Physics
A Guide for High
School Physics
Teachers
Casey Cook
A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Table of Contents
I.
II.
Letter to the Teacher…………………………………………………p.4
Motion and Forces
a. Content Standards………………………………………………..5
b. Force Vectors ………………………………………………..........7
c. Force Diagram Worksheet ……………………………………..9
d. Velocity Road ……………………………………………………12
e. Sports Project …………………………………………………...13
III.
Conservation of Energy and Momentum
a. Content Standards ……………………………………………..14
b. Collisions Worksheet ………………………………………….15
c. Scientific Book Report …………………………………….......19
d. Labeling Kinetic and Potential Energies …………………...21
e. Roller Coaster Project …………………………………………23
IV.
Heat and Thermodynamics
a. Content Standards ……………………………………………..24
b. Cartoon Drawings ……………………………………………...25
c. Phase Change Worksheet ……………………………………..26
d. Convection Currents …………………………………………..29
V.
Waves
a. Content Standards ……………………………………………..31
b. Electromagnetic Waves: A note-taking guide……………...32
c. Telephone ………………………………………………………..34
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
d. Refraction and Reflection Worksheet ……………………...35
VI.
Electric and Magnetic Phenomena
a. Content Standards ……………………………………………..38
b. Right-Hand Rule ………………………………………………...40
c. Circuit Templates ………………………………………………42
d. Faraday Cage …………………………………………………….44
Letter to the Teacher:
3
A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Let’s face it, not all students in a high school Physics classroom are as
interested in Physics we are. While we may be lucky enough to have the majority
of the class filled with students who find the subject interesting, few will actually
decide to major in Physics in college. However, Physics is considered, in most high
schools, a college preparation course. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the
teacher to engage as many students as possible.
The purpose of this book is to provide you with ideas on how to engage
your students. Centered on the adopted California Content Standards for Physics,
this book makes practical use of the objectives laid out in the standards. In the
following pages you will find the California Content Standards listed under the
sections: Motion and Forces, Conservation of Energy and Momentum, Heat and
Thermodynamics, Waves, and Electric and Magnetic Phenomena. Each chapter
includes project ideas and suggestions for classroom activities.
Motion and Forces
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
1. Newton’s laws predict the motion of most objects. As a basis for understanding this
concept:
a. Students know how to solve problems that involve constant speed and average
speed.
b. Students know that when forces are balanced, no acceleration occurs; thus an
object continues to move at a constant speed or stays at rest (Newton’s first
law).
c. Students know how to apply the law F=ma to solve one-dimensional motion
problems that involve constant forces (Newton’s second law).
d. Students know that when one object exerts a force on a second object, the
second object always exerts a force of equal magnitude and in the opposite
direction (Newton’s third law).
e. Students know the relationship between the universal law of gravitation and the
effect of gravity on an object at the surface of Earth.
f. Students know applying a force to an object perpendicular to the direction of its
motion causes the object to change direction but not speed (e.g., Earth’s
gravitational force causes a satellite in a circular orbit to change direction but not
speed).
g. Students know circular motion requires the application of a constant force
directed toward the center of the circle.
h. *Students know Newton’s laws are not exact but provide very good
approximations unless an object is moving close to the speed of light or is small
enough that quantum effects are important.
i.
*Students know how to solve two-dimensional trajectory problems.
j.
*Students know how to resolve two-dimensional vectors into their components
and calculate the magnitude and direction of a vector from its components.
k. *Students know how to solve two-dimensional problems involving balanced
forces (statics).
l.
*Students know how to solve problems in circular motion by using the formula
for centripetal acceleration in the following form: a=v2/r.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
m. *Students know how to solve problems involving the forces between two electric
charges at a distance (Coulomb’s law) or the forces between two masses at a
distance (universal gravitation).
(*) Standards all students should have the opportunity to learn.
Activities
 Force Vectors
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
 Force Diagram Worksheet
 Velocity Road
 Sports Project
These activities are to work in conjunction with Direct Instruction, Scaffolding, and
Laboratory assignments.
--------------------------------Force Vectors-----------------------------The concepts laid out within Newton’s Laws of Motion have an abstract quality. The
following Force Vectors can be used in order to bring a visual quality to the students.
The vectors on the following page are intended for classroom wide distribution.
The first step in creating these visual Force Vectors is to photocopy enough
vectors so that each student has six; that is two large, two medium, and two small
vectors. These can be photo copied on regular printing paper or cardstock which
would allow for longer use.

Next, laminate each sheet and cut-out each vector. By laminating the vectors,
students are able to mark the vectors with their respective forces using dry erase
markers.
_

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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
-------------------Force Diagram Worksheet---------------The force diagram worksheet is designed to provide more practice and visual
demonstration of force diagrams.

Provide each student, or pair of students, with a Force Diagram Worksheet.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers

Ask students to indicate in which direction the object is accelerating.
This is a valuable scaffolding exercise where students can build on their skills of
developing force diagrams. Suggestions for the use of this worksheet are as followings:

Students work in pairs to complete worksheet following an introductory lesson
on force diagrams.

Students work individually to complete the worksheet following a scaffolding
exercise in which direct instruction is use to demonstrate force diagrams.

Following the completion of the worksheet, students are given word problems
and asked to draw force diagrams using this worksheet as a helpful tool.
Name: ______________
Force Diagrams
DIRECTIONS: Using your knowledge of forces and Newton’s Laws of Motion, indicate
which direction the object is accelerating.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Which direction is the object accelerating
in? How do you know?
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45o
Which direction is the object accelerating
in? How do you know?
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Which direction is the object accelerating
in? How do you know?
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Which direction is the object accelerating
in? How do you know?
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45o
Which direction is the object accelerating
in? How do you know?
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Which direction is the object accelerating
in? How do you know?
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Which direction is the object accelerating
in? How do you know?
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------------------------Velocity Road----------------------
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
12
The purpose of the Velocity Road is to help students visualize the difference between the
concepts of velocity and speed. The same road can be used to demonstrate displacement
and distance.

Photocopy the Velocity Road for each student or pair of students.

Using a toy car, or a car made of paper, ask the students to drive on the road at
given speeds and velocities.
o For more practice, ask students to calculate distance and displacement.
____________________________________________________________
900 Meters
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START
500 Meters
850 Meters
225 Meters
625 Meters
850 meters
200 Meters
200 Meters
1000 Meters
100 Meters
100 Meters
600 Meters
300 Meters
300 Meters
125 Meters
N
W
E
-------------------------Sports Project--------------------------275 Meters
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
The purpose of this project is to challenge students into viewing their interests in a new
way. While it can easy to walk into the classroom and see the abstract, book version of
Physics, it can be more difficult to relate the topics learned to extracurricular activities
such as sports.

Assign or allow students to choose a sport. It may be best to assign sports that are
played at your school or that the students play.

Ask the students to observe the sport and write down points of interest. Such as a
homerun in baseball or a field goal in football.

Next, ask students to analyze the points of interests in terms of Newton’s Laws of
Motion.
There are many ways in which this project can be altered. Some ideas include:

Using an action movie as the subject. (Be careful with this alteration, however. Be
sure to include specific guidelines on movie rating and topics).

This could become a research project, requiring 2 or 3 outside resources to help
students analyze their points of interest.

This could be completed as a group or individual project.

Get coaches involved: Have students ask coaches what they would like to learn
about. Have students analyze the sports in terms of the coaches’ interests.
Here are some examples of points of interests students can analyze:

Baseball/Softball: The bat hitting the ball or the type of pitch thrown (curveball,
fastball, change-up, etc.).

Football: Kicking a field goal or a pass from the quarterback to the receiver.

Basketball: Shooting a free throw or projection difference between a 3-point shot
and a 2-point shot.
Conservation of Energy and Momentum
2. The laws of conservation of energy and momentum provide a way to predict and
describe the movement of objects. As a basis for understanding this concept:
a. Students know how to calculate kinetic energy by using the formula E=(1/2)mv2.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
b. Students know how to calculate changes in gravitational potential energy near
Earth by using the formula (change in potential energy) = mgh (h is the change in
the elevation).
c. Students know how to solve problems involving conservation of energy in simple
systems, such as falling objects.
d. Students know how to calculate momentum as the product mv.
e. Students know momentum is a separately conserved quantity different from
energy.
f. Students know an unbalanced force on an object produces a change in its
momentum.
g. Students know how to solve problems involving elastic and inelastic collisions in
one dimension using the principles of conservation of momentum and energy.
h. *Students know how to solve problems involving conservation of energy in
simple systems with various sources of potential energy, such as capacitors and
springs.
(*) Standards all students should have the opportunity to learn.
Activities
 Collision Worksheet
 Scientific Book Report
 Labeling Kinetic and Potential Energies
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
 Rollercoaster Project
These activities are to work in conjunction with Direct Instruction, Scaffolding, and
Laboratory assignments.
-----------------------Collision Worksheet-------------------The concepts laid out in the study of elastic and inelastic collisions can have an
abstract quality. It is because of this students need as much practice with
visualization of the concepts.
The following worksheet is intended for individuals or pairs. By completing this
worksheet, students can use the examples as a tool for future reference.
Name:________________
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
DIRECTIONS: Study the following images. Draw conclusions about what will occur to
each object following the collision and sketch the outcome in the box provided. State
the evidence for your conclusions. Create real-world examples of each type of
collision. Note: Larger object is more massive.
Elastic Collisions:
Vo=0
Conclusions and Evidence:
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Real-World Example:
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Conclusions and Evidence:
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
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Real-World Example:
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Conclusions and Evidence:
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Real-World Example:
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Inelastic Collisions:
Vo=0
Conclusions and Evidence:
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
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Real-World Example:
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Conclusions and Evidence:
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Real-World Example:
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Conclusions and Evidence:
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Real-World Example:
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---------------------Scientific Book Report------------------All too often, students are asked to complete an assignment just for the sake of a grade.
While most teachers have good reasons for these assignments, students often miss the
point and therefore, get nothing out of it. Book reports can often seem daunting to
students and somewhat impractical. However, besides the obvious benefits of reading,
book reports can be used as learning tools. So why not bring these tools into the science
classroom.
The purpose of a Scientific Book Report is to encourage students to look at the events of
a given book in a different way. Its aim is to bring a different light and way of thinking
into the reader’s mind.
The Scientific Book Report should revolve around scientific inquiry.

The scientific inquiry portion of the book report encompasses ways in which the
book demonstrates the chapter of Physics being studied. For example, if reading
a book about the future while studying Conservation of Energy and Momentum,
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
students look for evidence of Conservation of Energy, Conservation of
Momentum, or collisions.
There are several ways in which a Scientific Book Report can be conducted. Some
suggestions are as follows:

Have the class read the same book. Divide the class into groups and have each
group be responsible for one aspect of scientific inquiry. In other words, assign
each group one thing to look for so that students don’t feel overwhelmed.

Divide the class into groups and have each group read a different book. Assign
one person in each group to be responsible for one aspect of scientific inquiry.

Finally, get other teachers involved. Ask the English Teachers on campus what
books are required reading. Coordinate lessons and have students create
Scientific Book Reports for these books.
The following is a list of books which encompass aspects of Conservation of Energy and
Momentum:

The House of the Scorpion by Nancy Farmer

The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck

A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickenson

1984 by George Orwell

Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
------------Labeling Kinetic and Potential Energies--------A difficult concept for most students to comprehend is Conservation of Energy. Within
this concept, students must understand Kinetic and Potential Energies. Because Kinetic
and Potential Energies are abstract, practice in labeling can help students visualize the
ideas surrounding these concepts. The following is an activity to engage students and
bring a visual aspect to Kinetic and Potential Energies:

On the following page, you will find a set of three cards. These cards read, KE
(Kinetic Energy), PE (Potential Energy), and KE + PE (Kinetic and Potential
Energy). Photocopy the cards, so that each student has at least one set.

After photocopying the cards, laminate each of the three cards and place a
magnet on the back.

Find photos displaying Conservation of Energy. Photos can include roller
coasters, sky divers, objects such as springs, and objects flying through the air
such as baseballs and footballs.
The Labeling activity:

If you have a projector, create a PowerPoint of the Conservation of Energy
photos. If you have on overhead, photocopy the images onto an overhead
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
transparency. Also, create a hand out of the images for each student or pair of
students.

Project the image onto the white board at the front of the classroom so that all the
students have an opportunity to study the image. Ask students to turn to the
appropriate image in their handout.

Ask students to label the images using their Kinetic and Potential Energies cards.

After all students have had the opportunity to label their handouts, randomly
select students to label the image projected on the white board. Because the cards
have a magnet on the back, students will be able to place their cards onto the
board.

As a class, discuss the labels. For further exercise, values can be assigned and
calculated.
KE = _______J__
PE = _______J__
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
KE + PE = ____J__
--------------------Rollercoaster Project------------------Materials:

Plastic Straws

Tape

Marbles (Enough for one per group)
The task:
The task for each group is to use their knowledge of forces and Conservation of Energy
and Momentum to create a rollercoaster.
Directions:

Divide the class into groups of three or four students.

Before construction, students must submit a blueprint of their rollercoaster to
you for approval. Within their blueprint, students must include labeling of
Kinetic and Potential energies as well as other labels such as momentum. These
labels would be placed along inclines, descents, accelerations, etc.

After the blueprint has been approved, provide each group with 20 to 25 straws,
tape, and one marble.
o Each group will build their rollercoaster using the materials provided and
following their approved blueprint.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers

After all groups have completed construction, have each group test their
rollercoasters in the form of a class presentation; explaining the energy of the
marble as it moves along the rollercoaster.
Group 1: Roller Coaster Blueprint
KE = 0
KE + PE
PE = 0
KE + PE
Heat and Thermodynamics
3. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, although in many processes energy is
transferred to the environment as heat. As a basis for understanding this concept:
a. Students know heat flow and work are two forms of energy transfer between
systems.
b. Students know that the work done by a heat engine that is working in a cycle is
the difference between the heat flow into the engine at high temperature and
the heat flow out at a lower temperature (first law of thermodynamics) and that
this is an example of the law of conservation of energy.
c. Students know the internal energy of an object includes the energy of random
motion of the object’s atoms and molecules, often referred to as thermal energy.
The greater the temperature of the object, the greater the energy of motion of
the atoms and molecules that make up the object.
d. Students know that most processes tend to decrease the order of a system over
time and that energy levels are eventually distributed uniformly.
e. Students know that entropy is a quantity that measures the order or disorder of
a system and that this quantity is larger for a more disordered system.
f. *Students know the statement “Entropy tends to increase” is a law of statistical
probability that governs all closed systems (second law of thermodynamics).
g. *Students know how to solve problems involving heat flow, work, and efficiency
in a heat engine and know that all real engines lose heat to their surroundings.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Activities
 Cartoon Drawings
 Phase Change worksheet
 Convection Currents
These activities are to work in conjunction with Direct Instruction, Scaffolding, and
Laboratory assignments.
---------------------Cartoon Drawings-----------------The purpose of this activity is to help students recognize the concepts of heat and
thermodynamics within their world; to tap into their creative side. Concepts such as
Conduction, Convection, Radiation, Temperature, and Newton’s Laws of Cooling can be
demonstrated in cartoon form. The following are general guidelines for this activity:
 Place students into groups of four or five.
 Provide each group with poster board and markers.
 The best results of this activity come when the students complete this activity
with as little help from the teacher as possible. Allow students to be creative and
only help when concepts need further explanation.
 Drawings may consist of one picture, or a series of pictures.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
DIRECTIONS:
1. Using the assigned text book and/or other resources, assign each group a topic.
Each group is required to read the materials and take notes.
2. As each group completes the reading, sit with the group members and have them
tell you about their section. Listen to each group brainstorm ideas for their
cartoon drawings.
3. Once all group members have agreed on their drawing, supply each group with
markers and poster board. (Allow sufficient time for the students to create their
drawings. The more thought that goes into the drawing, the more the students
learn.)
4. Once all groups have completed their drawings, have each group present their
Cartoon Drawing to the class. Groups should be explaining the concept they were
given and how the drawing demonstrates the concept. While groups are
presenting, all other students take notes on the concept and ask the group
presenting questions regarding their concept.
--------------------Phase Change Worksheet---------------Although examples of phase changes can be seen every day, such as in cooking, most
students have difficulty recognizing these concepts in terms of Physics. The following
worksheet is designed to help students view everyday activities in terms of these
concepts.
The following worksheet is intended for individual students. After completion of the
worksheet, students can use the worksheet as a tool for future assignments.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Name: _____________
Phase Changes
DIRECTIONS: Study the following images. For each image, describe the change of
phase using appropriate terms such as liquid phase, solid phase, vapor phase, plasma
phase, and so on. Also, describe the molecular state of each image.
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Placing water in the freezer
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
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-------------------------Convection Currents---------------------Understanding Convection Currents can be a difficult concept for students to grasp. One
of the best ways to teach this concept is through visuals. In order to bring this concept to
life, it is important to provide students with real-life examples.
The following is a set of exercises for understanding Convection Currents.
Photo Analysis:
The purpose of this activity is to encourage students to analyze photos in terms of the
concepts learned in this section.
DIRECTIONS:
1. Photo copy the photos provided on this page for every student or pair of students.
2. Ask students analyze each photo individually; explaining how the currents are
being produced.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Convection Current Diagram
The drawing below can be used during direct instruction. By photocopying the drawing,
students can take notes on the drawing and use it as a tool within their notes.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Waves
4. Waves have characteristic properties that do not depend on the type of wave. As a basis
for understanding this concept:
a. Students know waves carry energy from one place to another.
b. Students know how to identify transverse and longitudinal waves in mechanical
media, such as springs and ropes, and on the earth (seismic waves).
c. Students know how to solve problems involving wavelength, frequency, and
wave speed.
d. Students know sound is a longitudinal wave whose speed depends on the
properties of the medium in which it propagates.
e. Students know radio waves, light, and X-rays are different wavelength bands in
the spectrum of electromagnetic waves whose speed in a vacuum is
approximately 3x 108 m/s (186,000 miles/seconds).
f. Students know how to identify the characteristic properties of waves:
interference (beats), diffraction, Doppler effect, and polarization.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Activities
 Electromagnetic Waves: A notes taking guide
 Telephone
 Refraction and Reflection Worksheet
These activities are to work in conjunction with Direct Instruction, Scaffolding, and
Laboratory assignments.
-------Electromagnetic Waves: A Note-taking guide------This activity is intended for classroom wide distribution. While reviewing
Electromagnetic Waves, make a photocopy of this guide for students to take notes on.
Students can use this guide as a tool for future reference.
32
Radio
λ
Energy
Microwaves
Infrared Visible Ultraviolet
X Rays
Electromagnetic Waves
Gamma Rays
A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
--------------------------Telephone---------------------------The purpose of this activity it to provide hands-on experience to the concept that waves
carry energy.
Materials:

2 Paper cups

String
Construction:
1. Pierce a hold in the center of the bottom of each paper cup.
2. Thread a piece of string, approximately 5 to 10 feet long, through two of the paper
cups.
This activity is intended for demonstration purposes. One telephone can be made for
demonstration purposes, or several can be made for a whole class activity. To
demonstrate the concept that waves carry energy, have two students each hold one end
of the telephone; the string should be pulled taut. Have one student speak into the cup
while the other student holds the cup to his/her ear.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
-----------Refraction and Reflection Worksheet---------The concepts surrounding Light can be sometimes confusing for students. Although it is
part of our everyday life, the properties of light can have a somewhat abstract quality.
This worksheet is intended for classroom wide distribution. It can be used for individual
or partner work in checking for student understanding. Students can use the worksheet
as a tool for future study following completion.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Name: ________________
Refraction and Reflection
DIRECTIONS: Study the following images. Decide whether the image uses refraction or
reflection. Explain how you know.
Refraction or Reflection?
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Refraction or Reflection?
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Refraction or Reflection?
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Refraction or Reflection?
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Refraction or Reflection?
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Refraction or Reflection?
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Electric and Magnetic Phenomena
5. Electric and magnetic phenomena are related and have many practical applications. As a
basis for understanding this concept:
a. Students know how to predict the voltage or current in simple direct current (DC)
electric circuits constructed from batteries, wires, resistors, and capacitors.
b. Students know how to solve problems involving Ohm’s law.
c. Students know any resistive element in a DC circuit dissipates energy, which
heats the resistor. Students can calculate the power (rate of energy dissipation)
in any resistive circuit element by using the formula Power = IR (potential
difference) x I (current) = I2R.
d. Students know the properties of transistors and the role of transistors in electric
circuits.
e. Students know charged particles are sources of electric fields and are subject to
the forces of the electric fields from other charges.
f. Students know magnetic materials and electric currents (moving electric charges)
are sources of magnetic fields and are subject to forces arising from the
magnetic fields of other sources.
g. Students know how to determine the direction of a magnetic field produced by a
current flowing in a straight wire in a coil.
h. Students know changing magnetic fields produce electric fields, thereby inducing
currents in nearby conductors.
i.
Students know plasmas, the fourth state of matter, contain ions or free electrons
or both and conduct electricity.
j.
*Students know electric and magnetic fields contain energy and act as vector
force fields.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
k. *Students know the force on a charged particle in an electric field is qE, where E
is the electric field at the position of the particle and q is the charge of the
particle.
l.
*Students know how to calculate the electric field resulting from a point charge.
m. *Students know static electric fields have as their source some arrangement of
electric charges.
n. *Students know the magnitude of the force on a moving particle (with charge q)
in a magnetic field is qvB sin(a), where a is the angle between v and B (v and B
are magnitudes of vectors v and B, respectively), and students use the right-hand
rule to find the direction of this force.
o. *Students know how to apply the concepts of electrical and gravitational
potential energy to solve problems involving conservation of energy.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Activities
 Right-Hand Rule
 Circuit Templates
 Faraday Cage
These activities are to work in conjunction with Direct Instruction, Scaffolding, and
Laboratory assignments.
---------------------Right-Hand Rule--------------------The right-hand rule is a useful tool taught in all Physics classrooms. However, is takes a
lot of practice to master. Often, students find the rule difficult because they just can’t
seem to remember how to use it.
The following template is intended for classroom wide distribution. It is meant to be a
tool for all students in order to help them remember how to use the right-hand rule
properly and master the concept.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
41
Right-Hand Rule
Indicates Direction of Current
Indicates direction of Magnetic Field
A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
-----------------------Circuit Templates----------------------The concepts laid out within Electric Circuits have an abstract quality. The following
Circuit Templates can be used in order to bring a visual quality to the students. The
templates can be used to create circuits, or for visual purposes during discussion.
The templates on the following page are intended for classroom wide distribution.

The first step in creating these Circuit templates is to photocopy enough
templates so that each student has at least one set.

Next, laminate each sheet and cut-out each template. By laminating the
templates, students are able to mark the templates with their respective values
using dry erase markers.
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
Capacitance = _______
Resistance (R) = _______
Current (I) = ___________
Voltage (V) = _____________
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A Guide for High School Physics Teachers
---------------------Faraday Cage----------------------A Faraday Cage is a visual way of showing students that there is no electric charge
within charge-free cavities.
Materials:

Copper screen

Radio
Directions:
1. Create a cylinder using the copper screen. The screen should be large enough to
cover the radio.
2. Turn the radio on. Place the screen over the radio. If working properly, the radio
should no longer make noise.
After direct instruction, have students hypothesize the outcome of this demonstration.
Write the class hypothesis in the board and test. Ask students to explain why their
hypothesis was correct or incorrect.
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