University of Aberdeen
The Self-Reference Effect on Memory in Early Childhood
Sheila J. Cunningham and David J. Turk
University of Aberdeen, Scotland
• The self-reference effect (SRE) is the memory advantage for information
encoded with reference to self (Symons & Johnston, 1997).
• It is argued that young children do not show the SRE, because it relies on a rich
self-construct to elaborate incoming self-relevant information (e.g., Halpin et al.,
1984; Pullyblank et al., 1985).
• However, research to date has used a paradigm requiring abstract trait
evaluation, which is unsuitable for young children. Children’s early selfprocessing biases may therefore be underestimated.
For the current study, we designed a concrete evaluation task that allowed
children to apply their stored knowledge at encoding.
RESULTS
Recognition data were transformed into A’ scores.
1.0
Proportionate recognition
INTRODUCTION
• ANOVA revealed a significant SRE, with
better memory for self-cued than other-cued
Cue
items
(F(1,50) = 20.1, p < .001).
Self
Other Total memory increased with age (F(2,50) = 16.8,
p < .001), and there was a significant Age x
Referent interaction (F(2,50) = 4.3, p = .019).
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
• Paired-samples t-tests confirmed an SRE in all
age groups (4yrs: t(17) = 3.4, p = .004; 5yrs: t(18) =
0.5
2. 5, p = .022; 6yrs: t(18) = 2.3, p = .034).
0.4
4
METHOD
• 53 four to six year-old children evaluated concrete objects against a referent.
(17 four yrs (M 55.7 mths), 18 five yrs (M 65.3 mths), 18 six yrs (M 76.7 mths))
• Referent-cues (p’s own or another’s face) were presented with objects.
There were two repeated-measures conditions:
Self: ‘do you really like this object?’
Other: ‘would Andrew really like this object?’
5
Age (years)
6
Fig. 1: Recognition memory
• However, regression analysis showed that
the SRE was predicted by age in months (β =
-0.42, p = .007). Receptive vocabulary, self-esteem
and self-consciousness did not predict the SRE.
(untransformed data)
DISCUSSION
• These results show that the SRE on memory can be found in early childhood.
This finding mirrors the SRE in adult cognition, suggesting that encoding information with
reference to self can enhance memory across the lifespan, given age-appropriate tasks.
• The SRE did not increase with development. Indeed, there was a tendency for the SRE to
decrease with age (perhaps reflecting ceiling effects), and verbal ability and self-concept
development did not predict the SRE magnitude.
• Children responded by pressing the happy or neutral face button (96 trials).
• Recognition memory for the objects was then assessed (96 Old, 48 New items).
• Additional measures: receptive vocabulary, self-esteem, self-consciousness
This lack of developmental increase argues against the idea that the SRE is driven by the
application of self-knowledge (which increases with age).
Rather, automatic responses to self-cues (such as increased attention, affect, and priority
binding) may underlie the effect.
References
Halpin, J. A., Puff, C. R., Mason, H. F., & Marston, S. P. (1984). Self-reference encoding and incidental recall by children. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22, 87-89.
Pullyblank, J., Bisanz, J., Scott, C., & Champion, M. A. (1985). Developmental invariance in the effects of functional self-knowledge on memory. Child Development, 56, 1447-1454.
Symons, C.S., & Johnson, B.T. (1997).The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 371-394.
Contact: sheila.cunningham@abdn.ac.uk