The Entity-Relationship Model
Chapter 2
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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Steps of Database Design
Requirements analysis
 Conceptual design: our focus for chapter 2
 Logical database design: covered in chapter 3
 Then: Refine schema, consider physical
representation, consider security issues.

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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Overview of Conceptual Design

ER Model is used at this stage.





What are the entities and relationships in the
enterprise?
What information about these entities and
relationships should we store in the database?
What are the integrity constraints or business rules that
hold?
A database `schema’ in the ER Model can be
represented pictorially (ER diagrams).
Can map an ER diagram into a relational schema
(more later).
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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ER Model Basics
ssn
name
lot
Employees

Entity: Real-world object distinguishable
from other objects. An entity is described
(in DB) using a set of attributes.

Entity Set: A collection of similar entities.
E.g., all employees.



All entities in an entity set have the same set of
attributes. (Until we consider ISA hierarchies,
anyway!)
Each entity set has a key.
Each attribute has a domain.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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name
ER Model Basics (Contd.)
name
dname
lot
Employees
did
Works_In
lot
Employees
since
ssn
ssn
budget
Departments
supervisor
subordinate
Reports_To
Relationship: Association among two or more entities.
E.g., Bob works in the Pharmacy department.
 Relationship Set: Collection of similar relationships.

Same entity set can participate in different relationship sets, or
in different “roles” in same set.

Role Indicators: Describe the nature of a relationship.
Useful for relations over a single entity set (unary).
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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Key Constraints


since
name
dname
lot
did
budget
Consider Works_In: ssn
An employee can
work in many
Employees
Manages
Departments
departments; a dept
can have many
employees.
Consider Manages:
each dept has at
most one manager,
due to the key
constraint. Note the
same manager could 1-to-1
1-to Many
Many-to-1
Many-to-Many
manage any number
of departments
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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Participation Constraints

Does every department have a manager?

If so, this is a participation constraint: the participation of
Departments in Manages is said to be total (vs. partial).
• Every Departments entity must appear in an instance of the
Manages relationship.
since
name
ssn
dname
did
lot
Employees
Manages
budget
Departments
Works_In
since
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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Weak Entities

A weak entity can be identified uniquely only by considering
the primary key of another (owner) entity (i.e. its entity set
has no key of its own).


Owner entity set and weak entity set must participate in a one-tomany relationship set (one owner, many weak entities).
Weak entity set must have total participation in this identifying
relationship set.
name
ssn
lot
Employees
cost
Policy
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
pname
age
Dependents
8
name
ssn
ISA (`is a’) Hierarchies
lot
Employees
As in object-oriented
hours_worked
hourly_wages
languages, attributes are
ISA
contractid
inherited.
 If we declare A ISA B, every A
Contract_Emps
Hourly_Emps
entity is also considered to be a B
entity.
 Overlap constraints: Can Joe be an Hourly_Emps as well as
a Contract_Emps entity? (Allowed/disallowed)
 Covering constraints: Does every Employees entity also have
to be an Hourly_Emps or a Contract_Emps entity? (Yes/no)
 Reasons for using ISA:
 To add descriptive attributes specific to a subclass.
 To identify entitities that participate in a relationship.

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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name
ssn
Aggregation

Used when we have
to model a
relationship
involving (entitity
sets and) a
relationship set.

lot
Employees
Monitors
started_on
pid
pbudget
until
since
dname
did
budget
Aggregation allows us
to treat a relationship
Sponsors
Departments
Projects
set as an entity set
for purposes of
* Aggregation vs. ternary relationship:
participation in
(other) relationships.  Monitors is a distinct relationship with a
descriptive attribute.
 Also, aggregation allows us to specify key
constraints (e.g. each sponsorship monitored by at
most 1 employee).
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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Conceptual Design Using the ER Model

Design choices:




Should a concept be modeled as an entity or an
attribute?
Should a concept be modeled as an entity or a
relationship?
Should a relationship be binary or ternary?
Aggregation?
Constraints in the ER Model:


A lot of data semantics can (and should) be captured.
But some constraints cannot be captured in ER
diagrams.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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Entity vs. Attribute
Should address be an attribute of Employees or an
entity (connected to Employees by a relationship)?
 Depends upon the use we want to make of address
information, and the semantics of the data:

• If we allow a variable number of addresses per
employee, address must be an entity (since attributes
cannot be set-valued).
• If the structure (city, street, etc.) is important, e.g., we
want to retrieve employees in a given city, address
must be modeled as an entity (since attribute values
are atomic).
• Otherwise, address should be an attribute.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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Entity vs. Attribute (Contd.)
from
name


Works_In4 does not
allow an employee to
work in a department
for two or more periods.
Similar to the problem of
wanting to record several
addresses for an employee:
We want to record several
values of the descriptive
attributes for each instance of
this relationship.
Accomplished by
introducing new entity set,
Duration.
ssn
to
dname
lot
did
Works_In4
Employees
budget
Departments
name
dname
ssn
lot
Employees
from
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
did
Works_In4
Duration
budget
Departments
to
13
Entity vs. Relationship


Manager has a
discretionary budget
name
ssn
for each department
managed.
Employees
What if a manager gets
a discretionary
name
budget that covers
ssn
all managed depts?


Redundancy: dbudget
stored for each dept
managed by manager.
Misleading: Suggests
dbudget associated with
department-mgr
combination.
since
dbudget
lot
did
budget
Departments
Manages2
lot
dname
since
did
Employees
Manages2
ISA
Managers
dname
dbudget
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
budget
Departments
This fixes the
problem!
14
Binary vs. Ternary Relationships
name
ssn


If each policy is
owned by just 1
employee, and
each dependent
is tied to the
covering policy,
first diagram is
inaccurate.
What are the
additional
constraints in the
2nd diagram?
pname
lot
Employees
Dependents
Covers
Bad design
age
Policies
policyid
cost
name
pname
ssn
lot
age
Dependents
Employees
Purchaser
Beneficiary
Better design
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
policyid
Policies
cost
15
Binary vs. Ternary Relationships (Contd.)
Previous example illustrated a case when two
binary relationships were better than one ternary
relationship.
 Another example: A contract for a quantity of
parts being sold from a warehouse to a
department.

 Can we use binary relationships to denote this?
 A contract can be for any number of parts to be sold to
a department.
 A department can make many purchases.
 A part can be sold to any department.
 A warehouse can be involved in many contracts.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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Summary of Conceptual Design

Conceptual design follows requirements analysis,


Yields a high-level description of data to be stored
ER model popular for conceptual design

Constructs are expressive, close to the way people think
about their applications.
Basic constructs: entities, relationships, and attributes
(of entities and relationships).
 Some additional constructs: weak entities, ISA
hierarchies, and aggregation.
 Note: There are many variations on ER model.

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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Summary of ER (Contd.)

Several kinds of integrity constraints can be expressed
in the ER model: key constraints, participation
constraints, and overlap/covering constraints for ISA
hierarchies. Some foreign key constraints are also
implicit in the definition of a relationship set.


Some constraints (notably, functional dependencies) cannot be
expressed in the ER model.
Constraints play an important role in determining the best
database design for an enterprise.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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Summary of ER (Contd.)

ER design is subjective. There are often many ways
to model a given scenario! Analyzing alternatives
can be tricky, especially for a large enterprise.
Common choices include:


Entity vs. attribute, entity vs. relationship, binary or nary relationship, whether or not to use ISA hierarchies,
and whether or not to use aggregation.
Ensuring good database design: resulting
relational schema should be analyzed and refined
further. Functional dependency (FD) information
and normalization techniques are especially
useful.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke
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