Leadership in Organizations
Chapter
10
Fundamentals of
Organizational Behavior 2e
Andrew J. DuBrin
PowerPoint Presentation
by Charlie Cook
Learning Objectives
1. Differentiate between leadership and management.
2. Describe key leadership traits, styles, and behaviors.
3. Explain the basics of four different contingency
theories of leadership.
4. Present an overview of transformational and
charismatic leadership.
5. Explain how 360-degree feedback is used to improve
leadership effectiveness.
6. Identify gender differences in leadership style.
7. Identify forces that can sometimes decrease the
importance of leadership.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–2
The Nature of Leadership
Leadership
 Is defined as the ability inspire confidence and support
among the people on whose competence and commitment
performance depends.
 Involves influencing others to achieve objectives important
to them and the organization.
 Contributes to organizational effectiveness through the use
of desirable personal attributes to achieve good results.
Effective Leadership = Attributes x Results
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–3
Leaders versus Managers
Leaders
Managers
 Visionary
 Rational
 Passionate
 Consulting
 Creative
 Persistent
 Flexible
 Problem-solving
 Inspiring
 Tough-minded
 Innovative
 Analytical
 Courageous
 Structured
 Imaginative
 Deliberate
 Experimental
 Authoritative
 Independent
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
 Stabilizing
10–4
Leadership Traits and Characteristics
Cognitive Skills
Personality Traits
 Mental abilities and
 Enthusiasm
knowledge
 Problem-solving skills
 Imagination, creativity, and
a willingness to
experiment
 Technical and professional
competence (knowledge of
the business)
 Self-confidence
 Trustworthiness
 Emotional intelligence
 Needs for power and
achievement
 A sense of humor
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–5
Leadership Styles and Behavior
Behavioral Approach to Leadership
 Attempts to specify how the behaviors of effective leaders
differ from less-effective leaders.
 Based on the assumption that leaders are relatively
consistent in how they attempt to influence group members.
 Key concept is “leadership style”—the relatively consistent
pattern of behavior that characterizes a leader.
 Recognizes that some
leaders modify their
leadership style as
the situation requires.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–6
Pioneering Studies on Leadership Dimensions
Ohio State University
 Initiating structure
 The
degree to which the leader establishes structure for
group members: assigning task, specifying procedures,
scheduling work, and clarifying expectations.
 Consideration
 The
degree to which the leader creates an environment of
emotional support, warmth, friendliness, and trust.
 Research findings
 Leaders
high on initiating structure were rated highly and
had higher-producing work groups.
 High consideration in leaders is associated with low
turnover and high job satisfaction.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–7
High
Initiating Structure
Leadership Styles
Based on a
Combination
of Initiating
Structure
and
Consideration
Low structure
and
high consideration
High structure
and
high consideration
Low structure
and
low consideration
High structure
and
low consideration
Low
High
Low
EXHIBIT
10-2
Initiating Structure
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–8
Pioneering Studies on Leadership Dimensions
University of Michigan
 Production-centered managers
 Set
tight work standards, organized tasks carefully,
prescribed work methods, and supervised closely.
 Employee-centered managers
 Encouraged
participative goal setting and decisionmaking, fostered high performance by engendering trust
and mutual respect.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–9
Pioneering Studies on Leadership Dimensions
University of Michigan
 Findings
 Employee-centered
managers had the most productive
work groups.
 The most effective leaders had supportive relationships
with employees, used group decision making, and
encouraged employee goal setting.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–10
Managing Polarities
Peter Koestenbaum on Leadership
 The central attribute of
leadership is the ability
to manage polarity—
extremes of positions
and interests.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–11
The Leadership Grid
The Leadership Grid
©
 Describes leadership style in term of concerns for production
and people. These concerns reflect attitudes rather than
actual behavior.
 Concern for production includes results, bottom-line
performance, profits, and mission.
 Concern for people includes group members and coworkers.
 Grid assumes that an opportunistic leader shifts to any Grid
style to achieve personal gain and self-promotion.
 Best style is team management — at 9,9 on the Grid (high
concern for both production and people).
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–12
The Leadership
Grid Figure*
High
9
8
Concern for Results
7
* Formerly the Managerial Grid by
Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton.
Source: Robert R. Blake and Anne
Adams McCarse, Leadership
Dukennas—Grid Solutions, Houston:
Gulf Publishing Company, Grid figure:
p. 29, Paternalism/ Materialism figure:
p. 30, Opportunism figure: p. 31.
Copyright © 1991 by Scientific
Methods, Inc. Reproduced by
permission of the owners.
EXHIBIT
10-3a
1,9
9,9
Team Management:
Work accomplishment is from
committed people; interdependence
through a "common stake" in
organization purpose leads to
relationships of trust and respect.
Country Club Management:
Thoughtful attention to the needs of
the people for satisfying relationships
leads to a comfortable, friendly
organization atmosphere and work
tempo.
6
Middle of the Road Management:
5,5
5
Adequate organization performance is possible through
balancing the necessity to get work out while maintaining
morale of people at a satisfactory level.
4
3
2
1
Low
Authority-Compliance Management:
Efficiency in operations results from
arranging conditions of work in such a
way that human elements interfere to a
minimum degree.
Impoverished Management:
Exertion of minimum effort to get
required work done is appropriate to
sustain organization membership.
1,1
1
9,1
2
3
4
5
6
Low
7
8
9
®
High
Concern for Results
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–13
The Leadership Grid Figure*
9 + 9 Paternalism/Maternalism
Opportunism
1,9
9,9
Rewards and approval are bestowed to
1,9
people in return for loyalty and obedience;
9+9
failure to comply leads to punishment.
9,1
5,5
1,9
9, 1
1,1
In Opportunistic Management, people adapt and shift to any Grid
9+ 9
style needed to gain the maximum advantage. Performance occurs
according to a system of selfish gain. Effort is given only for an
advantage for personal gain.
9,1
*Formerly the Managerial Grid by Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton.
EXHIBIT
10-3b
Source: Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCarse, Leadership Dukennas—Grid
Solutions, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, Grid figure: p. 29, Paternalism/Materialism
figure: p. 30, Opportunism figure: p. 31. Copyright © 1991 by Scientific Methods, Inc.
Reproduced by permission of the owners.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–14
The Leader-Member Exchange Model
Leaders do not relate to each group member in
the same manner.
 Leaders develop unique working relationships with each
group member.
 In-groups
are given additional rewards, responsibilities,
and trust in exchange for their loyalty and performance.
 Out-groups have a more formal (traditional) superiorsubordinate relationship with the leader.
 Research findings
 In-group
membership is beneficial to its members.
 High-quality leader-member exchanges improve delegation.
 Supervisors are not overly influenced by the exchanges.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–15
Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership
 Assumes that the best style of leadership is determined by
the situation in which the leader is working.
 Uses the least-preferred coworker (LPC) scale to measure
the leader’s style.
 LPC
is a measure of how a manager describes his or her
relationship to a referent (least-preferred) coworker.
 Positive LPC descriptions indicate relationship-oriented
management styles.
 Negative LPC descriptions indicate task-oriented
management styles.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–16
Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership
 Situational control
 Is
the degree to which the leader can control and influence
the outcomes of group effort.
 Measurements of situational control are based on:
 Leader-member
relations (good to bad)
 Task structure (well to ill-defined)
 Position power (leader’s ability to reward and control)
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–17
Summary of Findings from
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Task-motivated and
socio-independent leaders
perform best when they
have the most control
(highly favorable).
High
Relationship-motivated
leaders perform best
when they have moderate
control (moderately
favorable).
Task-motivated leaders
perform best when they
have low control (highly
unfavorable).
Moderate
Low
AMOUNT OF SITUATIONAL CONTROL BY LEADER
a. Leader-member
relations are good.
b. Task is well structured.
c. Leader has high
position power.
A combination of
favorable and unfavorable
factors.
a. Leader-member relations
are poor.
b. Task is poorly structured.
c. Leader has low position
power.
EXHIBIT
10-4
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–18
Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership
 Research findings
 Task-motivated
style is best when the leader has very high
or very low control of the situation.
 Relationship-motivated style best in situation under
moderate or intermediate control.
 Socio-independent leaders function best when control is
high.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–19
Contingency Theories of Leadership
The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
 Specifies what a leader must do to achieve high morale and
productivity in a given situation.
 Focuses on helping employees find the right path to goal
attainment.
 Assumes that the leader will choose the right leadership
style to match the contingencies of a particular situation.
 Is based on expectancy theory in that its key propositions
relate to motivation, satisfaction, and performance.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–20
Contingency Theories of Leadership
The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
 Choices for adjusting leadership styles to meet situational
contingency demands:
Directive
Initiating structure, setting guidelines and standards,
and conveying expectations.
Supportive
Emphasizes showing concern for the well being of
group members and developing mutually satisfying
relationships.
Participative
Involves consulting with group members and using
their input into the decision making process.
Achievement-oriented
Leader sets challenging goals, promotes work
improvement, sets high expectations and expects
group members to act responsibly.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–21
The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
(Contingency factors)
Personal
characteristics
of group members
Leadership Styles
OUTCOMES
Directive
Supportive
Participative
Achievement-oriented
Productivity
Morale
Demands of
the Task
EXHIBIT
10-5
(Contingency factors)
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–22
Contingency Relationships
in Path-Goal Leadership
Leadership Style
Situation in which Appropriate
Directive
Positively affects satisfaction and expectancies of subordinates
working on ambiguoustasks.
Negatively affects satisfaction and expectancies of subordinates
working on clearly defined tasks.
Supportive
Positively affects satisfaction of subordinatesworking on dissatisfying, stressful, or frustrating tasks.
Participative
Positively affects satisfaction of subordinateswho are ego-involved
with nonrepetitive tasks.
Achievement-oriented
Positively affects confidence that effort will lead to effective performance of subordinatesworking on ambiguousand nonrepetitive
tasks.
EXHIBIT
10-6
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–23
Contingency Theories of Leadership
The Situational Leadership Model
 Explains how a leader chooses a leadership style that is
appropriate to the readiness of group members.
 Readiness is defined as the extent to which a group
member has the ability and willingness or
confidence to accomplish a task.
 As the readiness of group members
increases, a leader should rely more
on relationship-related leadership
behaviors and less on task-related
leadership behaviors.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–24
The Situational
Model of
Leadership
Situational Leadership® is a registered
trademark of the Center for Leadership
Studies. Reprinted with the permission of
the Center for Leadership Studies,
Escondido, CA 92025. All rights reserved.
EXHIBIT
10-7
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–25
Contingency Theories of Leadership
The Normative Decision Model
 Leadership is a decision-making process in which the
leader examines the situation and chooses the most
effective decision-making style for the situation.
 Five styles of decision making:
Decide
The leader makes the decision alo ne.
Consult (Ind ividually)
The leader presents the problem to group members
individually, gathers their suggestions, and then
makes the decision alone.
Consult (Group)
The leader presents the problem to group members
in a meeting, gathers their suggestions, and then
makes the decision alone.
Facilitate
The leader presents the problem, acts a facilitator,
and avoids influencing the decision of the group.
Delegate
The leader permits the group to make the decision.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–26
Contingency Theories of Leadership
The matrix depicted in Exhibit 10-8
 Is for time-driven group problems where a decision must be
reached quickly.
 The decision-making style chosen depends on the situational
factors as specified in the matrix:
 Decision
significance to the success of the project.
 Importance of commitment of team members to the project.
 Leader’s expertise in relation to the problem.
 Likelihood of commitment by team to your solo decision.
 Group Support (team) for the organization’s objectives.
 Team competence in working together to solve the problem.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–27
Transformational and Charismatic
Leadership
Transformational Leader
 Helps organizations and people make
positive changes in the way they conduct
their activities.
 Is closely linked to strategic leadership.
 Is involved in sweeping positive changes.
Charisma
 Is the ability to lead others based on
personal charm, magnetism, inspiration,
and emotion.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–28
Transformational and Charismatic
Leadership
Transformations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Raising people’s level of consciousness.
Getting people to transcend their self-interests.
Focusing people on the quest for self-fulfillment.
Helping to develop a long-range perspective.
Helping people understand the need for change.
Investing managers with a sense of urgency.
Committing to greatness.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–29
Dimension and Corresponding Behaviors
of Transformational Leadership
1. Vision
Communicates a clear and positive
vision of the future.
2. Staff developm ent
Treats staff as individuals, supports
and encourages their development.
3. Supportive leadership
Gives encouragement and recognition
to staff.
4. Empowerment
Fosters trust, involvement, and
cooperation among team members.
5. Innovative thinking
Encourage thinking about problems in
new ways and question assumptions.
6. Lead by Example
Is clear about his or her values, and
practices what he or she preaches.
7. Charisma
Instills pride and respect in others and
inspires me by being highly
competent.
Source: Sally A. Carless, Alexander J. Wearing, and Leon
Mann, “A Short Measure of Transformational Leadership,”
Journal of Business and Psychology, Spring 2000, p.396.
EXHIBIT
10-9
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–30
Charismatic Leadership
Charisma is in the eyes of the beholder.
Key Characteristics of Charismatics:
 They have vision.
 They are masterful communicators.
 They inspire trust.
 They are energetic.
 They manage their impressions.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–31
360-Degree Feedback for Improving
Leadership Effectiveness
360-Degree Feedback
 Is a formal evaluation system for use in improving
leadership effectiveness.
 Input is in the form of a 360-degree survey of people who
work for and with the supervisor.
 Self-ratings are compared to
ratings of others. Differences
in the two ratings indicate
performance area opportunities
for improvement.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–32
Gender Differences in Leadership
A Continuing Controversy:
 Do men and women have different leadership styles?
 There
is no clear answer.
 Women use a more relationship-oriented
style of leadership; that is, in general,
they are more cooperative, participative, and
empowering than men who tend
toward a command-and-control,
autocratic leadership style.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–33
Leadership Substitutes and Followership
Substitutes for Leadership:
 Group member characteristics
 Highly
capable persons or groups (followers) can function
with less leadership.
 Effective followers are self-managers, are committed, have
competence and focus, and possess courage.
 Task Characteristics
 Highly
standardized tasks that provide feedback and are
intrinsically satisfying can substitute for leadership.
 Organizational factors
 Explicit
plans with well-defined goals that are carried out
by cohesive groups reduce the need for leadership.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–34
Choosing an Appropriate Leadership Model
1. Carefully diagnose the situation.
2. Choose a leadership approach that best
fits the situational deficiencies or
opportunities.
3. Observe the people to be led; come to
understand their interests, goals, and
concerns.
4. Apply the chosen leadership approach.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.
10–35