CSIS Workshop on Research Agenda
for Spatial Analysis
2003年2月22日（土）
ホテル機山館 宝の間
地理学における計量革命とGIS革命：
GeoComputationとは何か？
矢野桂司
立命館大学文学部地理学科
yano@lt.ritsumei.ac.jp
Stan Openshaw先生のスライドを一部お借りしています。
Geographic Information
GISystems
GIScience
GIStudy
GIService
S
Geographic Information Science
Land Information Science
Spatial Information Science
Geomatics and Geoinformatics
Geoinformation Engineering
地理情報科学
空間情報科学
Geo-Information Science
GeoComputation
GIScience
is an emerging interdisciplinary field that aims to advance our
basic understanding in the use of digital geographic
information to acquire and communicate knowledge about the
world. It bridges geography, computer science, psychology,
mathematics, philosophy, statistics, surveying, the earth
sciences, among other disciplines. GIScience emphasizes basic
theoretical and empirical research over unique GIS
applications. Also, it harbors a decidedly scientific and
engineering perspective on GIS, as opposed to the view of GIS
as a tool (Goodchild, 1992; Wright, et al., 1997).
Geographic Information Science
http://www.giscience.org/
GIScience 2002
Second International Conference on Geographic Information
Science
Boulder, Colorado, USA, September 25-28, 2002
GIScience 2000
First International Conference on Geographic Information
Science
Savannah, Georgia, USA, October 28-31, 2000
GIScience 2002
is the follow-up meeting to the highly successful GIScience
2000 conference with over 300 researchers attending.
GIScience 2002 will again bring together scientists from
academia, industry, and government to analyze progress and
to explore new research directions. It will focus on emerging
topics and basic research findings across all sectors of
geographic information science. The conference program
aims to attract leading GIScience researchers from all fields
to reflect the interdisciplinary breadth of GIScience,
including cognitive science, computer science, engineering,
geography, information science, mathematics, philosophy,
psychology, social science, and statistics.
本日の話題
1. GCの誕生前
2. 英国におけるGCの開花
3. GCの主要な研究テーマ
4. GCの地理学における展開
GCの誕生前
1. 1980年代までの人文地理学にお
ける計量地理学の位置
2. GIS革命の展開
3. 非計量地理学者からのGIS批判
欧米と日本の計量地理学の系譜
年代
1950
地理学界の潮流
計量地理学の
研究トピックス
後半 計量革命
北米
1970
前半
中葉
システム論
因子生態研究
後半
エントロピー・モデル
理論地理学
都市モデル
行動主義地理学
時間地理学
前半 計量批判
人文主義地理学
中葉 ラディカル地理学
Marx主義地理学
後半
1980
前半
新しい文化地理学
後半 ＧＩＳ革命
2000
前半
Journal
記述的な統計地理学
Ohio State Univ.
Golledge,R.G.
Leeds Univ.
Brown,L.
Wilson,A.G.
Pennsylvania State Univ. Batty,M.
Gould,P.
Cliff,A.
Johnston,R.J.
Openshaw,S.
Rushuton,G.
Golledge,R.G.
Bennett,R.J.
Getis,A.
Wrigley,N.
McMaster Univ.
O'Kelly,M.E.
Fotheringham,A.S.
Gatrell,T.
UCSB
Ｈａｉｎｉｎｇ,R.P.
Goodchild,M.F.
Computational地理学
（ＡＩ・CI）
後半
Geocomputation
RS(1967)
E&P(1969)
GA(1969)
理論地理学
空間統計学
ＮＣＧＩＡ
UCSB
SUNY
Geographical Information Systems
の出版
中葉
前半 ？
日本での隣接分野
Cambridge Univ.
Haggett,P.
Chorley,R.J.
Bristol Univ.
Haggett,P.
Harvey,D.
地理的データへの
統計手法の問題
メンタルマップ
空間的自己相関
地図パターン問題
集計問題（MAUP）
相対空間（MDS）
意志決定モデル
時空間系列モデル
カテゴリカル分析
カタストロフィー
立地・配分モデル
空間的相互作用モデル
空間統計学
社会的関わり
中葉
1990
Washington Univ.
Garrison,W.L.
Berry,B.J.L.
Chicago Univ.
Northwestern Univ.
Michigan Univ.
UCSB
日本の計量地理学
統計地理学
統計学的手法
記述的な空間統計学
1960
英国
ＲＲＬ
多変量解析の地理学
中心地研究
地域区分研究
因子生態研究
都市群システム研究
日本の都市システム
世界の都市システム
都市工学
社会工学
建築計画学
土木計画学
都市経済学
地域科学
都市解析
計量的行動地理学-認知地図研究
大都市圏研究
人口移動研究
応用地域科学研究会
IJGIS(1987)
ＧＩＳ
Varenius　Proj.
GeoVISTA
ＧＩＳＣ
ＧＭＡＰ
ＣＡＳＡ
重点領域研究『近代化による環境変化の地理情報システム』
地理情報システム学会 GIS理論と応用(1993)
JGS(1994)
TG(1996)
GI(1997)
GEM(1997)
東大空間情報科学研究センター
GeoComputation
1980年代の計量地理学
帰納的計量地理学
演繹的計量地理学
ｖｓ
(inductive number-crunchers)
純粋地理学
(Academic)
(deductive modellers)
ｖｓ
応用地理学
(Applied / Relevance)
ＧＩＳ革命の展開
NCGIA
(１９８８-９７）
(National Center for Geographic
Information and Analysis)
University of California, Santa Barbara
University at Buffalo
University of Maine
•
The Midland RRL (MRRL) at the Universities of Leicester and
Loughborough
RRL
•
The North East RRL (NERRL) at the University of Newcastle
•
Northern Ireland RRL (NIRRL) at Queens University, Belfast and
the University of Ulster
(１９８７-９１）
(Regional Research Laboratory)
•
The North West RRL (NWRRL) at the University of Lancaster
•
The South East RRL (SERRL) at Birkbeck College, University of
London
•
The Urban and Regional Policy RRL (URPRRL) at the Universities
of Liverpool and Manchester
•
The GIRL at the London School of Economics (LSE)
•
RRL Scotland at The University of Edinburgh.
CSIS
(１９９８）
(Center for Spatial Information
Science)
University of Tokyo
ＧＩＳ派 vs 社会理論派
Taylor (1990)
Goodchild (1990)
Openshaw (1991)
Taylor & Overton (1991)
Openshaw (1992)
Taylor & Johnston (1995)
英国におけるGCの開花
1. Key Personの移動
2. Leeds大学地理学部の挑戦
3. Stan Openshaw
4. GeoComputation
１） GIS革命
２） 人工知能（AI）ツールの発展
３） パラレル・スーパーコンピュータの出現
the Research Assessment Exercise (RAE)
http://www.rae.ac.uk/
Institution name
University of Bristol
University of Durham
University College London
University of Edinburgh
Open University
Royal Holloway, University of London
University of Cambridge
University of Hull
University of Leeds
London School of Economics and Political Science
Loughborough University
Queen Mary, University of London
University of Newcastle
University of Nottingham
University of Sheffield
University of Southampton
University of Birmingham
University of East Anglia
University of Exeter
University of Leicester
University of Liverpool
University of Manchester
University of Oxford
University of Wales, Swansea
University of Wales, Aberystwyth
2001
1996
1992
Rating Rating Rating
5*
5*
5
5*
5*
5
5*
5*
5
5*
5*
5
5*
4
4
5*
5
4
5
5*
5
5
4
3
5
5
4
5
4
4
5
4
3
5
4
3
5
5
4
5
4
3
5
5
4
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
5
4
4
3
4
4
4
Leeds University
Newcastle University
A. Stewart Fotheringham
Chris Brunsdon
Martin Charlton
(The Centre for Computational
Geography (CCG))
Alan G. Wilson
Stan Openshaw
Ian Turton
Daniel Dorling
Oxford University
Bill Macmillan
CASA, UCL
Mike Batty
Paul Longley
School of Geography,
University of Leeds
Wilson学派
(Since 1970)
GMAP
エントロピー最大化モデル
都市モデル研究
空間的相互作用モデルと立地論
応用地理学
Ltd. GeoCAT
(Since 1983,
Geographical Modelling and Planning)
CCG
(Since 1999, Geographical Consultancy & Training)
GMAP
(Since 2001, Global Market Analysis Planning)
(Since 1992,
Centre for Computational Geography)
GeoComputationの拠点
Alan G. Wilson
Professor
of
Urban and Regional
Geography
Employment Record :
•1991- Vice-Chancellor, University of Leeds
•1970-1992 Professor of Urban and Regional
Geography, University of Leeds
•1968-1970 Assistant Director, The Centre for
Environment Studies
•1967-1968 Director, The Mathematical Advisory
Unit of Economic Planning Directorate at the
Ministry of Transport
•1966-1967 Research Officer, The institute of
Economics and Statistics at the University of
Oxford
•1965-1966 Research Officer, The Institute of
Economics and Statistics at the University of
Oxford
•1964-1966 Scientific Officer, The Rutherford
Laboratory of the National Institute for Research
in Nuclear Science
Qualifications and education:
•1968 B.A. (first class)
honours degree in
Mathematics, the University of
Cambridge
Entropy Maximised
Spatial Interaction Model
Tij = Ai Bi Oi Dj exp(βdij)
Stan Openshaw
Professor
of
Human
Geography
Employment Record :
•1992-1999 Professor of Human Geography,
University of Leeds
•1989-1992 Personal Chair in Quantitative
Geography, Newcastle University
•1982-1989 Lecturer in Department of Geography,
Newcastle University Senior Lecturer since 1985
•1974-1982 Lecturer in the Department of Town
and Country Planning, Newcastle University.
•1971-1974 Planning Department, Durham County
Council leaving as a Principal Planning Officer in the
Research and Intelligence Team
Qualifications and education:
•1993 F.R.G.S. Fellow of Royal Geographical Society
•1993 C.Stat (Chartered Statistician)
•1988 F.R.S.S. (Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society)
•1983 F.I.S. (Fellow of the Institute of Statisticians)
•1983 M.B.C.S. (Member of British Computer Society)
•1974 Ph.D. in Geography, Newcastle University.
•1968 B.A. (first class) honours degree in Geography,
Newcastle University.
MAUP
（可変単位地区問題）
Modifiable Areal
Unit Problem
Daniel Dorling
Professor
of
Quantitative
Human
Geography
Employment Record :
•2000- Professor of Quantitative Human
Geography, University of Leeds
•1996-2000: Lecturer and Reader in Geography,
School of Geographical Sciences, Bristol
University (and University Fellow 1999-2000).
•1994-1995: British Academy Fellow and Senior
Research Associate, Department of Geography,
Newcastle University (and Fellow in the
Department of Town and County Planning,
Newcastle).
•1991-1993: Joseph Rowntree Foundation Fellow,
Housing and Society Research Group, Newcastle
University - working in the Departments of Town
and Country Planning, Social Policy and
Geography.
Qualifications and education:
•2001: Member of the Institute for Teaching
and Learning
•1991: PhD 'The Visualization of Spatial
Social Structure' University of Newcastle
•1989: BSc (Hons) Geography Mathematics
and Statistics. First Class, University of
Newcastle
Cartogram
Dorling, D. (1995): A new social atlas of Britain. Wiley.
GeoComputation
GIS革命
AI・CI
HPC
データ
スマート・ツール
パワー
SPATIAL
DATA
AND..
there
are now
LOTS of
it!
Everyday there
are More
DATA than
previously
More Data and More Data and
More Data and More Data and
More Data and More Data and
More Data and More Data and
More Data and More Data and
More Data and More Data and
More Data and More Data and
More Data and More Data and
More Data and More Data and
More
DATA
More
DATA
More
DATA
A bigger ...
•DATA Lake ?
•DATA Swamp ?
•DATA Warehouse ?
•DATA Mountain ?
NO..
just a BIGGER GIS
database most of which
will hardly ever be
analyzed or used other
than for drawing maps
Indeed
spatial data are
being created and
stored many times
faster than they can
be processed!
So the NEED is for
user friendly
Exploratory Spatial
Data Analysis
capable of being safely and easily
used and understood by people who
do not have higher degrees in the
statistical or spatial sciences
超高速パラレル・
スーパーコンピュータ
テラフロップ・コンピュータ（１秒間に１兆回）
計量革命時の１０の９乗倍
エントロピーモデルの１０の８乗倍
GIS革命期の１０の６乗倍
GeoComputation
1. 空間データに適した手法の開発
2. コンピュータの集中的利用
3. データ・フリー、探索的アプローチ
GeoComputation
is the use of computing
techniques to solve
geographical problems
that are too complex to
solve 'by hand'.
A. Stewart Fotheringham
1. weak GeoComputation
2. strong GeoComputation
Global model -> Local model
GIS環境下での
新しい計量地理学
演繹的計量地理学
ｖｓ
(deductive modellers)
確証的技法
(Confirmatory)
帰納的計量地理学
(inductive number-crunchers)
ｖｓ
探索的技法
(Exploratory)
GeoComputation
GeoComputation は
•GISの別名ではない
•計量地理学ではない
•極端な帰納主義でない
•理論が欠けているわけではない
•哲学がないわけでない
•道具箱ではない
GeoComputation Conference
http://www.ashville.demon.co.uk/geocomp/
GeoComputation '01 - University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
GeoComputation '00 - University of Greenwich, Medway Campus, United Kingdom
GeoComputation '99 - Mary Washington College, Virginia, USA
GeoComputation '98 - University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
GeoComputation '97 - University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
GeoComputation '96 - University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
GCの主要な研究テーマ
1. パラレル空間的相互作用モデル
2. 新しいパラメータ推定方法
3. 最適配置問題へのパラレル・コンピュテーション
4. 自動化モデリングシステム
5. パラレル可変単位地区問題や最適地理的分割問題
6. パラレル空間分類法
7. パラレル地理学的パターンと地理学的関係の発見方法
パラレル
空間的相互作用モデル
Competing Destinations
Spatial Interaction Model
with 5 parameters
α
γ
Tij = Ai Oi Wj Hj exp(βdij)
π
Hj = Σｋ Pｋ / djk
σ
Applying GAM to the study of
Long Term Limiting Illness data
for 6,905 census areas in
Northern England
Age-Sex Adjusted Clusters
GCの地理学における展開
人文地理学の
更なる発展のためには、
計量地理学派と社会理論学派の
協調が不可欠