillion dollars are lost as
citizens. However, popular referenda in
France and the Netherlands reject the treaty.
economies collapse. EU members negotiate
rescue packages to aid banks that are
The European Council reaches a solution to
the “ratification crisis” in June 2007: Many
provisions of the proposed constitution are
included in a new reform treaty (see: December 1st, 2009).
deemed “too big to fail”.
1 January 2002 Euro cash
The introduction of Euro coins and bills
bank notes completes the Eurozone project. Twelve EU countries now use the
Euro as their sole official currency.
After passing several rescue packages in 2010, the
countries of the Eurozone agree on a permanent
European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF). It guarantees credit at low interest rates for struggling­
Eurozone countries as long as they satisfy certain
austerity measures.
10 May 2010 ECB bond purchase
The European Central Bank decides to
purchase treasury bonds from crisis-stricken
countries despite statutory prohibitions­.
The ECB wants to prevent sovereign ­defaults
by keeping interest rates low.
1 December 2009 Treaty of Lisbon
The Treaty of Lisbon enters into force. After the failure
of the European constitutional project, the new treaty
is intended to make the European Union more efficient, more democratic and more attuned to its citi-
The economic and currency union is officially established.
1 November 1993 Maastricht and the EU
European Financial Stability Facility
1 February 2003 Treaty of Nice
unified and police cooperation is increased. Today,
the Schengen area includes all EU member states
the exchange of university
teachers and students and
the collaboration between
European universities.
Six founding member states sign treaties that establish the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community
(EAEC). Economic integration is driven by the idea of a single European
market. The signatories agree on a common customs area and on the free
flow of goods, people, services and capital within their borders. The Euro-
The Schengen Agreement enters into force almost a decade
after negotiations concluded on June 14th, 1985 in Schengen,
Luxembourg. Border controls are abolished between the
Benelux countries, Germany, France, Spain and Portugal.
Control of the exterior borders of the Schengen area is
1987 Erasmus
23 January 2012 The European Police Office (Europol)
becomes operational. Its goal is to
coordinate national police authorities to
make the fight against international
organized crime more effective.
First European elections
1 July 1967 European Community
The European Court of
Justice is established in
— Impressum
1 July 1999 Europol
28 February 1975 zens. The European Parliament is strengthened and
voting rules are changed. European laws will require
a “double majority” (i.e. support from a majority of
member states and from the population) as from
2014. A “High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy” and a President
of the European Council begin their inaugural
terms.
2 May 2010 EU rescue fund
Greece is in danger of defaulting on its debt. It becomes the first EU country to be given financial assistance (110 billion Euros). Ireland, Portugal and Spain
also request assistance from the EU and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). EU finance ministers decide
on emergency spending (“rescue funds”) for indebted countries to protect the stability of the Euro and
prevent a break-up of the Eurozone.
— Herausgeberin: Bundeszentrale für ­politische Bildung/
bpb, Adenauerallee 86, 53113 Bonn, www.bpb.de
— Autor: Bruno Zandonella, Stuttgart
— Englische Übersetzung: Martin Eiermann, London;
Lektorat­: David Thorne, Bornheim
— Redaktion: Iris Möckel (verantwortlich),
Nina Schillings (beide bpb)
— Gestaltung: Leitwerk. Büro für ­Kommu­nikation,
Köln, www.leitwerk.com
— Illustrationen: Katharina Plass, Andreas Steinbrecher
— Druck: media production bonn GmbH
— Urheberrechte: Text und Illustrationen sind urheber­
rechtlich ­geschützt. Der Text kann in Schulen zu Unterrichts­
zwecken vergütungs­frei ­vervielfältigt werden.
9 December 2011 Fiscal pact
In response to the ongoing debt crisis, EU members
(without the UK and the Czech Republic) agree
on a fiscal pact. They pledge to balance budgets
in 2013 (i.e. budget deficits will be reduced to zero).
The European Commission will supervise­debt reduction efforts.
— Redaktionsschluss: März 2013,
Bestell-Nr. 5.433, ISBN 978-3-8389-7080-6
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