Chapter 15 Gene Regulation Prokaryotic Regulation: Gene Regulation 2 Bacteria do not need the same enzymes and other proteins all of the time. - They need only: 1. The enzymes required to break down the nutrients available to them or 2. The enzymes required to synthesize whatever metabolites are absent under the present circumstances. 3 Gene Regulation Prokaryotic Regulation: The Operon Model (Jacob & Monod 1961) An operon consists of three components: 1. Promoter -DNA sequence where RNA polymerase first attaches -Short segment of DNA 2. Operator -DNA sequence where active repressor binds -Short segment of DNA 4 Gene Regulation Prokaryotic Regulation: The Operon Model (Jacob & Monod 1961) 3. Structural Genes -One to several genes coding for enzymes of a metabolic pathway -Translated simultaneously as a block -Long segment of DNA A regulator gene is located outside of the operon. It codes for a repressor that controls whether the operon is active or not. Gene Regulation Repressible Operons: The trp Operon - Normally turned ON If tryptophan (an amino acid) is ABSENT: Repressor is unable to attach to the operator (expression is normally “on”) RNA polymerase binds to the promoter Transcription & translation occur Enzymes for synthesis of tryptophan are produced Tryptophan will be produced by E. coli 5 The trp Operon 6 Gene Regulation Repressible Operons: The trp Operon - Genes repressed If tryptophan IS present enzymes are not needed and following occurs: Tryptophan combines with repressor, causing it to change shape, thus acting as a corepressor Repressor becomes functional Blocks transcription & synthesis of enzymes and tryptophan is NOT produced 7 The trp Operon 8 Summary of repressible trp operon Operon usually ON, must be turned OFF Repressor Transcription bound ? occurs? NO -------> YES YES -------> NO *** Corepressors are frequently the products in the pathway. In this case, tryptophan is the corepressor. 9 Gene Regulation 10 Inducible Operons: The lac Operon - Normally turned OFF When E. coli is denied glucose & is given lactose instead, it immediately begins to make three enzymes needed for the metabolism of lactose. These enzymes are encoded by three structural genes which are adjacent to one another on the chromosome. They are controlled by one regulator gene that codes for a one repressor. Gene Regulation 11 Inducible Operons: The lac Operon - Normal OFF state If lactose (a sugar that can be used for food) is absent: Repressor attaches to the operator RNA polymerase cannot bind to promoter Transcription of structural genes is blocked Enzymes needed to digest lactose NOT made The lac Operon 12 Gene Regulation 13 Inducible Operons: The lac Operon - Induced state If lactose IS present: It combines with repressor and renders it unable to bind to operator by causing shape of repressor to change RNA polymerase binds to the promoter Transcription of genes occurs The three enzymes necessary for lactose catabolism are produced Lactose will be digested by enzymes The lac Operon 14 Summary of inducible lac operon Operon usually OFF, must be turned ON Repressor Transcription bound ? occurs? YES -------> NO NO -------> YES *** Inducers are frequently the reactants in the pathway. In this case, the lactose is the inducer. 15 Gene Regulation 16 The lac Operon - Further control E. coli preferentially break down glucose. Thus, they have a way to ensure that the lac operon is only turned on maximally when glucose is absent. This involves use of cyclic AMP which is abundant when glucose is absent. - Cyclic AMP binds to a molecule called catabolite activator protein (CAP). Gene Regulation 17 The lac Operon - Further control (2) The cAMP-CAP complex then binds to a CAP binding site next to the lac operon promoter. • When CAP binds to DNA, the DNA bends. - This exposes the promoter to RNA polymerase which is now better able to bind to the promoter. Gene Regulation The lac Operon - Further control (2) When glucose IS present: There is little cAMP in the cell - CAP is not activated by cAMP - lac operon does NOT function maximally and cell will preferentially use glucose as its food source. 18 Action of CAP 19 Gene Regulation Animations for the Operons Trp Operon http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olc/dl/120080/bio26.swf lac Operon http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olc/dl/120080/bio27.swf 20 Gene Regulation Eukaryotic Regulation A variety of mechanisms to control gene expression: Five primary levels of control: Nuclear levels - Chromatin Packing - Transcriptional Control - Posttranscriptional Control Cytoplasmic levels - Translational Control - Posttranslational Control 21 Regulation of Gene Expression: Levels of Control in Eukaryotes 22 Gene Regulation 23 Chromatin Structure Eukaryotic DNA associated with histone proteins Together make up chromatin As seen in the interphase nucleus Nucleosomes: DNA wound around balls of eight molecules of histone proteins Looks like beads on a string Each bead a nucleosome The levels of chromatin packing determined by degree of nucleosome coiling Levels of Chromatin Structure 24 Gene Regulation Chromatin Packing Euchromatin Loosely coiled DNA Appears lightly stained in micrographs Transcriptionally active - capable of being transcribed Heterochromatin Tightly packed DNA Appears darkly stained in micrographs Transcriptionally inactive 25 Gene Regulation Chromatin Packing Barr Bodies Females have two X chromosomes, but only one is active Other is tightly packed along its entire length Inactive X chromosome is called a Barr body Inactive X chromosome does not produce gene products 26 X-Inactivation in Mammalian Females 27 Gene Regulation 28 Transcriptional Control Transcription controlled by DNA-binding proteins called transcription factors Bind to a promoter adjacent to a gene Transcription activators bind to regions of DNA called enhancers. Might be brought near region of promoter by hairpin loops in DNA. Always present in cell, but most likely have to be activated before they will bind to DNA Lampbrush Chromosomes 29 Initiation of Transcription 30 Gene Regulation 31 Transcriptional Control (2) Transposons are specific DNA sequences that have the ability to move within and between chromosomes. Their movement to a new location sometimes alters neighboring genes by decreasing their expression - Thus, they can act like regulator genes - They also can be a source of mutations. Gene Regulation Posttranscriptional Control Posttranscriptional control operates within the nucleus on the primary mRNA transcript Given a specific primary transcript: Excision of introns can vary Splicing of exons can vary Thus, differing versions of the mRNA transcript might leave the nucleus 32 Gene Regulation 33 Posttranscriptional Control Posttranscriptional control may also control speed of mRNA transport from nucleus to cytoplasm Will affect the number of transcripts arriving at rough ER And therefore the amount of gene product realized per unit time Processing of mRNA Transcripts 34 Gene Regulation 35 Translational Control Translational control determines degree to which mRNA is translated into a protein product Presence of 5′ cap and the length of poly-A tail on 3′ end can determine whether translation takes place and how long the mRNA is active - Example: Long life of mRNA in RBCs that code for hemoglobin attributed to presence of 5’ cap and 3’ poly-A tail Gene Regulation 36 Posttranslational Control Some proteins are not immediately active after synthesis. Some need to be activated - Folding and breaking into chains must occur in bovine insulin before it is active Some are degraded quickly - Cyclin proteins that control cell cycle Gene Regulation 37 Animations for Eukaryotic Control Control of gene expression in eukaryotes http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olc/dl/120080/bio31.swf Transcription Complex and Enhancers http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olc/dl/120080/bio28.swf Effect of Mutations on Protein Activity Gene Regulation 38 A mutation is a permanent change in the sequence of bases in DNA. Effects on proteins can range from no effect to complete inactivity Germ-line mutations -Occur in sex cells; can be passed on to future generations Somatic mutations -Occur in body cells; can’t be passed on to future generations -Can lead to development of cancer Effect of Mutations on Protein Activity Gene Regulation 39 Point Mutations Involve change in a single DNA nucleotide Changes one codon to a different codon Could change one amino acid for another Effects on protein vary: -Drastic - completely nonfunctional -Reduced functionality -Unaffected Effect of Mutations on Protein Activity Gene Regulation 40 Frameshift Mutations One or two nucleotides are either inserted or deleted from DNA Can lead to completely new codon order Protein can rendered nonfunctional -Normal : THE CAT ATE THE RAT -After deletion:THE ATA TET HER AT -After insertion: THE CCA TAT ETH ERA T Point Mutation 41 Gene Regulation 42 Nonfunctional Proteins Examples of nonfunctional proteins: Hemophilia due to the transposon Alu Phenylketonuria (PKU) due to faulty code for one enzyme Cystic fibrosis due to inheritance of faulty code for a chloride ion channel Androgen insensitivity due to a faulty receptor for androgens (male sex hormones) Gene Regulation 43 Carcinogenesis Development of cancer involves a series of mutations: •Proto-oncogenes – Stimulate cell cycle but are usually turned off. Can mutate and become oncogenes which are turned on all the time. •Tumor suppressor genes – inhibit cell cycle Mutation in oncogene and tumor suppressor gene: -Stimulates cell cycle uncontrollably -Leads to tumor formation Carcinogenesis 44 Gene Regulation 45 Causes of Mutations Spontaneous Errors: Happen for no apparent reason Example of spontaneous germ-line mutation is achondroplasia, a type of dwarfism Replication Errors: -DNA polymerase proofreads new strands -Generally corrects errors -1 in 1,000,000,000 replications error occurs Gene Regulation 46 Causes of Mutations Environmental Mutagens A mutagen is an environmental agent that increases the chances of a mutation Carcinogens - Mutagens that increase the chances of cancer -Many agricultural & industry chemicals -Many drugs -Tobacco smoke chemicals -Radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, UV) Achondroplasia and Xeroderma Pigmentosum 47