‫‪2010‬‬
‫مصادر الدكتور موفق مجيد المولى‬
‫التعلم في الرياضة‬
‫مصادر التعلم الحركي في التربية الرياضية ‪ /‬موسوعة الدكتور موفق المولى‬
‫العالمية للباحث العلمي الرياضي العراقي والعربي‬
‫‪mouwafak.mola@aspire.qa‬‬
‫‪ASPIRE‬‬
‫‪7/16/2010‬‬
July 16, 2010
‫مصادر الدكتور موفق مجيد المولى للباحث العلمي الرياضي‬
‫مصادر الدكتور موفق مجيد المولى الرياضية‬
LEARNING IN SPORTS
This first issue of Volume 3 of Coaching Science Abstracts reviews articles concerned with
learning in sporting and physical activity settings. It embraces the field of sport pedagogy,
primarily focusing on skill learning but also includes instructing general sporting
behaviors. It is divided into seven sections:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The nature of skill learning.
The content of sports instruction.
Styles of instruction.
Forward shaping/chaining.
Examples of forward shaping/chaining/progressions.
Backward shaping/chaining.
Examples of backward shaping/chaining/progressions.
Teaching general behavior control.
The content of the items is divided between traditional abstracts, the hallmark of this web
site, and reproduced or extracted elements of resources which provide a more in-depth
treatment of topics. Some of the content is dated but is as relevant today as it was when
first published. By including those items, this editor is making an obvious statement that in
sport pedagogy as it is disseminated in today's popular coaching outlets, the history of this
rich area of research and its many valuable lessons for practical implementation have been
either lost or discarded. A coach cannot assume that good-intentioned instruction will be
done well or will be optimally effective for athletes. There are valid and effective models of
instruction which need to be followed to reliably alter athletes' skills and general behaviors.
Without implementing those models coaching will largely be ineffective. A return to a rigor
of instruction and a demonstration of pedagogical skill is warranted among the coaching
ranks.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
THE NATURE OF SKILL LEARNING
1. PHYSIOLOGY OF MOTOR LEARNING
Hellebrandt, F. A. (1972). The physiology of motor learning. In R. N. Singer (Ed.),
Readings in motor learning (pp. 397-409). Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger .
PHYSIOLOGY OF MOTOR LEARNING
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Hellebrandt, F. A. (1972). The physiology of motor learning. In R. N. Singer (Ed.),
Readings in motor learning (pp. 397-409). Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger.
"If muscles participate in more than one movement, as most do, they must be represented
diffusely in the cortex. Presumably different centers connect via internuncial neurons with
groups of peripherally disposed motor units. . . . .motor units are activated in a definite
sequence which varies with the movement elicited. As the severity of effort increases, those
involved primarily in one movement may be recruited to assist in the performance of others."
(p. 398)
Implication. Movements, not muscles, are represented in the cortex. Patterns are learned
and those patterns are peculiar to every movement. ". . . reflexes evoked under similar
conditions are extraordinarily consistent. Indeed, they are so repetitive as to warrant
designating them patterned movements. . . the fundamental unit of action may be thought of
as a total response in which agonists and antagonists, synergists and fixators participate in
balanced and harmonious activity. Partial patterns emerge secondarily, by virtue of special
training, . . " (p. 399) Implication. Total actions (e.g., those to be used in a competitive
setting) need to be trained. It is highly unlikely that partial or isolated training of
movement segments will replicate the unit function in the total action. Thus, once
techniques (total response patterns) are being refined, partial practices will serve no
purpose other than to learn another movement. There will be no integration of the partial
practice movement into the total response movement. ". . . the sensory feedback coming
from muscles, tendons and joints greatly affects movement patterns. Central excitations have a
tendency to flow always into stretched muscles. Thus, every change in body positioning alters
the configuration of the next succeeding efferent response. It affects not only the muscle
stretched, but all functionally related muscle groups as well. This means that a change in the
responsiveness of one component of a movement-complex spreads autonomously to the other
constituents." (p. 399) Implication. When a patterned movement is changed by the
conscious effort to alter one aspect of the movement, the whole action is altered, most likely
to perform worse. The isolated practices of drill elements and then consciously
implementing the experiences from the drills into the pattern, usually will disrupt the
pattern in its entirety. Thus, the changed element may be performed "better" but the
other, previously acceptable movement characteristics will be altered, presumably for the
worse. ". . . willed movements which are new and unfamiliar always demand cerebration.
They are performed at first with more or less conscious attention to the details of their
execution. Once mastered, they operate automatically. Conscious introspection at this stage
may even disrupt the nicety of an established pattern. After an act has become automatic, . . .,
it is less well performed if it must first be considered and analyzed." (pp. 399-400)
Implication. Conscious attention to details of an automated action will reduce the
efficiency/economy of that action. There is a time before a contest when conscious attention
to details of technique at practice need to cease so that preparation can be perceived by an
athlete as consisting of "good feeling" techniques that are performed automatically. If
many like movements are learned, conscious attention in a contest could switch to a lessefficient pattern of movement, particularly if one item of the skill is attended to. As
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attention then switches to other different features, the economy of a performance is
degraded. However, when fatigue is incurred, conscious attention to performance details
produces a more efficient movement form than one that is executed automatically because
it is so fatigued. Thus, there are times when conscious control of performance movements is
detrimental (e.g., in non-fatigued states) and times when it is beneficial (e.g., in states of
high fatigue). When work becomes fatiguing, or efficient neuromuscular patterns no longer
can be maintained, recruitment of motor patterns and motor components occurs.
Irradiation associated with extreme stress is so widespread in the recruitment process that
a willed movement limited to a single appendicular joint may evoke action potentials in
muscles located in all four extremities, the head and neck, and the trunk. Through practice,
many activity patterns are learned. More than not, families of movement patterns are
learned to accomplish the same functional outcome. While a task is being executed,
movement patterns will be evoked in series to avoid unnecessary fatigue in the central
nervous system mechanisms and the skeletal structures used. In fatigue and stress, the
recruitment of extra responses and neural patterns will be more extravagant because of
learned facilitation. Much training is performed in fatigue and thus, anything but
restricted efficient movement patterns are learned to dominance. If specific limited training
had only occurred, that is, the body only knew a narrow band of efficient movements, then
the recruitment (irradiation) would be minimal and would center around efficient
movement. Practice does not make perfect. Only practice that yields feedback about the
correctness of responses can generate advances towards perfection. If the activity content is
largely irrelevant for competitive requirements and/or feedback is inadequate or nonexistent, the practices will be wasted. There is no dispute that individuals without external
correct coaching feedback do improve in performance but only to a certain level. Without
instruction individuals tend to adopt expedient strategies for movement control, which
quite often are not the best or most economical forms. This is why an individual can play
golf for 40 years, never have a golf lesson, and struggle to break 90 for 18 holes. The
expedient patterns that have been learned and perpetuated limit performance to that
mediocre level. For efficient and maximum performance ". . . the kinesthetic acuity we
should strive for is not enhanced general body awareness, but rather, a more sharply defined
and specific sensitivity to what is happening in those key maneuvers upon which the success
or failure of complex movement patterns may depend" (p. 407). Implication. The skill content
of practices has to mimic that of competitive requirements if beneficial training time is to
be experienced. It is wrong to practice something with good intent (e.g., "I hope it will
benefit the performance") without being able to justify and demonstrate correlated transfer
to a competitive skill. If this dictum is not adhered to then much practice will be wasted or
even counter-productive. It is quite possible that movements practiced could be so
irrelevant that their impact on hoped for competition-specific movements will be so
destructive that performance will be worse than if no skill practice had been entertained.
The programming of appropriate transferable practice activities in an enriched milieu of
correct instruction is a challenge for modern coaching.
2-SKILL LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS
Bartlett, F. (1972). The experimental study of skill. In R. N. Singer (Ed.), Readings
in motor learning (pp. 12-19). Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger .
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SKILL LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS
Bartlett, F. (1972). The experimental study of skill. In R. N. Singer (Ed.), Readings in motor
learning (pp. 12-19). Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
"Bodily skill consists essentially of a sequence, very often a repeated sequence, or cycle, of
movements, in which each item grows out of preceding and leads to succeeding movements.
When we take the item, or even a group of items out of the sequence and measure it by itself
we can get very misleading ideas about its character and properties within the skill" (p. 15).
"Notable irregularities in a pattern of control movements are the surest evidence of
awkwardness in skill, and are usually the first sign of any break up of skill as a result of
unsatisfactory working conditions " (p. 16).
Ceiling or tolerance limits raise a number of theoretical problems. Any external variations
in performance conditions (e.g., temperature, speed, load) can cause skill to be modified. If
those changes remain within a restricted range, then performance can still persist.
However, outside of that tolerable range of variations, even by a small amount, marked
changes in performance occur immediately. There is no known permanent gain that can be
derived from practicing outside these limits. Once the tolerance limits are reached for any
determining characteristic or conditions of the skill, nothing in the way of permanent gain
can be produced. Performance may be attempted in spurts, but at such a cost, that it will
exist for only a short duration. Performing outside of tolerable variations is particularly
wasteful and counter-productive. It is known that a wide range of skills begin to deteriorate
at an effective temperature of 83-88 degrees F (28-31 degrees C).
"One of the most extraordinary characters of human skill is its capacity to get narrowly tied
up with the particular conditions under which it is learned" (p. 17). Learned motor skills are
rarely transferable. The human organism is a discriminator not a generalizing agent.
Four features concerning the transfer of skill (p. 18).
1. The equipment and method of teaching must be designed rather to show what the
skill is required to effect than how the effect is produced. An outcome focus will
allow individual variability to be accommodated in the skill elements, that is, each
individual will display their own "style" while accommodating the general
principles of the technique.
2. Generally, there is more transfer from the relatively difficult (complex) to the
relatively easy (simple) rather than the other way round. Training should not
normally begin with lines of least resistance.
3. In machine directed skills (e.g., rowing, archery, kayaking) the greatest difficulties
in transfer all have to do with time and directional relations. While design must
preserve consistency, because complete uniformity cannot be achieved, training
must go as far as it can to prepare learners at an early stage for variability.
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4. Efficient learning and the normal range of exercise are largely functions of aging. It
must not be asserted that those methods which are best for young people will also be
best for people who are well into adulthood
2. DETERMINANTS OF SKILL TRANSFER FROM TRAINING TO COMPETING
Christina, R. W. (1996). Major determinants of the transfer of training:
Implications for enhancing sport performance. In K-W. Kim (Ed.) Human
performance determinants in sport (pp. 25-52). Seoul, Korea: Korean Society of Sport
Psychology.
DETERMINANTS OF SKILL TRANSFER FROM TRAINING TO COMPETING
Christina, R. W. (1996). Major determinants of the transfer of training: Implications for
enhancing sport performance. In K-W. Kim (Ed.), Human performance determinants in
sport (pp. 25-52). Seoul, Korea: Korean Society of Sport Psychology.
The motor learning literature was reviewed and the factors which affect the transfer of
skill items learned at training/practice to competitive settings were identified and
summarized. This summary highlights the general principles underlying skill
training/practice which need to be contemplated when designing activities that have the
potential to benefit competitive performances.
Training tasks need to contain the substance and methods of use of content which will
occur in the competitive setting for contest performances to be predicted with any
substantial degree of accuracy from practice performances. In the past, most theories have
only emphasized content similarities but the most recent analyses of the field of motor
learning have indicated that the use of that content is similarly important.
1. Level of Original Learning
Positive transfer can be expected to increase with the level of learning achieved in practice
providing the practice and contest tasks are structurally similar. Conversely, when training
tasks differ from contest tasks, the degree of dissimilarity interferes with the quality of the
contest performance.
Implication. The tasks of training have to be structurally similar to a contest task and very
well learned for there to be positive transfer.
2. Perceived Similarity
The basis of transfer from training to competition performances is the components shared
by both tasks. This concept has gone unchallenged for almost a century. The greater the
proportion of components of training tasks which match those of a required competitive
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performance, the greater will be the positive transfer. However, this transfer is modified by
an athlete's recognizing the components which are similar between both settings and
actively promoting their transfer.
The greater the perceived (recognized) similarity of the training and competitive situations,
the greater will be the amount of transfer. No transfer takes place when similarities are not
recognized. In some cases, when dissimilarities are perceived, an athlete's application
quality at practice will be degraded.
Implication. For full transfer to occur, athletes have to be aware of the
elements/components practiced in skills that need to be transferred to the competitive
setting. Practice activities are detrimental to competitive performances when items are
perceived to have few shared components and many distinctive/irrelevant ones.
3. Task Structure
An athlete's mental representation of what is learned at practice is constrained by the
structure of the practice tasks. When activities, such as drills, have "important" elements
imbedded in quite a number of irrelevant elements, the representation of the target
elements might be distorted by the "noisy" background elements in the practice items.
Thus, transfer will be more difficult the greater is the proportion of irrelevant to relevant
elements in the practice task. Task elements (isolated features of a skill needed for
competition), when learned out of context (in a largely irrelevant skill) will be difficult to
transfer. The quality of their execution is distorted by interference from irrelevant
elements.
Implication. Athletes need to be aware of the elements of a practice item which need to be
transferred to a competitive setting. However, that awareness will be increasingly distorted
the greater the number of irrelevant elements amongst which they are learned.
If the belief is high that similarity exists between practice and contest tasks, but the tasks
are really very dissimilar, then task transfer will be depreciated because of negative
transfer, that is, too many inappropriate/irrelevant elements will be transferred. Thus,
despite the well-meaning intentions of a coach and athlete, irrelevant activity is likely to be
harmful.
4. Similarity of Goals and Processing
Elements learned at training are more likely to be transferred to competitions when the
way they are practiced is similar to the way they will be used in the contest. The
compatibility of practice and contest tasks modifies the amount of beneficial transfer.
It is not merely the similarity of conditions between training and competitive tasks that is
important, but the similarity of the underlying cognitive processes between the two. The
mental processing and control of tasks is of such importance that when it is done correctly,
it will more than offset changes in the conditions of the competitive task.
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Implication. Transfer of appropriate processing requires the practice of the mental content
and control attempts that are likely to be used in competitions. It is not sufficient to have
only the physical characteristics between the tasks similar but the mental activity
accompanying those skills also has to be of like quality and content.
5. Number, Variability, and Order of Examples
Increases in the number of training variations of situations should increase the chance of
acquiring the most appropriate rules for transfer to competitive settings. The variations
must be within the bounds of similar physical and mental skill elements. When training is
varied to accommodate this factor, it is important that the performer be successful.
If training is varied from the outset, performance improvements are likely to be hindered.
Thus, variability must be gradually developed, each specific situation being successfully
learned before the next variation is introduced. While new variations are provided, some
revision of previous situations should also be experienced so that all options and the
general strategies underlying the variable skill remain strong.
As specific tasks and their variants are learned to produce a generalized strategy for tasks
of a specific class, transfer to novel tasks within the same class is also enhanced.
Implication. Skills and their competition-specific variations should be introduced in a
stepwise manner so that a general concept of the situational variants for the skill can be
developed. It is necessary that each variant be learned, not just "experienced" without
forming any degree of mastery.
6. Contextual Interference
Contextual interference concerns the variations and sometimes contradictions which occur
in the instructional process. If the learning experience includes inconsistencies in
instruction, content focus, and activity construct, learning in the practice environment is
slowed. However, difficult instruction can enhance retention and transfer to competitive
activities once mastery is achieved. Contextual interference induces processing strategies
which are appropriate for learning a class of tasks.
Learning should not focus on being difficult. There are some activities which do not require
flexibility in the competitive setting and so response "flexibility" would not be needed.
When an individual initially enters a sport setting it is important for experiences to be
positive and successful until a feeling of general confidence in the activity is developed.
The timing of introducing contextual interference is dependent upon the stage of learning
and the activity. When a core strategy for a task is developed, but not necessarily
overlearned, the variety of learning trials should be increased. If a task which needs to be
adaptable is overlearned and becomes too specific, the lack of adaptability will be
transferred with negative consequences. Thus, when considering contextual interference
the following should be considered as principles for instructional guidance.
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1. Increased item similarity in original learning of a task should produce better
retention and transfer when the task is the same in competition as it was in original
learning. [Sports such as shot-putting, swimming, and kayaking are in this class of
activity. Activities of this type were once termed "closed" sports.]
2. When enhanced transfer is desired over a broader range of competitive activities
than those experienced in training, a combination of both increased task similarity
and contextual variety should be used in original training. [Soccer, basketball, and
lacrosse are activities which require general strategies to be formed to cope with the
unlimited variations of situations which arise in games. These "open" skills need
variety in training for cognitive generalization to occur to adapt to various unique
competitive task demands.]
It still remains important for athletes to experience a significant number of successful trials
at practice, whether for variable or specific skills, to achieve an eventual state of
overlearning. If a basic skill strategy is not formed, then appropriate adaptability will not
be exhibited in competitions.
7. Feedback
Augmented feedback about the nature of the task outcome in relation to an environmental
goal is often referred to as "knowledge of results." Augmented feedback about the nature
of a movement technique is often referred to as "knowledge of performance."
The immediacy, accuracy, and frequency with which training feedback is provided to an
athlete enhances its usefulness for improving both learning and performance. In the early
stages of skill acquisition, feedback should be provided every trial ("continuous
reinforcement"). However, to avoid reliance on feedback once an adequate level of
performance is achieved, the frequency of feedback should be reduced ("fading" or
"stretching the schedule of reinforcement"). Retention and transfer are better after the
frequency of feedback is reduced.
Summary of Implications
1. Take time to build skills. Rapid acquisition usually means rapid forgetting or skill
loss.
2. The similarity of goals and cognitive processing between training and competitive
tasks is important for facilitating transfer.
3. Training tasks should not be too easy. Challenge and demand in practice will
facilitate better learning ("conditioned strength") and transfer. A simple criterion
for an effective practice task is that it require an athlete's undivided attention and
understanding.
4. For competition tasks which vary little, training should be specific and similar in
conditions.
5. For competition tasks which vary considerably, or produce a wide variety of rarely
repeated situations, learning conditions should feature contextual interference once
the basic skill elements are established. This will slow the learning rate but will lead
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to better transfer. Training should include high and low contextual interference
tasks.
6. Knowledge must be the same and used in the same manner in both training and
competitive tasks.
7. What is learned in training is potentially available for transfer. A large amount of
irrelevant activities or skill elements is likely to cause competitive performances to
be less than optimal.
8. Establishing the cognitive basis of performance, that is, understanding how and why
things need to be done, will lead to better transfer from training to competitive
settings.
Implications. The elements of skill that are necessary for competitive performances need to
be contextually, biomechanically, and cognitively the same in training. The value of
practice activities decreases the greater the departure of these three characteristics from
what is required in competitions. The belief that actually irrelevant practice activities will
be beneficial for athletes in competitions will be counter-productive for subsequent
competitive performances. The belief that poorly developed skill elements can be executed
in competitions because of mental application is also counter-productive. There is no
substitute or variation for the Principle of Specificity in skill training if skill is to be an
important part of a competitive performance. Some sports in some nations (e.g., swimming
and rowing in the USA) which employ a large number of practice drills that contain a
greater proportion of irrelevant skill elements will lead to poor and incorrect skill
execution in competitions because of the erroneous elements which have been practiced.
3. SPECIFICITY OF TRAINING - TRANSFER OF TRAINING EFFECTS FOR
SKILLS RARELY OCCUR
Brent S. Rushall, in answer to questions from Dr. Larry Weisenthal (1997)
. SPECIFICITY OF TRAINING - TRANSFER OF TRAINING EFFECTS FOR SKILLS
RARELY OCCUR
Brent S. Rushall, in answer to questions from Dr. Larry Weisenthal (1997).
1. Physiological changes in one activity are not necessarily beneficial to another. The
aerobic adaptations derived from running generally cannot be used effectively in
swimming. Only those derived from swimming training can be effectively used in
swimming. The specificity of aerobic adaptation is so specific that the great South
African physiologist and endurance running guru, Dr. Tim Noakes of Cape Town
University, has said:
"In aerobic endurance training, mitochondrial adaptations occur only in
muscles stimulated by activity. The response is further limited to those fibers
which are activated in the activity. Thus, white fibers are very unlikely to be
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stimulated to produce a training response in work that is consistently at or
below anaerobic threshold. These adaptations are only specific and do not
generalize to other forms of activity that may use the muscle, and therefore
muscle fibers, differently. For example, endurance gained from flat-track
running does not generalize or facilitate hill running." [This is from an
abstract in Coaching Science Abstracts Vol 1(2).]
2. It also has been clearly shown, but in the strength literature, that excess strength
does not produce any more muscular endurance than a training limited amount. In
fact, in an abstract posted to the Coaching Science Abstracts excess strength training
actually decreased muscular endurance. I use this example to argue by analogy.
Having excess in a capacity in one activity does not appear to enhance performance
above that level which is specifically needed in another activity.
Strength training advocates have proposed that excess strength provides a reserve
that can be tapped. The research evidence does not support this nor does anecdotal
evidence. It is not appropriate (possible?) to create a capacity above that which can
be maximally trained in a particular activity.
3. The value of cross training diminishes proportionally with the increase in
performance level of the athlete.
I could go on at great length about the pitfalls of the human being if it was a
generalizing animal instead of one that discriminates. A great biological argument
could be made about the value of specificity for species survival which is
contradictory to the generalization characteristics proposed in "cross-training." In
the history of sport science, the current bent on cross-training is at least the third
time that the "generality" of training principle has emerged. Each time (the last was
in the early 1960s) it has arisen, research has been regenerated and demonstrated
that there are neither general capacities nor general exercise responses. Specificity is
one of the strongest response characteristics of exercise adaptation.
4. The neural representation that exists in the cortex that dominates the training
response. Patterns of movements are what is represented in the brain as a result of
training. If there are no patterns then an individual has to respond consciously to
exercise, that is, think every movement (the cognitive control of movement). That is
what happens with beginners. However, for automated movements, a movement
pattern has to be represented so that the pattern is evoked without any cognitive
interference. Thus, it is not possible for the highest level of performance to select
characteristics from other movements and employ them. This is one reason why the
"excess capacity" argument does not work.
For very high levels of performance to occur, movements have to be strongly and
specifically represented in the cerebrum. Without sufficient training to produce an
overlearned state, automated and smooth movements will not result. This means
that only kicking in swimming in an appropriate manner and with lots of repetition
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will there develop a good kicking pattern. The problem is do the training activities
produce sufficient repetitions of "race-type" kicking?
The central feature of all performance is that all movement and movement
capacities are neurally controlled. To argue theoretical postulations without
including a neural qualifier is a dangerous path.
4. CORRECT PRACTICE
Ashy, M. H., Landin, D. K., & Lee, A. M. (1988). Relationship of practice using
correct technique to achievement in a motor skill. Journal of Teaching in Physical
Education, 7, 115-120.
CORRECT PRACTICE
Ashy, M. H., Landin, D. K., & Lee, A. M. (1988). Relationship of practice using correct
technique to achievement in a motor skill. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 7,
115-120.
80 fourth-grade students learning soccer skills were assessed for achievement related to
correct practice.
1. The total number of practice trials was not related to achievement.
2. The total number of correct trials was related to achievement.
Implication. Performing practice trials without attention to correct technique does not
improve skill acquisition as well as correct performance. The best route for skill
enhancement would be to increase the number of properly executed practice trials.
When learning, errors and incorrect trials should be minimized. Incorrect trials are a
waste of time.
5. MASTERY LEARNING
Blakemore, C. L., Hilton, H. G., Harrison, J. M., Pellett, T. L., & Gresh, J. (1992).
Comparison of students taught basketball skills using mastery and nonmastery
learning methods. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11, 235-247.
MASTERY LEARNING
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Blakemore, C. L., Hilton, H. G., Harrison, J. M., Pellett, T. L., & Gresh, J. (1992).
Comparison of students taught basketball skills using mastery and nonmastery learning
methods. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11, 235-247.
Mastery learning is an instructional strategy that embraces the philosophy that almost
anyone can learn what is being taught given sufficient time and help. Mastery students
receive knowledge about the results of their performance, along with a prescription of
corrective or enrichment activities, each time an assessment is made. This study attempted
to instruct three basketball skills to seventh-grade boys.
A control and non-mastery instructional group were compared. Students in the mastery
group were not taught new skills until 80% had mastered the skills instructed. The other
two groups did not change in individual skill performance. The mastery group performed
significantly better on isolated skills than did the other two groups. There was no
significant difference between the groups in performance of skills in competitive games.
Implication. Goals aimed at mastery improve skills at practice. However, the transfer of
those improvements to competitive settings is not likely unless there is considerable
similarity between the practice and competition situations.
6. VARIED MOTOR SKILL PRACTICE IS BENEFICIAL FOR BEGINNERS
Kerr, R., & Booth, B. (1978). Specific and varied practice of motor skill. Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 46, 395-401.
VARIED MOTOR SKILL PRACTICE IS BENEFICIAL FOR BEGINNERS
Kerr, R., & Booth, B. (1978). Specific and varied practice of motor skill. Perceptual and
Motor Skills, 46, 395-401.
The effect of varied and specific practice on schema formation was studied. Schema theory
suggests that an individual can use information from a previous perceptual trace to develop
a trace for a new variation of a task.
Two groups of 8-12 years-old children (N = 64) performed a novel throwing task. They
were measured at the beginning and finish of a 12-week physical education program.
8-years group. The specific practice group performed four blocks of four trials at a
distance of three feet. The varied practice group performed two blocks of four trials at
distances of two and four feet. The final test was throwing at three feet.
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12-years group. The specific group practiced at four feet, the varied at three and five feet.
The test was at four feet.
Results. There were no differences between the groups initially but at the end the varied
practice groups were significantly better. Varied practice enhanced performance over
specific practice provided the varied practice encompassed the specific task.
Implication. For beginners it is helpful to vary the task when they are developing the
schema (familiar general strategies) for performing some activity.
Fleishman (1957 - see reference below) found that motor ability is initially general but then
becomes more specific with practice relative to learning motor skills. Thus, depending upon
the stage of learning of a person, the instructional strategy will be determined as to whether
it supports or discriminates against skill generalization. This neither supports nor denies
transfer of learning effects.
Specificity may be due to the skill elements added due to a special experience. One cannot
assume that there is a conversion or expansion of the basic motor ability.
[Fleishman, E. A. (1957). A comparative study of aptitude patterns in unskilled and skilled
motor performances. Journal of Applied Psychology, 41, 263-272.]
7. FACTORS IN LEARNING SKILLED BEHAVIORS
Abernethy, B. (1991). Acquisition of motor skills. In F. S. Pyke (Ed.), Better
Coaching (pp. 69-98), Canberra, Australia: Australian Coaching Council .
FACTORS IN LEARNING SKILLED BEHAVIORS
Abernethy, B. (1991). Acquisition of motor skills. In F. S. Pyke (Ed.), Better Coaching (pp.
69-98), Canberra, Australia: Australian Coaching Council.
The following concepts should govern the structure of skill-development experiences at
sport practices.
1. Provide the opportunity for the greatest number of practice-trials-with-feedback
possible.
2. Massed practices that lead to high levels of fatigue and performance deterioration,
in the long-run, seem to be just as effective for developing skills as well-spaced
practice sessions which allow recovery and the maintenance of good practice
standards. However, too much excessively massed practice can be detrimental to
learning and other factors associated with performance. It would be prudent to err
on the side of beneficially spaced practice and recovery opportunities rather than
excessive overloading.
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3. Varied practice activities contribute to developing a capacity for adaptation to
varying competitive demands and conditions. Even in seemingly constantperformance sports (e.g., closed-activities, for example, running, rowing, kayaking)
some digression in practice demands are necessary to accommodate the withincompetition skill variations (e.g., practicing within the range of paces likely to be
experienced, adapting to various competitive conditions such as weather, water
conditions, etc.). However, the development of adaptability and response flexibility
should not go outside of the activity itself. It would be incorrect to assume that
improvements in cycling will somehow transfer to kayaking speed. Even within a
sport, it would be incorrect to assume that movement patterns which would never
arise in a competitive performance, such as those developed by "drills," contribute
to performance improvements.
The purpose of varied practice activities and drills should be to allow the athlete to
adapt to all conditions and performance variations which could arise in a
competitive experience.
4. "The more specific the practice or training drills can be to the sport [competitive
settings and demands], the more effective they will be in enhancing competitive
performances. If transfer of learning from the practice session to the game or
competitive situations is to be maximized, the demands of the practice session
should mimic as closely as possible the demands of the sport itself (not only in terms
of the movement execution requirements but also in terms of the perceptual and
decision-making aspects of the performance). . . In general, motor skills are highly
specific and transfer of learning between different motor skills is quite small. The
best means of enhancing transfer is to maximize the similarity between the practice
and competition ('practice as you play'). When practice drills that differ from
competition are used the purpose of the drills in terms of improved competitive
performance should be clearly explained [justified]." (p. 95)
5. When teaching new skills [or altering established skills] it is common practice to
break skills into component parts and "build" the movement patterns. This "partwhole" approach is most effective when the skill to be learned is complex and has
clearly defined natural breaks or components (e.g., a gymnastics routine). Such an
approach to learning [or modification] however, may be of little to no value when
the skill is essentially continuous with no natural breaks (such as in running,
swimming).
6. Mental practice, when interspersed with physical practice, under some
circumstances assists in both immediate and long-term sports performance
improvements.
Implication. The experiences and dynamics of skills practice differ between sports. The
nature of the competitive situation will usually dictate the scope and variations of activities
that have to be learned and trained. However, in all sports there is a limitation on the
extent of beneficial activities which will affect competitive performances positively.
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Practice activities would seem to be of questionable value if they cannot be justified on the
grounds of direct relevance and transfer potential to competitive tasks and conditions
8. GOALS SHOULD BE SET AT A PARTICULAR STAGE OF THE LEARNING
EXPERIENCE
Mone, M. A., & Baker, D. D. (1989). Stage of task learning as a moderator of the
goal-performance relationship. Human Performance, 2, 85-99.
GOALS SHOULD BE SET AT A PARTICULAR STAGE OF THE LEARNING
EXPERIENCE
Mone, M. A., & Baker, D. D. (1989). Stage of task learning as a moderator of the goalperformance relationship. Human Performance, 2, 85-99.
It was found that specific, difficult goals resulted in higher performance levels than doyour-best goals when assigned to Ss in the middle stages of learning. This is the stage when
performance strategies and behavioral patterns are being established. The goals
supposedly energize higher levels of application which stimulate a greater learning rate.
Implication. When athletes start to learn to focus on multiple elements of performance
(e.g., technique items plus strategic determinations) is the time when goal difficulty and
expectations should be increased if performance improvements are to be stimulated
optimally.
9. BETWEEN TRIALS ACTIVITY
Magill, R., & Lee, T. D. (1984, October). Interference during the post-KR interval can
enhance learning motor skills. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the
Canadian Society of Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology, Kingston, ON.
BETWEEN TRIALS ACTIVITY
Magill, R., & Lee, T. D. (1984, October). Interference during the post-KR interval can
enhance learning motor skills. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Canadian
Society of Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology, Kingston, ON.
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Several conditions of post-trial activity were evaluated for effect upon performance. After a
learning trial (the "post-knowledge-of-results" interval) Ss were involved in no activity,
verbal activity, related motor activity, or unrelated motor activity.
Performance was affected by the type of post-trial activity. Performance was either
maintained by some form of post-KR activity or superior to when there was no post-KR
activity.
It was advocated that after a practice trial of a skill, a learner should engage in some
activity (not yet determined if that activity should be related or unrelated to the skill)
before the next repetition of the skill.
Implication. For effective learning to occur between repetitions of learning trials there has
to be a minimum amount of time to allow feedback from a trial to produce a learning
effect. That effect does not seem to be modified to any great extent if between-trials activity
is related or unrelated to what is being learned. This means that it is possible to repeat
trials too close together. Such rapidity does not allow the full learning effects from each
repetition to occur.
For example, when practicing basketball free throws, after each shot there should be some
non-shooting activity (e.g., put the ball down, walk around the circle, recommence the preshot routine) before commencing the physical movement in the next trial.
There obviously is too short of a period and too long of a period that can occur between
trials where learning is intended.
As a further example, when tennis players practice from behind a baseline and stroke at a
rate of approximately one every two seconds, it is unlikely that effective learning will occur,
that is shot accuracy and technique will not be improved. In that form of practice not only
is one type of shot not developed because there are usually a variety of strokes played, but
the lack of feedback utilization most probably will result in the player developing more
consistency in performing both the good and bad strokes practiced rather than improving
in any one class of stroke.
It is possible to practice repetitions at too fast a rate to the extent that feedback from one
practice trial cannot be used to influence the performance of the next trial. Without that
utilization learning will not occur optimally.
10. EARLY LEARNING/TRAINING IS NOT NECESSARILY THE BEST
Scott, J. P. (1962). Critical periods in behavioral development. Science, 138, 949-958.
EARLY LEARNING/TRAINING IS NOT NECESSARILY THE BEST
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Scott, J. P. (1962). Critical periods in behavioral development. Science, 138, 949-958.
Certain periods in the life of young children are marked by times of particular sensitivity.
For example, in McGraw's (1935 - see reference below) attempts to modify the behaviors of
identical twins by teaching them a number of physical activities, some credence to the
"appropriate times for learning" postulation was presented.



The onset of walking was not affected by preemptory practice or help. It is a
phylogenetic behavior that is largely "programmed" into the natural developmental
timing of the youngster. It cannot be "speeded-up."
Roller skating, an unnatural activity but closely allied to walking, developed almost
in concert with walking itself.
A number of other activities were actually made worse by early practice because of
bad skill habits developed or the negative occurrences associated with the learning
experience.
Implication. Starting a sporting experience at a very young age is not necessarily
advantageous. It would seem that if one was to design development in a sport, the following
would be appropriate:




Provide a wide variety of activities so that generalized basic gross skills are
developed.
Pay little attention to skill intricacies, instead being satisfied with gross motor
movement patterns.
Provide much activity that leads to successful outcomes.
Avoid at all costs, the implementation of adult rules and sport dynamics, instead
providing activities appropriate for the social, intellectual, and development stages
of the participants.
There are critical periods for learning that vary from sport to sport. For each kind of
coordinated muscular activity there is an optimum time for rapid and skillful learning.
[McGraw, M. B. (1935). Growth: A study of Johnny and Jimmy. New York, NY: AppletonCentury-Crofts.]
THE CONTENT OF SPORTS INSTRUCTION
11. PERFORMANCE INFORMATION FEEDBACK - A NECESSARY INGREDIENT
FOR SKILL LEARNING
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Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control
of behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp.
55-63).
PERFORMANCE INFORMATION FEEDBACK - A NECESSARY INGREDIENT FOR
SKILL LEARNING
[Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control of
behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp. 55-63)]
A consequence that is of great importance in the acquisition and maintenance of motor
behaviors is information feedback (IF). IF has been defined as information resulting from a
response (Fitts and Posner, 1967). The theoretical function of IF in skilled performance is
still a matter of dispute. Skinner (1969) has recently suggested that IF should not be used as
a synonym for operant reinforcement. Learning theorists, on the other hand, have begun to
pay particular attention to the motivational properties of IF (Fitts and Posner, 1967;
Anokhin, 1969; E. A. Bilodeau, 1969). A discussion of the feedback/reinforcement
properties of performance information is presented in Chapter 10. The reader is
encouraged to take this discussion into account when examining the more practical features
of IF presented in this section. Coaches and teachers have the power to control at least
some features of IF. These features act as secondary reinforcers.
Theorists are in complete agreement that IF is essential for skilled performance. After
reviewing a number of studies that manipulated various sets of feedback factors, Bilodeau
concluded the following about the frequency of information feedback.
"This appears very clearly in the need for IF in improving and sustaining performance, or in
three repeatedly demonstrated empirical effects: performance fails to improve unless IF is
introduced; performance improves with IF; and performance either deteriorates if IF is
withdrawn, or shows no further improvement." (I. McD. Bilodeau, 1969, p. 260.)
Such a conclusion is, in itself, of importance to physical educators as it suggests that
learning environments in sport and physical education can be improved by focusing on the
frequency and clarity of IF.
A variety of descriptions exist about the forms of IF derived from performance of a skilled
act. For purposes of this text, IF will be categorized using the framework suggested by
Holding (1965).
There are two main types of IF: intrinsic and artificial. Intrinsic IF refers to information
that is inherent in a task. In tennis, for example, the lines on the court provide information
as to whether a shot was good. The net and markings of the service area provide
information as to the efficacy of a serve. The primary role of intrinsic feedback is that it
allows the performer to evaluate a response. It provides a frame of reference so that errors
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in response can be detected and attempts made to correct them. It is this discrepancy
(error) between the actual response and the desired response that acts as input for the next
response, and it is in this sense that theorists talk about feedback loops. It is obvious that
some sports activities provide a great deal of intrinsic evaluative feedback. This is true of
tennis, bowling, badminton, and golf for example. Others such as track running events,
swimming, and dance provide very little.
Intrinsic IF refers also to the normal organic sensations which occur during and following
a physical performance. These sensations arise through kinesthetic stimulation and provide
cues about the rate and location of movements. They are important for attempts at
replicating successful responses. Typically, when a response achieves a desired end the
performer attempts to "do the same again." Kinesthetic IF provides cues which indicate to
the performer the amount and type of movement that has been performed.
Although kinesthetic IF is an important variable in most motor learning theories it is
difficult for the teacher or coach to use. It is potentially available through manual
manipulation of the performer by the teacher. When the limbs and bodily positions of a
performer can be manipulated by the teacher, some form of kinesthetic IF is produced. The
idea, quite simply, is to have the learner experience the "feel" of proper form. Beginning
swimmers can be handled in the initial stages by having the instructor rotate their arms,
turn their heads for breathing, hold them in a horizontal floating position, and move their
legs in a flutter kick. Young children who lack the facility for verbal comprehension are
also aided through manual manipulation. Lawther (1968) suggested that this is also a
useful technique when instructing aged or handicapped performers.
Certain kinds of training devices also create situations in which a learner may experience
the kinesthetic feedback associated with an acceptable form of movement. The safety belt
in gymnastics allows the learner to experience the kinesthetic IF from rotary movement
without the fear of disastrous consequences. Basketball teachers have for years used
"blinders" as an aid to teaching higher levels of skill in dribbling. The blinders prevent the
learner from looking down, thus minimizing the visual IF of seeing the hand control the
ball. With the visual IF minimized, the learner is forced to attend to the kinesthetic IF, thus
developing the ability to dribble by "touch."
Manual manipulation is obviously of limited usefulness simply because only one performer
can be manipulated at a time, thus making the technique inefficient in terms of time-cost. It
seems to be most useful with normal learners when other methods have been attempted
and have not produced the desired results. Training devices which require the performer to
approximate a desired topography (form) offer a much more fruitful approach to the
problem of kinesthetic IF. It should be hoped that physical educators will experiment with
various kinds of training devices especially in those activities where the amount of intrinsic
evaluative IF is minimal.
Practices already exist in coaching and teaching skills which can provide the performer
with a "feel" for a particular action. This "feel" refers to the kind of kinesthetic IF which is
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associated with the final desired level of skill. The method for providing this IF has several
characteristics:
1. the activity is graded into developmental steps,
2. each step provides successful execution, and
3. each step more closely approximates the final action.
These features will be discussed more fully in Chapter 7. [See sections on "shaping" in this
issue of Coaching Science Abstracts.]
Artificial IF refers to information that is not usually available in the performance of a task.
This is extra information that is added by the teacher for training purposes. It is also often
referred to as augmented feedback. The most common form of artificial IF is evaluative
comments by an instructor. Whenever a teacher or coach suggests a change in form or
comments on a particular response, the information provided comes under the
classification of artificial IF. While being of importance in many teaching situations, the
limitations of verbal IF are obvious. Feedback can be supplied to only one learner at a time
and the teacher's attention must be focused on the one learner for a minimal period of time
in order to evaluate the performance.
The potential importance of artificial IF for teaching in physical education and sports is in
finding ways of providing extra performance information to many learners during or
immediately after their performances. As such, the use of pacing machines, ergometers,
metering devices, and other evaluative tools merits a great deal of investigation.
Results of research dealing with the effectiveness of artificial IF have not been too
encouraging. Many studies find that performance is increased while the artificial IF is
present but deteriorates once it is removed (E. A. Bilodeau, 1969). This kind of result has
been particularly prominent in motor skills research. Research in other fields has yielded
more optimistic results for the potential of artificial IF (Collier, 1971). Holding (1965) has
spoken quite succinctly to the problem of the permanency of IF.
The difficulty about putting in artificial knowledge of results is that its effects may not last
after its removal. Eventually the learner must come to rely upon the intrinsic cues. There is
no point in learning to rely upon information which will not be there when training is
finished. The success of techniques of augmenting feedback will depend upon whether they
call attention to the intrinsic cues or make possible control of the relevant responses in a
way which can later be taken over by the intrinsic cues.
It appears that the task of the teacher and coach is to find forms of artificial IF that will
increase performance during training and allow for transfer to intrinsic IF sources which
will in turn maintain performance at high levels after training. The operant strategies that
follow in later chapters address this problem directly.
A second level at which IF types may be categorized is concurrent or terminal. Concurrent
IF refers to information that is available during the performance of a task, that is, while a
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response is being made. Intrinsic kinesthetic IF is of the concurrent variety as is the
information provided by the speedometer on a car or the self-monitoring of the pace of a
runner by a clock that is always within the visual field. Terminal IF refers to information
that arises as a result of a completed response. It is often referred to as knowledge of results
(KR). Arrows in a target and the success or failure of a jump shot are examples of terminal
IF. It would appear that terminal IF is of great importance for the learning of individual
skills such as the volleyball serve, tennis forehand, or football punt. Research has been
quite consistent in revealing that terminal IF is not only important to the learning process,
but, indeed, is a necessary condition for any learning to occur.
It would be beneficial if the higher performances developed with concurrent, artificial IF
could be maintained after the training period. It would appear that the best method by
which to accomplish this would be to gradually transfer control of the behavior from the
artificial source to the intrinsic IF source in a manner similar to the procedure known as
stimulus fading. Siedentop (in press) attempted to do this when having subjects learn to
walk at a particular pace around an oval course. The "fade" group started out with full
concurrent artificial IF, that is, the elapsed time from the start of each trial was
communicated verbally to them. The frequency of the artificial verbal IF was gradually
reduced until during the final training sessions the subjects received only terminal IF.
Throughout the training period the faded IF was sufficient to maintain a very high level of
performance, but during the transfer sessions when no IF was available this group did not
perform as well as another group that had been trained under terminal IF conditions. This
study demonstrated the difficulty of transferring artificial KR control to intrinsic IF cues.
Methods need to be found for doing this. It seems to be possible in some situations (Rushall,
1970) but difficult in others.
A third level of categorization of IF should be mentioned briefly. This is immediate or
delayed IF. With animal subjects IF must be reasonably immediate for learning to occur,
but with human subjects terminal IF can be delayed somewhat without hindering the
acquisition of skill (Annett, 1969). The same is not true, however, for concurrent feedback.
Any recognizable delay in concurrent feedback virtually destroys the subject's ability to
perform. This phenomenon is most dramatically displayed in experiments dealing with
delay of concurrent feedback in speech. In such an experiment the performer most often
stutters, slurs words, and acts generally as if inebriated (Lee, 1950).
Although there has been much research done in the area of feedback during the past
decade many questions remain unanswered and a great deal of creative work must be done
in applying the results of feedback research to the teaching of sports skills. Most
importantly, what is known is that improvements in performance are directly related to the
availability of IF, and when IF is removed performance most often deteriorates. It is also
obvious that artificial IF will be important to the degree that it calls attention to intrinsic IF
that will maintain the performance level after the artificial IF has been removed. There is
also still much to be learned about the effects of different amounts and specificities of IF.
It is the task of the teacher and coach to apply the results of research intelligently and
creatively. In many present situations in physical education and sports the level of IF is
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notoriously low, especially when one considers its basic importance in the learning process.
Some activities do provide instant results. A jump shot is either successful or unsuccessful.
The shooter is even able to see if his attempts are more closely approximating success. A
golfer receives rather clear IF as does the archer, place-kicker, and bowler. Activities
which are tests of accuracy generally provide enough IF for an individual to improve
considerably over time without the aid of a coach. The reinforcement (IF and self-evaluated
improvement) gained from performance is sufficient to maintain the practice behavior of
an individual for long periods of time. Likewise, it is generally not difficult to get students
and athletes to practice activities which provide this kind of evaluative intrinsic IF.
Although this kind of trial-and-error learning is made possible because of the intrinsic IF,
it is most certainly not an optimal learning environment. The golfer may hit the fairway
with his drive on one hole and slice badly on the next. It is difficult for him to learn why the
one shot was successful and the other not. Through repeated attempts to reproduce the
movement pattern associated with the correct drive he may develop a more consistent,
acceptable performance. On the other hand, he may not. For one thing, the learner in this
situation gets no IF about his form (topography). For him to systematically attempt to
change the topography of his response without outside aid is virtually impossible. He needs
the helpful comments of an instructor and/or the visual evaluative IF supplied by a
videotape replay of his swing. Coaches and teachers perform a vital role in developing the
topography of behavior.
Another problem occurs with young learners. The fact is that good results for a beginner
may not always shape a response that will be useful in the long-run. The young basketball
player may have to adopt a rather unique form in order to generate enough force to shoot
the ball up to a 10-foot-high basket. In a trial-and-error situation the intrinsic IF (making
or missing the shot) for this youngster might shape a response that will not be very useful
when he gets older and wants to compete at higher levels of skill. In such situations there
are two possible solutions. The first would be to adapt the learning environment to the
developmental level of the learner so that the IF would shape responses which are more
nearly acceptable, that is, lower the basket and use a smaller ball. The second would be to
have the learner ignore the IF and concentrate on some other source of IF. The latter
solution does not seem promising because results are usually strong secondary reinforcers.
There are also a great many activities which call for long periods of training but do not
have much intrinsic evaluative IF. Swimming, track running, and rowing are examples of
such activities. In the sheer repetitive training situation, performers need some kind of
artificial IF (usually standards of some type) to control and evaluate their performances.
The cross-country runner will not improve as quickly as he/she should if he/she is simply
told to run 6 miles for practice and is not provided with any IF about the standard of
performance.
The problem is even more acute when one considers skill learning rather than work output.
Suppose, for example, that a swimming coach attempting to make a slight change in
technique, tells the swimmer to push back further at the end of the freestyle arm pull. The
swimmer then swims to the other end of the pool executing perhaps 30 responses but
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receiving no artificial IF about the success of attempts. This is an inefficient use of time, is
potentially harmful to the swimmer's performance if done incorrectly, and violates a basic
principle of learning. The coach should have devised some method which provided
information about the success or failure of each swim stroke. Unfortunately, the situation is
rather typical of attempts to change behavior in physical education and sport.
Consider the track runner who is told to run with a lower arm carry and to try that new
technique for a certain distance. The athlete then attempts to perform what he/she thinks is
the correct interpretation of the coach's instructions. In the meantime, the coach has
turned attention to another athlete while the practicing athlete receives no IF about
performance of the new technique. This kind of minor change in technique can be
accomplished quickly if IF is available at all times during the initial period of change and
intermittently thereafter (see Chapter 7).
Learners in a physical education class usually get even less IF due to the large numbers in
such classes. Take, for example, the common situation in which the teacher instructs the
class as a whole on how to execute a skill such as the backhand drive in tennis. Students are
then dispersed over a wide area to practice what they have just "learned." The usual result
is that a variety of techniques is displayed by the students and many fail to change in the
desired direction during the time spent in class. This is due primarily to the inadequate
level of IF available to the learners. Many students adopt strategies that, while affording
them some immediate success, prevent them from ever developing the desired level of skill.
This happens quite simply because the only IF available to them is the intrinsic KR of
whether the shot goes over the net and stays within the boundaries of the court. They tend
to adopt strategies that bring about this desired result even if such strategies are not in the
direction of the model provided by the instructor. A further problem is created in these
situations because once an inappropriate strategy is learned it becomes resistant to change.
A great deal of investigation is needed to develop new kinds of IF systems and techniques
that will be useful for large group instruction. It is obvious that the teacher or coach cannot
develop an efficient learning environment if he is the only source of artificial IF.
An example of the effective use of IF was given by Rushall (1970). The task was to change
certain aspects of the technique of a highly skilled swimmer. As has already been
mentioned, the difficulty with such a learning task is finding a method by which IF can be
made contingent on each response of the learner. Since the intrinsic IF in swimming is not
nearly precise enough to bring about the desired changes, some form of artificial IF was
necessary. A simple, adequate device for providing IF was a direct-light beam flashlight
that was portable and hand-operated. A precurrent training session established the
absence of the light as the signal that the new technique was being correctly executed. The
presence of the light, on the other hand, indicated an error. The subject in this case was
swimming the butterfly stroke. It was possible to stand at one end of the pool and direct the
light beam at the swimmer's eyes so that on every breathing phase the swimmer received
IF. If three consecutive incorrect responses (stroke cycles) were made, the swimmer
stopped for further instruction. In this manner the new techniques were shaped rather
quickly. Many repetitions of an undesired response were avoided. Interestingly, this
method of providing artificial IF also allowed the swimmer to learn the intrinsic IF cues
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that were associated with the new techniques. Because of this the swimmer's improved
performance continued after the artificial IF was removed.
Another instance can be cited in rowing, where coaches for some time have used
megaphones and microphone systems to provide IF to athletes while they are performing.
In this case the system was automated one step further. The speed of the boat was
monitored by a sensing device attached to it. When the boat achieved a desired speed, a bell
was sounded for a short period during each stroke. The boat speed was calculated to be fast
enough to win a race and the device was set. The task for the oarsmen was quite simply to
keep the bell ringing. Under these conditions the crew rowed faster than they ever had
before, even in competition. When the artificial IF was removed, however, the performance
returned to previous levels. Evidently the artificial IF had been such that it did not allow
for transfer to intrinsic IF sources.
For performance tasks in which the evaluative criteria are fairly simple, automated IF
systems will maximize the efficiency of the learning environment. If, for example, force is
the desired goal for football lineman in blocking, then accurate, reliable, and immediate IF
can be provided by rigging a force plate to a blocking sled. With such a device, practice
behaviors could be controlled and new techniques could be learned more quickly.
It is much more difficult to automate IF systems for skills in which the evaluative criteria
are more complex. The task of coaching techniques and skills is difficult to evaluate
mechanically. The coach is the one who decides whether each repetition of an operant is
correct. Even with this limitation, however, the mode of communicating IF should not be
difficult to develop. In this case it is the system by which the IF is administered that is
important. It must always be kept in mind that changes in behavior are brought about
through the consistency and frequency of the IF-reinforcer.
The theoretical differences between the concepts of information feedback and
reinforcement are difficult to sort out and these have been treated separately in Chapter
10. What is important to recognize here is that in many cases peculiar to sports and
physical education IF is the most effective secondary reinforcer available for the
maintenance and development of skilled behaviors. Many learning and training
environments could be vastly improved by paying particular attention to the amount,
specificity, and frequency of the IF available to the individual performer.
References
1. Annett, J. (1969). Feedback and human behavior. Baltimore, MD: Penguin.
2. Anokhin, P. K. (1969). Cybernetics and the integrative activity of the brain. In M.
Cole (Ed.), A handbook of contemporary Soviet psychology. New York, NY: Basic.
3. Bilodeau, E. A. (1969). Supplementary feedback and instructions. In E. A. Bilodeau
(Ed.), Principles of skill acquisition. New York, NY: Academic.
4. Bilodeau, I. McD. (1969). Information feedback. In E. A. Bilodeau (Ed.), Principles
of skill acquisition. New York, NY: Academic.
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5. Collier, R. L. (1971, April). Brain power, the case for biofeedback training. Saturday
Review, 10 April, 10-13, 58.
6. Fitts, P. M, & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human performance. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
7. Holding, D. H. (1965). Principles of training. Oxford, England: Pergamon.
8. Lawther, J. (1968). The learning of physical skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.
9. Lee, B. S. (1950). Effects of delayed speech feedback. Journal of Acoustical Society of
America, 22, 824-826.
10. Rushall, B. S. (1970). Some applications of psychology to swimming. Swimming
Technique, 7, 71-82.
11. Siedentop, D. (in press). Effects of faded feedback on acquisition of a pacing skill.
Unpublished paper, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
12. Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement. New York, NY: AppletonCentury-Crofts.
12. FEEDBACK AND REINFORCEMENT
Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control
of behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp.
204-207).
FEEDBACK AND REINFORCEMENT
[Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control of
behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp. 204-207).]
A golfer finds that a putt breaks sharply to the right as it approaches the hole. A college
freshman participating in a psychology experiment attempts to draw an 18-inch line and is
told by the experimenter that it was three inches short. A laboratory animal is given a food
pellet for pressing a lever only when a certain amount of time has elapsed since it last
pressed the lever. A driver glances at his speedometer and finds that he/she is going 12
miles per hour over the speed limit. These are four examples of the results of responses; a
missed putt, a line three inches short, a food pellet, and a speedometer that reads 12 miles
per hour over a speed limit. In each case, it is reasonable to assume that more trials under
similar conditions would result in performance changes that could be described as
learning. The golfer learns to "read" the green; the psychology student learns to draw an
18-inch line; the pigeon learns to respond at a low rate (drl); and the driver learns either
the feel of traveling at 35 miles per hour or to watch his speedometer more closely.
How can these behavioral processes be explained? The results obviously play the crucial
role (see the treatment of "Performance Information" in Chapter 4), but are they more
profitably viewed as feedback or reinforcement? Are the two separable? Most practitioners
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and researchers in motor learning would favor a feedback view of human behavior. Like
John Annett, in Feedback and Human Behavior, they would support the view that a
feedback model is more directly applicable and relevant to motor skills training than is a
reinforcement model.
Research in motor learning has a long and substantial history in this century (see Chapter
2). Some of the research was generated from a Hullian drive-reduction reinforcement
model, but recently the shift in theoretical emphasis has been clearly toward an
information model of human behavior in which feedback is the central experimental
variable. Feedback is most often defined as the error detected in a comparison between a
response (R1) and a standard. Feedback becomes input for the next response (R2), and R2
is modified on the basis of the feedback from R1.
During the past 20 years feedback theory and operant conditioning have flourished side by
side with little contact between the two. Recently, operant conditioning has generated a
significant technology that can account for behavior change in a number of varied human
situations. While there are some interesting, if primarily academic differences between the
models, the central issue seems to be the question of motivation.
The feedback and reinforcement literature itself shows that the issue had inevitably to be
raised. E. A. Bilodeau (1966) suggested that theories of motor performance could not
survive forever without an anchor in motivational theory and research. However, he also
spoke of the lack of popularity among motor learning theorists of conditioning analyses of
verbal and motor skills learning. More recently Skinner (1969) suggested that feedback
had been widely misused as a synonym for operant reinforcement. At other times, however,
Skinner has talked about reinforcement as control over changes in the environment and
made it sound very much like a feedback variable.
Children play for hours with mechanical toys, paints, scissors and paper, noise-makers,
puzzles-in short, with almost anything which feeds back significant changes in the
environment and is reasonably free of aversive properties. The sheer control of nature is in
itself reinforcing (Skinner, 1968, p. 20).
It is tempting to simply suggest that feedback is a secondary reinforcer. There is no doubt
that feedback does act as a secondary reinforcer, and this is essentially the position adopted
earlier in this text. However, the two constructs -- feedback and reinforcement -- have
developed from entirely different theoretical frameworks, and it would be a mistake at this
point in time to argue that they are synonyms. It is also going too far, as Sage (1971)
recently suggested, to call Skinner a feedback theorist. Current levels of investigation allow
one to say no more than that events normally described as feedback also possess
reinforcing qualities and events normally described as reinforcers also possess
informational qualities. This is the position adopted by Ammons (1956) and Holding
(1965).
Feedback theorists most often point to two types of research results which seem to be in
conflict with operant conditioning theory. The first is the scheduling of feedback where
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research indicates rather clearly that performance changes are a function of the absolute
rather than the relative frequency of IF (Bilodeau & Bilodeau, 1958; Larre, 1961). Such
results seem to conflict with the effects generally attributed to intermittent reinforcement.
A second area of research that conflicts with operant psychology is in the delay of IF.
Again, there appears to be ample evidence to suggest that delays in IF do not hinder the
learning process (Bilodeau & Bilodeau, 1958; 1969), whereas delays in reinforcement are
considered to detract from the possibility of behavior change.
Some of the conflict in research results between the two concepts is due to the
inappropriateness of applying a variable from one model in an experimental design
generated from the other model. In operant psychology rate of emission of behavior is
almost always the dependent variable. Feedback research, on the other hand, uses
magnitude of response as its dependent variable. Schedules of reinforcement are studied in
terms of their effects on the response pattern of already learned behavior. Feedback
research has tried to use scheduling as an independent variable in behavior acquisition
studies. This is not to suggest that there are no differences. Future research, if designed to
investigate the differences rather than to prove one position or another, hopefully will
clarify the issue.
Performance information does have secondary reinforcing power, and the strength of IF as
a reinforcer depends upon:
1. the number of reinforcers it has been paired with; e.g., peer approval, parental
affection, etc.,
2. the number of pairings, for example, how important is it that the individual improve
his performance, and
3. the strength of the individual reinforcers with which it has been paired, for example,
if peer approval is a very strong reinforcer for a given individual and it has been
paired with improvement in a sport skill then the IF from the sport skill will be a
fairly strong secondary reinforcer.
To view IF as possessing secondary reinforcing power allows one to utilize the entire
operant framework to understand motivation in the learning and performing of sport
skills. Without the operant framework, however, the motivational question in learning
motor skill remains unanswered.
Annett (1969) suggested that motivation is "feedback in action." He dichotomizes
motivation into energizing and directional components and suggests that the "power,"
"standard," and "error signal" are all necessary for motivated performance. Annett takes
the position that pay for piecework in a factory is feedback, but as feedback its primary
role is to release corrective action and, "it may not matter very much if this information is
signaled in pennies, dollars, pounds, or 'grubs' " (Annett, 1969, p. 121). One wonders how
an automobile manufacturer would do by providing "feedback" to his workers with a
weekly "grubcheck" instead of a paycheck. It is at this point that feedback theorists have a
difficult time explaining motivation. Within an operant framework the analysis would, of
course, be quite direct and straightforward.
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Adams (1971), in a more recent feedback theory of motor behavior, suggested that error is
motivating. This may be true in some instances, but the analysis does not go far enough.
Why is error, a missed shot for a basketball player for example, more motivating for one
person than it is for another? Why do some people persist longer in the face of
performance errors? From an operant framework the answers are easily drawn in terms of
the strength and scheduling of the secondary reinforcer, but from a feedback point of view
they are not so easily answered. One also must recognize that too great an error or too
many errors would no doubt act as a negative reinforcer and decrease responding in the
particular situation within which the errors were made. One must conclude that Bilodeau's
(1966) earlier statement has not yet been fully answered and that feedback theory is still a
long way from being able to answer problems in motivation.
References
1. Adams, J. (1971). A closed loop theory of motor learning. Journal of Motor
Behavior, 3, 111-150.
2. Ammons, R. B. (1956). Effects of knowledge of performance: A survey and tentative
theoretical formulation. Journal of General Psychology, 54, 279.
3. Annett, J. (1969). Feedback and human behavior. Baltimore, MD: Penguin.
4. Bilodeau, E. A. (1966). Supplementary feedback and instructions. In E. A. Bilodeau
(Ed.), Acquisition of skill. New York, NY: Academic.
5. Bilodeau, E. A., & Bilodeau, I. McD. (1958). Variable frequency of knowledge of
results and the learning of a simple skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55,
379-383.
6. Bilodeau, E. A., & Bilodeau, I. McD. (1969). Principles of skill acquisition. New
York, NY: Academic.
7. Holding, D. H. (1965). Principles of training. Oxford, England: Pergamon.
8. Larre, E. E. (1961). Interpolated activity before and after knowledge of results.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Tulane University.
9. Sage, G. (1971). Introduction to motor behavior: A neurophysiological approach.
Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.
10. Skinner, B. F. (1968). The technology of teaching. New York, NY: AppletonCentury-Crofts.
11. Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement. New York, NY: AppletonCentury-Crofts.
Return to Table of Contents for this issue.
13. RESPONSE AND MOVEMENT QUICKNESS CAN BE TAUGHT
Singer, R. N., & Cauraugh, J. H. (1994). Training mental quickness in beginning
and intermediate tennis players. The Sport Psychologist, 8, 305-318.
RESPONSE AND MOVEMENT QUICKNESS CAN BE TAUGHT
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Singer, R. N., & Cauraugh, J. H. (1994). Training mental quickness in beginning and
intermediate tennis players. The Sport Psychologist, 8, 305-318.
Beginner level (undergraduates) tennis players (N = 34) were tested in three tennis
situations in a motor learning laboratory and on the court. Ss were divided into two
groups: a control group and the other being given supplementary training in mental
quickness. Laboratory testing consisted of evaluating direction and type of serves and
ground strokes, game situation decisions, and speed and agility reactions to light cues.
It was shown that anticipatory skills can be enhanced by appropriate training methods.
Speed and accuracy of decisions improved. Only predicting an opponent's ground stroke
was not enhanced.
Implication. Response times and mechanisms at practice can be improved. Training in an
off-court setting can improve beginners. While many studies have shown training
procedures for beginners to be inappropriate for advanced and trained individuals, it
would not be appropriate to propose this type of training for advanced individuals until its
effectiveness has been demonstrated for that population.
14. AGE-GROUP SKILL DEVELOPMENT
Numminen, P., & Saakslahti, A. (1996, October). Gender differences - Are they
dominant already in the early years? AIESEP Newsletter, 53, 4.
AGE-GROUP SKILL DEVELOPMENT
Numminen, P., & Saakslahti, A. (1996, October). Gender differences - Are they dominant
already in the early years? AIESEP Newsletter, 53, 4.
Gender differences among 6- to 8-year-old children reveal that boys are better in skills
needing speed, muscular strength, and endurance while girls are better in motor skills
needing balance and flexibility. The purpose of this study was to assess whether gender
differences already exist in 3 and 4-year-old children and if so, which skills revealed the
differences.
Boys (N = 50) and girls (N = 55) were compared on a number of standardized skill tests
(APM-test battery: Numminen, P. (1995). Alle kouluikaisten lasten havaintomotorisia ja
motorisia perustaitoja mittaavan APM-testiston kasikirja. Jyvaskyla, LIKES, 98.)
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Hardly any gender differences in fundamental motor skills studied were revealed. The boys
seemed to score better, similarly to the older children, in skills demanding strength and
precision and the girls better in balance, timing, and body control.
Implication. Although no gender differences were revealed in the cross-sectional
investigation there is a hint that differences could be emerging in this age group. A
longitudinal-study needs to be conducted to see if this development is phylogenetic or
socially learned.
15. TIME TO START LEARNING TO SWIM
Blanksby, B. A., Parker, H. E., Bradley, S., & Ong, S. (1995). Children's readiness
for learning front crawl swimming. The Australian Journal of Science and Medicine
in Sport, 27(2), 34-37.
TIME TO START LEARNING TO SWIM
Blanksby, B. A., Parker, H. E., Bradley, S., & Ong, S. (1995). Children's readiness for
learning front crawl swimming. The Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport,
27(2), 34-37.
Very young children (M = 180; F = 146) who participated in learn-to-swim programs were
evaluated for number of lessons, age of starting lessons, and time to learn to swim 10 m
front crawl (Level 3). Children older than 5 yr. were not considered.
To achieve the crawl stroke standard, children who started as 5 year-olds experienced
significantly fewer number of lessons and took shorter time than those who started at
younger ages. No matter what age younger children commenced lessons they eventually
achieved the Level 3 standard at the same age (5.5 yr.). There were no significant gender
differences for the three variables.
Implication. The optimum age for learning to swim crawl stroke among very young
children is between 5 and 6 years of age. However, since older children were not evaluated
in this study it is not known whether this age is the absolute best age to commence formal
swimming instruction.
16. PRACTICING FOR SPORTS - MIND IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN MATTER
Brent S. Rushall (1997), a response to a question posed by Mr. Alan Roaf,
Executive-director, Rowing Canada.
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PRACTICING FOR SPORTS - MIND IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN MATTER
Brent S. Rushall (1997), a response to a question posed by Mr. Alan Roaf, Executivedirector, Rowing Canada.
If one was to study for a degree in kinesiology, attend a coaches' clinic, or hear most sport
scientists talking about improving elite athletes, usually talk will be predominantly about
training (conditioning). Thresholds of various types, workloads, number of repetitions, and
in-depth explanations of the physiological responses to exercise abound and dominate
discussions. One could deduce from this emphasis that physical conditioning is the most
important factor in determining elite performances. But is it?
At the Pre-Olympic Scientific Congress in Eugene, Oregon in 1984, it was the multiple
Olympic Gold medalist and physiologist Dr. Peter Snell who opined that when athletes line
up for an Olympic final their conditioned states will not discriminate them. Factors other
than conditioning will cause one athlete to win over another. Could this be heresy? Why do
most coaches still exaggerate the importance of physical conditioning as being the major
secret for success at the elite level? The emphasis on physiological testing with national
teams would suggest that sport scientists also attribute pre-eminent causality to physical
conditioning for elite sporting success. If physical conditioning is not the most influential
aspect of sport training then it is the area of sports science that is most popularly
emphasized by practitioners and scientists alike. For most people that would be enough.
Monkey see, monkey do, and since many monkeys do it must be right; conditioning is the
key to success.
But is there another side to this one-sided approach to modern sport? Could there be other
things that need emphasizing to produce a champion as Dr. Snell suggested?
The literature contains many studies about the physiology of sport and several
generalizations are possible. Below are some of the things that are known about
conditioning in sports.
1. In very unfit individuals any conditioning will produce changes in physiological
variables up to a certain level of performance competency.
2. Beyond moderate performance competency only specialized conditioning will
produce further performance improvements.
3. The body will become conditioned to the activity that is practiced (e.g., running on
the flat does not condition one for hill running).
4. Despite extensive testing of elite athletes, measures of physiological capacities only
discriminate between athletes of wide ability ranges. They do not discriminate
between a relatively homogeneous group of elite athletes in the same sport.
5. An athlete can become so fit and no fitter, that is, an hereditarily defined ceiling
level of physical capacity exists in all individuals. After maturation, no manner of
training will change those levels.
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6. There is a hint in the literature that physical conditioning during growth will extend
the capacities of children and adolescents when compared to control groups. It is not
known whether the usually inactive controls regress and thus make the trained
individuals look better by comparison or whether the trained individuals actually
have their natural abilities embellished.
7. The time to reach peak fitness is relatively short. Some have claimed four weeks for
anaerobic adaptation and three months for aerobic adaptation. In mature
individuals those times are even shorter. There are many modifying variables, such
as initial level of fitness, which will alter any time estimate. However, to this writer's
mind it seems that most national coaches think it takes 12 months to achieve
maximum fitness which, of course, is incorrect.
8. It is possible for an individual to improve in fitness, as usually revealed by
physiology tests, while performances do not change or even get worse. That
phenomenon alone should indicate the lack of relationship between a fitness-test
state and important performance.
9. Because of physiological and capacity differences, the physical training of maturing
individuals, men, and women need to differ.
10. Fitness achieved in one activity will have, at most, a minimum amount of transfer to
another activity. The popular notion of "cross training" is a hoax and an
embarrassing collective display of misunderstanding. For example, it has been
clearly shown that strength gains in one activity cannot be "re-educated" into
another activity. This lack of "potential" transfer is supported by evidence in the
physiological and motor learning literature.
11. Training on activities that are unrelated to an intended competitive performance
results in maladaptation and coaches who emphasize such programs should be
charged with "mal-practice."
12. An athlete must be specifically fit to achieve a peak personal-best performance.
13. Attempting to achieve "super" or "excess" levels of fitness for a sport which does
not require the accommodation of extreme fatigue is inappropriate and diminishes
the resources that could be applied by an athlete to more important aspects of
training for the sport.
14. Exercise and hard-work is catabolic, rest and recovery is anabolic. Emphasizing
working hard at the expense of post-training-session recovery is destructive to an
athlete's well-being and suppresses improvement.
15. Current classifications of training are meaningless. Discrete classifications which
give the appearance of precision are bogus. Research has shown that within a group
of athletes, the nature of responses to a particular aerobic stimulus produces all
forms of adaptation plus has no affect in some. Training in "zones," at heart rate
levels to produce a particular training effect, etc. are delusional justifications for
practice content. The general emergence of specific adaptations is not supported in
empirical studies.
16. The overload, specificity, and recovery principles are paramount in the physical
conditioning of elite athletes.
17. More training effort and volume is required to change a fitness state than to
maintain one.
18. As a corollary to #17, fitness is not necessarily lost in a very short time.
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19. Too much training, whether specific or non-specific, is harmful.
There are other generalizations similar to these which could be stated. A problem with
them, as with those above, is they are correct but contradict much "modern" training
theory and conditioning practice at the highest level, particularly in the sports of rowing
and swimming.
There is no doubt that physiological changes result from extensive conditioning, BUT
THOSE ARE NOT THE ONLY CHANGES OR MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE
TRAINING RESPONSE.
Many features of initial "physiological adaptation" are actually adaptations by the central
nervous system (CNS) to use existing resources better. No physiological changes happen
but improved performances and athlete reports of increased well-being commonly occur.
For example, as much as nine percent of endurance capacity increase is due to the
trainability of the respiratory muscles. Those muscles do not change immediately in a
physiological sense because their initial adaptation is neural. Recent research has suggested
that an average of nine exposures to an aerobic overload are required before the load
should be altered to the next step increase. So if the physiology is not or is hardly changing,
it must be the CNS which is adapting to produce better skill of breathing, more economical
leverage, etc.
It has long been recognized that in the strength training response the onset of hypertrophy
requires anywhere from four to six weeks of intensive training. But by that time almost
100% of strength gains in an exercise are achieved. It is the CNS adaptation which
produces the change. The athlete has used existing resources and refined the SKILL of the
exercise to produce the strength change. Even when the physiological changes associated
with long-duration and intense strength training programs become evident, strength
performances only improve marginally more.
The proposal being presented here is that it is the CNS adapting to exercise and using
already existing resources that constitutes most fitness and performance improvements in
high-performance athletes. When mitochondria multiply and capillarization increases to
maximum levels further training does not continue to increase these mechanisms.
There is a caveat to the former paragraph. In March of 1996, a group of USOC
physiologists reported that the US Men's Rowing Eight was still adapting aerobically in
their training. This improvement was not reflected in the US boat's continued decline in
performance in international races. An alternative explanation for these observed
improvements was that the athletes were demonstrating a training effect on the ergometer
test being used, an activity unrelated to the level of performance being aspired to by the
rowers in their boat. They were getting better at the testing activity but unfortunately, that
had very little relevance to the matter at hand which was to row a boat fast. It is possible
that in many physiological testing programs "improvements" are test-activity
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improvements and not real competition-relevant improvements. This possibility is
supported by the low predictive validity of physiological tests for high performance levels.
The physical stimulus of fatigue (overload) will cause physiological responses in some
individuals. If an athlete is not conditioned to his/her ceiling level, the mitochondria,
aerobic capacity, thresholds, etc. could all change ("improve"). However, those changes are
indiscriminate. They will occur whether the technique of the sport is good or bad. There is
little doubt that after a full year of college rowing that a boat that finishes a minute behind
a champion is likely to be as fit as the winner, but their skill levels most probably would be
very different. So capillaries will grow, mitochondria will increase, red blood cells will
increase
in
number,
and
plasma
volume
will
increase
whether
a
crew/swimmer/cyclist/runner has good or poor technique.
If one will accept a big assumptive step it is advocated that fitness without good technique
is wasted fitness. Thus, a skilled athlete who is energized by maximum fitness will always
beat a more poorly skilled athlete who is also energized by maximum fitness. SKILL
BECOMES A DISCRIMINATING FACTOR IN HIGH LEVEL PERFORMANCE. What
is it that governs skill? It is the CNS and the representation of movements in the brain.
Thus, training hard and diligently without the neural patterns that govern good
competition-appropriate skill is a relatively futile pursuit. The modifier of this proposal is
that most coaches should know good from bad skill and how to produce those desirable
techniques. THAT IS A BIG STRETCH OF THE IMAGINATION! In some sports,
understanding of technique is so poor that performances are actually regressing and
"improvements" generally come only from rule changes. The sport of swimming comes to
mind. Only one freestyle event at the Atlanta Olympic Games surpassed the performances
registered four years earlier in Barcelona. The four extra years of practice between the two
Games had only caused performers to regress, not improve. There must have been a lot of
practice that was not particularly beneficial.
The essential thesis of this discussion is that the brain's movement representations must
guide physiological work in a beneficial and efficient manner for valuable gains to be
achieved through practice. Much emphasized practice that is uneconomical can be wasted
practice. A case could be made that if uneconomical or maladaptive practice is stressed
enough then the competing dominance of the conditioned strength of the competitioninappropriate neural patterns (movement representations) will inhibit more economical
and better forms of performance.
The representation of movements in the brain is different between beginners and elite
athletes. Beginners use "schema" to cognitively control their way through a performance.
By contrast, elite athletes want movements to be automated and not involve "conscious
effort." If that is true, then the research that was prevalent more than 50 years ago still
holds true today. Movement patterns are represented in the brain of individuals when
automated performances occur. The automated movement patterns are invoked, the
muscles and levers of the body respond, the energy systems fuel the exercise, while the
athlete thinks of strategy and the cognitive demands of the competition. Thus,
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AUTOMATED NEURAL CONTROL IS PARAMOUNT FOR A HIGH-LEVEL
PERFORMANCE. Few coaches realize just how exquisite discriminated movements can
be. They differ at the fiber level, the synchronization of sequences, patterns of stimulation,
etc. A performance at 90% effort is to all intents and purposes totally foreign to a 100%
effort in the same "activity" (they really are not the same activity but very different and
discrete exercises). Rowing and swimming coaches commonly prescribe work at
percentages of race-pace speeds with a resulting lack of appropriateness and benefit being
obvious.
Enough! Training responses are initiated, determined, and dictated by the brain. Without
attention to the control of thought processes, which have not even been considered in this
treatise, or attention to the encoding of exact movement patterns, many athletes will be
trained inappropriately.
Fitness is good. Fitness is necessary. But it is only valuable for athletic performance when it
is developed in concert with mechanically efficient movement patterns which are encoded
to high levels of automaticity in the athlete's brain.
Training for fitness alone is likely to yield maladaptation. Training to energize the
repetitive performance of good movement patterns is likely to yield rewarding
improvements and in those with ability, performance excellence. As implied above, a
complicating factor is whether swimming and rowing coaches know what are good
movement patterns.
The implication for coaching? When performance, such as swimming or boat speed is
important, if athletes are not rowing or swimming with good technique, stop them, give
them a rest, and start again with good technique. That technique has to be specific to the
desired competitive speed.
This proposal does not state that there is no place in training for work other than race-pace
specific work. Specific work is necessary to achieve high levels of performance and often,
performance improvements. Training at slow paces also has some benefits. It:
1. improves the aerobic system which will allow a greater volume of both non-specific
and specific training to be tolerated,
2. facilitates faster lactate clearance in recovery as well as general recovery from
fatigue, and
3. facilitates lactate resynthesis during exercise in the non-propulsive muscles such as
the legs in swimming and the overall physique in the rowing recovery.
Slow swimming and rowing is auxiliary training and establishes a base for more specific
work.
Studies have shown that race performances in running are slowed when training is slower
or faster than intended race pace. Neurologically non-specific training does not promote
elite performance. Remember, elite athletes and their training principles are different to
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non-elite individuals. There is no doubt that long slow swimming or rowing will help lowlevel performers swim or row less slowly but at the high-performance end of the continuum
when speed is sought its continued exaggeration is a hindrance.
What has to be shelved is the notion that all physical practice contributes to a race
performance. Only a very small amount of physical training does and that is superimposed
on a general level of fitness which is insufficient for a very high-level of performance. The
problem is that few swimmers get out of the general trained state (the "Athletic State" as
Bompa called it) because of their general training and so cannot perform in a much
improved manner. One could propose that constant general training is the reason why
many swimmers are not improving including the "immortal" Alexandre Popov whom I
believe has only recorded one 100 m time faster than Matt Biondi did 10 years ago.
In the sport of swimming, not only is constant overtraining institutionalized but so is the
perpetuation of non-specific and irrelevant activities. Swimmers spend a tremendous
amount of time doing the wrong things but since that is a minority opinion . . . . Rowing, at
least in the USA, seems to be going the way of swimming.
This question can be posed; "When will the current trend in training philosophy and
practice reach the 'Dead-end' sign and be altered to better serve athletes?"
When boat or swimming speed are desirable, train the brain to automate exquisite
appropriate movement patterns. Gold medals are given for rowing or swimming fast. No
medals are awarded for the best developed aerobic capacity, the densest mitochondria, or
the number of capillaries per cross-sectional area of muscle. Few rewards occur when the
test results for an anaerobic threshold are read. VO2max does not earn a seat in a boat or a
place on a swimming relay team. Good technique in a specifically fit athlete is what is
rewarded in these two sports. The brain will determine that.
17. DRILLS WITH AND WITHOUT EQUIPMENT FOR SERIOUS ATHLETES - A
STEP BACKWARD
Brent S. Rushall, February, 1997. Reply to question asking what are the best drills
to be used to promote swimming excellence .
DRILLS WITH AND WITHOUT EQUIPMENT FOR SERIOUS ATHLETES - A STEP
BACKWARD
Brent S. Rushall, February, 1997. Reply to question asking what are the best drills to be
used to promote swimming excellence.
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One of the commonest activities in training programs in some sports (e.g., swimming,
rowing, kayaking) is the performance of drills, activities that are purported to train in
isolation aspects of a total movement pattern. Drills are repetitive training activities which
do or do not use equipment. They are intended to stimulate a part of a complex movement
(e.g., an upper arm movement) or an elemental segment of a movement chain (e.g., the
transition from a take-off to a jump). They train activity parts out-of-context. When
equipment such as paddles in swimming, parachutes in running, and "trailing buckets" in
rowing are used, the activity elements are distorted because of the requirement to
accommodate the non-competition-related equipment. Drills are inappropriate training
content for serious or highly-trained athletes. The only exception to "no drills" is when
they are part of learning progressions prior to the attainment and practice of some
terminal (final) skill.
Each drill that is practiced should be considered to be a discrete activity. The greater the
similarity between a total competitive skill and a restricted practiced drill, the greater is
the likelihood of negative transfer between the two. The learned drill will compete with and
disrupt the competitive skill. The following are known about skill training.




Training resources that could be applied to developing higher levels of a competitive
skill are used (squandered) on irrelevant drill activities. Thus, the level of
accomplishment that is possible in a competitive skill will be reduced by "drilling."
It is assumed by many coaches that "drill practice will improve an element
imbedded in a total competitive skill." Unfortunately, the manner in which the body
learns movements does not accommodate that assumption. For example, learning
how to move legs in one activity (e.g., kicking while holding one arm in the air in
backstroke) does not produce high-level kicking skill in the competitive activity
when the artificial posture and dynamic movement requirements are vastly
different. The body constantly attempts to develop specific adaptations/learnings to
particular stimuli as a basic requirement for survival.
In fatigue, the body seeks to maintain a level of functional output by recruiting extra
resources. If there are movement patterns developed through drills which are either
cognitively or conditionally associated with a competitive skill, the recruitment will
first gravitate to those strengthened options. When fatigue starts, an athlete will
start to perform with many characteristics of doing a drill rather than maintaining
a high degree of competition-appropriate movement function and performance.
When extra resources are recruited in fatigue, the recruitment is not done gradually
or by degree. It occurs suddenly and relatively completely so that obvious changes in
performance occur. Since drills do not train total function, when a "drill
movement" is recruited into a contest it should be expected that performance will
deteriorate rapidly, dramatically, and obviously.
Drills originally were only meant to be preliminary activities to be used as a step in a
progression on the way through to learning a "terminal behavior." But now they have
become training items which means that athletes' progress is halted at a less than terminal
stage of skill development and competing patterns of movement are established.
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When athletes develop faults, they need to be re-taught the element in question and the
steps that follow that element. It is teaching the element in context of the preceding
movements that is important. Instructing the element in isolation ("correction drills") is
poor pedagogy.
Any device ("training aid") that is used in a drill alters neuromuscular patterning to form
a unique movement skill. A device artificially trains competing movement patterns and
introduces inefficiencies. Many devices have no acceptable data to support their claims of
benefit. Most respectable research shows them to have no value or negative benefits. Since
the form to be used in a competition is what should be trained, why would one adulterate
that form through distortional (device) training?
Except at very low levels of performance (e.g., when learning a skill) movement elements
learned in one activity do not transfer with any benefit to another.
The body does not have the capacity to determine the intention of some training activity.
For example, an activity which requires an athlete's posture to be different to that which
will be employed in a competition, although it is "meant" to be beneficial, does not benefit
the competition performance. The body learns the incorrect posture for the trained activity
and depending upon the strength of specific/relevant training will sustain correct or
incorrect postures in a contest.
Since most high level performers are discriminated from each other on the basis of skill
efficiency, one of the most important factors for differentiating medalists from nonmedalists, the level of performer skill should be maximized. Drill practices and the use of
training devices work contrarily to that aim.
Many proponents of "drills" argue that the changes in technique they produce are only
minor and are therefore, relatively inconsequential. That might be acceptable for
individuals in the early stages of skill learning, but it is not acceptable for highly-trained
individuals. Any competing movement pattern or disruption to a highly-refined skill has
detrimental consequences. This is why the following coaching lore exists:
"If serious athletes change techniques they have to be prepared to perform worse for a period
of time before they have a chance to improve."
The situation is even more critical for very experienced (senior) athletes when it may be of
no value to attempt to alter a technique flaw, the impact of the existing flaw possibly being
minimized through years of training. There comes a time in every athlete's development
when skill errors have been performed for so long that attempts to change them would
never be effective enough to elevate the performance further. This is particularly so in
highly-repetitive cyclic activities such as running, swimming, and sculling.
There is a movement instruction science, in this context it is called "sport pedagogy."
There are principles that are known to be beneficial and others which are known to be
detrimental to performance development and change. It is necessary that knowledge of
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these principles be a prerequisite for any individual partaking in a coaching activity.
Ignorance or a lack of knowledge of those principles is unethical and cannot be overlooked
in an expedient decision to hire or appoint a coach.
Swimming is perhaps the sport which advocates training with drills (what coach does not
have his/her own special activities?) and the use of training devices (special bags are now
marketed to carry all the paraphernalia onto the pool deck) more than any other sport.
Since swimming is the one "world sport" in which its top performers are regressing rather
than improving, it could be argued that this decline has somewhat matched the increased
growth in drill training and the use training devices. Most top swim teams in the USA do
very little swimming but much finning, paddling, drills, and whatever. It is a mystery why
the importance of training competitive movement patterns is so popularly disdained.
One cannot beat the principle of specificity for training when getting ready to perform in a
serious high-level competition. If the best performance is desired, then a lot of training had
better give the body the opportunity to practice and improve in the activities it will be
asked to perform in the competitive setting. Drills and training with artificial devices work
against that purpose.
Footnote
There are no references listed to this description. The knowledge has been around for at
least 40 and more like 50 years. It has not changed since then. It is so well accepted in the
psychological literature that no one experiments with it any more. There are likely to be no
new discoveries. What is amazing is that so many coaches are ignorant of this information!
It should be part of the core-knowledge of coaching education and is so basic that it should
be known by any coach, particularly one who derives income from coaching as a
professional capacity. Any individual who persists with large amounts of training using
drills and training devices should be charged with MAL-practice.
STYLES OF INSTRUCTION
18. STYLES OF INSTRUCTION
Boyce, B. A. (1992). The effects of three styles of teaching on university students'
motor performance. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11, 389-401.
STYLES OF INSTRUCTION
Boyce, B. A. (1992). The effects of three styles of teaching on university students' motor
performance. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11, 389-401.
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Three styles of teaching were evaluated for effectiveness in teaching a rifle shooting task
(kneeling shoot) to university students.
1. Command style is characterized by all decisions, from pre-impact through postimpact, being made by the teacher.
2. Practice style allows the learner to make some decisions on the conduct of the
practice (e.g., shooting order of subjects in the group).
3. Reciprocal style allowed partners to do all the instructing and monitoring.
All instructional styles led to improvement in the initial stages but then command and
practice styles improved much more than the reciprocal style. Also the command and
practice styles produced better retention in the shooters.
Implication. If a coach wants to elicit skill improvement and short-term learning in a task
that is closed and target-oriented, then the command or practice style might be
appropriate. If the skill is an open skill or one that relies on cohesion, then the reciprocal
style might be better. Further research is warranted.
19. MAJOR INSTRUCTIONAL COMPONENTS
Silverman, S. (1996). A pedagogical model of human performance determinants in
sports. In Proceedings of the Pre-Congress Symposium of the 1996 Seoul
International Sport Science Congress (pp. 32-41). Seoul, Korea: Korean Alliance for
Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance.
MAJOR INSTRUCTIONAL COMPONENTS
Silverman, S. (1996). A pedagogical model of human performance determinants in sports.
In Proceedings of the Pre-Congress Symposium of the 1996 Seoul International Sport Science
Congress (pp. 32-41). Seoul, Korea: Korean Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance.
Sport pedagogy has three major subareas: (a) curriculum, (b) teacher education, and (c)
teaching. Time and practice variables are those which have been shown to be the most
powerful predictors of student motor skill learning. A similar emphasis should be applied
to learning the skill elements that are necessary for competitive performances in sport.
The degree of learning is a function of the ratio of time actually spent on learning and the
actual time needed. Underlying this ratio is the need for mastery learning which is
developed through good instruction. Mastery learning is in small units, is student focused,
and requires students to master a unit before moving on to the next. Learning in small
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manageable chunks is particularly appropriate for linear activities such as swimming and
arithmetic.
Effective learning time in activity is called "academic learning time," (ALT-PE). The
amount of activity time students spend engaged at an appropriate difficulty level is the
most important variable in predicting learning/performance achievement. This holds true
with skill learning in sports. Effective practice time is called "beneficial training time"
(BTT).
Time spent in subject matter or activities that are specific to competitions, is related to
learning and performance change. However, not all time is equal in predicting
achievement. Time spent in games or scrimmages has been shown to be negatively related
to achievement. They do not conform to the good instructional dynamics of blocks of
repetitions with feedback.
Individual student practice is the single most important determinant of success in learning
a motor skill. The more a student practices at a high rate of success, the more likely
learning will occur. Thus, individual, challenging, and successful practice with equipment
is the most effective activity for altering skill competency.
Inappropriate or unrelated practice is negatively related to achievement. Practice that is
too hard also negatively impacts learning (students realize they cannot do the activity,
"they are no good at it").
At very high levels of practice, learning improvements cease. However, in physical
education this level is rarely reached and with the de-emphasis on skill learning in sports
which require significant energy output it also is rarely achieved.
Organizational strategies which promote appropriate practice are important. Students and
athletes need to spend sufficient time for learning to occur and to be translated into
consistent performance. Practicing for a day or two and expecting refined movements to
result is a misconception that underlies many poor educational and sporting endeavors.
This tendency results in a decrement in learning and students/athletes playing games at
inappropriate skill levels. Such resulting situations "turn-off" students to the activity, their
perception being that they are "not good enough" to do the activity. Many physical
education situations are actually teaching students not to do activities rather than building
their skill repertoires.
Summary
1. Time spent in games and scrimmages is negatively related to skill achievement.
Instructional and practice time should be spent performing individual skills, not
games or "simulations."
2. Individual appropriate practice is the single most influential variable associated
with skill achievement. Since most sports have skill as a primary component for
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performance, BTT (beneficial training time) would seem to be a major requirement
for effective coaching.
3. Appropriate skilled practice (blocks of repetitions with feedback organized in a
developmental progression) should be maximized.
20. EFFECTIVE LEARNING STRATEGY CONTENT
Dirienzo, G. M. (1989). The effects of learning versus performance strategies on the
acquisition of putting skill. Dissertation Abstracts International, A50/5, 1250.
EFFECTIVE LEARNING STRATEGY CONTENT
Dirienzo, G. M. (1989). The effects of learning versus performance strategies on the
acquisition of putting skill. Dissertation Abstracts International, A50/5, 1250.
The effects of a learning strategy (imagery, location cues, internal focusing, and error
detection and correction) was compared to a performance strategy (mental rehearsal,
relaxation, and external focusing) on a putting task. Ss using the learning strategy
experienced a constant reduction in distance error and putting variability, producing putts
that were consistently closer to the hole than the performance strategy and control groups.
The strategy for learning a task is different to the final strategy that is used when the task
is mastered.
Implication. How to do the task is important during the learning process. The elements of
what should be done to govern the skill elements and the decisions surrounding the skill
execution are important for producing skill change. Attention to the more popular "sport
psychology" activities of mental rehearsal, relaxation, etc., is not appropriate in skill
acquisition.
FORWARD SHAPING/CHAINING
21. THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF SHAPING: THE STRATEGY FOR DEVELOPING
AND MODIFYING SPORTING BEHAVIORS
Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control of
behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp. 137-147).
THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF SHAPING: THE STRATEGY FOR DEVELOPING AND
MODIFYING SPORTING BEHAVIORS
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[Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control of
behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp. 137-147).
This reprint is of the first known exposition of operant shaping as a teaching strategy for
coaching and movement instruction. It is as relevant today as it was almost 30 years ago.]
The previous chapters have discussed the general features of operant conditioning as they
apply to behavior control in sports and physical education. These features can be drawn
together to produce a strategy for teaching new behaviors and modifying established
behaviors. The strategy is referred to as shaping. Physical education research has
principally addressed itself to limited aspects of this topic with the consideration of such
items as part versus whole learning, speed versus accuracy, etc., but seldom has a coherent
strategy for producing change been outlined. Lawther has come closest to outlining a
method with his "gross-framework" model for teaching physical activities to beginners
(Lawther, 1968, page 65).
It would be desirable to control all the factors which maximize the learning of physical
skills. This is rarely possible in teaching and coaching. To form a pragmatic method of
teaching, it is necessary to select the features of control that are accessible, relevant to the
environment, and feasible for use. The adaptations and efficiency adjustments of a
performer occur at some covert level and quite often at a subconscious level. Conscious
performance strategies of learners are particularly individualistic. Teachers and coaches
are usually unable to control such strategies although they can be influenced with methods
of prompting and guidance (verbal instruction, demonstrations, film). The potential for
changing and developing the topographies of behavior lies generally in the manipulation of
the external environment, particularly the stimulus setting and consequences.
It must also be stressed that there is a difference between teaching physical skills and
controlling behaviors in the same environment. Teaching addresses itself to developing the
topography or rate of occurrence of a new behavior or changing an already established
pattern. Controlling concerns itself with the manipulation of repertoires of established
behaviors that are required in an environment. The shaping strategy is concerned with the
development of specific behaviors.
The shaping strategy involves:
1.
2.
3.
4.
the definition of a terminal topography,
the sequencing of steps of closer approximation to the terminal behavior,
the use of primes and prompts to produce performance variations, and
the use of reinforcement.
Shaping consists of reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired terminal
behavior. It is unlikely that a correct response will be emitted on a first attempt so a
behavior short of the final behavior form must be reinforced. With subsequent emissions of
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the behavior, the requirements for reinforcement are made more strict and reinforcement
is only provided as the behavior more closely approximates the desired act. The criterion
for reinforcement changes from being seemingly lax to being stringent for the final
performance. In shaping, as in all reinforcing contingencies, it is essential to reinforce
behaviors before other responses intervene and disrupt the pattern. During shaping,
reinforcing consequences not only strengthen the particular responses but also increase the
probability that a closer approximation of the final behavior will occur. This is the main
reason that shaping works. As new approximations are reached and reinforced, aspects of
earlier behaviors are extinguished. Skillful shaping consists of selecting the right responses
to reinforce and in knowing how long to reinforce each approximation before moving to the
next sequenced step. It also requires clear definition of the terminal behavior and the
planning of the sequential steps so that transitions are easily made. The administration of
reinforcers is the main difficulty with shaping. It is for this reason that it was suggested
elsewhere (Rushall & Siedentop, 1972, pp. 106-107) that instruction be undertaken in small
groups where reinforcers can be provided continuously and contingent upon behavior. The
first instance of the attempted behavior is far removed from the final desired product but it
is reinforced. With instruction and reinforcement the behavior successively improves by
more closely approximating the final topography.
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR SHAPING PROCEDURES
The Definition of the Terminal Behavior
Before any developmental procedures can be implemented, it is necessary to define the
terminal behavior that is to be shaped. Such a definition would include all the behavioral
elements which need to be recognized and understood. Each element must be described in
observable and measurable terms.
General behaviors such as rule-following and competitive effort are usually defined in
terms of their general features and effects. General features describe the method of how
one follows a rule or how one asserts himself in competition. These features do not require
a defined topography but rather a compliance with a set of procedures. For example, the
definition of an attending behavior might be:
Attending behavior. The pupil should arrive on the gym floor before the time scheduled for
the commencement of class. He should be appropriately dressed for the activity that is to be
instructed.
In this definition two observable criteria are listed, arriving at a specific time and the
manner of dress. If these characteristics are not displayed then the pupil will not be
assessed as attending the class. A behavior which also requires an effect should include that
effect in its definition, e.g. an assertive behavior may stipulate obtaining a heart rate of 160
beats per minute. The criterion for an adequate definition is that it should allow any
observer to recognize a response of the operant class under consideration. The explicit
definition of topographical aspects is not usually necessary for general behaviors as the
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procedures and effects of the behavior are the features of importance. This is what
differentiates a general behavior from a skilled behavior.
On the other hand, in order to define a skilled behavior it is usually necessary to consider
topographical features, procedural features, and effects. For example, the skill of tackling
requires the head, arms and shoulders to be placed in a particular relationship to the object
to be tackled (topographical features), it requires the tackler to undergo certain
preparatory and execution procedures (procedural features), and it requires that the
opponent be put on the ground (effect). These features differentiate a "tackle" from
someone inadvertently tripping over a defensive player (the procedures and topography
are absent), from missing a "tackle" (the effect is absent), etc. These criteria define a
"tackle." They allow an observer to know what a "tackle" is, and they provide a means by
which a performer can be credited with having performed adequately. It is usually
necessary to consider three aspects of the skill in formulating a definition:
1. Temporal factors. Timing the onset of the response, coordination of muscular
activity and the anticipation of time-dependent events are examples of temporal
factors which occur in some skills.
2. Spatial factors. The relationship of the performer to various features of his
environment such as a target, a ball or an opponent are examples of some spatial
factors which occur in some skills.
3. Proficiency factors. Proficiency can be further broken down into three components,
(1) the requirements for accuracy (as in pitching or kicking), (2) the requirements
for productivity (as in height jumped, distance thrown), and (3) the requirements
for efficiency (the optimal expenditure of energy resources over time as in an
endurance run.
Most skills have components Of all these factors in their structure. These features should
be considered in the initial development of the topographical elements of the definition.
In Chapter 6 the concept of chaining was explained. If the chain is explained in macro
terms, for example, a volleyball spike consists of anticipating, preparing and spiking
behaviors, then each of these members of the chain are discrete behaviors. To perform a
volleyball spike at a high level of proficiency, each member of the chain would have to be
executed well. It is possible to shape each of them. In this regard one does not shape a chain
of behaviors when initially instructing a skill. The Procedure is to shape each of the macro
units, and then shape the chaining of these units to finally produce the complex behavior. It
is important to recognize the fact that the behavior that is to be shaped should be small
enough in terms of acquisition time to indicate progress of achievement of the final complex
behavior. In this regard it would be better to teach anticipation (the utilization and
recognition of certain stimulus situations), preparation, and the spike (gathering, jumping,
extending, hitting, follow-through) as separate units rather than shaping the whole skill
from the outset. This procedure allows for the use of progress charts, etc., as reinforcers as
it does set defined developmental stages in acquiring the terminal complex behavior.
Skilled motor behaviors usually fall into one of four instructional classes:
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1. Some motor behaviors are highly segmented and best taught as discrete units. For
example, typing in the beginner stage consists of a large repertoire of small skills.
Each letter typed is an individual response which needs to be developed through
meaningful practice. With practice and reinforcement, the nature and size of the
performance unit change from letters to words and then to phrases. In the final
stages the typing skill is smooth and flowing which is of markedly different
appearance to the requirements of the beginning skill.
2. Some motor behaviors are performed only as whole units. Woodworth (1958) and
Fitts (1964) indicated that the basic behavioral unit for meaningful practice is the
two-phase motor unit (a preparatory act and then the act itself, e.g., a crouch and
then the jump). Several sports skills, e.g., pitching, hitting a golf ball, a somersault,
are best taught as an attempt at the skill itself. Such skills are usually very short in
duration and the resulting performance information is used to adjust the next trial
of the skill.
3. Some motor behaviors are practiced as whole units but are progressively changed
through instruction. These behaviors are highly repetitive tasks. Instruction serves
to alter the topography of the skill while it is in progress, e.g., changing a running
action, learning to row.
4. Some motor behaviors are briefly introduced in small units and then practiced as a
whole unit. For example, a beginning swimmer is shown how to kick and move the
arms. These units are practiced before entering the water. In a short while these
segments are combined and practiced as a unified activity from then on.
The implication from this brief discussion is simply that one needs to know the behavior
that is to be shaped. It is possible to shape a behavioral element or a large-scale activity.
The procedural steps for shaping are the same regardless of the magnitude of the behavior.
In the final stages of any behavior development the behavior must be practiced in its
entirety. When a segment is practiced and reinforced it should be qualitatively the same as
in the total behavior. It is the teacher's, or coach's decision as to what is the unified
behavior that is to be developed.
Priming Behaviors (Guidance)
When a new behavior is to be shaped, it is necessary to start the procedure with a behavior
which is at least allied to the terminal behavior. The procedure provoking such a behavior
is called priming, prompting, or guidance. Primes act as discriminative stimuli for the
performer as they indicate the appropriate behavior to be emitted. Holding (1965) presents
a clear and comprehensive review of the research associated with this topic.
Methods of physical, visual, and verbal guidance are all directed towards limiting the
occurrence of errors in the stages of acquiring a behavior. Errors appear to be learned
because people who commit them tend to repeat them. Erroneous responses have to be
suppressed in a later stage of the behavior development process. This problem can be
avoided if ways can be devised to prevent people learning or experiencing erroneous
responses, for example, through the use of programmed instruction or training devices.
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There are usually four types of guidance procedure. Physical restriction prevents the
occurrence of errors as the performer is blocked from making an overt incorrect response.
Floats for beginning swimmers and a harness for practicing gymnastic activities are two
examples of physically restricting devices. Forced-responding dictates to the performer how
one should perform. Physical manipulation of the limbs in showing how to do a crawl
stroke kick is an example of forcing a response. The subject does not actively initiate the
response. It is possible that forced-responding could produce some intrinsic kinesthetic
cues. Another method is visual guidance. Methods of completing a response or task are
presented in some visual form, for example, plans, maps, a series of photos. The final
method is verbal guidance. This can enhance performance by communicating information
other than pure guidance.
Research results have produced a series of findings which can be of use to the teacher and
coach when teaching behavior chains (i.e., serial tasks such as dance steps, gymnastic
routines, and football plays). Early guidance in the instructional process helps preserve
response flexibility in the face of frustrating or anxiety-provoking conditions. Some
teaching situations are quite stressful for the performer, for example, the adult learning to
swim usually suffers some social embarrassment and often displays "fear" reactions. It is
important for the teacher to give adequate guidance in such circumstances. Individual
instruction in each developmental step is usually required. It has also been found that if
there is a basic change in the instructional procedure after training has been initiated, by
either beginning or ending guidance, learning is retarded. This is yet another reason for
proposing shaping as the instructional strategy.
Physical Restriction. The possibility of using devices for instructional purposes has been
discussed elsewhere (Chapter 3 in the section on performance information). Such devices
limit the potential for making errors or experiencing unpleasant circumstances. Usually
these devices are provided as a safety precaution (e.g., swim floats prevent sinking and the
safety harness in gymnastics reduces the prospect of injury). The consequence of using
these devices which facilitate instruction is of secondary importance to their traditionally
implied safety role. The scope for researching instructional devices for physical skills is
quite broad.
Forced-responding. Cooperative manipulation of an individual provides kinesthetic
experiences which are not offered through passive methods of guidance (visual or verbal).
Manipulation refers to the external control of a performer's anatomy such that the locus of
action approximates a terminal behavior, for example, moving the legs in a flutter-kick
action in teaching swimming. The individual who is undergoing manipulation must be
cooperative. If an individual is not motivated to perform the behavior, manipulation has
aversive characteristics and learning is retarded. Manipulation is particularly useful in
teaching retarded and sensorily deficient individuals. It is one of the least researched
methods of priming.
Visual Guidance. There are a variety of methods which are suitable for priming behaviors.
Demonstrations are perhaps the most common form of visual guidance. They provide
standards for a performer which are essential for activities which provide little intrinsic
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information feedback. They provide a basis for imitation which serves to narrow down the
scope of possible trial-and-error responses. Demonstration should be supplemented with
meaningful reinforcement for appropriate responses. It is a major method for priming
behaviors when verbal instruction fails or where experiences or some senses are lacking
(e.g., raw beginners, the deaf). In demonstrating a behavior, one should attempt to present
it as the learner sees it. When verbal guidance is used in conjunction with demonstration,
content should be aimed at the features which are important to the observer. This will
enhance the number of relevant cues in the demonstration.
Visual aids are popularly accepted methods of guidance and priming. This is mainly
because of the concerted efforts of the commercial enterprises which produce them.
Pictures, graphs, etc., may serve as variety features in a lesson or book but what evidence
there is does not give much support to the value of their use. A film produces information
at a fixed rate and evidence suggests that films fall short of their promise. The best
procedure is to supplement films with question and answer procedures rather than allow
just passive viewing. However, displays which provide important information do enhance
learning and the initiation of a desired response. They should highlight essential important
facts, for example, a picture of a kicker with arrows pointing to the important features is
much more effective than the picture alone. If a display is used to guide a task (as in
learning to type, run a machine) it is best to have the display spatially oriented with the
task. For example, to teach a series of dance steps it would be better to have the routine
marked on the floor rather than illustrated on a board. The display would be oriented
directly to the activity. Similarly, it would seem to be better to learn various plays for
football by marking the movement patterns on the ground rather than explaining them on
a board as is the usual procedure. The ground markings restrict the possibility of making
errors and also produce a precision factor into the plays at a much earlier stage than is
usual. Where tasks have certain perceptual difficulties (something happens too quickly for
the naked eye to perceive or it is too large to comprehend) displays can be utilized. The
tasks can be magnified either in size or speed (slow motion movies) or they can be
"minified" (a football field is scanned by a TV camera and seen as a whole).
Verbal Guidance. Verbal instruction is the more traditional form of priming responses. It is
limited in some respects to the ability of the listener to interpret instructions and to the
speaker's verbal ability. Verbal instruction is actually an intervening process between the
observation or conception of the terminal behavior by the instructor and the understanding
of the student. Verbal instruction by itself serves as a translation process and consequently
loses information as it is implemented. It requires more preparation for its use than is
traditionally afforded it in instruction. It embraces a variety of purposes which include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Directions on how to perform a skill.
Directions on how not to perform a skill.
Reasons for why a skill should be performed in a certain manner.
Verbalizations which focus attention on aspects of a skill for feedback.
Verbalizations for motivation (after Lawther, 1968).
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Verbal instruction becomes more important and useful as the performer becomes older. It
requires the teacher or coach to develop a mastery of the skill vocabulary particularly
when highly skilled performers are involved.
The effect of instructions depends upon the form of the instructions and the nature of the
task. Instructions which over-elaborate or inundate the listener with information can
retard behavior development. For example, in highly skilled athletes a preoccupation with
analysis and cognitive control may retard acquisition and detract from performance. The
role of the prime is to act as a discriminative stimulus for an appropriate behavior.
Confusion and ambiguity in the stimulus will decrease the probability of the appropriate
response being emitted. Attempts to impress others by using big words and complex
concepts tend to retard learning.
Verbal pre-training is also a form of verbal guidance. Saying what will be done can be used
as a preparation for behavior. The recital of the steps for performance in the initial stages
of instruction aid acquisition provided the words help to make perceptual distinctions and
that the verbal response does not interfere with the behavior. For example, in sailing the
procedure for a skipper to follow when wishing to "go about" is clearly defined and is
usually learned through on-shore training. When the actual response is to be made the
novice skipper rehearses the verbal checklist prior to issuing commands. A typical
rehearsal consists of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
warn the crew,
give the ready signal,
issue the command "go about,"
hard tiller,
change position, (
pull in the main sheet, and
steady the tiller.
This series of steps guides the beginner to execute a complex skill and decreases the
possibilities of errors in performance. Verbal pre-training is suitable for the early stages of
learning in tasks which:
1. differentiate a set of motor behaviors (e.g., the steps concerned with changing gears
in a manual car),
2. which differentiate between a number of stimuli and the appropriate action (e.g., if
X then Y, but if Z then X), and
3. where the verbal response means the motor action.
The content of verbal pre-training commands must have action counterparts and must
direct the sequencing of the activity. In essence, verbal pre-training consists of learning a
chain of verbal events which later act as a series of discriminative stimuli for a motor
chain.
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In general, words can be used to supplement behaviors in the initial stages of behavior
development. As the acquisition process proceeds, the role of verbal priming and guidance
should be faded out (stimulus fading).
The above priming techniques can be combined to provide more effective methods of
information transfer to prompt a particular behavior. Combined forms of sensory input
produce more information transfer than singular methods. It would be best to try to
combine as many forms of sensory input as possible to produce a behavior that is closer to
the terminal behavior than is normally provided by single forms of priming. Audiovisual
instruction (verbal instruction plus demonstration) is a form of combining priming
methods. Other possibilities exist for combination but have not been extensively
researched.
Step Sequences
The difference between each step in the shaping process is important. It is relatively rare
that an individual can display a terminal behavior after priming without going through
some series of approximations. One should not expect to reinforce only the correct skill in
teaching physical activities. Miniature segments of a complicated technique need to be
reinforced to firmly establish behavior patterns. A reinforcement after a long period of
practice which includes performance variations generally does not influence the details of a
skill.
The steps in the shaping process should be sequenced so that each step progresses with
equal ease to the next. The terminal topography may look to be extremely complex and
difficult, but when it is finally reached it should be executed as easily as the first step. If
there is difficulty in transition from one step to the next, then faults in the step sequencing
(programming) are most probably present. Stimulus ambiguity, confusion, inadequate
priming, instruction, or direction, or aversive contaminants may cause disruption. Each
step in the programmed set must be overtly attempted and superimposed upon the
previously reinforced step. Program steps need to be fairly small and must be organized
into an effective sequence. The order of complexity, difficulty and logical progression are
factors often considered in developing teaching and coaching schedules. The step size
should be small enough to allow immediate reinforcement. This raises the frequency of
reinforcement to a maximum while the possibility of the aversive consequences of
committing errors is minimized.
The amount of change in behavior that is demanded of the performer in each step must be
weighed against the need to maintain the behavior at a given strength. If the step transition
is too difficult and no reinforcement is forthcoming, then already reinforced behaviors will
be extinguished and no new behavior will be reinforced. If the step is not difficult, a new
behavior will be strengthened while components of the old behavior will be extinguished. It
is important that the coach and teacher select the correct hierarchy of approximated
responses for reinforcement, and then know how long to reinforce each approximation. It
is not advisable to reinforce an inadequate behavior when trying for a better response.
Such a reinforced behavior may be competitive to the desired new behavior. The hierarchy
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of steps that is planned by the coach and teacher must be graded, and reinforcement
should only be given when each step is correctly executed. When an athlete does not appear
to be able to perform the next programmed step in the sequence, it is most probable that
the step size has been too large. The coach or teacher will then need to redesign the step
progression so that each unit can be performed by the individual. In the instructional
procedure, the teacher or coach should return to the previously successful step and then
proceed with the new sequence.
It is likely that each step will have to be primed in some way. The reason that priming each
step is desirable is that immediate cueing heads off incorrect anticipatory responses
(primes are discriminative stimuli). Progressive prompting is a very effective teaching
method when it is combined with contingent reinforcement.
Determining when to progress from one step to the next is a decision that has to be
included in step-formulation. If one correct performance occurred it could be because of a
chance happening or actual learning. To avoid the former, which would likely result in
errors in the next step, it is usual to develop a progression criterion that requires more than
one correct response to be performed consecutively. When a step's performance is errorless
for several trials, the reliability of the learning at that step is demonstrated and a chance
occurrence can be ruled out. In practical terms, a common progression criterion is a
minimum of three consecutive correct trials in a step being performed. If two correct
responses occurred and then an error was made, the requirement for three in-a-row would
need to be restarted. It is important to be rigorous in the application of step-progression
criteria.
Schedules of Reinforcement with Shaping
Schedules of reinforcement must be prepared for two phases of the shaping process, the
step and the terminal behavior. Each step must be performed a number of times to
eliminate any chance occurrences. Each step must be reinforced sufficiently to have enough
strength to be performed on a few occasions without reinforcement when step changes are
introduced. The most appropriate schedule for steps is a burst of continuous reinforcement
(CRe) which is then stretched into a low variable ratio (VR) schedule. All that is required
of the performer is to be able to perform the previous step while attempting to add or
replace the new behavioral elements of the next behavior. If a skill is considered as
consisting of a set of behavioral elements and the shaping process is an agradation of those
elements, then the already reinforced elements which are required for the terminal
behavior need to be consistently exhibited with each subsequent step. A reinforcement
schedule is required to partially establish the behavior of each step.
When the terminal behavior is exhibited, the shaping process is completed. What is then
required is for the terminal behavior to be firmly established and maintained at a desirable
rate of occurrence. The coach and teacher must provide a schedule of reinforcement which
will fix the behavior as a permanent feature of the individual's behavior repertoire. CRe
changing to variable ratio/variable interval (VR/VI) reinforcement is the appropriate
schedule here. An added feature that is commonly required for the substantiation of
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terminal behaviors is "booster" or revision sessions where further CRe-VR/VI schedules
are administered although in successively diminishing amounts. It is also often necessary to
repeat the last few steps of a skill development program for several sessions. This
procedure helps to diminish variations in performance which occur in the early stages of
high level skill acquisition.
The final decision for effective development and control is to develop the amount of
stimulus control that is needed. Certain skills need to have highly developed discriminative
control. Skills which require decisions as to how to react fall into this category. Most sports
activities are in this class. The procedures for developing stimulus control have been
discussed elsewhere in this text.
Reinforcers
Reinforcers appropriate for operant conditioning have already been discussed. The most
useful reinforcer for the shaping of skilled behaviors is knowledge of results. However, it is
often a wise procedure to have several other reinforcers on hand as back-up consequences
in case of possible satiation in long shaping procedures. Knowledge of results is
particularly powerful when it is tied to a contingency management plan (see Chapter 9).
Younger persons are more susceptible to a greater variety of reinforcers than are older
individuals.
Shaping procedures are used for developing behaviors where the terminal behavior does
not exist. This embraces two areas:
1. the teaching of a new behavior, and
2. the changing or superimposing of aspects of a behavior. The models for each of
these tasks are similar in that they do follow the operant, shaping-by-approximation
concept. They differ in some aspects of the strategies involved. It is because of these
differences that the two are presented separately.
References
1. Fitts, P. M. (1964). Perceptual-motor learning. In A. W. Melton (Ed.), Categories of
human learning. New York, NY: Academic Press.
2. Holding, D. H. (1965). Principles of training. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.
3. Lawther, J. (1968). The learning of physical skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.
4. Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control of behavior in
sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger.
5. Woodworth, R. S. (1958). Dynamics of behavior. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston.
22. SHAPING MODEL 1: TEACHING A NEW SKILL/BEHAVIOR
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Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control
of behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp.
147-148).
SHAPING MODEL 1: TEACHING A NEW SKILL/BEHAVIOR
[Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control of
behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp. 147-148)]
This model applies to circumstances where the terminal behavior is not in the individual's
repertoire. Circumstances such as learning to swim the crawl stroke, hit a backhand in
tennis, and to do a somersault are examples of new activities. Developing non-skilled
behaviors (e.g., assertive behaviors, attending to instructions) are also appropriate for this
model. The steps required for an adequate shaping strategy are listed below:
1. Determine the terminal behavior.
2. Determine one or more significant reinforcers.
3. Determine a successively more approximate set of criteria (the sequence of steps) for
each behavior or behavior segment.
4. For complex skills, such as swimming, determine the appropriate sequence for
teaching the segments and their amalgamation so that the skill will be built
efficiently.
5. Determine methods for administering contingent reinforcement.
6. Determine the reinforcement schedules and desired behavior strengths for each
step.
7. Determine the reinforcing schedules for establishing the terminal behavior.
8. Determine procedures for developing stimulus control.
9. Prime the behavior segments or the behavior itself.
10. Reinforce each step.
11. Apply the terminal schedule when the program is completed.
12. Appraise the terminal behavior periodically and re-institute shaping procedures
and terminal schedule where necessary.
An example of applying this model to developing a general behavior is described below.
A desirable terminal behavior in swimming could be described as a maximum effort in a
race. Many new swimmers do not exhibit this behavior. It may be deemed desirable to
develop behaviors of this type. Shaping could be used to develop assertive behaviors such
as competitive effort so that they are highly probable within the environment.
A most difficult problem would be to develop the terminal behavior of an extreme
competitive effort from a behavior which nowhere resembles it. In this situation the main
problem would be the development of the sequence of steps and the provision of
reinforcement. A suitable behavior must be selected as a starting point and reinforced.
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Such a response might be swimming and keeping up with someone who is a better
performer than the individual undergoing the shaping procedure. This is a very mild
assertive response and if it is reinforced immediately it will increase in its probability of
occurrence. The swimmer should progress through a series of developmental steps which
require an increasing amount of work output. For example, the next step may be to finish
the training unit before the other swimmer. This then may lead to always finishing before
the other swimmer, making more competitive responses in races, etc. By building on the
starting behavior and making the criteria for reinforcement more strict with the
attainment of each step, the terminal behavior can be approached. By using a shaping
strategy, the individual can be led into competitive situations where assertive responses
requiring more effort can be made. As the intensity of effort increases, it will eventually
approximate the desired level of competitive effort. Once the terminal behavior is
exhibited, the appropriate schedule of reinforcement is introduced to produce a consistent
emission rate. At the completion of this shaping procedure the individual should exhibit
behaviors which could be described as good competitive efforts. The possibility exists for a
teacher or coach to set about shaping a number of general behaviors in individuals to the
extent of even changing characteristic patterns of behavior.
23. SHAPING MODEL 2: CHANGING A SKILLED BEHAVIOR
Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control
of behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp.
148-152).
SHAPING MODEL 2: CHANGING A SKILLED BEHAVIOR
[Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control of
behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp. 148-152)]
This model applies to circumstances where the behavior exists in some form but needs to be
modified in order to improve performance. It differs from the previous model in the
planning stages and in the singular approach to changing one feature of the skill at a time.
The model is:
1. Recognize the features of the established movement pattern which need to be
replaced. These should be listed.
2. Determine and list the replacement patterns.
3. Determine one or more significant reinforcers.
4. Determine the steps for shaping. Since the individual will already perform a
"comfortable" technique, these steps must be gradually introduced.
5. Develop a program for changing one feature at a time so that this skill is
systematically rebuilt.
6. Determine methods for administering contingent reinforcement.
7. Determine step reinforcement schedules.
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8. Determine terminal behavior reinforcement schedules.
9. Let the individual know what is being done incorrectly in the skill. Motivate the
performer to avoid the feature in question as the program is followed.
10. Prime each feature as planned.
11. Reinforce each step.
12. Apply the terminal schedule.
13. Appraise the skill and re-institute schedules or program sequences where necessary.
14. Perform the activity in the actual or simulated environment.
An example of applying this model is discussed below.
Rushall (1970) illustrated the procedure for shaping a swimming technique. One of the
principal concerns of coaching advanced swimmers is to individualize the mechanical
principles which govern the techniques of swimming and to teach the swimmer to perform
in a particular set pattern. The example cited related the steps concerned with changing a
set form of a national AAU finalist in the 100-yard butterfly event to a markedly different
pattern of movement.
Several decisions and procedures had to be formulated in order to maximize the efficiency
of the coaching-teaching process. They were:
1. Recognize the established pattern segments which were detracting from the stroke
efficiency.
2. Determine the patterns which should replace the inefficient segments so as to
increase the efficiency of the stroke.
3. Determine a significant reinforcer.
4. Determine an increasingly more difficult set of criteria to shape the response.
5. Apply a systematic schedule of reinforcement to develop the behavior to a
consistent, high level of performance.
Inefficient Patterns. A list of the inefficiencies in the swimmer's movement pattern for
swimming butterfly stroke was compiled. The inefficiencies were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The hands were too close together on the entry.
A failure to push through at the end of the stroke.
A failure to pronate the forearm and elbow at the start of the arm pull.
The breathing action was too late in the recovery phase of the stroke.
Both shoulders and hips undulated too much in the action.
The kick dominance restricted the rate of the arm action.
The arm recovery was too high.
This list clearly defined the segments of the total movement pattern which needed to be
eliminated. It was not necessary to punish these behaviors to eliminate them because the
technique was being changed. The new aspects of the technique were superimposed on
those which already existed. This is usually the case when coaching sport skills. The
procedures for suppressing or eliminating behaviors are relatively unimportant in shaping
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procedures. It was also necessary to explain the reasons for these segments being
inefficient. The swimmer could then make attempts to avoid the inappropriate segments.
Efficient Patterns. The changes in technique that were deemed desirable were established.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The hand entry was to be no less than shoulder width apart.
A longer push back was needed.
The arms were to be stretched forward for a wide hand entry.
The forearms and elbows were to be pronated on contact with the water.
The hips and shoulders were to be stabilized.
A low, flat arm recovery with pronated hands was needed.
The breathing action was to occur at the end of the effort phase of the stroke.
It was decided to superimpose the above features in the order listed. In doing this, the basic
assumption was made that swimming techniques are unified patterns of behavior. This
required that the total chained-operant was to be executed while attempting to change a
segment of that total response.
A Significant Reinforcer. Once an athlete has achieved a certain degree of performance and
motivation in a sport, it is often unnecessary to discover extrinsic reinforcers that are
significant to the individual. Individuals are motivated to do the correct technique because
of the consequential better performance that is derived and, therefore, knowledge of
progress is able to reinforce behavior. Competitive success has usually become a strong
secondary positive reinforcer. This is what allows knowledge of progress (improvement) to
serve as a reinforcer. The use of contrived or material reinforcers could be necessary with
very young performers, for tasks which require work-output, or for activities which have
the threat of bodily harm. One of the most significant reinforcers for shaping techniques is
knowledge of results (KR). KR needs to be continuous and complete to optimize skill
acquisition. Changing the swimming mechanics of a single performer allowed these criteria
to be met. A simple, adequate system for providing contingent KR was devised using a
flashlight. It was established that when the light was not glowing, the new aspects of the
technique were being correctly executed. Since the stroke was butterfly, it was possible to
stand at the end of the pool and direct the light beam at the swimmer. KR was therefore
available during the breathing phase of each stroke. No more than three continuous errors
were tolerated in practice to avoid repetitious practice of an incorrect action.
Criteria. It was desirable to plan a system of changes from bad to good and to reinforce
each of these changes with each of the new technique points. It is highly unlikely that an
individual will be able to perform the new behavior perfectly on the first trial. Old
movement patterns are extremely dominant and difficult to eliminate. If the steps of change
are too large, then the established "good" feeling of the old pattern is upset. The new
aspects might then acquire noxious qualities. The athlete feels so uncomfortable in doing
new actions that the learning process is inhibited because the degree of discomfort serves as
an aversive consequence. The consequences of a change in technique need to be mild so that
they do not appear to be uncomfortable to the athlete. In this example, the hand entry was
accordingly graded in width from 10 inches to 20 inches in approximately 2-inch
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increments and reinforced until performed correctly. Other new features were graded in a
similar manner so that they could be introduced without discomforting the swimmer.
Schedule of Reinforcement. Once the behavior is attempted according to the strictest
criterion (the terminal behavior is emitted), a schedule or reinforcement needs to be
instituted to firmly establish the behavior. Continuous reinforcement in the initial trials
and then a change to a VR/VI schedule were followed. After the first period of change,
revisions and reappraisals of the new movement were made. In several instances, the "old"
patterns recurred. Sessions of "booster" instruction were needed to finally establish the
new patterns. Knowledge of results was used as the reinforcer throughout the whole
shaping process.
A final aspect of shaping techniques for experienced athletes Should be considered. When
an activity is performed under conditions of stress, behavior patterns tend to revert to the
more established patterns. If an athlete is exhibiting a new technique at an easy level of
performance, it is quite possible that the performer will revert to the old habit pattern
under conditions of stress or fatigue. In such circumstances, it is necessary to give
reinforcement under conditions of stress so that the behaviors will become dominant in
those conditions.
Reference
Rushall, B. S. (1970). Some applications of psychology to swimming. Swimming Technique,
7, 71-82
24. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE SHAPING PROCEDURE
Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control
of behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp.
152-155).
GENERAL FEATURES OF THE SHAPING PROCEDURE
[Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control of
behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp. 152-155)]
The Shaping Procedure
The process of becoming competent in physical performance must be divided into a large
number of small steps with reinforcement being contingent upon the completion of each
step. This does not imply teaching by the part method. It requires the development of
systematic, empirically justified, successive approximations of the final skill as a program
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for teaching physical behaviors. Small steps facilitate shaping because they place
reinforcement within the reach of the individual. The importance of step formulation
cannot be over-emphasized. It offers the prospect of producing programs which eliminate
or minimize errors and their contaminant negative qualities. Complex behaviors must be
developed through programmed procedures. Typical procedures of instruction do not have
a skillful program which moves through a series of progressive approximations to the final
topography. Poorly developed programs and poor reinforcement techniques retard optimal
skill development.
The learning rates and abilities of individuals vary greatly. Some need only a general idea
of a skill as a prime and then seemingly proceed on their own path of self-reinforcement. In
contrast, others never seem to display a facility for learning physical skills. Most
participants in sports and physical education fall between these extremes. By adequate
programming and reinforcement, all individuals should be able to learn. To optimize
learning rates, step sequences need to be partly individualized. This does not mean that a
new sequence is formulated for each performer. Rather, a single sequence designed for the
very slow learner is sufficient. The fast learners skip steps according to their performance.
The total sequence contains the elements necessary for a good program for any individual
for it should comprise the universal set of steps. The skill in shaping behaviors resides in
the coach's ability to select the correct sequence. This skill increases as the individual
becomes familiar with and experienced in applying the strategy.
Shaping should continue into the highest degree of performance. The shaping process is an
appropriate control strategy when further discriminations are to be made and
inefficiencies are to be removed from a behavior as is the usual case with highly skilled
performers.
The Distribution of Practice Sessions
A popular topic in psychological research was massed versus distributed practice sessions.
This controversy was debated without any firm resolve as to the merits of one method over
the other. The general conclusion has been reached that massed practice is good for some
tasks and distributed practice is good for the majority of tasks. In terms of measures of
retention, the practice plan seems of minor importance. Methodological problems were
prevalent in this research area. However, a variable that was rarely controlled was
reinforcement. It has been found that with careful control of the reinforcement conditions
in a practice session, learning rates and persistence can be increased remarkably. This
feature has been displayed in both animal and human experiments. The general rule now is
that the length of a practice session is determined by the physiological fatigue incurred and
the individual's motivation to progress (reinforcement). By carefully alternating activities
and providing adequate reinforcement, the work output and performance improvement of
athletes can be greatly increased. In complex activities (such as swimming, track and field,
football) where the participant is required to practice a repertoire of skills, the
participation period can be extended by changing the skills practiced while general
physiological fatiguing occurs. This is evidenced in modem swimming programs where
specialists train for a particular stroke by using a medley program (Rushall, 1967a).
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Generally, the greater the number of skills that need to be practiced, the longer can be the
practice session. When reinforcement is programmed the main determinant of the length
will be physiological tolerance.
There is a great scope for research in sports and physical education to determine the
methods for increasing diligence, application, and persistence in training through the use of
reinforcement. Until reinforcement is controlled, the optimum length and distribution of
practice sessions cannot be postulated.
Teaching Short-duration Behaviors
Many physical skills are of a short duration, particularly those which are two-phase
actions. Skills such as throwing, punting a football, diving, hitting a golf ball, etc., are
examples of short-duration activities. The kinesthetic information that is generated in these
behaviors is confused and relatively meaningless. The only performance information that
can be used for changing the skill is evaluative intrinsic information feedback (IF) or
artificial IF. Although these skills are usually two-phase actions they still constitute a chain
of minute behaviors. The occasion often arises where a member in the middle of the chain
needs to be altered, for example, the positioning of the foot in the punt kick. A method is
required to alter this aspect of the behavior.
The solution requires an application of the second shaping model since a new aspect of the
technique needs to be superimposed on an existing segment. However, a difficulty presents
itself in finding a method for evaluating whether the new aspect of the skill was executed in
a trial. In a kick, a throw, etc., the action occurs at too fast a speed for the observer to
assess the standard of performance. Usually the behavior is so rapid that the performer is
unable to adequately discern the completeness of the effort. Sophisticated instant replay
TV devices are available for on-site assessment. They facilitate the evaluation procedure
and provide a means of limiting the delay between the response and reinforcement.
However, few organizations have such facilities for coaching and teaching. The alternatives
open for solving or partially solving the evaluation problem are limited. It is not the
presentation of reinforcement that is the difficulty but rather it is the decision-making
process as to when reinforcement should be provided.
One solution is to set an external standard for performance. If a technique is to be changed,
it must have some measurable effect upon the proficiency of the behavior. When the new
behavior segment is introduced, for example, in diving a technique change can be
implemented to permit an improved entry into the water, then an external measure (the
entry into the water) could be used for determining when and how reinforcement should be
supplied. On the other hand, some technique changes are not immediately effective and
may even detract from the performance in the early stages of learning although in the long
run they will improve performance. What needs to be done in this situation is to get the
athlete to discriminate between the new and the old behavior segment. Some individuals
can differentiate between the two, but the majority of performers cannot. What has to be
done in these circumstances is that the whole action needs to be recorded on film or videotape and replayed as soon as possible. During the delayed presentation of the recording,
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reinforcement is still a viable procedure for effecting behavior change. Delayed
reinforcement which is contingent upon witnessing a recorded behavior and not contingent
upon the actual behavior does produce results (Schwarz & Hawkins, 1970). In replay
sessions of this nature, it is also advantageous to further reinforce all the aspects of the
behavior. Attempts should also be made to produce a discrimination in the athlete so that
he can tell correct and incorrect responses. Such a situation is far from ideal and one must
expect the changes to be produced slowly as the reinforcement (particularly IF) is
restricted in its use and contingency. Its effect will be subsequently diminished.
Individuals who cannot employ delayed reinforcement techniques in these difficult
circumstances will be deficient in that aspect of coaching. About all that can be hoped for
in such cases is that the athletes will produce good techniques through fortunate trial-anderror contingencies.
Shaping procedures may resemble those methods used by some athletic coaches and others
who shape subtle skills. However, deliberate adoption of the operant principles concerned
with shaping has been rare and, consequently, normal teaching procedures have suffered.
The steps described here require much more attention to diagnosis, prognosis, and
preparation than is usually afforded the actual behavior control procedures which are
currently used in teaching and coaching activity-setting behaviors.
Summary [This refers to the previous two shaping models and this section]
A strategy was developed to guide the teacher and coach in developing new behaviors and
modifying established behaviors. The strategy used the method of shaping (successive
approximation) which required the teacher and coach to manipulate the stimulus setting
and consequences. In shaping, behaviors are reinforced according to a planned program of
steps which finally result in a desired terminal behavior being emitted.
The strategy is equally suitable for teaching skilled motor behaviors as it is for teaching
general behaviors. Two models were offered for use in teaching and coaching. The first was
for teaching entirely new behaviors and the second for modifying existing behaviors. Each
model required the definition of the terminal behavior to be developed, the application and
scheduling of reinforcement, a planned progression of developmental steps, the priming of
each successively approximate behavior, and the application of a terminal schedule to
establish the behavior in the individual's behavior repertoire.
The developmental process is dependent upon reinforcement and methods of priming.
Priming was discussed at some length. Three methods seemed suitable for physical
education and sports. They were visual, verbal, and physical guidance. Each had its
advantages and disadvantages and it was asserted that guidance utilizing more than one
form of media was desirable. Priming serves to reduce the number of errors that can be
made.
Another feature of the strategy that was stressed was the programming of the
developmental steps. The steps which serve as the criteria for reinforcement need to be
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such that errors are minimized. The planning of the program governs the success of the
procedure. Each progression in the program should be made with equal ease and
consequently maximizing reinforcement.
Shaping offers a clearly defined and measurable strategy for teaching and coaching new
behavior topographies. Its utilization will facilitate errorless learning and a clearly
understood behavior form. Traditional teaching procedures neglect the main benefits and
requirements of shaping which are necessary for the optimal acquisition of behaviors.
References
1. Rushall, B. S. (1967). The scientific bases of circulorespiratory endurance training.
Unpublished master's thesis, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.
2. Schwarz, M. L., & Hawkins, R. P. (1970). Application of delayed reinforcement
procedures to the behavior of an elementary school child. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 3, 85-96.
EXAMPLES OF FORWARD PROGRESSIONS/SHAPING/CHAINING
25. SHAPING BASEBALL SKILLS IN CHILDREN
Simek, T. C., & O'Brien, R. M. (1982, May). A chaining-mastery, discrimination
training program to teach Little Leaguers to hit a baseball: An unintentional between
groups, multiple baseline study. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
Association for Behavior Analysis, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
SHAPING BASEBALL SKILLS IN CHILDREN
Simek, T. C., & O'Brien, R. M. (1982, May). A chaining-mastery, discrimination training
program to teach Little Leaguers to hit a baseball: An unintentional between groups, multiple
baseline study. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Behavior
Analysis, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
In their book Total golf, Simek and O'Brien (9181) reported that a chaining-mastery
approach to teaching beginning golfers produced significant improvement in golf scores
over traditional methods of instruction. In this study, that approach was extended to
teaching Little Leaguers how to hit a baseball.
Following two baseline games and a baseline measure in practice of the number of fair
balls hit before six strikes, 10 of 12 boys (ages 8-11) were trained to hit a baseball beginning
with a bigger bat and ball pitched slowly from only a few feet. The pitcher then moved
back with a smaller ball as a mastery criterion for number of hits was attained at each of
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11 steps. Both game performance and a repeat of the baseline practice measure after game
six showed large increases in the number of hits.
At this time a program of discrimination training for hitable balls (strikes) was instituted
using a mastery approach to teach earlier and earlier discrimination of strikes from balls.
Number of bases on balls had remained low through the first six games but gradually
increased to high levels for games 7 through 10, during the discrimination training
program. A repeat of the baseline practice measure, after game 10, showed continued
improvement over the post-game-six measurement.
Game measures also improved from a baseline team batting average of .250, to .342 for
games 3 through 6 and .369 for games 7 through 10. Two boys whose parents rejected the
chaining-discrimination training approach were given training in "guided visual fantasy"
for batting skills throughout the study by the father of one of the boys. They showed no
improvement on any dependent measure. The results suggest that a program of chainingmastery instruction, for hitting and discrimination training, for pitch selection can be
effective in teaching Little Leaguers to hit. After winning one of two baseline games, the
team won 9 of their next 10 games and finished first in their league.
Implication. Shaping/chaining produces a disciplined, reasoned, progression of experiences
that lead to gradual progressive improvements in learners, important features for
successful instruction. Why this approach to learning is not universally embraced remains
a mystery to this day.
Simek and O'Brien introduce the important parameter of requiring a particular
performance criterion to be exhibited at each step before progression is undertaken. One
successful trial does not substantiate learning where as a small number of repetitions does
establish a reliable effect. This is a feature that is not stressed in the Rushall and Siedentop
forward progression models of shaping.
BASEBALL HITTING CHAIN AND MASTERY CRITERIA
Step
Task
Criteria
Oversize wiffle ball and bast is held over
Contact of 5 consecutive pitches
1.
home plate. Player adjusts bat up and
(pitches must be in strike zone).
down to hit pitches from 8 feet away.
Oversize wiffle ball and bat held halfway
2.
from plate (mini-swing) pitches from 10 Contact on 5 of 8 swings.
feet.
Oversize softball and regulation Little
3.
League bat. Mini swing t pitches from 10 Contact on 5 of 8 swings.
feet.
4.
Same ball and bat at 15 feet.
Contact on 5 of 12 swings.
5.
Same ball and bat at 22 feet
Contact on 5 of 12 swings.
6.
Same ball and bat at 30 feet
Contact on 5 of 12 swings.
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Same ball and bat at regulation Little
Contact of 5 of 12 swings.
League pitching distance (40 feet 6 inches)
Regular Little League baseball and bat at
8.
Contact on 5 of 12 swings.
15 feet.
9.
Same ball and bat as in Step 8 at 22 feet.
Contact on 5 of 12 swings.
10.
Sam ball and bast as in Step 8 at 30 feet.
Contact on 5 of 12 swings.
Same ball and bat as in Step 8 at
11.
Contact on 5 of 12 swings.
regulation distance.
DISCRIMINATION TRAINING PROGRAM AND MASTER CRITERIA
Step
Task
Criteria
Player at plate, without bat, calls pitch
1.
(strike or ball) after pitch is in catcher's 7 out of 10 pitches called correctly.
mitt and before umpire calls pitch.
Player at plate with bat, but no swing.
2.
Calls pitch (strike or ball) as or just before 7 out of 10 pitches called correctly.
the pitch impacts the catcher's mitt.
Player at plate with bat (no swing). Pitch
3.
must be called (strike or ball) as the ball 7 out of 10 pitches called correctly.
passes over the plate.
Player at plate with bat (no swing). Pitch
must be called (strike or ball) as the ball
4.
7 out of 10 pitches called correctly.
passes over white markers set 9 feet in
front of the plate.
In all cases, the umpire had the final
decision as to whether a pitch was a strike
or a ball.
7.
Reference
Simek, T. C., & O'Brien, r. M. (1981). Total golf: A behavioral approach to lowering your
score and getting more out of your game. New York, NY: Doubleday.
BACKWARD SHAPING/CHAINING
26. REVERSE TEACHING PROGRESSIONS
Extracted from Rushall, B. S. (1996). Some practical applications of psychology in
physical activity settings. In K-W Kim (Ed.), The pursuit of sport excellence Vol. 2
(pp. 638-656). Seoul, Korea: Korean Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance.
REVERSE TEACHING PROGRESSIONS
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[Extracted from Rushall, B. S. (1996). Some practical applications of psychology in
physical activity settings. In K-W Kim (Ed.), The pursuit of sport excellence Vol. 2 (pp. 638656). Seoul, Korea: Korean Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance.]
A common characteristic of most physical activity instructors is the skill element
progression taught to beginners. Textbooks frequently provide photo sequences starting at
the initiation of the skill and ending at the "finish" position. This seems "logical" and is
readily justified on the grounds that if a skill is not initiated properly, it will not be
completed correctly. However, if the literature on instruction of non-verbal species is
examined, it will be concluded that teaching progressions do not commence at the "start"
and finish at the "end." Rather, the first element instructed is the last aspect of the
behavior, the "terminal" element. Progressions of instruction are called "backward
chaining" when elementary movements are required in a sequence and "backward
shaping" when a single two-phase motor behavior is taught.
The assumption that a logical start-to-finish instructional progression is the best can be
debated. In forward progressions, students normally learn the early elements of a sequence
reasonably well. However, as a chain grows longer, activities have to be performed before
the new element can be acted. The imposition of behaving before attempting a new element
eventually interferes with learning. When chains are long, the success of implementing new
elements becomes quite difficult and errors increase, a result that needs to be avoided if
efficient and effective learning is to occur. The interference caused by the activity prior to
the attempted control of a new skill element is a major weakness with forward progression
instruction.
Forward progressions also invoke other behaviors which, as skill complexity increases,
become detrimental to both the learning process and eventual performance. Learners often
construct "mental check-lists" of instructed skill elements to ensure proper technique,
resulting in cognitive control becoming an established part of covert behavior in the skill
execution. Even in a simple skill such as a golf swing, such thought intrusions interfere with
learning and skill development. In the length of time before a new element is acted,
performance of that which has already been instructed intervenes, which promotes
forgetting of what needs to be done. The mounting difficulty of introducing new elements
into behavior chains increases anxiety, the frequency of negative self-appraisals, and the
execution of errors. These phenomena further hinder learning. Forward progressions
usually produce skills which are executed well in the initial stages but deteriorate and
exhibit weaknesses and faults as the sequence progresses.
In spite of shortcomings, forward progressions as a teaching structure have been
perpetuated and rarely questioned as to whether or not there is a better alternative.
The more traditional and effective way of instructing non-verbal species should be
considered for humans. Discussions about backward or reverse progressions have
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appeared periodically in exercise-oriented literature (Chelladurai, & Stothart, 1978;
Dusault, 1986; Rushall, & Ford, 1982; Sherman, & Rushall, 1993; Spooner & Spooner,
1984; Spooner, Spooner, & Ulicny, 1986). In reverse progressions, chains or skills are
learned by teaching the last element of the skill first, the next-to-last second, etc. The
completion of the skill or chain is the most practiced element. As the activity is performed,
skill does not diminish as it progresses. This results in the execution of very safe landings,
good follow-throughs, total skills, etc. None of the problems typically associated with
forward progressions emerge in backward sequencing. The following figure contains a
schematic of the two progressions and compares their elements.
An illustration of backward shaping with a golf swing will demonstrate the differences in
these two concepts of instructional progressions. The grip is the first element that is taught
irrespective of the progression used. The student should be able to form a satisfactory grip
and wield the club in a variety of actions. From then on, the forward and backward
progressions differ. After the grip, backward shaping dictates that the final follow-through
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position be taught. The learner is instructed that it is the terminal position that should be
attained at the end of every trial. Knowing the criteria for judging that position allows the
learner to execute covert positive reinforcement at the end of each trial if the criteria are
achieved. Thus, every trial ends with the learner appraising whether the skill progression
has or has not been achieved correctly. Successive steps move the club progressively
further back in the "ideal" swing. Each step has the new element executed first, followed
by the remainder of the skill which has been successfully performed on previous trials. The
size of the step progressions should be sufficiently easy to minimize performance errors.
When done correctly, this contrasts with the forward progression, which produces errors
primarily due to the interference phenomenon and the progressive weakening of the skill
strength.
The major advantages of backward shaping/chaining over forward progressions can be
summarized as follows:






interference does not occur since each new element precedes all previously
"learned" elements, that is,
the learner thinks of and executes a new technique element and follows it with what
has been done successfully before,
each step progression does not increase in difficulty since undivided attention can be
focused on new content,
attention is focused only on the new step and then established elements are
performed to finish in the terminal position,
there is a lack of tension/anxiety in the learner because of the simplicity of the task
and its steps, and
emotional problems are highly unlikely because step sizes are small, guarantee a
high rate of success, and are typically understood clearly by the learner.
There are some skills that do not readily lend themselves to reverse progressions, for
example, diving and jumping. In activities such as these, the total behavior should be
executed with a moderate degree of proficiency. From then on, skill refinements should be
emphasized in a reverse progression.
When refining established skills, corrections are more effective when they are introduced
in reverse order (Sherman & Rushall, 1993). The backward shaping of rowing ergometer
technique was shown to produce fewer errors in the learning experience than a forward
progression (Rushall, 1984). All the elements of a golf game were performed more
efficiently when they were taught in a reverse progression (Simek & O'Brien, 1981).
Comparisons of forward and backward chaining progressions in manual task instruction
have shown the reverse procedure to be superior in developing speed, accuracy, fluency,
and skill maintenance (Martin, Koop, Tumer, & Hanel, 1981). It was also shown to be
superior when teaching response chains (Weiss, 1978) and instructing military tasks (Cox
& Boren, 1965).
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Reverse progressions are a viable alternative to traditional forward progressions in skill
instruction. Teaching tackling would commence with the opponent and tackler lying on the
ground in a firm hold position which would constitute "how the tackle should finish." An
equivalent backward progression starting position would occur for various wrestling takedowns and counter moves. A small child learning to throw would practice follow-throughs
and release actions prior to first holding a ball. The sequence of steps has to be devised for
each sporting action and then the size of the step progressions individualized for the
learner's capabilities.
Below are some personal claims about the efficacy of backward progressions. These
statements can be readily assessed through appropriate research projects.
1. The rate of learning is much faster than for forward progressions. With mentally
retarded subjects, the learning rate for a backward progression is approximately
equal to the rate for normal subjects using forward progressions.
2. The fewer errors increases a learner's self-concept and self-efficacy for physical
activity pursuits.
3. The number of trials to criterion is significantly fewer when compared to forward
progressions.
4. The resulting strength of the latter elements of skill performance leads to a higher
level of skill performance than that which is generally achieved through forward
progressions.
Backward progressions for shaping or chaining should be tried as an alternative
instructional procedure in physical activity pursuits. The experience will be rewarding for
both the learner and instructor.
References
1. Chelladurai, P., & Stothart, C. (1978). Backward chaining: A method of teaching
motor skills. CAHPER Journal, 44(1), 26-29, 36-37.
2. Cox, J. A., & Boren, L. M. (1965). A study of backward chaining. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 56, 270-274.
3. Dusault, C. (1986). A backward shaping progression of the volleyball spike
approach and jump. Volleyball Technical Journal, 8, 33-41.
4. Martin, G. L., Koop, S., Tumer, G., & Hanel, F. (1981). Backward chaining versus
total task presentation to teach assembly tasks to severely retarded persons.
Behavior Research of Severe Developmental Disabilities, 2, 117-137.
5. Rushall, B. S. (1984). Applied rowing research report III: A sequential approach to
teaching rowing technique - backward shaping. Unpublished research report for
Wintario, Ministry of Tourism and Recreation, Government of Ontario, Canada.
6. Rushall, B. S., & Ford, D. (1982). Teaching backwards - an alternative skill
instruction progression. CAHPER Journal, 48(5), 16-20.
7. Sherman, C. A., & Rushall, B. S. (1993). Improving swimming stroke using reverse
teaching: A case study. Applied Research in Coaching and Athletics Annual. (pp. 123143).
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8. Simek, T. C., & O'Brien, R. M. (1981). Total golf: A behavioral approach to lowering
your score and getting more out of your game. New York, NY: Doubleday.
9. Spooner, F., & Spooner D. (1984). A review of chaining techniques: Implications for
further research and practice. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 19,
114-124.
10. Spooner, F., Spooner, D., & Ulicny, G. (1986). Comparisons of modified backward
chaining: Backward chaining with leapaheads and reverse chaining with
leapaheads. Education and Treatment of Children, 9, 122-134.
11. Weiss, K. M. (1978). A comparison of forward and backward procedures for the
acquisition of response chains in humans. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of
Behavior, 29, 255-259
27. TEACHING BACKWARDS - AN ALTERNATIVE SKILL INSTRUCTION
PROGRESSION
Modified version of Rushall, B. S., & Ford, D. (1982). Teaching backwards - An
alternate skill instruction progression. CAHPER Journal, 48(5), 16-20.
28. ALTERING AND IMPROVING SWIMMING TECHNIQUE USING A REVERSE
TEACHING PROGRESSION
An abridged version of Sherman, C. A., & Rushall, B. S. (1993). Improving
swimming stroke using reverse teaching: a case study. In W. K. Simpson, A. D.
LeUnes, & J. S. Picou, (Eds.), Applied research in coaching and athletics annual
1993. Boston, MA: American Press.
TEACHING BACKWARDS
PROGRESSION
-
AN
ALTERNATIVE
SKILL
INSTRUCTION
[Modified version of Rushall, B. S., & Ford, D. (1982). Teaching backwards - An alternate
skill instruction progression. CAHPER Journal, 48(5), 16-20.]
One of the major characteristics common to the majority of sport instructors, irrespective
of their individual approach and style of teaching, is the sequence in which beginners are
taught skills. In the traditional order of instruction a logical progression is followed from
the initiation of the skill unto its completion. For example, in the sport of golf the "swing"
is taught in varying degrees of minute emphases starting with the grip, then the stance,
backswing, downswing, and finally, the follow-through. However, the assumption that this
logical progression is the best for instruction can be debated. It is the purpose of this article
to question this traditional assumption and to suggest an alternative progression that is
demonstrated with the skill of swinging a golf club.
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Weaknesses With the Traditional Sequencing of Instruction
Before discussing an alternative method, it is necessary to examine some of the weaknesses
and problems that are inherent with the forward progression of instruction.
In most cases, the early lessons in golf instruction taken by a beginner will emphasize the
grip, stance, and then probably a part swing or full swing. The grip and stance usually do
not present major problems, although they will feel strange and uncomfortable, and will
require many trials before they "feel right." Major problems usually occur when the
beginner attempts to hit the ball, that is, any deficiencies in the segments prior to
contacting the ball are manifested when contact is attempted. From there on many errors
are committed and the rate of performance improvement varies greatly. The characteristic
performance variation frustrates the beginner which in turn interferes with learning.
Consequently, performance improvement and learning are hindered by the concomitant
emotional response of the learner.
Unfortunately, the task of learning is made more difficult as the forward progression of
instruction develops. The problem resides in the inability of the learner to focus all his/her
attention on the new to-be-learned feature of the swing when it is introduced. The
requirement of the beginner to rehearse, concentrate on, or remember previously
introduced aspects of the swing before the new additional item can be attempted
"interferes" with the learning of that item. As the swing development progresses more
interference occurs. As a result, learning the latter features of the action becomes more
difficult. This increased difficulty produces associated emotional problems as described
above. This situation can account for many of the problems which are exhibited by
beginning golfers, particularly those who are adults., The fact that one has to perform what
has been learned before a new aspect can be attempted is the crux of the problem. It is
contended that the interference that is caused by the activity prior to the attempted control
of a new skill element is the weakness with forward progressions of instruction.
A further weakness with the traditional order of teaching golf is that the beginner may find
it difficult to remember all the different skill aspects. Usually, a mental "check-list" is
formed and followed by the student. This often leads to the golfer standing over the ball
trying to think of all the things that should be emitted before the new item of instruction is
attempted. This "checking" often becomes a habit. Such thought intrusions during the
execution of acts like a golf swing interfere with the learning and progression of the skill
development. The reasons for this interference are several, but a commonly observed one is
tension which contravenes the development of a rhythmical, fluent swing.
Further, as the progression is attempted the time for attempting the new segment is
delayed more and more. This leads to the possibility of forgetting what needs to be done
after all the previously "learned" segments have been attended to. Also for two-phase
ballistic actions such as a golf swing or a throw, there is not sufficient time to cognitively
control all the segments. They are completed before that is possible. The skill of forming
appropriate motor plans (Gentile, 1972) prior to the execution of each trial is not developed
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in a beginner. Consequently, as the instruction progresses forward, improvement is made
more difficult.
The following figure illustrates difficulties with traditional forward progressions.
It is proposed that the forward progression of teaching skills is inefficient because:
1.
2.
3.
4.
learning becomes more difficult as the progression advances,
a great deal of mental work is required of the learner,
interference and thinking reduces the learning rate, and
emotional contaminants further retard performance improvements.
Although this traditional logical progression of instruction is the most commonly observed
sequence it does not necessarily mean that it is the best method of instruction.
An Alternative Method
The alternative method of instruction eliminates the problems found in the forward
teaching progression. It involves the process termed "backward shaping." Backward
chaining has been known as a viable instruction procedure for some time (Whaley &
Malott, 1971). In that procedure elements of a behavior chain are learned by doing the last
first, the next-to-last second, etc. For example, to learn a poem the line that is learned first
is the last line, then the second last line is learned, and so on. This effective instructional
strategy has rarely, if ever, been applied to learning a single-skill activity. This paper uses
the golf swing as an example.
For teaching golf the grip is the first element that is taught irrespective of the progression
used. The student should be able to form a satisfactory grip and wield the club in a variety
of actions. From then on, the alternative and traditional methods differ. After the grip, the
backward shaping procedure dictates that the final follow-through position is taught. The
learner is made aware that this position must be attained for every swing trial. In learning
terminology, the attainment of the final follow-through position should serve as a terminal
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reinforcer. Every subsequent trial should end at the-terminal follow-through position. The
next step is to move the club out slightly and then swing it to the follow-through position.
The beginner gradually progresses backward through the swing always completing each
trial at the terminal reinforcer position. Each trial should be completed successfully if the
progression is adhered to with each step being sufficiently easy to not cause any erroneous
action. This contrasts with the forward progression which does produce errors, primarily
due to the interference phenomenon.
To illustrate the concept, an example will be given of the instructional steps followed for a
35 years-old adult who had never played the game. The next figure depicts the steps with
line drawings that were copied from photographs of the subject. Each step is lettered and is
represented by an individual figure.
Step A. Teach the grip and place the club on the ground so that a correct grip and club
length can be attained.
Step B. Place the student in the full follow-through position and repeat until the instructor
is satisfied that the position can be repeated accurately.
Step C. Place the beginner in the part follow-through position as shown. From there have
the student swing the club with accompanying body movements to the full follow-through
position. Repeat until the instructor is satisfied that the action can be repeated. The
sequence of movement is now AB.
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Step D. Place the student in a position that starts the follow-through action. From there
have the golfer swing the club with accompanying body movements to the initial followthrough position. Repeat until the instructor is satisfied that the action can be repeated.
The sequence of movement is now D-C-B.
Step E. Have the beginner placed in a position that is halfway between follow-through
initiation and ball contact. Then swing the club through the previous steps to the final
terminal position. Repeat until the action flows and is done to the satisfaction of the
instructor. The sequence of movement is now E-D-C-B.
Step F. Place the student in a position that would be that of just after impact with the ball.
Then swing through the previous steps concentrating on flow of action. By this time, the
learner should be able to indicate whether the follow-through action and final position are
.satisfactory. Repeat until the instructor is satisfied. The movement sequence is now F-E-DC-B.
Step G. Introduce the ball into the appropriate position. Place the club head about 12
inches behind the ball and instruct the student to "push" the ball off the ground and swing
through to the follow-through position. This is a critical step for the push introduces
linearity into the flat part of the swing. It also produces initial satisfying success in the
learner as he/she is able to hit the ball straight from the very first contact. This phase
should be repeated until the instructor is satisfied with the action and the learner is
comfortable with contacting the ball. The sequence of movement is now G-F-E-D-C-B.
Step H. Place the beginner in a position so that the club head is off the ground and near the
end of the downswing. From there, complete all the previous steps concentrating on fluent
movements and attaining the follow-through position. The movement sequence is now HG-F-E-D-C-B.
Step I. Place the beginner in the half downswing position and complete the established
sequence of movements to the instructor's satisfaction. The movement sequence is now I-HG-F-E-D-C-B.
Step J. Place the beginner in a partial backswing position introducing a small, controlled
hitch as the initiation to the backswing. Swing the club through the previous steps and
repeat until the instructor is satisfied. The sequence of movement is now J-I-H-G-F-E-D-CB.
Step K. Place the student in the quarter backswing position, wind-up to the half backswing
position, and swing through the movement sequence. The learner usually has a tendency to
do too much backswing in this step. It may be necessary to physically restrain the amount
of backswing to that practised in Step I. Repeat until the instructor is satisfied with the
fluency of action and the nature of the contact with the ball. The movement sequence is
now K-J-I-H-G-F-E-D-C-B.
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Step L. The final step is to develop the ball address stance. Then initiate the previous
movement sequence. The final sequence of the movement is L-K-J-I-H-G-F-E-D-C-B. The
swing is complete once this final step has been satisfactorily executed.
There are several features of the backward shaping process which need to be followed to
ensure good teaching.
1. The progression from one step to the next is only followed when the step is
performed adequately. A recommended minimal criterion for adequacy is five
consecutive executions of a successful enactment. It would be best for the instructor
to err on the side of being too strict rather than being too lenient with regard to this
feature.
2. If errors are continually demonstrated, return to the previous satisfactorily
executed step for further practice and successful performance. Then proceed once
again with the backward sequence.
3. If a step is too difficult for the learner, that is, mastery or understanding is not
shown, break the step down into further "mini-steps" but still adhere to the
backward progression procedure.
4. If several practice sessions are undertaken (which is likely to be the case), each
session should begin with a quick revision and practice of all the previous steps.
5. The instructor should attempt to be very demonstrative, positive, and
congratulatory for every trial that is successfully completed.
For the subject depicted in Figure 1, the teaching process was conducted indoors using
plastic practice golf balls. The total indoor instruction time was 3 1/2 hours spread over 11
days. The sequence of steps described was satisfactory for this subject. it is likely that the
step sequence will have to be modified according to the attributes of the individual learner.
It is best to progress with too many steps rather than to attempt too few.
It should be noted that from Steps I and J that only the half backswing and half downswing
positions were taught. This was done to prevent "over-swinging". It was assumed that the
beginner would naturally take the club back to a fuller swing position as confidence was
gained. This assumption proved correct as was evidenced in the "field test". What was
interesting was that the individual concerned did not "over-swing." over-swinging is a
common problem with the traditional forward progression method where a full backswing
is usually taught early in the instructional sequence.
To further evaluate the backward shaping teaching method, the subject was "field-tested."
He was required to hit 50 balls with a 7 iron from a particular position toward a target 140
yards away. These were the first solid balls that he had hit and were the first shots made
outdoors and at a target. Of the shots, 24 traveled over 100 yards and were within 15 yards
either side of the line from position to target. In essence, almost half the balls stroked were
successful shots. This is a very notable level of performance and suggests that this method
of instruction is very effective. However, further testing of the procedure needs to be
conducted before a definitive statement can be made as to the absolute value of the
backward shaping progression.
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What are the Advantages of Backward Shaping?
The major benefit of the backward shaping technique is that it overcomes all the
disadvantages of the forward progression method. Interference does not occur since each
new element precedes all previously "learned" elements, that is, the learner thinks of the
new technique item content and then does what has been done successfully before. Each
progression does not increase in difficulty through interference since undivided attention
can be focused on the new step element to be learned. The formation of a mental check-list
is not necessary because of the naturally occurring actions and successful completions that
occur. Attention is focused only on the new step content and achieving the terminal followthrough position. There is an obvious lack of tension in the learner because of the
simplicity of the task and its steps. Emotional problems did not occur in this demonstration
subject and are not likely to occur while step sizes are small, guarantee a high rate of
success, and are clearly understood by the learner.
The following figure illustrates the structure and characteristics of backward progressions.
A Challenge
Backward shaping is advocated as being a viable alternative to the traditional forward
progression of instruction. It may not be appropriate for some activities but does have
widespread potential. For example, teaching tackling would be commenced with the
opponent and tackler lying on the ground in a firm hold position which would constitute
the terminal tackling position. Gradually, the two individuals rise up, practice contact and
holding, until the last step when the tackler runs in to make the tackle. A similar backward
progression would occur for various wrestling take-downs and counter moves. Perhaps the
shot putter would assume the follow-through position and work backward through the
action. when teaching children to throw a similar backward progression would be advised.
The sequence of steps would have to be devised and experimented with for each sporting
action.
This article describes something new. Its value is best determined by those involved with
teaching. Theory, laboratory investigations, and limited researches suggest great
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advantages for backward shaping over traditional forward teaching progressions. It is
suggested that it be tried as an alternative instructional procedure. There is evidence that
the experience will be rewarding for both the learner and instructor. Experimentation is in
order!
References
1. Gentile, A. M. (1972), A working model of skill acquisition with application to
teaching. Quest, 17, 3-23.
2. Whaley, D. L., & Malott, R. W. (1971). Elementary principles of behavior. New York,
NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts
EXAMPLES OF BACKWARD PROGRESSIONS/SHAPING/CHAINING
29. A BACKWARD SHAPING PROGRESSION
An Example from Wrestling #1.
A BACKWARD SHAPING PROGRESSION - WRESTLING
An Example from Wrestling #1
Brent S. Rushall, Ph.D., R.Psy.
The diagram below illustrates the sequence of instructional progressions for learning a
"double-leg / sprawl / head-whip" maneuver. Picture 1 shows the terminal position that
should be attained if the skill is executed correctly. In accordance with correct pedagogical
principles, each trial must be completed successfully by attaining the desired terminal
position.
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30. A BACKWARD SHAPING PROGRESSION
An Example from Wrestling #2.
A BACKWARD SHAPING PROGRESSION
An Example from Wrestling #2
Brent S. Rushall, Ph.D., R.Psy.
The diagram below illustrates the sequence of instructional progressions for learning a
"head-lock / squat / whizzer throw" maneuver. Picture 1 shows the terminal position that
should be attained if the skill is executed correctly. In accordance with correct pedagogical
principles, each trial must be completed successfully by attaining the desired terminal
position.
This sequence requires the first step prior to the terminal position to be executed in the air.
Consequently, an opponent has to accommodate the attacker so that this step can be
performed correctly.
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31. A BACKWARD SHAPING PROGRESSION
An
Example
from
Rowing.
Rushall, B. S. (1984). Applied rowing research report III: A sequential approach to
teaching rowing technique - backward shaping. Research report, Wintario, Ministry
of Tourism and Recreation, Government of Ontario.
A BACKWARD SHAPING PROGRESSION - ROWING
An Example from Rowing
[Rushall, B. S. (1984). Applied rowing research report III: A sequential approach to teaching
rowing technique - backward shaping. Research report, Wintario, Ministry of Tourism and
Recreation,
Government
of
Ontario.
Reprinted in Coaching Notes CARA, October, 1984. Part I Motor learning and teaching
methods.
The diagram below illustrates the sequence of instructional progressions for learning to
execute a sweep-oar rowing stroke. The sequence breaks with tradition by defining the end
of the stroke as the last position attained prior to executing the "catch." Consequently, the
progression requires instruction to first focus on what is done out of the water ("the
recovery") before any in-water activities are attempted. An added benefit to this sequence
is that the beginner first knows how to prepare to do work in the water and how to extract
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the oar at the finish. That eventually frees the individual to concentrate on the movements
that are important for producing propulsive forces.
The concept of the end of the stroke being the last preparation prior to affecting a catch,
focuses attention on correct preparation, something which is very difficult to instruct in
traditional teaching progressions. In accordance with correct pedagogical principles, each
trial must be completed successfully by attaining the desired terminal position.
32. A BACKWARD SHAPING PROGRESSION
An Example from Golf .
A BACKWARD SHAPING PROGRESSION - GOLF
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An Example from Golf
Brent S. Rushall, Ph.D., R.Psy. and Dennis Ford, M.Sc.
The diagram below illustrates the sequence of instructional progressions for learning to
swing a 7-iron golf club. Picture 1 shows the address position which is necessary to teach
how to grip the club. The second picture is the terminal position to be attained at the end of
the follow-through. In accordance with correct pedagogical principles, each trial must be
completed successfully by attaining the desired terminal position.
This sequence is derived from Rushall and Ford (1982) and is repeated in the abstract in
this issue of Coaching Science Abstracts that recounts that article.
Reference
Rushall, B. S., & Ford, D. (1982). Teaching backwards - an alternative skill instruction
progression. CAHPER Journal, 48(5), 16-20.
33. A BACKWARD SHAPING PROGRESSION
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Throwing
Lynne E. Evans, United Kingdom.
a
Javelin.
A BACKWARD SHAPING PROGRESSION - JAVELIN
Throwing a Javelin*
Lynne
United
(1985)
E.
Evans
Kingdom
The following are the steps used to instruct a mature individual to throw a javelin. S had
no experience with throwing the object although had a considerably rich history of
involvement in sports. Four consecutive correct trials at a step needed to be performed to
progress to the next step.
In this example it was necessary to teach how to hold and grip the implement (Steps A and
B) prior to commencing the movement pattern.
Step
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
Content
Hold
Grip
Recovery
Release
Arm movement
Position of feet
Backward lean
Body rotation
Arm extension
Arm withdrawal
Javelin carry
Total throw
Assessment
Prior to starting any instruction S was asked to attempt four throws which were measured.
The distances recorded were 31.8 m, 32.7 m, 28.5 m, and 33.0 m.
The instruction consisted of three sessions. On each day progressions always started with
Step A and proceeded as planned.



Session 1 consisted of 75 trials through to Step H. Seven errors were recorded.
Session 2 consisted of 82 trials through to Step K. Six errors were recorded.
Session 3 consisted of 78 trials through to the completion of the full progression
(Step L). Six errors were recorded.
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Upon completion of the progression and performance of the terminal behavior criterion
(four errorless executions of the total throw) four more throws for distance were conducted
in a manner similar to pre-instruction testing. The distances recorded were 41.5 m, 42.7 m,
39.8 m, and 43.9 m.
Only 8% of trials were deemed errors and the performance improvement was 33.25%.
====================================
* This is a summary of an unpublished research project conducted by Ms. Evans as part of her studies for the
M.Sc. degree in the Theory of Coaching at Lakehead Univeristy, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada in the spring
of 1985.
TEACHING GENERAL BEHAVIOR CONTROL
34. MODEL 3: THE CONTROL OF BEHAVIOR
Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control
of behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp.
156-168).
MODEL 3: THE CONTROL OF BEHAVIOR
[Extracted from Rushall, B. S., & Siedentop, D. (1972). The development and control of
behavior in sport and physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. (pp. 156-168)]
A second major responsibility for coaching and teaching is the control of behavior. It is
appropriate to use behavior control techniques to mold the repertoires and control the
frequency of occurrence of the behaviors which are appropriate to sports and physical
education environments. Behaviors which are "desirable" should be consistently emitted
and those which are "undesirable" should be eliminated. This form of control is
differentiated from Shaping Model 1 in that terminal behavior already exist and control
procedures are in effect for many behaviors at the same time.
This strategy is appropriate for regulating the emission rate of behaviors. In the group
control situation, most performers are expected to exhibit similar behaviors. Individual
variations in behavior form only a fraction of the total behaviors displayed. For the teacher
or coach to perform such tasks as "discipline" or control, the individuals are expected to
display a set of characteristic behaviors for that environment. For example, one set may be
"rule-following" behaviors, as defined by the teacher or coach. This does not imply that
each participant must act in the same manner. It stipulates that the group displays a set of
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behaviors which are adaptive to the purpose of the activity with some behaviors being
common to all persons and others being displayed by individuals or subgroups.
The coach and teacher need to make a decision as to which behaviors are to be
strengthened, which are to be tolerated but not reinforced, and which are to be suppressed.
Operant control procedures can be used to develop the desired control once these
behaviors are defined.
The primary purpose of this strategy is to designate the procedures which are necessary to
bring behaviors under the control of consequences and in some instances, discriminative
stimuli. The final product from the application of the strategy should be one where most
behaviors are controlled, occurring at desired rates and at appropriate times. A secondary
aim of this strategy is to produce some behavioral control that is independent of the
teacher's or coach's presence.
There is an abundance of experimental evidence (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis)
which shows that operant control procedures work with individuals and very small groups.
The majority of these studies relate the control function as being a property of the
controlling agent. These studies should be viewed as conclusive evidence of the effectiveness
of operant control procedures. On the other hand, there has been little experimental work
done with controlling large groups, bringing behavior under the control of naturally
occurring environmental consequences, or producing control from within a group rather
than from a single person. Validating evidence is rare for these topics although they have
been frequently mentioned (Skinner, 1968 and Bijou & Baer, 1961).
Good control is manifested through the reliable and predictable occurrence of behaviors.
In educational settings, behaviors which occur erratically and unreliably serve as indices of
poor teaching. Coaches and physical education teachers are concerned with developing
(shaping strategy 1) and maintaining behaviors (shaping strategy 2). As Skinner has
suggested, there are many "traditional" educators who object to vigorous approaches to
the planning and control of classroom behaviors.
An effective technology of teaching, derived not from philosophical principles but from a
realistic analysis of human behavior, has much to contribute, but as its nature has come to be
clearly seen, strong opposition has arisen. (Skinner, 1968, p. 84).
A commonly raised objection (Lawther, 1968) centers on the use of lower animals to
develop the principles of behavior. The usual argument against sub-human
experimentation is that humans are not comparable to animals. Consequently, derived
principles are supposedly invalid for humans. However, the principles of operant control
have been shown to be independent of species for they work equally as well for humans as
they do for animals. Another objection is often raised about the contrived circumstances
which are often associated with control procedures. This point is well taken if unnatural
circumstances are all that are provided.
However, contrived consequences often accelerate the effect of control procedures.
Teachers and coaches should use them in the initial stages of asserting control. If the
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control functions are finally transferred to naturally occurring events then desirable
outcomes have been attained. The transference of control from contrived to natural
circumstances is a feature of this strategy.
Another objection to behavior control in education is that it does not teach certain
important activities. Such things as tolerating frustration, self-discipline, how to clear up
puzzling matters, etc., are outcomes which are usually attributed to traditional control
methods. There is, however, a best strategy for developing outcomes of this type. Such
behaviors can be taught more efficiently through the use of behavior control procedures
than through traditional teaching methods (Skinner, 1968). The trial-and-error procedures
of traditional instruction are avoided by planned, programmed behavior control
procedures.
Teaching and coaching are concerned with affecting the topographies and rates of
occurrence of behaviors, for example, how consistently a performer can place a backhand
drive near the sideline of an opponent's court; how often a team member obeys the rules of
the game. No matter how many hypothetical mental structures are proposed as the
outcomes of teaching, only observable behaviors can be measured. The scope of teaching
physical education and coaching includes bringing behaviors under the control of given
variables. Shaping Strategy 2 concerns itself with the rates of emission of defined
behaviors.
One of the first requirements for using the strategy is to have some understanding of the
existing conditions under which the target behaviors occur. If some insight is gained into
these conditions then environmental circumstances can be altered to affect change. In the
final stages of control, adaptive behaviors must be maintained by infrequent
reinforcement, that is, they come under the control of a schedule of reinforcement.
Consistent, infrequently reinforced behaviors are indicative of good behavior control.
A MODEL
A set of procedural steps can be developed for the control of the behavioral repertoires of
group members. The repertoires and their constituent behaviors must be considered and
then the control parameters for each specific behavior must be defined. The model steps
are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Decide and list the desirable behaviors for the environment.
Decide and list the undesirable behaviors for the environment.
Locate the existing circumstances which control the behavior.
Decide and list the positive and negative reinforcers which could be used for the
initial control procedures.
5. Decide and list the naturally occurring positive and negative reinforcers which
should finally control the behaviors.
6. Resolve the control parameters for each behavior.

The desired rate of occurrence (strength).
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



‫مصادر الدكتور موفق مجيد المولى للباحث العلمي الرياضي‬
The method for applying contingent reinforcement.
The schedules of reinforcement.
The substitution of naturally occurring reinforcers.
The transfer of control to the group.
1. Clearly present the desirable/undesirable classifications to the group or individual.
2. Administer the reinforcing contingencies (follow the resolved parameters [step 6]
for each behavior).
3. Appraise the effectiveness of the control function.
The main task of controlling behavior repertoires is to consistently reinforce a defined set
of behaviors. In the discussion of this model, references will be made principally to group
control. The application of the model for individual control is similar and generally
simpler.
Desirable and Undesirable Behaviors
Desirable and undesirable categories of behavior have been referred to periodically
throughout the text. In coaching and teaching there are behaviors which are desirable
(adaptive to the situation, e.g., rule-following behaviors) and undesirable (maladaptive to
the situation, e.g., disrupting behaviors). The coach and teacher want to strengthen the
desirable and weaken or suppress the undesirable behaviors. There also exists a class of
behaviors which are relatively neutral to the situation, for example, minor social
interactions. These neutral behaviors are usually essential to the social situation but do not
actually enhance or detract from performance. For control purposes these behaviors are
ignored and are allowed to continue at their baseline rate of occurrence.
Desirable and undesirable behaviors need to be defined and recorded. The definition of
these behaviors is extremely important when more than one controlling agent exists for the
group. In group control situations, such as a coaching staff or physical education faculty,
each assistant coach or staff member must control all behaviors in a similar manner if
reliable and consistent behavior forms are to be developed. It is a good practice to record
the definitions of the behaviors. They should be referred to constantly by all persons
concerned with control so that occurrences of all the target behaviors can be recognized. At
a later stage, these behaviors and their classification need to be presented to the class or
squad. The most practical procedure for formulating the lists is to have one or more
observers watch the group in action and to classify the observed behaviors into the
desirable, neutral, and undesirable categories.
Locating Information on Behaviors
Bijou and Baer (1961) described the factors which need to be considered when trying to
understand the occurrence of a behavior. They were:
1. The function of the response consequences.
2. The promptness with which consequences occur after the response.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
‫مصادر الدكتور موفق مجيد المولى للباحث العلمي الرياضي‬
Any discriminative stimuli which accompany the response and/or reinforcer.
The history of the reinforcer (primary or conditioned).
The schedule of reinforcement.
The number of reinforcements for the response.
The deprivation or satiation of the individual for the reinforcer (if relevant).
In teaching and coaching, it is not practical to locate all these factors for all behaviors.
However, in using this strategy it is necessary to recognize the significant factors which
support the behavior and which need to be changed. Only some of the features listed need
to be contemplated for each behavior. For example, it may only be necessary to change the
reinforcement schedule for the behavior to produce the desired effect. Thus, if one wishes
to have a behavior occur more frequently, it is usually only necessary to institute a burst of
CRe and then develop intermittent control again once the desired rate has been established,
for example, increasing rule-following behaviors and assertive behaviors. In another case it
may only be necessary to bring the behavior under the control of a discriminative stimulus.
Once a skill is performed at a reasonable level of proficiency the role of discriminative
stimuli increases in importance. A quarterback quite often has to discriminate when to
throw and when not to throw a pass to avoid an interception. If he throws a lot of
interceptions which are costly to the team, then his passing behaviors need to be more
finely discriminated. Developing discriminative control may be all that is required. The
recognition of the control changes which are necessary is a most important feature of the
model. The analysis must reveal the set of conditions that need to be altered so that the
parameters for change can be defined.
Probably the most frequently located feature of an existing behavior is the reinforcers
which maintain the behavior. It is quite common to have to eliminate reinforcers for
certain behaviors. When undesirable behaviors are maintained by positive reinforcement,
such as peer attention or approval, such reinforcers need to be removed. Methods such as
reforming groups or removing individuals from the environment are useful in
circumstances such as these. For effective control changes, the existing control features
need to be known.
Determine Reinforcers
Two groups of reinforcers need to be established. The first group consists of positive and
negative consequences which are strong and suitable for the initial control process. These
reinforcers must be readily available for use by the coach or teacher. The second group
comprises those positive and negative reinforcers which occur naturally within the
environment and are independent of the coach or teacher. These will eventually be used to
maintain the behavior. The lists should be varied as they will be used for many reinforcing
contingencies on different individuals. It is good practice also to note those reinforcers
which are significant for each performer. Some individuals are influenced more by some
forms of reinforcement than are others.
Resolve the Parameters for Each Behavior
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Each behavior should be considered in the light of several control parameters. Decisions
must be made on these features so that they define the procedures to be followed by all
persons responsible for control. It is quite likely that there will be a number of behaviors
which only require an alteration in their reinforcement schedules, another group may
require a finer discriminative control, and still another may need to have a wider variety of
reinforcers administered to avoid the problem of satiation. The resolution of factors such as
these will dictate the control procedures to be adopted.
A decision must be made as to what rate of emission of the behavior is desirable. Some
behaviors will need to be completely suppressed, for example, disruptive behaviors or
unsafe behaviors. Others will be tolerated if they are emitted at a low rate, for example,
unscheduled rests in training. On the other end of the scale, some behaviors need to occur
as often as possible, for example, attendance at class or practice. The decision on rates of
occurrence will directly affect the schedule of reinforcement administered. It is valuable to
take periodic assessments of each behavior to determine their rate of occurrence. This can
be used as an index of the control function exerted by the changed reinforcement schedule.
As has been indicated above, there will be behaviors which do not require a schedule
change although the control process will be applied for other features which affect the
behavior.
The degree of stimulus control required should be determined if it is appropriate. The
majority of conduct, social interaction, and task application behaviors will be free-operant
behaviors. However, in certain aspects of the teaching and coaching process, particularly
where there is highly involved organization, some behaviors cannot be tolerated and need
to be discriminated operants, for example, specific rule-following behaviors. Decisions must
be made as to what the discriminative stimulus should be for each behavior which needs
this control and how the discriminative control is to be implemented.
If applicable, methods of applying contingent reinforcement for each behavior must be
determined. This may require some ingenuity on behalf of the controller because many
physical activities are performed continuously, for example, swimming laps. Also, in other
circumstances the coach or teacher may not be near enough to an individual to present a
reinforcer directly.
The main problem to overcome is to minimize the time delay between the response and
reinforcement. The longer the delay in providing reinforcement, the less will be its effect
upon behavior. When other behaviors occur after the specific response, reinforcement is no
longer appropriate.
The schedule of reinforcement will determine the strength of the behavior. CRe will elevate
or suppress a behavior to a desired strength and an intermittent (VR/Vl) schedule will
maintain the behavior at that level. Because control is shared across the group, the
administration of CRe is a most difficult task. The best procedure available appears to be
to emit the number of behaviors in the group which are under CRe at the one time. It is
possible to have several behaviors under CRe and more under VR/VI schedules at the same
time. To be more realistic, CRe will be a high VR/VI schedule as it is virtually impossible to
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reinforce every occurrence of a behavior for every individual. The procedure of stretching
the ratio or interval is one of reinforcing the behavior less and less once it occurs at the
desired rate. A common failure in attempts at control occurs when schedules are changed
too abruptly or in some cases discontinued. To overcome this failing, it is a good practice to
have "booster sessions" of reinforcement each practice session. The behaviors that are
established are reinforced periodically to maintain the stretched schedule. The application
of an exact schedule which keeps a behavior at one level is almost impossible to achieve in
the applied situation. Rather, behaviors seem to vary in their rate of occurrence and
"booster sessions" bring them back to their desired strength.
Once a behavior is established and maintained, the control function should then be turned
over to naturally occurring consequences. The procedures for doing this have been
neglected in the research. Many reinforcers can be administered by members within a
group. Social reinforcers are particularly natural to any group activity and all that needs to
be done is to define the acceptable reinforcers and when they are to be administered by the
group members. By establishing traditions and procedures that are monitored and
controlled by the group, behaviors can be reinforced independently of the coach. If a
behavior is maintained by intermittent coach-administered reinforcers, then the natural
reinforcers need only occur at reasonable times to match the previous schedule when
control is finally transferred. Such examples as recognizing performance excellence in
various aspects of a game, providing social recognition for outstanding performances, etc.,
can be used as effective reinforcers. These contingencies are often coach or teacher
instigated but are then turned over to the group for administration.
The control function can be transferred to the group. This relieves the coach from some
time-consuming responsibilities enabling him to apply himself to other coaching tasks. The
principal concern of this step is to develop the persons in the environment as behavioral
engineers. There are several examples in the literature of the use of naive persons as
controlling agents (Surrat et al., 1969; Hall et al., 1968). To do this, the person needs to
know the specific behaviors (obtained from the definitions), what reinforcers are available,
and when to administer them.
Each of these steps needs to be planned for each behavior. The initial planning may appear
to be overwhehning but as the user becomes more skilled in making these decisions and in
using behavior control procedures his efficiency increases and the task size diminishes.
Once the initially defined behaviors have come under control, further preparation for the
controller is only limited to new behaviors which emerge. The results of this process are
more than satisfying to the controller in light of the initial preparation which is required to
achieve effective control.
The Application of Control Procedures
The group or individual should be made aware of the desirable and undesirable behaviors
which have been defined. This will act as a discriminative stimulus for the behaviors.
Rushall (1972) referred to a procedure of using this strategy with a group of advanced
swimmers.
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A large notice board displaying a list of desirable behaviors and a list of undesirable behaviors
should be set up in the pool. The list itemizes all the behaviors so that they are clearly
recognizable when they occur. The coach should then reinforce the good behaviors and
punish the bad behaviors while controlling the squad. On the administration of each
consequence, the group's attention should be drawn to the list. In a short period of time, the
swimmers themselves will start to sanction and reprimand the behaviors which are listed
(possibly due to generalized imitation). The coach's task will be greatly reduced by this
phenomenon. From time to time, the list will be supplemented as more control is required. For
this method to be successful, the coach must provide significant importance to the procedure
at the time of its introduction. Since the group itself takes over the control function, the coach
is relieved of this task and he can then apply himself more fully to other purposes.
The above description highlights the features of implementing the model. The notice board
which listed the behaviors served as a reference and reminder of the specific behaviors
which were expected in the pool environment (it acted as a set of discriminative stimuli).
The capability of adding new behaviors to both classes is also provided. It is likely that the
lists will not be exhaustive in the initial stages. The implementation of this process should
be quite marked by attaching a great degree of importance to it so that a suitable
impression is made upon the group. Stressing the importance should be carried into the
application stages by publicly administering reinforcers when necessary (to utilize the
vicarious reinforcement phenomenon). This should be maintained for some time (the larger
the group the longer the period) until the group accepts the procedure and is fully aware of
all the desirable and undesirable behaviors and their consequences. The next stage is to
follow all the resolved parameters for each behavior. The awareness of the coach or teacher
to the differing desired rates of occurrence between behaviors is important. As control is
being achieved the group can be made aware of the sanctions which can be given to the
various behaviors. They should be encouraged to administer these consequences themselves
to other group members. By doing this, the group will in time come to control its own
behavior with only a small degree of supervision and direction from the teacher or coach.
When the teacher is relieved of this control function he can turn more of his attention to
actual teaching. This is a very significant feature. One of the main problems with studentteacher relationships is that the teacher is forced to control many behaviors which are not
involved with the actual instruction. Such behaviors as attending, drills, discipline, etc., are
maintained primarily through aversive controls and negative consequences. If a code of
behavior is violated, then the student is usually aversively reinforced. If a code is not
violated, the student does not generally receive any reinforcement. In traditional control
situations such as these, the student views the teacher as a primarily negative individual.
This is not a good relational feature. When the teacher is freed from reliance on aversive
control procedures by adopting this strategy for control, he/she is able to develop more
meaningful relationships with students.
In all control procedures one needs constantly to appraise their effectiveness. At various
times after the inception of this strategy each behavior should be observed to see that it is
maintaining the controlled rate. Where rates differ from those originally developed, new
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control procedures will have to be introduced. Control will continually be part of the
coaching or teaching function although it will be less time-consuming once it is established.
RESPONSE DIFFERENTIATION
This second strategy has indicated that a major method of behavior control is concerned
with regulating reinforcement schedules. The rate of occurrence of the behavior is affected.
Earlier in Chapter 5 other direct methods of control were explained. These control
methods are important for sports and physical education; however, it is often still
necessary to control the amplitude of a response. It is more meaningful to have a high
jumper clear 7 feet consistently with a straddle technique than it is tojump all heights from
3 feet 6 inches to 7 feet. Time and facilities often restrict the amount of training that is
possible. It is essential that a performer and coach participate in meaningful practice under
restricted training conditions. It is also highly probable that non-specific training, for
example, shot-putting 30 feet, will interfere with more specific training, e.g. shot-putting 60
feet, in highly skilled performers. It would also be desirable to have an athlete perform
consistently at a high level of performance. The procedure for getting an athlete to perform
near maximum all the time, or at least in a restricted performance range, is called
differential reinforcement. Through differential reinforcement response differentiation
comes about.
Differential reinforcement consists of reinforcing a limited range of responses from a
response class. For example, shot puts over 60 feet are reinforced and those less than 60
feet are not reinforced. In time a 60-feet-plus put becomes differentiated from other
throws. With reinforcement, particularly in the form of performance information, the
subset of reinforced responses becomes a consistent feature of the individual's behavior.
Many activities, like tennis, archery, squash, etc., have evaluative intrinsic feedback as a
consequence of many of their operants. Without coaching, these operants undergo
automatic differential reinforcement. When an individual hits a tennis ball out of bounds
he/she usually tries a modified technique the next time a similar shot is to be made in order
to hit the ball in bounds. In operants which provide evaluative intrinsic feedback, it is
possible for an individual to achieve a reasonable standard of performance. For example, a
beginning golfer produces a wide variety of golf swings from the response class of golf
swings. Occasionally a response is differentially reinforced when a good shot is played.
After many years of this trial-and-error reinforcement, the uncoached golfer reduces
his/her score, produces a restricted set of swings, and incurs a great deal more positive
reinforcement than in initial golfing attempts. A coach should be able to capitalize on this
intrinsic differential reinforcement and accelerate the development of skill by selectively
reinforcing topographical aspects of behaviors.
The main point about response differentiation is that it has value in sports and physical
education. It delimits the variety of responses which could be made. A consistent level of
performance is very desirable for athletic performance and differential reinforcement aids
in achieving this consistency.
TEACHING AS A CONTROL PROCESS
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In positively reinforcing environments, the application of individuals to fulfilling their
tasks and assignments becomes consistent, the normal problems of motivation, attention
and concentration do not arise, and long periods of work are produced without signs of
fatigue or nervousness (Skinner, 1965). Under favorable programs of reinforcement,
applicative energies are sustained. A student who learns under aversive contingencies
gradually restricts responding to behaviors which avoid or escape negative consequences.
He/she stops responding when the threatening discriminative stimuli are removed. A too
common approach of coaches and physical education teachers is to coerce individuals to
react in order to avoid low grades, being dropped from the team, etc. Skills and behaviors
produced under these conditions tend not to be continued upon leaving the sport or
physical education environment.
Instances of aversive control in physical education are common. Pupils who are late to class
are punished so they will not be late again. The lateness itself is an indication that the
students are not motivated to get to class. Teachers have to threaten and yell at pupils to
provoke action. The class performs only to avoid reprisals. Classes are threatened with
punishment if they do not pay attention or a team member is threatened with being
dropped if he/she misbehaves. The ludicrous situation arises in some aversively controlled
environments where push-ups, extra-laps, and more exercise are used as punishments for
inappropriate behaviors. In the same situation at some other time the group is told to do
push-ups, run laps, and to exercise because of the good that they do. Direct inconsistencies
such as these serve to decrease the control potential for that environment. These are
instances of bad teaching procedure through the form of aversive control. A teacher or
coach is able to use aversive control because of social position. However, once the teacher is
removed, the discriminative stimulus is removed and responding returns to its baseline
level. The main impact of this control approach is that there is no "carry-over" value in the
teaching.
For every behavior that is punished, an acceptable behavior should be primed and
reinforced. By substituting in this manner, the individual will not avoid the situation and
his/her repertoire of adaptive behaviors will be increased. This should be a feature of
control in using this strategy. This is the most acceptable use of punishment. When
inappropriate behaviors occur they can be punished as long as the alternative behavior is
reinforced. The acquisition of the new behavior will be accelerated by this procedure. The
quickest way to produce a new response is to develop it under continuous reinforcement
while punishing all instances of incompatible behaviors.
Perhaps the most serious criticism of instruction and coaching is the relative infrequency of
trials and reinforcement. Since the teacher is the main source of reinforcement in the early
stages when trials are usually unsuccessful in terms of perfect results, few good
approximations, although unsuccessful, are reinforced in this important stage of
development. With large classes and squads and autocratic teaching, reinforcement for
correct or good responses is far from optimal. Behavior changes are few and small and it is
surprising if there is any effect from the teaching procedures at an.
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Rewards in sports and physical education are generally not given for a specific behavior.
They are usually presented for over-all levels of performance and therefore have
questionable effects. To structure good instructional contingencies the teacher must be able
to offer immediate reinforcement. Prizes, marks, etc., are some available reinforcers.
However, it is common practice to withhold the presentation of these until the behavior is
long gone and they therefore lose all their effect. Generally, weak conditioned reinforcers
are effective only when they are contingent upon responses.
The operant strategy for control provides a procedure for instituting clear, consistent
reinforcement for defined behaviors. This strategy should be combined with the shaping
strategy so that a lesson or training session will proceed with both instruction and behavior
control. The development of stimulus control is an important feature to be considered when
using the strategies. Errorless learning is an important concept for discrimination training
(see Chapter 6). Learning experiences should be made as clear and simple as possible while
the programmed steps of the shaping strategy should be well within the capabilities of each
performer. This approach is very different from the traditional, anxiety-provoking
discrimination training where it is usual to reinforce only wrong responses.
The coach and teacher are assigned two main tasks, to develop the topographies of
behavior and to bring all behaviors appropriate to the respective environments under the
control of infrequent, naturally occurring reinforcement. This is best approached through
small group and individual instruction and total group control programs. Individuals must
be able to perform at their own rates to produce optimal applicative efforts.
The use of this control strategy promotes the concept of "how one should behave." This
may be interpreted as the performer's "role." It comprises a behavior repertoire that has
been shaped by the environment. It proposes a method for producing such a repertoire. It
becomes possible to talk of a swimmer's role or a football player's role, each being defined
by the set of desirable and undesirable behaviors developed through the use of this control
strategy. Definitions of a role are situationally specific. The problem person in a class or
training squad may display inappropriate behaviors, may not display all the desired
behaviors, may not respond to all the stimuli present, and may not obtain the typical or
maximum forms of reinforcement available. Precise, behavioral analysis will locate the
reasons for the deviations and will suggest where corrective control procedures need to be
instigated.
Coaches and teachers of physical education can consider the performance of their squads
or classes in a new light, the total integrated behavior pattern or role. A strategy for
controlling and modifying this pattern has been discussed. The engineering of
circumstances which provide contingent reinforcement is a control factor in the teaching
and coaching process. It is necessary to concentrate on the programmed implementation of
teaching and control strategies. Behavior changes will be more noticeable and verifiable
and the teacher's effectiveness raised. Operant principles of behavior indicate clear steps
for achieving behavior development and modification in sports and physical education.
SUMMARY
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The second strategy is concerned with controlling the rates of occurrence of behavior
which occur in sports and physical education. It is applicable for use with behaviors which
are already established in an individual's behavior repertoire.
The control function of teachers and coaches is seen as maintaining appropriate behaviors,
suppressing inappropriate behaviors, and tolerating the remaining behaviors. This strategy
designates the procedures which are necessary to bring behaviors under the control of
consequences.
The model concerned with this strategy allows the teacher or coach to attempt to control
many behaviors at the same time. It requires a definition of desirable and undesirable
behaviors, the location of the conditions which maintain them prior to instituting control,
and the features necessary to achieve the desired control. The main feature of the model is
that it stipulates that control must be finally achieved by naturally occurring reinforcers
(usually members within a group). This relieves the teacher of the continuous task of
maintaining discipline or control which is characteristic of traditional education methods.
Teaching and coaching are analyzed in terms of aversive and positive control processes and
a strong point is made to have the control procedures emphasize positive reinforcement.
The principal use of punishment is acknowledged as being the suppression of behaviors
which are incompatible with a response that is being shaped. The strategy outlines the
necessary steps for achieving a new level of behavior control in sports and physical
education. The control function of the teacher and coach can be enhanced by using the
principles of operant psychology.
References
1. Bijou, S. W., & Baer, D. M. (1961). Child development, Volume I: A systematic and
empirical theory. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
2. Hall, R. V., Panyan, M., Rabon, D., & Broden, M. (1968). Instructing beginning
teachers in reinforcement procedures which improve classroom control. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 315-322.
3. Lawther, J. (1968). The learning of physical skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.
4. Rushall, B. S. (1972). Behavior control in swimming. Australian Journal of Sports
Medicine, 4(6), 18-24.
5. Skinner, B. F. (1965). The technology of teaching. Proceedings of the Royal Society,
B. 162, 427-443.
6. Skinner, B. F. (1968). The technology of teaching. New York, NY: AppletonCentury-Crofts.
7. Surrat, P. R., Ulrich, R. E., & Hawkins, R. P. (1969). An elementary student as a
behavioral engineer. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2, 85-92
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