Memory
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Introduction
Stage Model of Memory
Process Model of Memory
Problems in Memory
The Biology of Memory
II. Stage Model of Memory
• A.k.a. Atkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model
Sensory Memory
Two Examples of Sensory Memory
• Iconic:
– brief memory for things we have seen
• Echoic:
– brief memory for things we have heard
Working/Short-Term Memory
Memory Tests
SUABNARSMIBOUI
USANBAIRSIBMIOU
Long-Term Memory
The Serial Position Effect
III. Process Model of Memory
III. Memory Processes
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Getting
information into
memory
Retaining
information in
memory
Recalling or
using previously
encoded and
stored
information
Encoding
• The process of transforming information into a
form that can be stored and later retrieved.
Types of Encoding
• Automatic: encoding that happens without
having to try
• Effortful: encoding that only happens when
the proper effort is made
Memory Tests
• List 1: How positive or negative is the word
(on a scale from 1-9)?
• List 2: Is there an “e” in the word (Y or N)?
List 1
• coin, skate, church, fork, trunk, pocket, trail,
flower, clock, bank, paint, time, deep, bird,
sample, move, rain, pipe
List 2
• shade, desk, money, pitch, garden, hammer,
dress, horse, month, door, belt, train, count,
fire, song, bureau, foot, magic
Depth of Processing
• “Deeper” encoding results in easier recall
• Deep encoding focuses on things such as
meaning, comprehension, or understanding
Craik & Tulving (1975)
Storage
Retrieval
General Memory Principle
• If the conditions of encoding are similar to the
conditions of retrieval, then recall is better.
Context-Dependent Memory
If the environment of encoding is similar to the environment of
retrieval, then recall is better.
Percentage of
words recalled
40%
Words heard
under water are
better recalled
when under
water.
Words heard on land
are better recalled
when on land.
30
Recall was poorer
when the
learning and
testing contexts
did not match.
20
10
0
Water/water
Land/land
Same contexts
for hearing
and recall
Water/land
Land/water
Different contexts
for hearing
and recall
State-Dependent Memory
• If your internal state during encoding is similar
to your internal state during retrieval, then
recall is better.
Mood-Congruent Recall
• We have better recall for events that match
our current mood.
IV. Problems in Memory
Forgetting
Flashbulb Memories
Flashbulb Memories
• Vivid memories of emotionally significant
events.
• Research suggests that they can be
surprisingly inaccurate for some people
• Vivid recall doesn’t always translate to
increased accuracy
Memory Test (the last one!)
False Memories
Interference
V. The Biology of Memory
LTP
Intelligent Thought & Behavior
I. Problem Solving
II. Obstacles to Thinking & Reasoning
III. Intelligence & Intelligence Testing
I. Problem Solving
• Problem Solving Steps
1. Frame/interpret the problem
The Crow & the Trains Problem
I. Problem Solving
• Problem Solving Steps
1. Frame/interpret the problem
2. Generate many possible solutions/brainstorm
3. Test a solution (algorithms, heuristics, trial &
error, insight, etc…)
4. Evaluate results
5. Repeat steps 1-3 if necessary
II. Obstacles to Thinking & Reasoning
“Would you like to buy a magazine
subscription?”
(from Dan Ariely’s book Predictably Irrational)
Electronic Subscription
Only: $60
Print Subscription
Only: $125
Electronic & Print
Subscription: $125
16%
0%
84%
68%
X
32%
Parole Decisions of Judges
(Danziger, 2011)
Confirmation Bias
• The tendency to:
1. search for information that supports our beliefs
and…
2. ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
• The death penalty study.
Fixation
• The inability to see a problem from a new
perspective
• Examples:
– Mental Set: The tendency to persist in solving
problems with solutions that have worked in the
past.
– Functional Fixedness: The tendency to view
objects as functioning only in their usual,
customary, or traditional ways.
Duncker Candle Problem
Representativeness Heuristic
• Estimating the likelihood of an event by
comparing how similar it is to a prototype,
stereotype, or ideal
• If an event is very similar to an ideal, we
assume that it must be likely
The Linda Problem
(Tversky & Kahneman, 1982)
The Chris Problem
• Which is more likely? That Chris is a librarian
or that Chris is a student?
Doing the math…
• Assume there are 5 librarians and 10,000 students
• If 80% of librarians fit the description, we’re talking
about 4 people (80% of 5 is 4)
• If 1% of students fit the description, we’re talking
about 100 people (1% of 10,000 is 100)
• By this math, Chris is 25 times more likely to be a
student.
Availability Heuristic
• Estimating the likelihood of an event based on
how easy it is to recall in memory.
• If an event is easy to recall, we assume that it
must be likely
Which is more likely?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Death by suicide or death by murder?
Death by botulism or death by lightning
Death by asthma or death by tornado
Answers:
Death by suicide is 25% more likely
Death by lightning is 53 times more likely
Death by asthma is 21 times more likely
Is the following logical?
All living things need water.
Roses need water.
Therefore, roses are living things.
Is the following logical?
All things smoked are good for one’s health.
Cigarettes are smoked.
Therefore, cigarettes are good for one’s health.
Belief Bias
• The tendency to distort or abandon logic
when it contradicts our beliefs.
Overconfidence
• We tend to be much more confident than
accurate in our predictions.
How many socks?
• Imagine that you have a sock drawer with 27
individual black socks and 19 individual brown
socks. How many individual socks do you
have to pull out of the drawer to guarantee
that you have a matching pair of socks.
Andrew's father is a king who lives in seclusion
deep in a pine forest. The king has called his
children together for a sumptuous meal; he is
delighted to see them for the first time in years.
The king has five children. The oldest is named
Quartz. The second oldest is named Calcite. The
third oldest is named Diamond, and the fourth
oldest is named Amethyst. What is the name of
the youngest child?
How Much Dirt?
• How many cubic yards of dirt are there in a
hole that is 3 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 6 feet
deep?
Distraction by Irrelevant Information
III. Intelligence & Intelligence Testing
You can't build a hut, you don't know how to find edible roots, and you
know nothing about predicting the weather . In other words, you
would do terribly on our IQ test.
A: Intelligence Defined
The ability to…
• acquire knowledge
• think and reason effectively
• deal adaptively with the environment
B: History of Measuring Intelligence
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Francis Galton
Alfred Binet
William Stern
Lewis Terman
David Wechsler
Selected WAIS-III Subscales
• Information (V): On what continent is Italy?
• Comprehension (V): Why are children required to go
to school?
• Vocabulary (V): What does “formidable” mean?
• Picture Completion (P): Identify what is missing on a
picture.
• Block Design (P): Arrange blocks to make figure.
• Object Assembly (P): Assemble pieces of a puzzle.
Block Design
Object Assembly
Picture Completion
C: Types of Tests and Testing Formats
• Individually Administered Tests
– WAIS-III
– WISC-III
– Stanford-Binet
• Group Tests
– Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test
– Otis-Lennon School Ability Test
Achievement versus Aptitude Tests
• Achievement Tests
– What have you mastered?
– What have you learned?
• Aptitude Tests
– What is your potential for future learning?
– What are you capable of?
D: Qualities of a Good Test
1. Reliability
– Consistency
2. Validity
– Accuracy
3. Standardization
– Uniform administration and norms
E. Theories of Intelligence
• Charles Spearman: g-factor (general
intelligence)
• Louis Thurstone: primary mental abilities
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
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•
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•
Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Musical
Spatial
Bodily-kinesthetic
Intrapersonal (self)
Interpersonal (other people)
Naturalist
Existential* (meaning of existence, life, death)
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
• Creative Intelligence
– ability to deal adaptively with novel problems
– use skills/experiences in new and unusual ways
• Analytic Intelligence
– academically oriented problem-solving skills
– assessed by traditional IQ tests
• Practical Intelligence
– Skills needed to deal with everyday demands of life
– Includes “street smarts” & “emotional intelligence”
F: Impact of Genetic and Environment
on IQ
1. Twin Studies
2. Heritability Estimates
3. Stereotype Threat
Heritability
• The proportion of variation among individuals
that we can attribute to genes.
– Heritability estimates assume that individuals
share a common environment. Thus, they explain
within group differences.
– Heritability estimates cannot be used to compare
individuals from different environments. Thus,
they cannot be used to explain between group
differences.
Reducing Stereotype Threat
(Johns, Schmader & Martens (2005)
Reducing Stereotype Threat
(Miyake et al., 2010, Science)