VIRTUE
And VICE
Virtues are thought to be closely
connected with our moral characters.
They are the sorts of dispositions we
have towards our emotions and desires,
such as, self-control in regard to
pleasures and passions, fear, and anger.
They also concern proper social relations,
that is, questions of fairness, honesty,
and respect.
Traditionally, there are thought
to be 4 cardinal (or key) virtues:
Temperance
self-control of
pleasures.
courage
self-abnegation and
control of fear.
fairness or justice
giving others what is
prudence or wisdom
their due.
good moral decision
making.
we are only concerned here with
the first three, which are true
character virtues. Wisdom is
an intellectual ability that will
be dealt with in another context.
FAIRMINDEDNESS
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THE
CARDINAL
VIRTUES
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It can be shown that in some respects,
the three cardinal character virtues
form a certain dependence.
Temperance teaches self-control of
one’s pleasures and desires. Without
such an ability, it would be difficult
to be fair to others. Greed, and desires
for pleasures for oneself can be
a significant inhibitor of fairness.
Courage encourages nobility, that is,
denial of self-interest for the sake of
something larger than one’s own
interest or self.
Courage lends itself to fairness,
since fairness requires looking
at what is in the common good,
and not just what is one’s own
good.
FAIRMINDEDNESS
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Regard
for
Others
Self-control
Selfsacrifice
The cardinal
virtues are
interdependent.
C
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Since fairmindedness or justice
is a paramount social virtue, it
is the virtue that holds societies
together and allows them to
flourish. It is clear how important
the virtues of temperance and
courage are for fairness.
Virtues can be viewed as a
mean between two extremes.
This is called Aristotle’s golden mean.
A virtue such as temperance is a mean
between two extremes in regard to the
sensation of pleasure.
Those who enjoy too much
pleasures, or the wrong sorts
of pleasures, are called
self-indulgent.
Those who don’t enjoy proper
pleasures, or lead too austere
of a life are called insensitive.
All the virtues and vices can
be organized as means and
extremes in regard to a certain
pleasure, feeling or emotion.
TEMPERANCE
The cardinal virtue of self-control.
The ability to modulate the
desire for pleasure; to forego
immediate pleasures for long-term ones.
content
industrious
securesexually
continent
apathetic
complacen
undesirous
lustful extravagant
slothful
COURAGE
The cardinal virtue of self-efficacy.
Behavior which involves, risk, harm
or suffering for the sake of
something greater than oneself.
persevering stalwart
rash
dogged
resigned
FAIRMINDEDNESS
The cardinal virtue of cooperation.
Behaviors which take into consideration
the interest of others; regard for others.
gratitude repentance
legalistic
honesty
liberal
There is also a question concerning
the possibility of virtuous character.
Some such as Owen Flanagan
argue that we shouldn’t talk
about an honest person, but
rather the disposition of a person
to be honest in certain respects.
For this reason, he makes the following
distinctions:
Virtuous Act
An action that has a virtuous character;
may be occasional.
Virtuous Disposition or Module
A tendency to act with regard to a certain
virtue in the context of some practice.
VirtVirtuous behavior that is part of one’s
personality.
If someone had an honesty trait,
he or she would act honestly in
all her dealings.
If honesty is a disposition, on the
other hand, there might be kinds
of situations in which a person did
not act honestly.
TEMPERANCE
TEMPERANCE
Temperance is often defined as:
Self-control in
regard to pleasure.
OR
The ability to forestall
lesser pleasures for
greater ones.
We know from studies, such as
Mischels’s “marshmallow test” (1990),
that those who are apt at exercising
self-control in regard to pleasure, and
who can forestall immediate pleasures
for long-term ones, are often more
successful at whatever goals or plans
they establish for themselves.
Temperance is associated with two vices:
The inability to control desire for pleasure
is the vice of self-indulgence.
The inability to enjoy even proper pleasures
is the vice of insensitivity.
Characteristics of Pleasure:
Many psychologists claim that there are
two sorts of Pleasures:
Consummatory: pleasure derived from
satisfaction of a desire; satiation.
Appetitive: pleasure derived from the
pursuit of a pleasure; anticipation.
enjoyment is sometimes distinguished
from pleasure.
the satisfaction of pleasure is often
restorative and replenishing—it
maintains us where we should be.
enjoyments add to our pleasure, and
often engage us more intensely in the
activities that generate it.
in any case, pleasure and enjoyment
is a powerful motivator and
attraction in our lives.
it is hard to imagine living without
some modicum of pleasure.
In the history of ethics, we find
a great deal of discussion about
the proper role of pleasure in
our lives.
There are several views concerning
the proper relation between pleasure
and the good life.
Stoicism
Hedonism
Eudaimonism
Asceticism
Sybaritism
Epicureanism
HEDONISM claims that
Pleasure is the goal of life.
There are two versions of hedonism:
SYBARITISM
Unbridled pursuit of pleasure. “Eat,
drink, and be merry.” “If it feels good, do it.”
EPICUREANISM
The pursuit of only highly qualitative
pleasures. The search is for the kind
of life of high quality and enduring pleasures.
EUDAIMONISM
Good practices rather than pleasure
ought to be the goal in life; proper
pleasures are the result of good practices.
STOICISM is that neither pleasure nor
pain ought to be a factor in the
determination of the best life---only
what is good and right.
ASCETICISM
A radical denial of pleasure, in favor
of the spiritual or ethical.
sybaritism is a difficult philosophy to
support.
A life in the indiscriminate pursuit
of pleasure is difficult to maintain,
and to support financially.
The insistent pursuit of pleasure,
as the Hollywood lifestyle, illustrates,
often leads to addiction, disease, and
the destruction of talent and opportunity.
Epicureanism
1. pleasure Epicurus
is the end of
life.
(341-270
B.C.E.)
is considered to be the classic
philosopher of hedonism.
One should choose only those pleasures
that lead to greater pleasures; and
avoid those that eventually incur pain.
the ultimate goal of the hedonist, according
to Epicurus, is atraxia, or peace of
mind.
To attain atraxia, the body must aim
for a state of repose
A person should also avoid
heavy responsibilities, ambitions and
serious involvements
The mind must also be put in a state of repose
Criticisms of epicureanism:
1. promotes an egocentric ethic; both familial
and civic connections are discouraged.
2. subordinates virtue to pleasure; the only
reason to act virtuously is if it brings pleasure.
Eudaimonism is
best expressed in the
work of Aristotle
(384-322 B.C.E.)
Eudaimonism argues that pleasure
ought not to be the ultimate goal
of our activities and pursuits, although
a pleasurable life is certainly desirable.
Instead pleasure ought to seen in its
proper place as the result of activities
and practices done excellently and
virtuously.
To do something for the sake of pleasure
is to chance corrupting the good of
the activity.
Eudaimonism
1. flourishing is the goal in life.
2. flourishing is the result of the virtuous
exercise of good practices, which results in
a certain sort of pleasure.
3. this pleasure completes the good life, but is
not its goal.
Criticism of Eudaimonism
Even though, it does not make pleasure
the paramount in pursuit in life, still
pleasure is a vital component of
eudaimonism.
The same criticism of hedonism, then,
may be made of eudaimonism. It would
seem that since the expectation of the
good life is a pleasurable one, if that
does not happen, then the life of virtue
and excellence might be questioned.
Stoicism is a
philosophy
classically
associated
with Epictetus
(55-135 C.E.).
Stoicism argues that pleasure or pain
ought not to be a factor in living the
good life and doing the right thing.
The motivation for doing the right
thing ought to be that it is the right
thing to do, not because of some
pleasure or peace of mind it might
bring.
Consequently, for the Stoics, one
has to grow indifferent to
pleasure and pain, and find a
purer motive for the right thing.
Duty becomes a paradigm of proper
moral behavior for the Stoics. One
does your duty simply because
duty commands you do it, not
because of the consequences it
might bring.
However, despite the emphasis on
duty, and the stress on indifference
to pleasure and pain, the Stoics
do seem to argue that there is a
certain enjoyable quality to life
that results from the exercise of
duty, and the indifference to pleasure.
Epictetus argues that the life of
duty and virtue leads to a sort
of tranquility, which he calls
euthymia.
Criticisms of Stoicism
1. Indifference to pleasure and pain undermines
that which engages us in life. The passions, joy
and suffering is what ties us to this life.
2. Indifference to pain, may also lead to
the indifference to the suffering of others.
3. still suggests that pleasure (in the form of
tranquility (euthymia) is the goal in life.
GOOD-TEMPER
Good temper is a species
of temperance.
Temperance is generally the
ability to control or temper
pleasure and enjoyment.
The release or expression of
anger is often felt as pleasurable,
even though it may be considered
a negative emotion when it leads
to violence or hatred.
For this reason, good-temper
is the control of something
that is pleasurable for the
person, but may be harmful
to others.
The expression of anger is
not always a vice. Sometimes
it is completely appropriate
to be angry.
Anger can express a legitimate
complaint against another
who has done you harm.
It is a way of warning others
that you are aware of the
harm they have done you.
GOODTEMPER
Self-control in regard to anger.
The inability to control one’s anger is the
vice of bad-temper.
The inability to become angry at the proper
time is the vice of apathy.
The varieties of bad-temper
Hot-tempered
Gets angry easily and with the wrong
persons and at the wrong things.
Choleric
Quick-tempered and seem to be angry
at everything.
Sulky
Hard to appease and retain their anger long.
Bad-tempered
Combine the worst of the other types;
often vengeful.
THE WORK ETHIC
The “work ethic,” sometimes called the
“Protestant work ethic” is thought to
be composed a systematic combination
of certain virtues:
INDUSTRY
CONTENTMENT
FRUGALITY
INDUSTRY: the ability to
work despite fatigue
or lack of desire; placing
priority of work
over leisure or entertainment.
FRUGALITY: the
ability to save money,
to forestall immediate
goods for long range
material goals
CONTENTMENT: the ability to curb
desire for more goods; being satisfied
with a certain level of material and social
goods.
Industry promotes good work habits;
frugality allows one to save money;
while contentment curbs desire for goods.
It is claimed that, when these work in
unison, they can allow a person to
produce and accumulate wealth, and
avoid the pitfalls of rabid consumerism.
COURAGE
Courage is considered a virtue of
self-efficacy, and has to do with
overcoming fear, or willingness to
take risks.
It is associated with two vices:
The inability to control fear is the vice of
cowardliness.
Lack of fear or caution for what one should
properly fear is the vice of foolhardiness.
Courage or bravery
involves certain kinds
of puzzles:
COURAGE
Three puzzles concerning courage:
1. Who is more
2. Who is more
courageous,
courageous,
a mountain climber
a fireman who
or a fireman?
rescues someone
3. Assuming that some
Nazis were
fighting to defend
Nazism, were those
soldiers just as
courageous as their
Allied foes?
from a burning
building, or, an
ordinary citizen
who does the
same thing?
One way of solving these paradoxes is to
make a distinction between:
Courage
facing significant harm or risk to one’s
life for the sake of something greater
than oneself.
Bravery
doing something despite a significant
feeling of fear.
In regard to the first question, although
both the mountain climber and the
fireperson may be considered brave,
the fireman is more courageous, since
her actions are thought to be typically for a
greater good, or collective good, as
opposed to the mountain climber’s.
In regard to the second question,
the ordinary citizen may exhibit
more bravery—even perhaps
foolhardiness—although both
exhibit courage.
Because the fireman is better trained,
equipped, and has more experience,
he may face less fear in this situation.
The third puzzle allows the
possibility that a courageous
person could also be immoral.
This puzzle is discussed under
the instrumental and integral
theory of the virtues.
Some other virtues in regard to fear:
Fearlessness: Constitutional ability to be less anxious in
face of danger.
Daring: Willingness to take a new or novel course of
action.
Valor: Strength of mind and body.
Intrepidity: Bravery in the context of a mission or goal.
Dauntlessness: Determination to stick to a dangerous
task.
Mettle: Resilience or ability to endure
FAIRMINDEDNESS
FAIRMINDEDNESS
regard for the interests of others
in the context of some cooperative
or competitive practice.
Fairmindedness
should be distinguished from notions such as
Justice and Fairness.
Fairmindedness is characteristic of a person,
whereas Justice and Fairness are qualities of
institutions and practices.
Fairness pertains to how the basic rules of a
practice are implemented and exercised.
Justice is concerned with the overarching
principles of a practice or a set of practices that
determine rights and duties, costs and benefits,
punishments and rewards.
BASIC CONDITIONS OF FAIRNESS
1. The practice should be mutually advantageous
2. The rules governing the
practice must be
3. The rules should
understood and consented
be equitable;
to by the participants.
everyone should
play by the same
rules.
4. The rules should be impartial; no
special treatment should be given,
and they should serve as the final
court of appeal.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A
FAIR-MINDED PERSON
1. Shows a willingness to participate in practices
that are mutually or collectively beneficial.
2. Does not seek more advantage for himself or
herself than what is due; does not demand from
others more than their fair contribution.
3. Shows a willingness to correct the
practice where it is unfair.
JUSTICE
Distributive Justice
Concerns the proper distribution of costs
and benefits in a practice or system of
practices.
Retributive Justice
Concerns the proper punishments for the
violation of the rules of a practice.
HONESTY
TRUTHFULNESS is the presentation of
information in a way that is believed to
be accurate by the provider.
HONESTY (in word as opposed to deed)
is fairness in regard to information; that is
the truthful presentation of information
thought to be owed to the person.
NON-DISCLOSURE is the omission of
information relevant to the interests of
others.
The Many Ways to Be Dishonest:
LYING is a denial of
MISLEADING is
what one believes to be
providing information
true in response to a
that
is
known
to
be
direct inquiry.
inaccurate and in such
DECEPTION is
a way as to direct the
planned lying ;
person towards
often misleading
a certain belief or
information is
action.
presented to a
person intentionally
for some goal or purpose the
deceiver has in mind.
The Many Ways to Be Dishonest:
DUPLICITY is the case where you make a certain
set of claims to one person, but their contrary
to another, usually for the purposes of gaining
a certain advantage or avoiding harm.
INSINCERITY is false or pretended advocacy
of a political, religious or other wide-ranging
belief.
LIBEL is the deliberate telling of lies meant
specifically to harm the reputation of a person.
The Many Ways to Be Dishonest:
HYPOCRISY public advocacy of a belief but
private expression of its disbelief; acting opposite
of what you publicly advocate.
DUPERY is deceiving someone who is especially
innocent or gullible.
EXAGGERATION is enhancement or distortion
of fact for effect.
PRETENSE is offering information as accurate
when one is not entirely sure it is.
The Many Ways to Be Dishonest:
Self-Deception
Often takes on the form of rationalization:
INVERSION‘I did him a service by hitting him,
now he’s more aware of his failings.’
PROJECTION‘he deserved to be hit’
BLAMING‘the crowd pushed me to hit him’
EXCUSE‘I was in a terrible mood, and he said
something that set me off’
COMPARISON‘at least I didn’t beat him to a
bloody pulp’
CONVENTIONALIZATION‘everybody gets into
a fight once in awhile’