P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T : M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L A T I O N
Marine Protected Areas 2D
T
he oceans appear to be resilient to physical
and chemical alteration because of their large
Marine Protected Area (MPA) is the term used to describe
any part of the intertidal or subtidal region that is reserved by
legislation for the protection of living marine resources. Some
volumes, turbulence and high flushing rates.
of the most important functions of MPAs are detailed here.
But human beings have been responsible for
causing irreversible damage to coastal and deep-sea
environments and decimating stocks of living
Protecting marine habitats
Marine ecosystems that are most vulnerable to human inter-
marine resources. At the close of the twentieth
ference are those with habitats that depend on the biota, such
century, the conservation of marine biodiversity
as coral reefs, estuaries and mangrove forests. The degradation
has become a serious challenge that requires
of coral reefs is of special concern because they support the
greatest biodiversity of any marine ecosystem. MPAs such as
international co-operation across all oceans.
the Maputaland Marine Reserve in KwaZulu-Natal protect coral
reefs by prohibiting all forms of reef fishing. Less disruptive
In the terrestrial environment, the protection of biodiversity
and non-consumptive activities such as SCUBA diving and
is achieved largely through the designation of national parks,
game fishing are encouraged in this marine reserve, making it
reserves and sanctuaries. Protected areas can play an
a drawcard for tourists.
equally important role in the marine environment, but the use
of reserves and sanctuaries is relatively new. The Tsitsikamma
Protecting biodiversity
National Park, in the Eastern Cape Province, became the first
South Africa has a series of large MPAs that are designed to
marine reserve in Africa when it was closed to fishers in 1964.
protect specific representative sections of our coastal and
The United States declared its first marine reserves in 1975
marine biodiversity. One of these MPAs may be found on
and New Zealand and the United Kingdom followed in 1977
each part of our coast. They include the West Coast National
and 1986, respectively.
Park, De Hoop Marine Protected Area, Tsitsikamma National
South Africa is endowed with an extremely high marine bio-
Park, the planned Pondoland Marine Protected Area, and the
St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Protected Areas.
diversity. As signatories to the Convention on Biological
Diversity, South Africa’s government, has an obligation to
Conserving exploited and endangered species
conserve and maintain plants and animals and to utilize
marine resources wisely and sustainably in coastal waters.
MPAs have been designed to protect turtle nesting beaches,
Marine Protected Areas are one of the most effective means
seabird breeding areas, fish spawning and nursery areas
of protecting areas of particular importance because they are
and exploited crustaceans and molluscs. In South Africa,
relatively easy to enforce and, in some cases, they protect
the Betty’s Bay MPA protects rock lobster and abalone, while
entire ecosystems from the effects of human activity.
Boulders Beach in the Cape Peninsula National Park protects
People and marine life enjoy a protected area
the endangered African Penguin. In the Maputaland MPA,
and this information is helpful for the management of the
leatherback and loggerhead turtles are protected when they
marine environment. MPAs abound with marine life and can
come ashore to lay their eggs, while the Tsitsikamma National
be used for the education of both young people and adults.
Park protects important squid spawning grounds. Poaching
is the most common reason for the failure of a MPA to
protect exploited and endangered species.
Enhancing fishery yield
Despite the fact that fishery scientists and international
organisations such as the World Conservation Union are
strongly advocating the use of MPAs to integrate conservation
with human activities in the coastal zone, MPAs are not finding
easy acceptance. Fishers, industrialists, and even watersports
MPAs are regarded as a central component of precautionary
enthusiasts are fierce opponents when they or their activities
fishery management. Research has shown that marine
are excluded from an MPA; irrespective of whether an MPA
reserves have the capacity to rejuvenate fisheries by providing
may benefit them in the future. Even fisheries managers are
total protection for over-exploited species. In the De Hoop
sometimes apprehensive about MPAs if current fisheries
Marine Protected Area, for instance, populations of galjoen
management strategies are not compatible with MPAs.
and other heavily exploited species have recovered so well
that fish densities might be comparable to those that existed
at the turn of the century. A fish tagging programme has
shown that, through a process of natural migration, adult fish
from De Hoop are supplementing fish numbers in adjacent
areas. Further research, in the Tsitsikamma National Park, has
shown that the eggs and larvae of many reef fish that are
protected inside the reserve, are dispersed to adjacent areas.
The idea of providing a refuge for exploited species has not
yet found a formal place in the management of South African
fisheries. For instance, large MPAs, which are zoned for
different uses could be more widely applied in South Africa.
By way of example, the Agulhas Bank is an important fishing
ground off the coast of Mossel Bay, yet it is threatened by oil
and gas exploration, trawl gear that sweeps the sea floor
continuously, and the transport of toxic cargo. By protecting
Research and education
this region of our country’s deep-sea environment, much could
be achieved with respect to habitat protection, combating
Research into marine processes is greatly facilitated by the
availability of sites that are undisturbed by humans and where
pollution and balancing the divergent demands of users of
the sea.
marine life exists in its most natural state. Much has been
learnt from the comparison of exploited and unexploited sites
Author: Clair Attwood September 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION:
• Coastal and Marine Protected Areas in South Africa. SANCOR. Occasional report number 2. 1997. Available from SANCOR, PO Box 2600, Pretoria, 0001.
• Fishing regulations: Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
• Ward, C. 1997. Marine Reserves: Havens for tourists, reserve banks for fishermen. African Wildlife. Vol 51 no 1.
RELATED FACTSHEETS:
• Recreational Angling • Kosi Bay • Maputaland Coast • Langebaan Lagoon
• Dwesa/Cwebe Nature Reserves • St Lucia •Impacts of Human Activity on the Coast
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Sensitive Coastal Areas 2D
O
ur coast’s beauty and diversity, with its
estuaries, wetlands, dunes, beaches and rocky
shores, make it an attractive place to visit and live
at. Unfortunately, this results in ever-increasing
development pressure, which may compromise the
very features that make the coast special. Many of its
• Other information, for example rare and/or endangered
animals, visual importance, cultural resources and socioeconomic aspects.
Using these criteria, a number of environments are usually
included in Sensitive Coastal Areas. These are water bodies,
watercourses and their banks and geotechnically unstable or
unsuitable areas. Beaches, dunes and rocky shores and impor-
ecosystems are extremely sensitive to disturbance,
tant vegetation communities also qualify. The legal boundaries
and certain activities, such as indiscriminate clearing
of Sensitive Coastal Areas have to be unambiguously defined,
of plots and levelling of dunes for development
sites, can cause irreparable damage.
by using features that can be clearly seen, such as roads,
rivers, railway lines and cadastral boundaries.
Legislation
Criteria for Sensitive Coastal Areas (SCAs)
Sensitive Coastal Areas are identified by using one or more of
the following criteria:
In 1996 and 1998 the Minister of Environmental Affairs and
Tourism instituted regulations in terms of the updated Environmental Conservation Act (Act 73 of 1989). The regulations were
introduced to protect sensitive areas of our coast, particularly
from indiscriminate plot-clearing and dune-flattening to prepare
• Physical sensitivity, which includes unstable dunes, steep
slopes and cliffs.
• Vegetation, such as communities with a limited distribution,
a diversity of species and/or threatened or endemic species.
sites for development. In terms of the regulations, earthworks,
dredging, dune stabilization and disturbance of vegetation are
prohibited within demarcated Sensitive Coastal Areas unless
a permit has been obtained. The application for a permit must
be accompanied by an environmental impact report. The issue
• Archaeological sites, including shell middens, rock shelters
and other places inhabited by pre-colonial people.
of the permit is subject to the degree of environmental impact
of the proposed activity.
Unstable slope
Stabilised dunes
River valley
Earthworks
The regulations avoid duplicating existing legislation, so they do
the potential environmental impact, as well as forms for the
not apply to mining, commercial forestry, agriculture or activities
permit application and the record of decision. Where available,
controlled by the Environmental Impact Assessment regulations
the Decision Support System can also be used to help
of 1997. Domestic gardening activities are also exempted from
complete the impact report.
the regulations, providing these activities are not expanded
beyond their present limits. The Sensitive Coastal Areas regu-
Decision Support System
lations will generally not be applied within urbanised areas.
The Decision Support System is a management tool to assist
authorities, planners and developers to assess environmental
Implementation
issues and make informed decisions with regards to the
Administration of the SCA regulations is usually delegated to
application and issuing of permits under the regulations for
local authorities. However, a local authority or provincial depart-
Sensitive Coastal Areas.
ment wishing to undertake any of the controlled activities has
to submit a permit application to the relevant provincial
Premier, while a national department has to apply to the
Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism for a permit. The
Record of Decision must be kept by the authority concerned,
and also submitted to the Department of Environmental
Affairs and Tourism (DEA&T). The Record of Decision must
also be made available to any party upon request, since the
success of the regulations will largely depend on the ability of
the public to monitor their implementation.
In order to assist authorities and applicants in implementing the
SCA regulations, DEA&T has published Guidelines for the Control
The Decision Support System is a computerised database and
questionnaire containing relevant information on subjects
such as vegetation, physical sensitivity, land-use plans and
endangered or rare species. It conveys information effectively,
is fast and easy to use and requires only basic computer
knowledge and access. In addition it is easy to maintain, update
and modify and can be run on any basic computer system. It
provides an interface between researchers who provide the
data and decision-makers who need and use the data.
Test Cases on the Garden Route and
KwaZulu-Natal
and Management of Activities in Sensitive Coastal Areas, and
The regulations were first promulgated on 31 May 1996 for
developed a computer-based Decision Support System (DSS).
an initial test case – the Outeniqua SCA from Tergniet to the
Kaaimans River on the Garden Route coast. On 27
Published guidelines
November 1998, further regulations were promulgated for an
The guidelines comprise four Volumes:
extension of the Outeniqua SCA to the Bloukrans River (120
km eastward), as well as at Pennington and Umtamvuna on
Volume 1 The Control of Activities in Sensitive
Coastal Areas – an introduction, overview and general
background summary.
the KwaZulu-Natal south coast. Urban areas have generally
been excluded from the Outeniqua SCA and its Extension,
where the regulations focus on rural areas. However, in the
Volume 2 Guidelines and definitions – a review of the
Pennington and Umtamvuna SCAs the main emphasis is on
principles involved in determining the impacts of activities,
protecting "green wedges" within a generally urbanised region.
and definitions of scientific and technical terms used.
Volume 3 Legal aspects, requirements and procedures
Numerous other areas on the South African coastline warrant
legal protection, and the intention is to implement the SCA
– an explanation of the legal procedures relevant to the
regulations in these areas in a phased manner, hopefully at
implementation of the SCA regulations.
the request of local authorities or interest groups.
Volume 4 Pro forma Environmental Impact
Questionnaire/Report – a questionnaire form to determine
Author: Sue Matthews September 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION:
• Guidelines for the Control and management of Activities in Sensitive Coastal Areas. 2000. Marine & Coastal Management, Private Bag X2, Roggebaai 8012,
Tel. (021) 402-3911.
RELATED FACTSHEETS:
• Sandy Beaches • Impacts of Human Activity on the Coast • Estuary Management
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Estuary Management 2D
M
ost of South Africa is semi-dry and has
portion of a river system which has, or can from time to time,
seasonal rains, or is prone to extremes of
have contact with the sea’. In practice, the boundaries of an
drought or flood. Fresh water management has
become a top priority as the country tries to improve
the living conditions of its burgeoning population
and provide water for all. Already the water capacity
of rivers has been altered by major inter-basin water
estuary are difficult to determine. The present proposal for
management is that the term ‘catchment’ should include the
‘entire river basin drainage, from watershed to the sea (including
the estuary)’ and the catchment should be managed as a
whole.
It has been proposed that a specific contour above mean
transfer schemes, implemented to meet the needs of
sea level should be used to define the limits of an estuary
Gauteng and greater Cape Town. Numerous dams
for management purposes. This contour, which is still to
impede the natural flow of rivers, and water is
be finalised, should include water levels necessary to
extracted for agriculture, industry and the other
maintain high saltmarsh and other similar wetland/
multiple human needs. These activities have serious
estuarine vegetation.
implications for the long-term well being of estuaries
that are the ‘last in line’in these river systems. There
is also direct pressure on estuaries for the development
of residential, recreational and industrial centres and
The dynamics of an estuary mouth
Estuaries are extremely variable environments. Typically they
experience a daily rise and fall of the tides. The marine and
fresh waters, with different temperatures, salinity and density,
harbours, because they provide the only truly sheltered
flow over one another and mix, to a certain extent. The
embayments along a rugged coastline that is battered
fluctuations due to seasonal rainfall may be even more
by waves and wind. This factsheet deals with the
dramatic. During the wet season the raging river flushes out the
ecosystem considerations for estuarine management.
estuary with fresh water, scours away the banks, deepens
Legislation and policy for estuarine management is
and widens the mouth and deposits silt in the sea. During the
dry season the sluggish river deposits fine silt and the sea
provided in the Marine Living Resources Act of 1998,
floods the banks with salt water and may build up a sandbank,
the White Paper for Sustainable Coastal Development
which eventually closes the mouth. Over time, a closed estuary
in South Africa (2000) and various Acts referred to
may become increasingly saline, due to evaporation, or it may
therein.
become almost fresh, because the sea has been excluded.
Estuaries act as nutrient traps and can support plankton and
a unique community of plants and animals that are able to
What is an estuary?
cope with the variable salinity and temperatures. Special salt
marsh plants and reed beds line estuaries and mud-prawns
Environmental managers need a definition of an estuary that
is legally unambiguous. The Northern Hemisphere definition
of an estuary as ‘ a system that has perennial inflow of freshwater and tidal action of the ocean’ does not apply to all
South African estuaries, many of which may be closed from
and bivalves thrive in the mud banks. Many fishes use estuaries
as nursery grounds. Wading birds gather in huge flocks to feed
in the South African wetlands, some of them are stocking up
for their annual migration across thousands of miles to their
breeding grounds in the Northern Hemisphere.
the sea seasonally or even for several years at a time. One
definition applicable to South African estuaries is ‘that
Major human impacts on estuaries
The mud prawn Upogebia
africana can be used as an indica tor species of a healthy estuary. Its
larval stage is spent in the sea.
South African estuaries are subject to a range of impacts.
Pollution causes deterioration in water quality resulting in the
death of animals and plants and the development of sludge
communities. Commercial and subsistence farming
increase siltation, which suffocates benthic fauna, and
turbidity, which reduces light penetration, decreasing the
production of plants and excluding visual feeders. The
abstraction of water and the building of dams, weirs and
roads and the invasion of catchments by ‘water-greedy’
alien plants restrict the flow of rivers with dire effects on
the estuarine ecosystem. The reduction of freshwater flow
species diversity, abundance, extent and conservation status
leads to a shallow estuary that may remain closed to the sea
were used. An estuarine health index (EHI) was proposed to
for many years so that fish and invertebrate larvae can no
integrate physical, chemical, biological and aesthetic criteria
longer migrate freely between the sea and estuary to
for measuring estuarine health. The results of the EHI, so far,
complete their life cycles. The result is a decrease in diversity
need to be treated with caution as the biological indicators
and productivity at all levels. Urban encroachment, harbour
used were fish, which are highly mobile and absent from
development, artificial breaching, dredging, the disruption of
smaller estuaries in very dry areas. It is clearly difficult to try
wetlands and the harvesting of estuarine life all affect the
and reduce the assessment of an estuary to a single index. It
health of estuaries.
is better to consult an expert panel and to use a variety of
tools to obtain an overall opinion.
The state of South African estuaries
Predictive tools. A number of mathematical models have
In the last three decades, Begg, Heydorn, Tinley and Whitfield
been developed and tested to try and predict the effects of
have undertaken several major surveys of the state of South
activities such as the artificial opening of the mouth of an
African estuaries. The 1986 survey of Heydorn (excluding
estuary or the effect of damming a river or reducing the water
Transkei) showed that only 24 of 153 estuaries in the Western
flow. One model is based on the water flow in estuaries and
and Eastern Cape Provinces and 28 of 72 estuaries in
another on the conditions necessary for fish recruitment. A
KwaZulu-Natal were in a good condition. A major threat to
third promising model looks at the mud prawn, Upogebia
estuaries in KwaZulu-Natal is siltation, caused by extensive
africana, which is widely distributed throughout estuaries, is
sugar-cane cultivation right to the edge of the rivers, leading
an important prey item of birds and fish, and is used for bait.
to erosion of the banks. In the most recent assessment, by
The mud prawn also has an obligate marine phase in the life
Whitfield, 60% of the 247 South African estuaries were in
cycle, when the larvae migrate from estuaries into the sea
good or excellent condition. A large number of these healthy
and return again as post larvae. The maintenance of this life
estuaries occur in the former Transkei. The three estuaries in the
cycle requirement can be used as a clear objective for the
best condition on the west coast are the Berg, Langebaan
management of an estuary mouth – it is achieved by ensuring
Lagoon and the Orange River mouth on the border with
sufficient river flow to keep it open, or by artificial breaching.
Namibia. On the south coast the best estuaries are the
Wilderness, Botriver and Kleinriver. St Lucia, Richards Bay
and the Mgeni were the top three for KwaZulu-Natal. St
Lucia, the Orange River mouth and Langebaan lagoon have
been granted the status of ‘Wetlands of International
Importance’ in terms of the Ramsar Convention.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
The recent rapid development of Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) has provided a wealth of techniques that could
be used in estuarine management. If the vegetation types
and habitats of an estuary are mapped at regular intervals,
Management of estuaries
changes and impacts can be easily identified and addressed.
The management of estuaries requires two important
A prime challenge for those responsible for the management
components. These are a reference framework, to assess the
of South African catchments is to maintain the viability of
health of estuaries, and predictive tools to provide insight into
estuaries in the face of increasing demands for freshwater and
the likely responses of estuaries to changes caused by natural
development. This requires a holistic approach to catchment-
events or human activities.
management, with a ‘toolbox’ for decision-making and
Reference frameworks. A number of different reference
continuous monitoring and evaluation of the results of actions.
frameworks have been investigated including the assessment
of plant communities, waterbirds and fishes. Criteria such as
Author: Margo Branch September 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Allanson, B. R. & Baird, D. (eds) 1999. Estuaries of South Africa. Cambridge University Press, UK.
• Branch, G. M. & Branch, M. L. 1981. The Living Shores of Southern Africa. Struik, Cape Town.
• Heydorn, A. E. F. (ed.) 1986. An assessment of the state of the estuaries of the Cape and Natal in 1985/86.
South African National Scientific programmes report. No 130. Pretoria. CSIR.
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Estuaries and Lagoons • Rivers and Streams, • Salt Marshes • Mangroves • Orange/Gariep River Mouth
• Sensitive Coastal Areas • Kosi Bay
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Impacts of Human Activity on the Coast 2D
T
he coast is unique because the land and sea
be minimised in the future if coastal development is planned
below the high tide mark cannot be privately
for the whole country in such a way that there are nodes of
owned and there is free access for all. Coastal features
development for housing and recreation, others for marine
including the surf zone, beaches, estuaries and rocky
industries such as boating, mariculture and mining, and key
shores give the coast great recreational and tourism
areas are set aside as marine reserves.
value. Its scenery, moderate climate, relatively high
South Africa has an exposed linear coastline with very few
rainfall and trade and economic opportunities make
natural bays and sheltered waters. Harbours, piers and break
the coast an attractive environment for residential
and commercial development. The coast supports a
wealth of living marine resources which, in the past,
were freely harvested. Due to the severe depletion of
some stocks quotas and permits have had to been
introduced to promote sustainable utilisation. The
major human impacts on the coast can be summarised
as those due to development, harvesting, recreation,
mining and pollution.
waters provide a safe haven for vessels. If constructed on
sandy coastlines they can obstruct the natural flow of waves
and currents resulting in sand being eroded in some places
and accumulating in others. Following the construction of a
harbour, the movement of boats, oil and plastic pollution and
intensified fishing all inevitably have a negative effect on the
marine life. Low bridges often obstruct the flow of rivers and
are particularly detrimental near estuary mouths if they prevent
the influx of seawater at high tide, affecting the natural ecology
of the estuary.
Recreational impacts
Development
Development has a tremendous impact on the coast. The
construction of a road to an area is soon followed by building,
and the price of properties soars. Shops and support services
of water and electricity, sewerage and waste disposal soon
become necessary. In the past, during the scramble for waterside living, houses were constructed on dunes, flood-plains
and wetlands, with disastrous results. Properly planned
developments, based on environmental impact assessments,
can however enhance an area. They enable more people to
Along much of the coast, the highwater mark is littered with
pollution, mainly plastics. Every year municipalities spend vast
sums of money on beach cleaning and remove tons of trash.
Beaches can also be permanently altered and spoilt when
dune vegetation is destroyed by trampling, off-road vehicles
or parking. The opposite scenario can be just as damaging if
free-moving dunes are stabilized by the planting of vegetation
because the sand then accumulates in the vegetation often
depriving the adjacent beach of sand.
As beaches become more popular, beach patrols and lifesavers
enjoy and experience the coast by providing easy access,
are necessary for security and safety. Boaters, surfers and jet
comfortable accommodation and camping sites with potable
skiers must be separated from swimmers. Sodwana is one of
water and good sanitation. The supply of electricity reduces the
the few placed on our coast where divers can experience the
need to fell trees for firewood. Negative human impacts can
beauty and diversity of coral reefs, but the sheer numbers of
visitors to this popular spot has had a huge impact. There are
where sound travels great distances. Two serious consequences
vast camping areas and the huge numbers of boats, being
of atmospheric pollution are the ‘greenhouse effect’ and damage
launched or landed through the breakers, makes it dangerous,
to the ozone layer. The atmosphere works like a greenhouse,
particularly for children. The coral reefs are easily damaged
trapping the sun’s heat and warming the earth. Pollution in the
when divers knock against them, or hold on for support. The
air traps more heat, making the earth warmer. Unless pollution
influx of people to the area has attracted thieves and monkeys,
is reduced the earth’s climate could change, sea temperatures
which are a menace for the campers. Off-road vehicles driven
could increase and sea levels rise due to the melting of the
along the beaches can damage sand-dwelling ghost crabs
polar ice caps. Within the stratosphere there is a thin layer of
and have to be strictly controlled when turtles lumber ashore
the gas ozone. Ozone is a form of oxygen that absorbs the
during the nesting season.
ultraviolet rays from the sun. Without the ozone layer, these rays
Shark nets are in place at many beaches along the east coast.
They have been effective in reducing shark attacks on humans
but have killed hundreds of large sharks and dolphins and other
marine life. This has had a significant impact on the marine
ecosystem and alternative methods are being investigated.
Fishing and harvesting of marine life
You are bound to have heard stories of the ‘good old days’
when crayfish could be caught in knee deep water and photos
were taken of anglers sporting fishes taller than themselves.
Today there are a multitude of anglers and, with the advent of
skiboats that can launch from the beach, fishers can target
the whole coast. The result has been severe over-fishing and
would reach the ground and kill all living creatures. The use of
certain chemicals called CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) destroy
the ozone, and holes now exist in the ozone layer in the
Antarctic, Southern Chile and the Arctic.
Introduction of alien species
The introduction of alien species by ships, mariculture operations
and aquaria can have far reaching effects if these species are
invasive. For example the Mediterranean mussel which first
appeared in 1970 has already spread hundreds of kilometres up
the west coast where it competes with the endemic intertidal
communities.
Mining
the reduction of fish sizes and numbers. In spite of the fact
that fishers now need a permit and are restricted to certain bag
Offshore and onshore mining for heavy metals, diamonds, oil
limits and size limits, many fish species are still endangered.
and gas are huge operations that provide focal points for
Marine protected areas have become vital to provide fish with
development but disturb the marine environment. In spite of
a safe haven. Harvesting of intertidal and nearshore marine life
the fact that these operations have a good record for environ-
has been excessive in some areas and, despite concerted
mental integrity they do have a marked local impact. Noise
efforts to implement sustainable harvesting, poaching is
pollution due to under-sea drilling may have a negative effect on
threatening many species.
marine fishes, dolphins and whales, as they are very sensitive
to vibrations in the water. Dune mining for heavy metals can
Litter and Pollution
The haloes of beach litter around cities are testimony to the
human origin of rubbish. Plastics are particularly noticeable
destroy vulnerable dune vegetation and although efforts have
been made to rehabilitate mined areas around Richards Bay
it is almost impossible to regain climax dune forests.
because they float and are long-lived. Oil spills both large and
The coast has great potential for economic development. It is
small, as well as the runoff from land, are major problems. Heavy
essential that the negative impacts of human activities are
metals, fertilisers, sewerage, pesticides and toxic waste are all
carefully monitored and minimised if we are to ensure that the
carried into the sea where they can damage marine life. Intrusive
coast remains a healthy and valuable national asset. Author:
noise pollution is also becoming a problem, especially in the sea
Margo Branch September 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION:
• White Paper for Sustainable Coastal Development. 2000. Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism.
• Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF-SA), P.O.Box 456, Stellenbosch, 7599. Tel. 021 8872801, Web: http://www.panda.org.za
RELATED FACTSHEETS:
• Strandlopers and Shell Middens • Diamond Mining • Dune Mining • Mussel Harvesting • Bait Collecting • Harbours Pollution
• Marine Pollution • Off-road Vehicle Use • Tourism Along the Coast • Global Warming and Sea Level Rise.
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Setback Lines 2D
T
he coastal zone is a dynamic environment
that is at times subjected to pounding waves,
strong winds, swirling currents and driving rain. It
is therefore exposed to a variety of hazards – such as
beach erosion, flooding, wave attack and inundation
by sand – that are a potential threat to coastal
developments. At places like Groot Brak and Stilbaai,
old houses were built in the flood plain of the estu -
may even undercut the foredune to form a pronounced erosion
escarpment, which will later slump back to a natural slope.
Buildings and facilities located within this high-risk area will
probably be undermined, and collapse as a result. Low-lying
areas in the coastal zone, particularly on beaches and around
estuary mouths, are also at risk of flooding by large waves
and elevated water levels during storms.
In addition, coastal developments are subjected to the potential
hazards of sand drift, caused by wind. Detrimental effects
ary, and it is no surprise that they periodically
include the abrasion of motor vehicles, buildings, vegetation
experience flooding. At Milnerton lagoon near
and park and garden fittings; the burial of roads, railways,
Cape Town a river flood removed 5 m of the bank on
agricultural land and coastal ecosystems; the blockage of street
Woodbridge Island development – underpinning
gutters and stormwater drains; and structural damage to
the need for ‘setting back’ developments a safe
distance from the edge on both sea and riverside.
buildings caused by the weight of the sand.
Since they are much harder than sand, rocky shores are
relatively resistant to the erosive forces of winds, waves and
currents, and are therefore less physically sensitive than sandy
shores and estuaries. However, cliff tops and steep slopes,
Coastal hazards
which are particularly favoured for housing developments
About 60% of South Africa’s 3 000 km-long coastline is made
because of the sea views they afford, can become an
up of sandy shores, interspersed by estuaries. Winds, waves
unstable hazard under some conditions.
and currents constantly exchange sand between surf zones,
beaches, dunes and estuary mouths, linking them into a single
unit called the littoral active zone. The erosion and accretion that
occurs within this zone is naturally in a state of ever-fluctuating
equilibrium, and this will be disturbed by any structures
impeding the movement of sand.
Coastal cliffs, which comprise vertical faces of rock or
consolidated soil, are subject to infrequent but sudden collapse.
While this may occur during a single storm event, it is usually
the result of weathering that has weakened the formation over
time. In contrast, steep slopes such as bluffs and sand dunes
are made up of sand or loose soil held in place by vegetation.
During storms, however, large waves, elevated water levels and
Slumping may occur if such a slope is undercut by erosion,
strong winds can severely erode sandy beaches. These forces
or if heavy rainfall reduces the stability of the soil.
Aerial view of Woodbridge Island showing setback line for development
Development setback
the 1:50 year floodline. In estuaries, development situated too
close to the water’s edge will not only be at risk of flooding
Because of the sensitivity of coastal environments, developments must be set back far enough from the high water mark
of the sea, the water level of an estuary or river system, or the
edge of a cliff, to be safe. Behind the setback line, the effects
of wave attack, flooding, erosion, sand drift, cliff collapse and
during high-flow conditions, but also as a result of elevated
water levels during periods of mouth closure. The latter may
lead to pressure from property owners for artificial breaching
of the mouth or construction of protective levees, with
associated negative environmental impacts.
slumping of steep slopes are unlikely to pose a hazard to
Apart from being a flood prevention mechanism, riverine
development.
setbacks should aim to prevent erosion by ensuring that
The objectives of a setback distance are therefore to:
• Protect developments from damage as a result of natural
construction, grazing and planting of crops is set well back
from the water’s edge. The setback should include a buffer
strip of natural river-bank vegetation, which not only prevents
hazards
• Protect ecological functioning, including dune dynamics
and hydro-dynamics in estuaries, wetlands and swamps
• Protect public access to coastal landforms
• Protect the visual integrity of coastal landforms.
erosion by stabilising soil, but also acts as a natural filter,
absorbing nutrients from polluted effluent and runoff.
Floodplains and wetlands also have remarkable water purification capacities, as well as the ability to reduce the severity
For sea-facing developments the setback distance is usually
of floods and enhance flows during the dry season. They do
measured from the high water mark, and is large enough to
this absorbing excess water and releasing it slowly over time.
avoid damage to property during extreme conditions such as
Any activities that interfere with their natural functioning should
storm surges coupled with spring high tides. In recent years,
therefore be avoided.
the possibility of sea level rise is also taken into account in
determining appropriate setback distances.
In the case of cliffs and steep slopes, analysis of soil and
geological properties is required in order to determine an
On sandy shores the setback area should include the fore-
appropriate setback. In general, however, development should
dunes, which provide a buffer against erosion, act as natural
be located to avoid naturally eroding areas and to limit
sand storage for the littoral active zone, and also possess a
disturbance of stabilising vegetation.
protective strip of dune vegetation. In South Africa, setback
Author: Sue Matthews September 2000
lines have commonly been set at 50 m behind the high water
mark for sandy shores. However, each case should rather be
assessed individually, with the following parameters being
considered in the determination of a setback line:
• Natural fluctuations or trends in beach profile, e.g., net
erosion or accretion reflected in long-term historical data
• Beach profiles showing height above mean sea level
• Local wave, current and wind conditions and the presence
of other influences such as river mouths
• Frontal dune types and size
• The layout of the coastline in relation to wave and storm
approach.
• Plants and animals occurring in the area.
Setbacks for riverine systems are based on long-term
flood levels, with development normally discouraged below
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Guidelines for the Control and management of Activities in Sensitive Coastal Areas.
Obtainable from Marine & Coastal Management, Private Bag X2, Roggebaai 8012.
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Sandy Beaches • Erosion and Siltation • Estuary Management • Sensitive Coastal Areas
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L A T I O N
Coastal Resource Use through the Ages 2D
Part 1
P
eople have lived at various places along the
coast since the Early Stone Age, when tools
were first made from stone, dating back between
200 000 and 1 million years ago. Evidence that
coastal inhabitants supplemented their diet with
resources of the seashore for at least the previous 1 400 years.
Although coastal resources were not a major part of the
lifestyle and diet of all Nguni peoples, they played a central part
in the beliefs and practices of a number of coastal communities.
The Thonga people of Maputaland, for example, have used
elaborate fishing methods and fish-traps to harvest
intertidal shellfish dates back at least 100 000
fish from the Kosi lake system for many cen-
years on the South and East Coasts and 50 000
turies. This tradition continues to provide
years on the West Coast. Judging from the extent
vital sustenance and a focal point for
of the remains found in caves, rock shelters and
the communities living in this
open shell middens (essentially “rubbish heaps”
where “strandlopers” discarded sea shells after
coastal region to this day. The
impacts of colonisation
were, however, obviously
removing the meat), intertidal shellfish were an
much wider reaching
important part of the diet of various groups of
than their impact on
people from the Later Stone Age onwards, about
patterns of coastal
30 000 years ago.
resource use. For the
indigenous local people, colonisation was a devastating
process of conquest in which tribal lands were vanquished
Shellfish supplemented the diet of the people broadly described
as KhoiSan, including pastoralists and hunter-gatherers, who
pursued a nomadic existence and moved seasonally from the
coast to inland areas in response to the seasonal availability of
their staple foods. There is evidence that this use nonetheless
had a localised but considerable effect on some species of
shellfish, especially on the larger limpets, which do not appear
in the more recent layers of middens.
and traditional lifestyles were impacted on to a greater or
lesser degree by the newly introduced cultures and practices.
The Thonga people
The Thonga people of the northern Maputaland region have
fished the waters of the Kosi lake system for many hundreds
of years – some say for about 700 years. Over this time they
have developed elaborate fishing methods, which include fish
trapping, line fishing, traditional spear-fishing with a hand-held
spear, gill netting and hand collection of various
marine and estuarine invertebrates.
Sedges and reeds are also collected
for building and other purposes.
The traditional lifestyle of
the Thonga people has
been significantly affected
by a variety of factors in
recent times, particularly in
the last 50 or so years.
Among these impacts are the
forced relocation of some communities as
a result of the establishment of nature reserves in the
area and the broader social, economic and political impacts
It took only 50 to 100 years of European colonisation effectively
of apartheid. Other factors include the damming of rivers and
to put an end to the nomadic lifestyle of the KhoiSan on the
the transition from subsistence to a cash economy. Factors
southwest and west coasts. The locally intensive but geo-
such as these have contributed to increased pressure on the
graphically extensive use of intertidal shellfish likewise was
natural resource base of the Kosi Bay lake system. Since the
significantly reduced. On the East Coast, European colonisation
1980s, efforts have been made to establish co-operative
also had a profound impact on the local Nguni people, who
management arrangements between local communities and
lived in settled villages, grew crops, raised cattle and smelted
conservation agencies. In recent times, monitoring of user
iron. Those living near the coast had been using the natural
practices and ecological conditions is being undertaken by
found along our shores. The King of Portugal subsequently
changed this name to the “Cape of Good Hope”. This
symbolic renaming of the Cape only became a reality for the
majority of South Africans with the 1994 transition from
apartheid to a democratic nation.
The Portuguese explorers were followed by Dutch and British
expeditions in the 1500s. Soon a well-recognised and welltraveled sea-route was established from Europe to Asia via
the Cape of Good Hope. The first permanent outpost was,
however, only established at the Cape in 1952 under the
leadership of Jan van Riebeeck. Initially, “control” of the Cape
was a source of conflict between the Dutch and British, and
the “settler” population remained small. From the early 1800s
onwards, however, there was a rapid influx of European settlers, with towns and villages located in bays and estuaries,
rapidly expanding in places like Table Bay and Durban Bay.
locally recruited and trained people who record harvests
taken by different users on a daily basis. Particular attention is
being given to promoting user practices that continue to be
The combination of sheltered coastal waters and adequate
supplies of drinking water determined the location of these
towns. Between these settlements, which were linked mainly
by ship transport, the coast remained largely uninhabited and
sustainable.
was subject to little human use before the twentieth century,
Exploring our shores
possibly because natural resources inland, for example, free
The first sea-faring people to pass the shores of South Africa
the indigenous people. From the early colonial coastal settle-
were probably Phoenician sailors. A written account by
ments, pioneers gradually moved inland.
water an grazing, provided better livelihood opportunities for
Herodotus tells of a Phoenician fleet that sailed south from
the Red Sea in about 600 B.C. under orders from Pharoah
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
Necho to return via the Straits of Gibraltar. They returned
after a three-year voyage that is likely to have taken them
around the southern tip of Africa.
From the mid-1400s, the Portuguese explored the sea around
southern Africa. The first landing on South Africa’s coast is
attributed to Bartolomeu Dias, who came ashore in the vicinity
of the mouth of the Gouritz River on the southern Cape coast
near present day Mossel Bay. Although bound for India, Dias
was forced to turn back by a rebellious crew. Returning past
the southern Cape, and recalling the dramatic storms that he
had encountered on his outward journey, Dias named it “Cabo
Tormentoso” or the “Cape of Storms”. This reputation persists
amongst sailors to this day, a reflection of the danger and
hostility of our coast, as evidenced by the many shipwrecks
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa,
December 2000 by Bruce Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coastal Resource Use through the Ages Part 2 • Sustainable Coastal Communities • Understanding Coastal Poverty
• Coasts of the World • Coastal Systems • Integrated Coastal Management Part 1 and 2 • Sustainable Coastal Development
• Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 1 and 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L A T I O N
Coastal Resource Use through the Ages 2D
Part 2
T
HE IMPACT OF THE EARLY SETTLERS
ON OUR COAST
People from Indonesia and India were brought to
South Africa to work in the growing centres of
13% of the country, reserving the rest for people of European
descent. Under apartheid, the government effectively ensured
that the large majority of coastal resources and developmental
opportunities were reserved for whites. The segregationist
policy of apartheid literally reserved different beaches for
Cape Town and Durban as slaves and indentured
different racial groups – “whites only” beaches were a reality
labourers. With the expansion of the coastal towns
in South Africa right up until the early 1990s!
and the movement of settlers inland came increasing
The middle and late twentieth century in South Africa saw the
conflict between the settlers and indigenous people
transformation of earlier segregationist policies into apartheid, a
– a history of conquest, destruction and domination
policy that significantly limited economic resources and social
that is well know to South Africans.
services in “homeland” areas of the northern KwaZulu-Natal
The impact of the early settlers on the natural
coast (formerly KwaZulu) and the eastern part of the Eastern
resources of the coast was varied. It ranged initially
Cape coast (formerly Transkei and Ciskei). The Northern Cape
from the exploitation of food sources, such as fish
and shellfish, to seabird eggs, to the gathering of
coast, with its arid climate, has also been underdeveloped, with
exploitation of mineral and fishing resources dominated by largescale industry and limited infrastructure and social services
guano, sealskins and various whole products. By
provided for local communities. Influx control was used to limit
the late 1800s, the discovery of gold and diamonds
the number African people living in many coastal towns and
brought many thousands of hopeful prospectors to
cities, and strict residential and job segregation forced most
the shores of South Africa. Though destined for the
interior, the influx of people contributed to the
African, coloured and Indian people to live in poverty with a lack
of decent health, education and social services. Apartheid thus
effectively reserved most coastal resources for the benefit of
growth of coastal towns and cities, with Cape
the White population. Addressing this legacy is an integral
Town and Durban vital harbour facilities for the
part of the challenge confronting coastal managers today.
increasing demands of agricultural, mining and
industrial activities in the interior of the country.
Technological innovations, such as steam-driven
ships, and mechanised industrial processes, such as
fish canning, resulting from the Industrial
Commercial exploitation
Although a number of the natural resources of the coast had
been intensively used in colonial and pre-colonial times, largescale commercial and recreational exploitation of coastal
resources is a very recent phenomenon, dating back only
Revolution, accelerated the influx of people to
about 40 to 50 years. Commercial fishing efforts, for example,
South Africa’s shores and increased the impact on
steadily increased as new technologies allowed access to
its natural resources.
more distant fish stocks. After the Second World War, and
reaching a peak in the 1960s, there was a boom in the catch
of species such as the pilchard (Sardinops ocellata). But the
The impact of apartheid
stock collapsed barely a decade after reaching its peak, as a
result of over-exploitation. Similar patterns of over-exploitation
For most of the mid to latter part of the twentieth century,
apartheid dramatically influenced access to and use of
coastal resources. Apartheid reinforced the discrimination and
prejudices of colonialism. With the election of the National
Party government in 1948, a system of government was
introduced that systematically and explicitly restricted the
followed by dramatic population crashes had already been
experienced in a number of other marine living resources,
including whales, seals, jackass penguins and other fish
species. Some of these species have recovered
well; others continue to suffer as a result of
previous over-exploitation.
access of so-called “non-white” people, including black
Africans and coloureds, Indian, Malay, and
Chinese people, to the political
structures and economic
resources of the country. It
forced the vast majority of
South Africans to live in only
pilchard – Sardinops ocellata
Subsistence use
maximum flesh weight from about 5.4 g to 1.5 g and reducing
the reproductive potential of the species by more than 95%.
Subsistence use of coastal resources continues to this day,
especially in areas of the Wild Coast and Maputaland Coast.
In addition to the subsistence, recreational and commercial
In some instances these practices have also resulted in over-
exploitation of the natural resources of our coast, there has
exploitation. For example, on the Wild Coast, research in the
been a dramatic increase in economic activities associated with
early 1980s revealed that over-exploitation led to the maximum
urbanisation, industrialisation, coastal mining, infrastructur e
size of one limpet, Patella concolor, being reduced from
development, tourism and recreational development since the
about 66 mm to 38 mm. This is equivalent to reducing the
Second World War.
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
King Mackerel
Potato bass
Shad/elf
African Penguin
Cape fur seal
Southern right whale
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa, December 2000 by Bruce
Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coastal Resource Use through the Ages Part 1 • Sustainable Coastal Communities • Understanding Coastal Poverty
• Coasts of the World • Coastal Systems • Integrated Coastal Management Part 1 and 2 • Sustainable Coastal Development
• Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 1 and 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Coastal Systems 2D
T
he coast can be thought of as an inter-
connected natural-human system, made up of
basis – the coast must be managed as a system – if
coastal development is to be sustainable.
different ecosystems that provide an array of goods
The relationship between these components of the coastal
and services to coastal stakeholders. Below we
system is outlined in the figure below:
expand on this notion of the coast as a system in
order to develop further an understanding of what
the coast is.
Two considerations are central to this portrayal of the coast.
The first concerns the coast as a single system comprising
natural and human components – they are like the two sides
of a single coin; one cannot separate them. The second and
related consideration concerns the role of coastal ecosystems as a supplier of goods and services to coastal
stakeholders, whose activities affect the ability of coastal
ecosystems to continue providing these goods and services.
Processes
Physical and chemical processes include the flow of energy and
A variety of physical and chemical processes establish the
cycling of materials (for example, sediments), water and nutrients
conditions under which different coastal ecosystems are
(the chemical elements or compounds organisms need to grow,
formed, with their distinctive patterns of plant and animal life.
for example, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur). Solar
Coastal ecosystems perform a variety of ecological functions.
energy powers the cycling of matter and drives climate and
Coastal ecosystems, and the functions they perform, generate
weather systems that distribute heat and fresh water over the
a host of goods and services that provide direct and indirect
Earth’s surface. In many ways, water is the medium of inter-
benefits to people (for example, estuaries support a variety of
connection in the coastal environment. The water cycle is
subsistence, commercial and recreational fishing activities
powered by the energy of the sun and by gravity. Incoming solar
which provide people with food, jobs and pleasure). Coastal
energy evaporates water from oceans, streams, lakes, soil and
stakeholders interact with each other, often in conflicting
vegetation. About 84% of the water value in the atmosphere
ways, in their efforts to realise these benefits. Coastal stake-
comes from the oceans, which cover about 71% of Earth’s
holders include a wide variety of people and interest groups,
surface; the rest comes from land. These inter-connected
such as business, commerce and industry, coastal property
physical and chemical processes include the movement of
owners and developers, community-based organisations,
nutrients from the deep ocean to shallower waters accessible
environmental non-governmental organisations, labour, govern-
to fish and other organisms, the input of nutrients from rivers
ment, educators and scientists, and the general public.
and estuaries into the coastal waters, and the flow of the
sun’s energy that is taken up by plants which animals eat.
It is important to note that individual coastal stakeholders may
at different times, or in different roles, fall into more than one
Ecosystems
group. For example, a government official who is involved in
coastal governance might spend her weekend fishing, in
effect as a coastal user; at other times she may act on the
basis of her interest as a member of the coastal public.
It is also important to recognise that human activities can
Ecosystems are systems of plants and animals interacting
with each other and with the non-living components of their
environment. The coast is a place where there are dynamic
interactions between fluid (both air and water) and solid media,
as well physical changes associated mainly with the movement
have positive or negative impacts on coastal processes and
of sediment. These physical interactions give rise to diverse
eco-systems and their ecological functions. Consequently
“landforms” that create a variety of living conditions that are more
human action or inaction can affect the flow of goods and
or less suitable for different plants and animals. Consequently,
services. To realise and sustain the flow of goods and
coastal ecosystems are varied, including estuaries and coastal
services, the diversity, health and productivity of coastal
wetlands, beaches, dunes, rocky shores and coastal forests,
ecosystems must be maintained. The ecological, social,
reflecting geographical differences in the interaction of physical
cultural and economic components of the coast must
and chemical processes and varying communities of plants
therefore be managed on a co-ordinated and integrated
and animals. Form a biological point of view, most coastal
ecosystems are considered to be highly productive. All
Coastal stakeholders
organisms, whether dead or alive, are potential sources of
food for other organisms. For example, a fish eats a shrimp;
a seal eats a fish; a shark eats a seal; and when they die,
they are consumed by decomposers – ecologists call this
sequence of “who eats whom” a food chain. Most organisms
are part of several food chains and interact in a complex network of feeding relationships that ecologists call a food web.
Food chains and webs can be thought of as the pathways
through which energy flows and nutrients cycle through
ecosystems. The overall process of reproduction, growth,
death and decay of organisms keeps cycling the nutrients
that support all life.
Coastal stakeholders can be divided into four groups of people.
The first group is the coastal users, who are the people who
benefit directly from coastal goods and services, for example,
the coastal and marine diamond mining industry, subsistence
fishers, coastal residents and surfers. In addition to living at
the coast and using its resources, their beliefs and actions
influence the formulation and implementation of coastal policy.
In addition to direct benefits, many people enjoy indirect benefits
from the coast, giving rise to a second group of stakeholders,
the coastal public. The coast is a public asset and although
members of the coastal public may live far from the coast,
and seldom if ever visit it, they often care deeply about the
Functions
coast. Through their beliefs and actions they too play a role in
Functions are built-in ecosystem characteristics or abilities that
third group of stakeholders is the policy makers, managers
are either essential to the health and productivity of coastal
and their advisors in the institutions of coastal governance
the development and implementation of coastal policy. The
ecosystems, or support other ecosystems and maintain the
that are responsible for developing and implementing the
flow of goods and services that sustain human activities. For
policies aimed at governing the behaviour of coastal users
example, estuaries serve as nursery areas for juvenile fish and
and managing coastal resources. These institutions range
swimming prawns, coastal wetlands serve as feeding grounds
from organisations at the international level to those at the
for migratory wading birds, and some coastal plants are
local level. People in some of these organisations may be
effective in stabilising loose sediments.
located far from the coast and they may have little real insight
Goods and services
into the workings of the coastal system or the needs of
coastal users. Consequently they may have limited ability to
Goods and services are generated by ecosystems and their
evaluate the appropriateness, or effectiveness of the policy
ecological functions. Coastal ecosystems produce a wide
measures they introduce. Coastal governance institutions also
range of coastal goods, or “tradable commodities”, such as
include the private sector, non-governmental organisations
seaweed, fish, oil, gas and minerals. Coastal ecosystems also
and community-based organisations that influence coastal
provide a wide range of services, such as the ability of
management through their activities. For example, the actions
coastal wetlands to absorb pollutants or to attenuate floods,
of private coastal property owners can influence public access
the ability of beach and dune systems to act as a natural
to the beach, the community-based organisations can assist
defense against coastal storms, or the service coastal waters
educating the public about the coast and its management.
provide as a medium for transportation. Although many of
The fourth group of stakeholders is the coastal research
these services are not traded in the market place, they
community, which includes scientific institutions, like
nonetheless have an economic value, and provide direct and
universities and technical colleges. Traditionally, much of the
indirect benefits to people.
research effort in South Africa has been focused on understanding biophysical coastal processes and ecosystems.
More recently, some attention has been focussed on the
human component of the coast, and there is increasing
recognition of the need for inter-disciplinary research to
understand the coastal system as a whole.
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa,
December 2000 by Bruce Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coasts of the World • Coastal Systems • Integrated Coastal Management Part 1 and 2
• Sustainable Coastal Development • Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 1 and 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Sustainable Development 2D
T
he pursuit of sustainable development can
be described as the process of simultaneously
promoting ecological integrity, public co-operation,
cultural vitality, economic prosperity and effective
governance. These five fundamental dimensions of
sustainable development are portrayed below.
• Ecological integrity and natural capital : Human
existence is dependent upon the healthy functioning of the
earth’s essential ecological processes and life-support
systems that provide the air we breathe, the water we drink
and food we eat. The ecological integrity of the earth’s
ecosystems therefore needs to be maintained. We need to
learn to live off the “income” generated by natural capital,
which includes the planet’s air, water, land and biodiversity.
• Public co-operation and social capital : The term social
capital describes the norms and networks of trust and
reciprocity that foster public or civic co-operation. Virtues
such as social trust tend to be self-reinforcing; whereas
distrust tends to spiral down on itself, making public cooperation extremely difficult to achieve. Active participation
in social institutions (such as churches and charity
organisations) promotes public co-operation and is a
precondition for both social and economic development.
• Cultural vitality and ethical capital: The interests of
people from many different backgrounds need to be
reconciled in the pursuit of sustainable coastal development. The deep-rooted set of values and beliefs that
people draw upon in determining how they should behave
and how they should resolve conflict can be thought of as
ethical capital. Ethics, like culture, are not static – they
evolve over time.
Dimensions of sustainable development
• Economic prosperity and human, manufactured and
The outer circle represents the ecological integrity of the
earth’s natural system, providing the setting within which
humankind and other species have evolved. The earth is finite
and human use of natural resources can be thought of in
terms of a simple analogy – investing money in a bank. Money
invested in a bank provides a return to the investor based on
the interest rate. The investment represents a stock of capital
that yields an income. The investor can receive this income
indefinitely if the capital is left intact. But if more money is
withdrawn than the interest generated by the capital, then
income levels will decline and sooner or later there will be no
financial capital: Three inter-connected forms of capital –
human, manufactured and financial capital – lay the
foundation for achieving economic prosperity. Human
capital is rooted in the knowledge, skills, health and ability
of individuals to work productively. Manufactured capital
includes the basic infrastructure (such as transportation,
shelter, water, energy and communications), technology
and other means of production that are the “fools” for
economic activity. Financial capital includes the financial
resources available to people, including savings, credit
supplies and regular remittances such as pensions.
money left in the bank. The same principle applies to human
use of natural resources. The earth’s essential ecological
• Effective governance and political and institutional
processes and life-support systems can be thought of as
capital: Two forms of capital are central to building
natural capital. Achieving sustainable development requires
effective governance institutions. Political capital can be
that we learn to live off the income generated by the earth’s
thought of as “political will” – the ability to pursue the
natural capital. But sustainable development involves more
common good rather than narrow or special interests.
than ecological integrity and natural capital, it also involves
Political capital is built up by visionary leaders who are
public co-operation, cultural vitality, economic prosperity and
committed to promoting sustainable development.
effective governance. Each of these dimensions of the human
Institutional capital is rooted in the organisational character
component of the coastal system, represented by the three-
that determines the responsiveness and effectiveness of
dimensional triangle, can also be thought of in terms of the
governance institutions, which include government
essential capital they comprise.
agencies, the private sector and civil society organisations.
Together, these institutions construct the “rules of the
game” in the society – they shape politics and are shaped
Sustainable coastal development is essentially
concerned with realising human potential through coastal
by history.
development that meets basic needs and respects
The concept of sustainable development thus draws
human rights within biophysical constraints. Thus, it
attention top three critical considerations that are central to
involves maintaining the integrity of coastal ecosystems
coastal management.
Firstly, the concept of sustainable coastal development draws
attention to the complex inter-connections between the ecological, social, cultural, economic and governance dimensions
of the coastal system, and to their interdependence. It draws
so that both current and future generations can realise
their potential and live in dignity. To do so requires that
coastal stakeholders work together – building sustainable coastal communities is an important component of
this endeavour.
attention to the fact that the coastal system is made up of
natural and human components. In revealing the “systems”
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
character of the coast, the concept of sustainable coastal
development highlights the need for systems thinking in
coastal management.
Secondly, it draws attention to the importance of promoting
equity amongst individuals of this generation, as well as
between current and future generations. It also focuses
attention on the need to promote harmonious relationships
between humans and other species. It highlights the interconnections between ecological integrity, basic needs and
human rights, as well as the relationship between
population growth, wealth and poverty.
Thirdly, it draws attention to the “process” character of
sustainable development – it is an ideal that needs to be
worked towards over time in an iterative manner. It highlights
the need to take into account the current reality of prevailing
circumstances, the uncertainty of the future, our limited
understanding of coastal ecosystems and communities, and
the complex interactions, between and within the human and
non-human components of the environment.
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa,
December 2000 by Bruce Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coasts of the World • Coastal Systems • Sustainable Coastal Communities • Sustainable Coastal Development • Integrated
Coastal Management Part 1 and 2 • Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 1 and 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Coasts of the World 2D
P
eople have lived at the coast for millennia,
benefiting from its many rich resources. It is
estimated that currently about two-thirds of the
world’s population lives at or within 200km of the
coast. By the year 2025, it is likely that about
harbour development which sustain global water-borne trade
and commerce, to locations for industries requiring sea water
for cooling purposes, to products such as fish, minerals and
oil, and amenities that sustain the globally significant coastal
tourism and recreational sector. Coasts also provide a wide
range of intangible benefits, including aesthetic, cultural,
three-quarters of the world’s population will be
educational, scientific and spiritual benefits, to people on all
living at the coast. Although the density of coastal
continents. Less well recognised, however, is the important role
populations varies considerably between coastal
that coastal ecosystems play in protecting coastal communities
regions, there is a clear, and often dramatic, trend
of people moving from inland areas towards the
against the potentially harmful effects of storms, hurricanes
and other ocean-related natural hazards. The value of the
goods and services provided by coastal ecosystems to the
coast. This trend is apparent in both developed and
global economy each year is estimated to be about R70,000
developing countries. Two-thirds of the world’s
billion.
largest cities are already located at the coast, and
In Africa, coastal ecosystems provide goods and services
coastal towns and cities are expected to continue
that are estimated to be in excess of R4,000 billion annually.
growing rapidly. The coast thus underpins the
But, in contrast to international trends, the coastal population
livelihoods of the majority of the world’s people, from
of Africa is relatively small. Thirty-eight of continental Africa’s
those living in poor rural coastal communities to
53 independent nations are coastal states, and on average
those living in major coastal cities. Coasts are
about 18% of Africa’s population live within 60km of the coast.
therefore assets of great importance as well as
About 52 million of an estimated 204 million people live along
or near the coast in West Africa. The Atlantic corridor of this
being a major focal point for human settlement
region, especially in the vicinity of Nigeria, has an estimated
and development.
coastal population density of about 250-500 people per square
kilometre. This is the highest coastal population density on the
continent. On the East African coast, an estimated 34 million
People around the world value the coast as a distinctive and
special place. It marks the boundary of the terrestrial environment. Beyond the coast is an ocean wilderness, covering
people live at or near coast, and urban coastal populations
are growing by 5-10% in some coastal cities, enough to
double in 7-14 years.
about 70% of the earth’s surface area. Coasts are productive,
The coasts of the world need to be carefully managed if
narrow fringes of land and sea that provide tremendous
we are to realise and sustain their manifold benefits. With
benefits to humanity. In addition to being home to many
growing coastal populations come increasing demands for
people, they are the places we turn to, to rest from our labours
food, water and space. Infrastructure for physical develop-
in resorts and on beaches. They are part of our shared global
ment, such as roads, sewage treatment plants and landfills
heritage as well as being key ingredients of our national
for disposal of our waste, is needed to accommodate the
patrimony. Coastal ecosystems are rich in natural bounty. The
growing numbers of people living on the coastal ecosystems
interaction of freshwater and sea water in estuaries, for
that provide the benefits attracting people to the coast. Human-
example, gives rise to some of the most productive biological
induced coastal pollution and over-exploitation of coastal
systems on earth. Coasts also generate many economic
resources negatively affect coastal ecosystems, reducing their
goods and services. These range from sites for port and
productivity and adversely affecting marine living resources,
such as fish, seabirds and marine mammals. These impacts
African conventions mentioned above, and is playing a key role
also affect coastal economies – over-exploitation of coastal
in revitalising and possibly integrating these two initiatives. South
resources can result in reduced income and job losses, as well
Africa’s effort to develop and implement a national coastal policy
as negatively affecting recreational and tourism opportunities
in dialogue with coastal stakeholders is amongst the first of such
and reducing the aesthetic and spiritual value of these areas.
initiatives on the African continent and other African coastal
Without healthy coastal ecosystems, coastal communities can
states are monitoring these efforts with considerable interest.
also become more vulnerable to coastal storms and other
hazards. Without ongoing maintenance, ports and small craft
The South African Coast
harbours can lapse into a state to neglect, jeopardising the
South Africa’s varied coast extends for about 3 200 km from
vital strategic gateway they provide to the coastal and marine
the boarder with Namibia to the boarder with Mozambique.
resources that often sustain coastal communities. Given the
Our coast is a global treasure. But first and foremost it is a
enormous value of coastal resources, as well as the mounting
fundamental part of our national heritage, an asset that needs
human pressure on coastal ecosystems, increasing attention
to be carefully managed to yield sustainable benefits to all
is being given to improving our management of the coast – a
South Africans.
vital global asset.
Nearly a third of our population live at the coast, mainly in the
The emerging international concer n and effort to address
cities of Durban, Cape Town and Port Elizabeth as well as
this situation is reflected in a range of recent international
centres such as East London, Saldanha and Richards Bay.
recommendations and agreements focusing on integrated
Our ports are a gateway to international trade. Our coast also
coastal management. These vary from recommendations in
provides food and sustenance to many people living in both
Agenda 21, an action programme arising from the United
rural and urban coastal areas. It is an asset of tremendous
Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in
importance for recreation and tourism. It also supports a range
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992, to measures for protecting
of coast-dependent businesses and commercial ventures and is
marine biodiversity and anticipating the possible conse-
a place of cultural, educational, religious, scientific and spiritual
quences of global climate change. There are also a growing
importance. Importantly, our coast offers many opportunities
number of international guidelines for integrated coastal man-
for future economic and social development, particularly in
agement developed by organisations such as the World
the under-developed areas of our country.
Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, the United Nations Environment Programme
and the World Conservation Union. In Africa, coastal nations
are seeking to improve coastal management efforts in a cooperative manner through two United Nations Environment
Programme conventions. These are the Abidjan Convention
for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the
Marine and Coastal Environment in the West and Central
African Region, and the Nairobi Convention on the Protection,
Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal
Environment in the East African Region.
But in order to realise and sustain these benefits, the value of
coastal ecosystems as a cornerstone for development needs
to be explicitly acknowledged in the decision-making processes
of government and the private sector, and by communities
and individual coastal resource users. At present, this is rarely
the case. Consequently, our valuable coastal resources are
being squandered. Unless we maintain the diversity, health
and productivity of coastal ecosystems, we will miss out on
current benefits as well as jeopardise the future development
opportunities our coast offers. A profoundly new approach is
needed to manage our coastal resources wisely and to
Like many other nations, South Africa is devoting more
harness them for sustainable coastal development.
attention to the management of its coastal resources. For
instance, South Africa is in the process of ratifying the two
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa,
December 2000 by Bruce Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coastal Systems • Integrated Coastal Management Part 1 and 2
• Sustainable Coastal Development • Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 1 and 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Coastal Economy – Driving Forces 2D
Part 1
O
ur coastal economy can be viewed in terms
of three broad categories, which have
different driving forces, although there are clearly
linkages between them:
• Cities and urban economies, which are
primarily the four key cities and five larger
towns situated along the coast;
• Peri-urban economies, made up of the
acting as both inward funnels of imports (especially foodstuffs,
grain, containers and petrochemicals etc.) and outbound channels of distribution for South African manufactured products.
Attractive coastal lifestyle
The economies of coastal cities and major towns are increasingly
being influenced by the fact that these centres can offer an
attractive coastal lifestyle for middle- and upper-income earners,
with a pleasant climate, scenic beauty, outdoor recreational
approximately 20 smaller coastal towns and
and sporting activities and a leisure-based lifestyle. An
satellite urbanised or developed areas; and
assessment of residential, office and industrial property prices
• Rural economies, covering approximately
eleven stretches of under-developed coastline
regions.
and demand suggests that there is an increasing move to
coastal cities and towns, primarily from Gauteng but also from
elsewhere in the hinterland. In particular, the Western Cape has
experienced consistent and unparalleled growth in residential
and commercial property values over the past five years or so.
This factsheet (part 1) will look at cities and urban
economies while part 2 will concentrate on peri-urban and
rural economies.
Durban has also experienced growth in property values, with
the development of high quality office parks and residential
clusters at Mount Edgecombe and Umhlanga Rocks. Other
coastal cities and towns, such as Richards Bay, Port Elizabeth
A key driving force in all three categories is the availability of
and Knysna, have also witnessed a real increase in the demand
infrastructure and community services. These include roads,
for residential and commercial properties.
railways and airports, and the installation of connectors that
enable economic activity, including water, electricity, tele-
Perceptions of economic opportunities at
communications and electronic media, and community services
the coast
relating to health, welfare and education. Though these driving
forces might be thought to relate only to the social dimension
of development, they also constitute a vital foundation for
economic activities along the coast. Government expenditure
on community services and infrastructure is an important
driving force, as is investment by the South African National
Defence Force in navy, army and airforce facilities. Specific
development projects by the Departments of Public Works
and Trade and Industry also have the potential to become
driving forces in certain coastal areas.
CITIES AND URBAN AREAS
Certain sectors of the economy are not dependent upon
geography as a primary consideration for their choice of
location. These include the information technology industry, the
banking and financial sectors, and professional practices, such
as architecture, medicine, law, advertising and graphic design.
Mobility, telecommunications and information technology have
reduced the requirement to be in close proximity to primary
industrial zones. Perceptions of improved economic opportunities, which are reinforced by lifestyle considerations, have
become a driving force behind the location of “footloose”
commerce and industry at the coast. A number of factors have
strengthened such perceptions, including the initiation of major
In cities and urban areas, the main driving forces of the
coastal economy are port-related activities, lifestyle-enhanced
demands, perceptions of economic opportunity, tourism and
city or town-specific factors. These urban nodes serve as
catalysts for the economic development of surrounding coastal
regions, having a direct and indirect influence over the
neighbouring peri-urban and rural economies.
Port development and related economic
activities
The cities and larger towns depend to a large degree on port-
coastal infrastructure projects, development opportunities
resulting from the Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs),
an increase in levels of shipping and port/transport related
economic activity, an increase in levels of international tourism,
an increase in the level of investment into tourism- and
entertainment-related infrastructure, the relocation of (or
establishment of new) corporate head offices and a sectoral
economic relocation to the coast, the acceptance of the
Internet as a business communications medium which makes
it easier to conduct business from more remote locations, an
increase in the competitiveness of our export industry and
related activities to sustain their economies. The port nodes are
major investments by international offshore organisations into
also primary driving forces behind regional economic activities,
the coastal economy.
Coastal tourism
Human-produced coastal resources include harbours,
jetties, water treatment works, holiday homes, and so forth.
A fourth important driving force is that of tourism. Cape Town
and Durban, for example, have benefited greatly in recent
years from tourism and related economic activities. Durban is
a primary domestic tourist destination and a gateway to
KwaZulu-Natal’s many tourism attractions. Cape Town is the
country’s unrivalled international tourist city and, increasingly,
is attracting a competitive share of the domestic market.
City-specific factors
By way of example, think of a beachfront holiday resort. This
coastal location is valuable because holidaymakers can enjoy
coastal benefits with easy access to the beach. Activities in
the area immediately adjacent to such a resort can affect the
realisation of these benefits. For example, a neighbouring
property development could either enhance these benefits or
detract from them, depending on the nature of the development and the compatibility of the associated activities with a
coastal holiday. Activities far out to sea, literally out of sight of
City-specific factors can also play a significant role as driving
land, such as an oil-spill disaster, can also affect the benefits
forces for local and regional coastal economies, for example,
realised by holidaymakers. Activities far inland, out of sight of
the historical car manufacturing base of Port Elizabeth, the
the sea, such as poor farming practices in a mountain catch-
opportunities generated by the Saldanha steel mill or the
ment area, can result in silted river mouths. These activities
unique natural beauty of Cape Town.
could lead to reduced benefits to the holiday makers as a
result of lost recreational opportunities, negative visual
Coastal Resources
impacts, and so on.
Coastal resources are natural and human-produced
goods and services that are either dependent on the
The growth of Coastal Cities
coast for their existence or whose value is considerably
Coastal cities are becoming increasingly economically important
enhanced by their location at the coast.
in many parts of the world. Most of the major cities in the
The coast provides many natural resources, i.e. “freely” or
naturally produced goods and services that are not made or
manufactured by people, for example, fish which feed people
or beautiful coastal vistas which delight the human soul.
People can “consume” natural resources, like fish, making
them consumptive resources – you can only eat them
United States of America, for example, are located along the
coast – including Boston, New York, Baltimore, Miami, New
Orleans, Los Angeles and San Francisco. More than half of the
25 fastest growing towns in the USA are found in California
and over 90% of the fastest growing American towns could
be described as places with high tourism and lifestyle appeal.
once! Other natural resources, like scenery or watching
It is of course true that there are successful cities in the interior
whales, can be regarded as non-consumptive resources –
of countries, particularly those countries with relatively small
they can be enjoyed over and over again. Resources can also
navigable coasts, such as Berlin in Germany and Moscow in
be distinguished by whether they are renewable or non-
Russia. But in countries with extensive navigable coasts, coastal
renewable. Renewable resources are those that are self-
cities tend to dominate, despite efforts in some countries to
generating, for example, fish reproduce and if a stock of fish
shift development inland; for example, the capital city of Brazil
is harvested at a rate less than its rate of renewal, the stock
is Brasilia, which is located well inland. London in the United
can be exploited indefinitely. Non-renewable resources are
Kingdom is effectively on the coast, as are many other leading
those that cannot be renewed on a human time scale. By
cities, including Bangkok, Rotterdam, Shanghai, Copenhagen,
way of example, soils can be regenerated over hundreds or
Manila, Sydney, Auckland, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Athens
thousands of years, but this period exceeds the timeframe of
and Lagos. The natural qualities of the coast were important
a human life. Exploiting minerals through mining is in effect
for the initial development of these cities historically and
exploitation of a non-renewable resource – the resource is
remain a key ingredient of their continued economic
effectively depleted once it is taken out of the ground.
performance and influence.
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa, December 2000 by Bruce
Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coasts of the World • Coastal Systems • Sustainable Coastal Communities • Sustainable Coastal Development • Integrated
Coastal Management Part 1 and 2 • Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Coastal Economy – Driving Forces 2D
Part 2
O
ur coastal economy can be viewed in terms
of three broad categories, which have
Coastal tourism
Tourism is an important driving force in the economic develop-
different driving forces, although there are clearly
ment of many of South Africa’s smaller coastal towns. In some
linkages between them:
instances, tourism is the single most important factor supporting
• Cities and urban economies, which are
small town economies. Examples include the smaller towns
primarily the four key cities and five larger
towns situated along the coast;
• Peri-urban economies, made up of the
along the lower south coast of KwaZulu-Natal, particularly
south of Port Shepstone, where annual holidaymaking is
essential to maintaining economic activity. For smaller towns,
tourism represents a very real opportunity for economic
approximately 20 smaller coastal towns and
development. Certain regions are already well established as
satellite urbanised or developed areas; and
preferred tourist destinations, particularly amongst national
• Rural economies, covering approximately
eleven stretches of under-developed coastline
regions.
tourists, others have considerable unrealised potential.
Attractive coastal lifestyle
The attractive lifestyle offered by small coastal towns is a
second driving force in their establishment and development.
This factsheet will look at peri-urban and rural economies ,
In certain regions, such towns are becoming increasingly
while part 1 focuses on urban economies and cities.
attractive places for city-based employees and entrepreneurs
to live. The improved national road network and the benefits
PERI-URBAN AREAS AND COASTAL TOWNS
of the Internet are making it possible to reside some 30 km to
80 km from the major urban centres. Some smaller towns that
The peri-urban regions of the coastline consist of the smaller
coastal towns and the developed areas immediately outlying
the major cities and larger towns. The main driving forces of
the coastal economy in these areas are tourism and lifestyle
opportunities. These areas play an important role in promoting
national tourism along the coastline, creating jobs and promoting economic opportunity for local rural communities,
bringing new infrastructure including road and rail access to
coastal regions, and providing administrative centres for
are being targeted as lifestyle options by the business and
commercial sector include Mtunzini (residents travel to Richards
Bay for work). Ballito and Scottburgh (Durban Metro), Jeffrey’s
Bay (Port Elizabeth), Hermanus and Strand (Cape Town) and
Yzerfontein (Cape Town and Saldanha). The attraction of
small towns lies in the relative peace and tranquility of country
life, reasonable property prices, easy access to the beach
and surrounding countryside, reduced levels of crime and a
more aesthetically pleasing way of life.
managing and protecting the natural resources of the area.
Connectors and natural resource-based
economic activities
RURAL COASTAL AREAS
The rural coastal economy can be broadly divided into those
areas that fell under the “homeland” system prior to 1994
These towns’ economies are usually linked to a major urban
node, for example, the link of Somerset West to Cape Town,
Jeffreys Bay to Port Elizabeth or Margate to Durban, or to a
major economic activity in the provincial economy, such as
agriculture, mining or tourism. Other towns are connected to
the main national highway by relatively short secondary roads.
Examples are Mtunzini, Hermanus, Port Alfred, Bredasdorp,
and those that did not. The latter are characterised by small
rural settlements, commercial agriculture and other natural
resource-based activities, such as mining and forestry. The
driving forces of these areas are consequently associated
with these primary economic activities including local and
international market conditions, and the factors, such as
weather, affecting production.
Darling and Vredendal. These towns also fulfil the role of
“catchment economies” in wider under-developed rural
The former “homeland” areas are characterised by extensive
regions. Other small towns have developed some distance
poverty and underdevelopment and have limited private sector
from the national highway and these require a journey to visit.
development. The diving forces behind economic develop-
Examples are St Lucia, Port St Johns, Langebaan, Lamberts
ment in these areas are intertwined with our social and politi-
Bay and Port Nolloth. These towns have relatively insular
cal history. The following are some more specific contributing
economies and are often dependent upon specific natural
factors. Poor road access has played a role in maintaining
resources or economic activities.
these regions in a depressed economic condition, especially
in areas of Namaqualand, Maputaland and the Wild Coast.
levels of tourism. By comparison, parts of the coast located
The concentration of ownership in the sugar, timber, fishing and
away from the national roads, ports or connectors struggle
mining industries limits access to these activities. Patterns of
economically, even where the natural resources are in
land ownership through the tribal tenure system and large
abundance.
private farms can also pose a challenge for unlocking development opportunities. Restrictions placed on economic
Alternate livelihoods
development in some areas as a result of the proclamation of
In seeking to unlock the development potential of our coast,
nature reserves also present a challenge. Other factors that are
particular attention needs to be given to addressing the skewed
pertinent include biophysical factors – such as poor farming
distribution of coastal resources and the challenges of poverty
potential in some areas, adverse weather conditions and
and unemployment along the coast. Although opportunities
limited water resources (particularly along the West Coast).
for economic development are most likely to continue to be
The historical focus of government on towns and cities, with
found in the major coastal cities and medium-sized towns, there
provision of basic services such as health, education, electricity
is a compelling need to promote development opportunities
and water neglected in many rural coastal areas, is also a
in other parts of the coast. Economic development and social
challenge for unlocking the economic development potential of
upliftment are urgently needed in small coastal towns and in the
these areas. An important driving force in these rural coastal
rural areas that were marginalised by apartheid and are still
economies is the wages sent home by migrant workers to
characterised by poverty, unemployment and lack of infra-
family members living in rural areas, as well as income
structure. Alternative livelihood strategies are needed in these
derived from pension and welfare payments.
areas in order to lift people out of a “poverty trap”. It is here that
In summary, the following factors can be seen to be driving
the informal sector, micro-entrepreneurship and/or community
forces in the coastal economy as a whole: ports, tourism,
development projects can play a significant role. For example,
lifestyle demands, perceptions of economic opportunity, infra-
in the Maputaland region, small agricultural allotments of
structure (rail, roads, airports/airstrips), connectors (power,
sugar cane, wood lots, cashew nuts, etc. provide a critical
water and communications), food production (fishing and
supplementary source for many households. Possibilities for
harvesting, mariculture, agriculture), government, community
alternative livelihoods and supplementary incomes depend on
services, mining, timber and natural conditions (climate and
both the nature of the local resource base, and patterns of
water supply). Access to or contact with these driving forces
resource ownership and control. Particular attention will thus
has influenced the extent to which there has been economic
need to be given to initiating activities that promote alternative
development along the coast. For example, there is more
sustainable livelihood opportunities for those living in poor
economic activity in places close to national roads, ports, rail,
rural coastal communities.
airports and connectors or in areas that have relatively high
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa, December 2000 by Bruce
Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coasts of the World • Coastal Systems • Sustainable Coastal Communities • Sustainable Coastal Development • Integrated
Coastal Management Part 1 and 2 • Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 1 and 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Integrated Coastal Management 2D
Part 2
T
he question often arises: Why do we need a
dedicated and integrated coastal management
effort? Critics go further, on occasion, and suggest
that the many existing efforts to improve planning
and environmental management are more than
• The coast is a place of value:
Our coast provides a wide variety of benefits, including a range
of direct benefits, such as fish and minerals, as well as many
indirect benefits from coastal ecosystems, such as erosion
control and waste treatment as well as important aesthetic,
cultural, educational, scientific and spiritual benefits. The direct
adequate to manage the coast. If anything, they
benefits from coastal ecosystems annually contribute about
argue, adding a specific and dedicated function of
35% of our national Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Moreover,
coastal management would extend the already
indications are that economic activities are growing faster in our
thinly stretched resources of management agencies.
coastal cities and urban centres than in inland areas, including
Why then do we need this dedicated effort called
integrated coastal management?
the Pretoria-Witwaters-rand-Vereeniging region that has traditionally been the fastest growing region in the country. Yet the
value of the South African coast to the regional and national
economies has not been explicitly recognised by decisionmakers. Even less well-known is the fact that realising these
Four main reasons can be identified:
• The coast is a distinctive system:
benefits is dependent on maintaining diverse, healthy and
productive coastal ecosystems. A dedicated and integrated
The coast presents different management challenges from those
coastal management effort is therefore needed to realise and
faced in either the terrestrial or ocean setting alone. One cannot
sustain the many benefits provided by coastal ecosystems.
simply transfer management approaches from the land or ocean
settings and assume they will work in the coastal setting. The
coast includes coastlands, the seashore and coastal waters.
Coastal management efforts must be specifically geared towards
ensuring that the interactions between these inter-connected
coastal components are addressed holistically. The coast is
thus a distinctive and complex system that requires a dedicated
and integrated coastal management effort.
• The coast is a place of development opportunity:
Not only does the coast provide a wide array of benefits, it
offers future development potential that can help to kick-start
local and regional economies marginalised by apartheid. It is a
multiple-use system with many coastal stakeholders interacting
and often competing for the resources it provides. A dedicated
and integrated coastal management approach is needed to
ensure that the full potential of these opportunities is realised.
• The coast is a national asset:
Our coast is an essential element of our national heritage. It
Integration versus a sectoral management
needs to be managed on behalf of the people of South Africa
approach
to ensure that the public interest is served. Ownership of the
seashore, the area between the low and high water marks, is
vested in the President who is the custodian of this public asset
on behalf of the people of South Africa. But the boundaries of
the coast extend beyond the seashore, to include coastlands
and coastal waters. Decisions made with respect to one
coastal component invariably have a bearing on the others and
therefore need to be made in an integrated fashion, mindful of
the possible interactions. Furthermore, management decisions
The Victoria & Alfred Waterfront development in Cape Town,
or V&A as it is popularly known, is an active port, offering
opportunities for recreational boating, as well as a range of
commercial, shopping and recreational experiences for local
and international visitors – all of which are enhanced by the
waterfront location. The V&A receives more visitors each year
than any other tourist destination in South Africa. The full
potential of this location is being realised by adopting an
integrated planning and management approach.
made in the context of local needs and interests can have a
bearing upon regional and even national needs and interests
Many of our estuaries also support a range of recreational
and vice versa. Sometimes these needs and interests can
activities, function as nursery areas for fish, crabs and swimming
conflict with each other. Coastal management decisions should
prawns, as well as provide fresh water and are a preferred
be made within the context of a broad national interest, whilst
location for coastal property development. Estuaries are
promoting opportunities for local sustainable coastal develop-
managed primarily on a sectoral basis (for example, the fishing,
ment. All South Africans share the right of access to the
transport or property development sectors) with little
seashore and are entitled to enjoy the many benefits our
consideration given to the inter-relationship between different
coast provides. A dedicated and integrated coastal manage-
sectoral activities or to the consequences of decisions made in
ment effort is therefore needed to ensure that we realise and
catchment areas that can result in negative impacts down-
sustain these benefits for current and future generations.
stream in the estuary. Consequently the full potential of estuaries
is seldom realised in South Africa and many are in a
In contracts to past coastal management efforts, the White
degraded state.
Paper advocates the following shifts in emphasis:
Adopting a sectoral management approach, rather than an
• It stresses the importance of recognising the value of the
integrated management approach, inevitably results in disputes
between different users. These disputes arise from competition
coast as a cornerstone for development.
• It sets out a people-centred approach and highlights the
between different coastal users for the limited resources of the
powerful contribution that can be made to reconstruction
coast. Furthermore, disputes can arise between spheres of
and development in South Africa through facilitating
government that have different mandate, legislative or policy
responsibilities, as well as different institutional cultures and
“political clout.” It can also arise simply because the information
available to the different bodies is contradictory or inconsistent.
Overlapping or incomplete jurisdiction results in confusion,
inefficiency and a lack of accountability.
sustainable coastal development.
• It promotes a holistic way of thinking by promoting coordinated and integrated coastal management, which views
the coast as a system.
• It introduces a new facilitatory style of management
which involves co-operation and shared responsibility
amongst a range of actors from government, the private
Adopting a sectoral management approach thus fails to realise
the potential development opportunities the coast can provide
sector and civil society, responds to the great diversity of
our coast and learns from experience.
if managed as a system. Only by adopting a holistic, integrated
coastal management approach can the impact of individual
The White Paper is the culmination of an extensive process
user-groups be seen in context and the integrity of the coastal
of public participation, research an analysis carried out
system be retained.
through the Coastal Management Policy Programme (CMPP)
from May 1997 to April 1999. Over 5 000 individuals and
An integrated approach does not, however, mean that all
sectoral management activities should be replaced. On the
contrary, the primary function of integrated coastal management
is to promote a shared understanding of the inter-relationships
between different sectoral activities and spheres of government
to ensure that decisions are made taking into account their
organisations were directly involved in the policy formulation
process, including officials from all spheres of government,
representatives from business, labour, community-based
organisations, environmental non-governmental organisations,
the sport and recreational sector as well as members of the
general public in coastal and inland areas of the country.
possible impact on the coast as a system. By managing the
coast as a system we can retain it as a national asset, optimise
Issues raised by coastal stakeholders provided the point
its manifold benefits and ensure that current decisions do not
of departure for developing the policy. A shared vision for our
foreclose future options for development.
coast was defined and agreed to by participants during the
policy formulation process. The White Paper charts a course
The White Paper for Sustainable Coastal Development
in South Africa, launched by Minister Valli Moosa on June 6,
2000, signals a major shift in thinking about coastal management. It is driven by the challenges inherent in transforming
our society and economy. It outlines a coastal management
approach that contributes to achieving the Constitution’s
commitment to improving the quality of life of all South
Africans, including current and future generations. It is based
on the realisation that sustaining the economic and social
that seeks to enable coastal stakeholders to move from their
issues of concern to realising the national vision for our coast.
It outlines principles, goals and objectives for coastal
management. It then presents a Plan of Action for
implementing the policy that includes the following key
elements: institutional development and capacity building;
an awareness, education and training programme; an
information management system and projects addressing
priority issues and local demonstration projects.
benefits generated by the coast requires maintaining the
diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems.
In essence, the policy aims to achieve sustainable
coastal development through a dedicated and integrated
coastal management approach.
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa, December 2000 by Bruce
Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coastal Resource Use through the Ages Part 2 • Sustainable Coastal Communities • Understanding Coastal Poverty • Coasts
of the World • Coastal Systems • Integrated Coastal Management Part 1 • Sustainable Coastal Development • Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 1 and 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Integrated Coastal Management 2D
Part 1
T
he first major national focus on “coastal
management” emerged with the approval and
implementation of the United States Coastal Zone
Management Act in 1972. The Act recognised that
a sectoral management approach, focusing on
individual resources such as fisheries or activities
such as transport, was not working. The Act
diversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems. … Central
to success in achieving this goal is the need for ICM to
provide an equitable, transparent and dynamic governance
process that is acceptable to the community.”
The main aim of integrated coastal management is to promote
sustainable coastal development. The primary thrust of
integrated coastal management efforts is to overcome the
inherent fragmentation that stems from sectoral management
introduced a new coastal management approach,
efforts and the jurisdiction division of responsibilities between
providing financial and political incentives for
spheres of government. Central to achieving this integration are
coastal states to develop integrated plans to address
effective institutional mechanisms to ensure that planning and
selected issues of national, state (the equivalent of
decision-making by different economic sectors and spheres
provinces in the South African context) and local
significance. Since then, the concept of coastal
management has been refined and it has been
applied to many different situations in countries
around the world. There are now hundreds of
integrated coastal management initiatives under way in coastal nations around the world.
of government are harmonised. Consequently, integrated
coastal management is a multi-faceted activity. Its wide array
of activities includes:
• Unlocking opportunities for sustainable coastal development
• Understanding the inter-relationships between the natural
and human components of the coastal system
• Resolving conflicting coastal uses
• Promoting co-ordination and integration of different
With the growth in coastal management efforts, have come
activities and decision-making processes
numerous attempts to define what integrated coastal manage-
Integrated coastal management is more than simply a
ment is. A commonly cited United Nations report, GESAMP,
decision-making process – it is in essence an ongoing process
defines Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) as:
of coastal governance. It should be founded on meaningful
“…a continuous and dynamic process that unites
(i.e., active and ongoing) participation by all coastal stake-
Government and the community, science and management,
holders in a collaborative endeavour to achieve sustainable
sectoral and public interests in preparing and implementing
coastal development. This requires an inter-active, multi-
an integrated plan for the protection and development of
sectoral and inter-disciplinary process of planning, decision-
coastal ecosystems and resources. The overall goal of ICM is
making, implementation, monitoring, review and action
to improve the quality of life of human communities who
informed by experience. Integrated coastal management
depend on coastal resources while maintaining the biological
provides an institutional and legal framework for considering
Working for the coast
the implications of all decisions that affect the coast as a
flooding during the rainy season, threatening the lives and
system – including the development, use and protection of
livelihoods of adjacent landowners.
coastal resources. As such it provides the basis for building
coastal partnerships between all sectors and spheres of govern-
The unintended consequences of ad hoc,
ment, the private sector, coastal communities and the
sectoral decision-making
broader public, as well as the research community. It is a
process through which concerns at local, regional and national
levels can be discussed and future directions negotiated.
The thrust of integrated coastal management efforts is thus
to engage coastal stakeholders in a process of working
collaboratively to promote human development with
ecological integrity. This is a complex undertaking, involving
many dimensions of integration.
Resolving coastal conflict through
integrated coastal management
Individual decisions made at the coast can have unintended
consequences that can result in very direct and costly
implications for other coastal users and the public at large.
Consider, for example, the long-standing right a coastal
property developer may have to locate her house close to the
beach in order to get good sea-views. But this location could be
vulnerable to wave action during coastal storms. To prevent
damage to her property, she may decide to build a protective
“barrier” wall in front of her property. Notwithstanding considerable expense and effort, such a structure may not be able to
prevent damage from extreme storm events. Furthermore, such
a structure could affect near-shore currents and change the
The coast supports a variety of activities carried out by many
different users. Often these activities clash with each other,
pattern of sediment movement along this stretch of beach,
resulting in accelerated erosion of the neighbouring property.
reducing overall user benefits. Adopting an integrated coastal
management approach can help to resolve coastal conflicts.
Decisions made in the public interest can also have unintended
Direct and indirect user conflicts
for example, a local authority decision to locate a car park
consequences that actually reduce public benefits. Consider,
Different user groups can conflict with each other directly. For
example, surfers, bathers and shore anglers may compete for
space on the beach and in the surf zone. Or recreational
anglers may compete with subsistence harvesters of intertidal
resources. Such competition occurs between different user
groups. It also can occur amongst individuals in a single user
group. For example, too many surfers in one area can result
in competition for the next ride! Or too many subsistence
users can over-exploit mussel stocks and effectively decimate
and ablution facility right next to a beach to serve the needs
of visitors. If such structures are located too close to the high
water mark they are prone to normal coastal processes,
including storm events, which can wash such structures away.
Or these structures could alter the normal pattern of sediment
movement and give rise to accelerated erosion downstream
or else have some other unforeseen impact. The end result
can be a significant cost to the local taxpayers.
Why integrated coastal management?
the otherwise freely available resource!
An integrated coastal management approach focuses attention
Coastal users can also conflict with one another indirectly
through their impact on the ability of social ecosystems to
continue providing goods and services. For example, to
minimise building costs, engineers might design a road
bridge in such a way that it crosses an estuary and reduce its
ability to function effectively as a nursery for marine fish and
other species. A further consequence of this action could be
on the coastal system as a whole, and compels decisionmakers to recognise that individual actions have system-wide
consequences. The ad hoc, sectoral management approach
that is common along our coast ignores these wider
consequences and fails to realise the full spectrum of benefits
provided by the coastal system, hence the need for an
integrated coastal management approach.
a negative impact on marine fish stocks, adversely affecting
the fishing industry. The bridge design could also result in
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa, December 2000 by Bruce
Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coasts of the World • Coastal Systems • Integrated Coastal Management Part 2 • Sustainable Coastal Development
• Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 1 and 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Sustainable Coastal Communities 2D
T
here is no readily available “recipe” for
what makes a community a sustainable
community. Circumstances, opportunities and
constraints vary from place to place. However,
The term “community” is a politically loaded term in the South
African context. It is frequently used to refer specifically to
historically disadvantaged groups of people. Apartheid had a
contradictory impact on the very qualities and characteristics
that define a “community” in South Africa. On the one hand,
what communities have in common is the need to
apartheid had a catalysing effect in mobilising people to work
meet basic needs and to live fulfilling and dignified
together to bring apartheid to an end – it bound people
lives. Individuals and communities in their
together against a common enemy; it fostered a sense of
entirety need to have sustainable livelihood options
community. On the other hand, apartheid had a profoundly
if they are to achieve sustainable development.
destructive effect on the individuals, families and groups of
people who make up communities – it divided people against
each other and spatially segregated people along racial lines;
What is meant by a sustainable livelihood?
Simply put, a livelihood is a means of living or sustenance – it
draws upon the capabilities, assets (both material and social
resources) and activities required for living. Living can be
reduced to mean mere existence. But it can also mean more
than simply being alive – it can and should include the realisation of one’s potential and living in dignity. A sustainable
livelihood in this sense is one in which individuals and their
community are able to cope with the changing circumstances
of life, including recovering from unanticipated stresses and
shocks. Moreover, it implies that people are able to rise
it literally tore down communities.
In post-apartheid South Africa, the term “community” can be
used more broadly to convey the rich texture and diversity of
interactions between and among people no longer divided by
apartheid. It can be used to describe people who share a
sense of belonging, co-operate in diverse ways through
various forms of social organisation, and share a specific
geographic or temporal context or a common bond that
distinguishes them as a community. Broadly speaking one
can identify a number of characteristics of a community:
• Individual well-being and liberty are dependent on being
above their circumstances – they are able to maintain and
part of a community. As social beings, our individual
even enhance their capabilities and assets into the future.
interests and rights are sustained through community
What then is meant by the term “community”?
membership.
The Kommetjie “Working for
the Coastal Group”
• There are many different kinds of communities, including
neighbourhoods, social, religious, ethnic, workplace and
Sustainable coastal development cannot be realised by
individuals acting independently. Neither can a third party,
professional associations, extending across time and
such as a government agency, conjure up sustainable coastal
space. Often membership in these communities is
development on behalf of coastal stakeholders. Individuals
interdependent and overlapping.
and groups of people across all sectors of society, including
• The vitality of a community is determined to a large extent
by the attention, energy and resources members commit
to shared projects. Conversely, blind pursuit of private
interests erodes community vitality.
• Communities are an important element of civil society.
coastal users, the coastal public, coastal institutions and the
coastal research community, will need to work together
collaboratively to achieve sustainable coastal development.
Coastal stakeholders have a shared interest in and concern
for the coast – they constitute a “community of common
concern”. They need to learn to co-operate for their mutual
They provide a setting in which people can learn self-
benefit. The pursuit of sustainable coastal development is
respect as well as respect for others. They enable people to
therefore dependent on building sustainable coastal commu-
become aware of their personal and social responsibilities.
nities through dialogue and collaboration. Only in this way will
They provide an environment in which people can serve
ecological integrity be maintained as a base for public co-
others and be served. They provide a setting in which
operation, cultural vitality and economic prosperity, with
people can develop an understanding of their own rights
responsive and effective governance institutions being central
and the rights of others. They are also places where people
to ensuring that this ideal is realised.
can learn the skills of democratic self-government through
active engagement. Communities therefore contribute to
Sustainable coastal development is a complex and
the well-being of their members individually and collectively,
multi-faceted concept, involving inter-connected
as well as to the broader interests of society.
ecological, social, cultural, economic and governance
• Individuals have responsibilities and obligations to the
communities to which they belong and vice versa.
Communities’ obligations to their members include the
need to be responsive to members’ needs and to engage
members in the life of the community.
dimensions. It involves making choices that enable
current and future generations to meet their needs
whilst maintaining the integrity of coastal ecosystems.
Achieving this ideal requires a fundamental shift in the
way decisions are made with respect to the natural and
human components of the coastal system. Building
A coastal community is a group of people who share an
sustainable coastal communities is central to
interest in or dependence on the resources of the coast.
achieving this ideal.
They can be geographically confined or dispersed. Consider
one the one hand, a small, rural community on the West Coast
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
who share a lifestyle based on artisanal fishing. On the other
hand, consider the many people living in suburbs and localities
around the Cape Peninsula. These people are geographically
dispersed and have varying degrees of dependence on coastal
resources. But they nevertheless share a passion about conserving the coastal resources of the peninsula. There are also
coastal communities that are not geographically defined, for
example, think of coastal researchers who study how coastal
ecosystems function – they form part of the coastal research
community.
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa, December 2000 by Bruce
Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coastal Resource Use through the Ages Part 1 and 2 • Understanding Coastal Poverty • Coasts of the World
• Coastal Systems • Integrated Coastal Management Part 1 and 2 • Sustainable Coastal Development
• Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 1 and 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Sustainable Coastal Development 2D
T
he concept of sustainable development was
popularised by the World Commission on
Environment and Development (WCED), chaired
by former Norwegian Prime Minister, Gro Harlem
Brundtland, in the mid 1980s. The WCED stated
that the goal of sustainable development is “to meet
the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.” According to the
WCED, present and future needs should be recon -
poor through a perpetuation of inequitable patterns of natural
resource ownership and use. Given these widely differing
interpretations, some suggest that the term has outlived its
usefulness. Experience in South Africa suggests that this is
not the case. Rather, what is needed is clarity about what the
concept means in this context.
What then does this concept mean, given our focus on
sustainable coastal development in South Africa? It is helpful
to break the phrase down into its component parts:
The coast is the focus of our attention. In effect, “coast” is a
qualifier – it is the context within which we are seeking to
ciled through an ongoing process of appropriate
promote sustainable development. The term coast is used to
decision-making about the use of natural resources,
describe the place where land, air and sea meet: it is made
the direction of investment, orientation of technology
of the land that is affected by being near to the sea and the
and institutional change. Current needs must be
sea that is affected by being near to the land. Ultimately,
met, within the constraints imposed by the ability
however, promoting sustainable development is a global
quest, with the coastal system forming just one part of the
of natural systems to meet both present and future
global environment that is affected by the actions taken at
needs. Sustainable development requires that human
local, regional, national and international levels. What then do
needs are met by increasing productive potential as
we mean by sustainable development?
well as by ensuring equitable opportunities for all
Sustainable simply means enduring or long-lasting. It should
people. The concept of sustainable development
not be taken to mean “stationary” or “status quo” – it is not
outlined by the WCED explicitly acknowledged the
merely about maintaining a particular set of conditions in
importance of addressing human needs (especially
perpetuity. Rather, in this context, the term “sustainable”
in developing countries) and the reality of limits.
draws attention to the timeframe of decision-making. It
explicitly implies a longer timeframe than our immediate
The challenge posed by the WCED involves the
interests might otherwise dictate – it conveys the importance
promotion of developing opportunities that improve
of thinking ahead to the legacy we leave for future generations.
the quality of human life whilst ensuring that
Linked with the word “development”, “sustainable” implies
natural resources are used wisely in order to
prudent use, long-term thinking and stewardship.
maintain essential ecological processes and life-
Development can be narrowly defined as a process of
support systems and conserve biodiversity. In
advancement, growth or maturation. In this narrowest of
essence, the WCED promoted the pursuit of human
senses, the term “development” seems to conflict with the
development in harmony with nature.
notion of sustainability narrowly defined as long-lasting,
rendering the phrase sustainable development a contradiction
at best. But understood more broadly, the term “development”
The WCED was very successful in placing the concept of
encompasses that which is central to meeting basic needs and
sustainable development onto centre-stage in the international
improving the quality of life – it is fundamentally concerned
environmental and development arenas. But it is a concept
with realising human potential. “Development” in this broader
that has subsequently been hotly debated. It is a term that
sense involves an economic dimension, including reducing
some say is merely a useful slogan, but provides no practical
poverty and promoting investment, employment and wealth
direction. Moreover, it has been understood to mean very
creation, and a social dimension, including education,
different things to various people. For some it is merely an
community relations and empowerment. “Development” in
excuse to continue with “business as usual” – with the obvious
this sense is concerned with the fundamental human right of
negative environmental and development consequences. For
life, and the entitlement to achieve one’s potential and live in
others, the term suggests a disguised form of “eco-colonialism”.
dignity. The term “development” should therefore not be taken
Its proponents are sometimes accused of being more
to simply mean “growth” – both the qualitative and the
concerned about the well-being of plants and animals than the
quantitative economic and social dimensions are fundamental to
welfare of people – their supposed agenda is to oppress the
the broader notion of development. Rampant or uncontrolled
growth is often self-defeating. Development therefore has to
other goals, it is important to consider the coastal resource-
do with meeting basic human needs and fostering human
base in each area. The biophysical, socio-economic and
well-being; it should not be confused with simple greed and
institutional features of an area provide a comparative
uncontrolled desires or wants. It is essentially the process of
advantage with respect to particular economic activities. In
realising human potential.
other words, depending on available coastal resources, an
In the same way that the harmonies achieved in a choir cannot be produced by individual singers in isolation, the phrase
“sustainable development” means more than either of these
words on their own – i.e., the whole is greater than the sum of
the parts. Returning to the coastal setting, coastal ecosystems
provide the foundation for coastal development. To be
sustainable, the nature and scale of coastal development
initiatives must not exceed the capacity of coastal systems to
support human activities.
area is better suited to some activities than other activities,
and better suited to them than other areas are. Compare, for
example, the commercial fishing potential of some towns
along the east and west coasts. Obviously, the west coast
has a comparative advantage in commercial fishing because
the region supports abundant fish stocks. The Garden Route
has a comparative advantage in tourism and recreational
activities as a result of the scenic beauty and natural attractions
of the area. In many local coastal areas, the formulation of
local economic development strategies and Integrated
Development Plans (IDPs) aims to emphasise these specific
Sustainable coastal development can thus be
advantages. The South African coast has a comparative
defined as the process through which current and
advantage internationally in terms of the tourism and lifestyle
future generations realise their human potential,
opportunities provided by the natural coastal environment as
whilst maintaining diverse, healthy and productive
well as the trade and related development opportunities
coastal ecosystems, and minimising harm to other
offered by ports.
life-forms. Sustainable coastal development is thus
not only about coastal ecology or economics; it
includes the social, cultural and governance
dimensions as well.
Competitive advantage refers to the relative success some
areas have in successfully pursuing particular economic
activities. This success depends upon a range of factors in
addition to the comparative advantage provided by available
coastal resources. Some of these factors include existing
Many considerations need to be addressed in advancing
towards sustainable coastal development. Examples include
the need to create institutional mechanisms for coastal stakeholders to work together towards a shared vision for our coast
and the need to give priority to coast-dependent activities.
Other examples include the need to promote multiple-use
activities, to retain the public character and national asset
value of our coast, and to overcome the barriers of poverty
and under-development that characterise areas and groups
of people along our coast. In order to identify and realise economic development opportunities, particular attention needs
to be given to the comparative and competitive advantages
of a coastal area.
markets, availability of skilled labour, technology and infrastructure. By way of example, although towns along the
northern areas of te west coast may have a comparative
advantage in commercial fishing, the city of Cape Town may
have a competitive advantage in some aspects of the fishing
industry as a result of the size of the local market and various
other factors. Consequently, establishing a fish processing
factory in Cape Town rather tan doing so in a town further
north along the west coast might make financial sense to an
investor, despite the compelling need to promote income
generation and job creation further north. Both comparative
and competitive advantage, therefore need to be taken into
account in considering potential economic development
opportunities in a region.
In seeking specific opportunities for development along the
coast that can at the same time fulfil social, ecological and
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa, December 2000 by Bruce
Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coasts of the World • Coastal Systems • Sustainable Coastal Communities • Sustainable Development
• Integrated Coastal Management Part 1 and 2 • Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 1 and 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: M A N A G E M E N T, P O L I C Y A N D L E G I S L AT I O N
Understanding Coastal Poverty 2D
P
overty is often defined in economic terms –
as low levels of income or the inability to
meet one’s basic economic needs, which typically
include food, clothing and shelter. Currently an
estimated 1.3 billion of the world’s roughly 6 billion
Major disparities exist between levels of income, standard of
living, access to social services and access to infrastructure
in different parts of our coast. The least developed in terms
of infrastructure and economic activity are the former “homelands” to live under crowded conditions, forcing them to
subsist without access to economic opportunities or basic
people live in poverty – defined by the World Bank
infrastructure and community services. Family incomes in
as an income of about US$1 per person per day. The
these areas have remained pitifully low, with a large propor-
consequences of poverty are tragic and readily seen
tion to income coming from state pensions, child welfare
in phenomena such as premature deaths and pre -
and disability grants, and remittances from family members
ventable health problems, as well as inadequate
working in other parts of the country. Development has also
often been limited by high male absenteeism, with many
education. Poverty is often associated with high
migrant workers away for long periods of time working in
birth rates and as the poor struggle to survive,
the mines and cities.
pressure is exerted on natural resources. Clearly
poverty is much more than simply an economic
Living at the coast can present particular constraints and
opportunities for poor communities. Under apartheid, black
matter. It is therefore important to understand
communities were denied the right to purchase coastal land
what poverty is and where it is found along the
for residential or business purposes. This history of exclusion
coast if the ideal of sustainable coastal development
has important implications today for land policy, fishing quota
is to be achieved.
allocations and the allocation of rights to various coastal and
marine resources. Apartheid-induced isolation from the coast
may in some cases have resulted in people becoming
disconnected from their social and cultural roots. The direct
Broadly speaking, one might think of poverty as the opposite
contribution of natural resource-based sectors (fishing and
of sustainable development. Development is concerned with the
agriculture) to incomes is relatively higher in poorer coastal areas,
fundamental right to life as well as the entitlement to achieve
particularly in rural areas, where there are limited alternative
one’s potential and to live in dignity. Sustainable development
economic opportunities. Subsistence use of coastal resources
is a multi-dimensional concept, involving ecological integrity,
is consequently an important part of livelihood strategies in
public co-operation, cultural vitality, economic prosperity and
places such as the Wild Coast and Maputaland.
effective governance institutions. Poverty invariably results in
the systemic erosion of each of these dimensions.
Poverty is also experienced in relation to coastal recreational
Consequently, alleviating and even eliminating poverty is
opportunities. Because of a lack of transport and disposable
a critical challenge that must be effectively addressed
income, poor people in coastal areas often do not have
in the pursuit of sustainable coastal development.
access to opportunities for coastal recreation, and basic
recreational infrastructure, such as ablution facilities, is often
What is poverty?
lacking. Seasonal employment is a particular problem in some
coastal regions. This occurs in tourism or related sectors
Although we often think of poverty in relation to money,
poverty involves more than a lack of jobs or income. It is also
characterised by a lack of assets with which to generate
income, and a lack of basic infrastructure and services, like
housing, sewerage, roads and schools. Poverty can be made
worse by discrimination on the basis of race or sex, by geographical isolation or by degradation of natural resources. In
addition to outright poverty, many of our population are
vulnerable to becoming poor as a result of misfortune, such
as retrenchment or natural disasters. People are especially
vulnerable when they do not have alternative livelihood
strategies or access to resources, and are excluded from
decision-making and development projects.
along the southern Cape and West coasts, which experience
an annual peak of economic activity in the summer season
and little activity for the rest of the year. Fishing employment
on the West Coast is also very seasonal, as it depends on
quotas and stock levels at particular times of the year. Often
these coastal regions have little alternative economic activity
to sustain the workforce needed at peak season, throughout
the rest of the year, contributing to high levels of poverty and
under-employment.
Women and poverty
Particular attention therefore needs to be given to the
important role of women in future efforts to address coastal
Women make up about 70% of the people living in poverty in
poverty.
the world today. In addition to the fact that women in South
Africa are more likely to be poor than men, women suffer
The marked disparities in our coastal society and cultures
more from inadequate physical and social infrastructure and
are clearly reflected in patterns of development and
services, because they are often responsible for looking after
underdevelopment.
households and for the care of children, the sick and the elderly.
The main areas in which the burden of poverty is felt by women
In many ways, coastal poverty reflects general patterns of
poverty in our country. The poorest 40% of South African
include housing, land, water, energy, transportation, health
households have a monthly expenditure level below the
and childcare.
"poverty line" in line with standards set by the World Bank.
Nationally, the number of women entering paid employment
Poverty is most severe in rural areas, for African people
is growing, with the largest change occurring among African
and women. More rural people are poor than urban people
women, reflecting increased immigration of African women into
– 68% of rural people vs. 39% of urban people. As many as
urban areas, as well as increased employment opportunities
for them in these areas. However, women’s participation in
paid employment has not risen uniformly across sectors of
types of employment, and marked wage differences still exist
between men and women in South Africa. These differences
persist because:
• Women are crowded into low wage sectors such as
domestic service, community and personal services,
clothing, textiles and shoe manufacture.
95% of poor households are African, though Africans comprise
72% of the total population. More women are poor than men
– 60% of female-headed households are poor compared with
31% of male-headed households, reflecting differences in
access to resources and income-generating opportunities.
The distribution of income between South Africans is also
known to be among the most unequal in the world. The
poorest 40% of households receive only 11% of total income,
while the richest 10% of households receive over 40% of total
income. The extent and distribution of poverty in South Africa
• Women are under-represented in unioinised employment,
because of the traditional practice of women staying in the
is also reflected in the provincial poverty rates, which are
highest for the Eastern Cape, at 71%, and are considerably
former “homelands” to look after homes and children,
lower for the Western Cape, at 28%. Of the coastal provinces,
employer bias against employing women for “men’s” jobs,
poverty is most severe in the Eastern Cape, with 78% of chil-
and the anticipation that women will take maternity leave.
dren living in poor households. Areas of rural KwaZulu-Natal,
• Among African workers in particular, the skills profile of
men far exceeds that of women.
• Only 30% of economically active urban African women are
employed in the formal sector. Within the informal sector,
women are involved mainly in retail and services –
vegetable selling, dressmaking, running shack shops,
hawking, etc. – while men predominate in larger and/or
more lucrative businesses.
• More women are concentrated in rural areas, where
employment opportunities are very scarce.
however, also exhibit deep levels of poverty.
Our coastal regions also display distinct differences in Gross
Geographic Product (GGP) per person. GGP is a measure of
economic activity in an area. Broadly speaking, GGP per person is highest, more than R16 000 per year, in and around
Cape Town, Durban, Port Elizabeth, East London and
Richards Bay. The lowest GGP per person, less than R200
per person per year, is found on the southern coast, and in
the rural areas of the Eastern Cape and northern KwaZuluNatal provinces.
Extract from: Our Coast, Our Future by Bruce Glavovic, December 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Our Coast, Our Future – A New Management Approach to Coastal Management in South Africa, December 2000 by Bruce
Glavovic for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Coastal Resource Use through the Ages Part 1 and 2 • Sustainable Coastal Communities • Coasts of the World
• Coastal Systems • Integrated Coastal Management Part 1 and 2 • Sustainable Coastal Development
• Coastal Economy – Driving Forces Part 1 and 2
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za