1. Define science [4.1]: involves carefully observing nature and constructing
theories to interpret and explain what we see; derives from the Latin scientia
meaning “to know”
a. State what it mainly relies on
i. Strongly dependent on experiment and observation and
observation of nature
b. Define observations of nature
i. Statements of high standards, composed in the precise
language used in a particular scientific discipline
1. Ex.
a. Lunar rock number 81005 weighs 31.4 grams
b. Lead is 11.34 times denser than water
2. Define the scientific approach/method: series of steps scientist follow; used
to secure and test scientific knowledge
a.
The steps in the scientific approach in the correct order.
i. Gather, process, and store observations of nature
1. Do this through experimenting, observing, collecting,
and cataloging
3. Define hypotheses [4.1.2]: preliminary explanation that may or may not be
supported by further observations or experiments; summary of the data that
helps researchers visualize what is going on
i. To formulate a hypothesis, researchers analyze collections of
experimental data, observations, and measurements and
sometimes theoretical calculations
ii. Occam’s razor: keep explanations as simple as possible
1. Use as few assumptions as possible in any hypothesis
b. Theories [4.1.3]: describes a hypothesis, or a group of hypotheses,
that has considerable experimental support
i. Hypotheses that have been confirmed
ii. Still subject to testing so they can have serious flaws
iii.
c. Scientific laws [4.1.3]: statements or mathematical relations founded
on extensive observations of nature
i. Scientific laws are always true under certain conditions
ii. Describe how the universe behaves
iii. Fundamental and certain and can predict what happens in the
universe
d. List their relative order of certainty [4.1.3]
i. Scientific laws, theories, and then hypothesis.
4. Know the difference between induction and deduction [4.1.2]
a. Induction: putting together bits and pieces of information and
uncover new lines of thought
i. Ex. A detective putting all the pieces of evidence together to
solve a crime
b. Deduction: Begin with something known, then derive, or anticipate, a
new result
c. And the role they play in science
i. Through deductive testing we may eventually reduce the
number of assumptions, descriptions, or equations in our
explanation.
ii. Page 53
5. Define paradigm [4.1.3].
a. In attempt at interpreting observations and experiments to
understand the universe scientist work within a set of rules and
standards called paradigms
i. Basically an example that consists of scientific laws, diagrams
that give insight into the laws, and a group of calculations and
solved problems that everyone agrees are done correctly
1. Thus, it forms a framework for a particular scientific
discipline
6. Recognize the difference between [Unit 2 – Science - Overview of Scientific
Approach - An Example of a Hypothesis]
a. An observation of nature
b. A hypotheses
c. A prediction of a hypotheses
d. A verification of a hypotheses
7. List the four known forces in nature [4.2].
a. Fire- because of electromagnetic force
b. Gravitational force
c. Weak nuclear force
d. Strong nuclear force
8. Associate each fundamental theory in astronomy with planets, stars, galaxies,
or cosmology [4.3; 1.1].
a. Theory of planetary formation: tries to understand the solar system as
the result of the gravitational collapse of a vast cloud of dust and gas
b.
c.
d.
e.
i. The collapse forms a central concentration of matter that
becomes the Sun and develops a flat, rotating disk of material,
out of which the planets unite
ii. Strives to explain properties of the planets
Theory of planetary evolution: describes how the surfaces and
interiors of planets change in time and how planets develop
atmospheres and magnetic fields
i. Investigates how the structure of planets depends on size and
chemical make up, how it changes as the planets cool, and how
that affects the appearance of the surface
1. Describes small planets such as Earth developing
gaseous atmospheres by volcanic eruptions that release
gases from their interiors
2. On the other hand, large planets, like Jupiter and Saturn
probably accumulated gases directly from the original
dust and gas cloud that collapsed to form the sun and
planets
Theory of stellar atmospheres: describes the outer gaseous layer of a
star, normally referred to its atmosphere
i. Closely tied to the electromagnetic theory
ii. Light we detect from stars originates in the atmosphere
making it theory important for extracting information on
certain physical properties such as their temperatures and
chemical compositions
Theory of stellar evolution: one of the most complex, use to interpret
the observations of all types of stars
i. The theory describe the entire lives of stars from their
formation to their final demise
ii. Begins with the understanding of the dust and gas between
stars, called the interstellar medium
iii. Nuclear reactions deeps within the stars provide the heat
necessary to produce the light we see
iv. Black hole paradigm: so compact that light can’t escape their
surfaces
Theory of galaxy formation and evolution: interprets the different
appearances of galaxies as the result of gravitation collapse and
mergers of primeval concentrations of matter and of collisions
between galaxies
i. These cause the varied shapes of galaxies and the structures
detected within them
ii. Redshift paradigm: distance to galaxies are critical to
understanding their formation and evolution
1. Used to calculate the distances to the most distant
galaxies in the universe
2. This paradigm assumes that the observed shifts to
longer wavelengths in the light from galaxies are caused
by motion away from the Earth
a. Farther away a galaxy, the greater the shift
i. Relationship between distance and shift is
the Hubble law and is fundamental to
understanding the creation of the
universe
f. Big Bang theory: describes the universe as having a definite beginning
and one that is now expanding
i. Based on fundamentally sound observations and has close ties
to all the fundamental theories in physics
CHAPTER 5
1. Define retrograde motion [5.1.2] and describe what part it played in the
scientific revolution
a. Because the planets move relative to the Earth, they can exhibit a
westward motion on the sky
b. Retrograde motion of a planet occurs when the Earth “overtakes” it as
both orbit the Sun
2. Define the various planetary configurations of superior and inferior planets
as seen from Earth [5.1.1]
a. Inferior planets: orbits closer to the Sun than the Earth
i. Mercury and Venus seen in evening or morning skies
b. Superior planets: more distant
i. Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto
ii. When we see them in the sky depends on the relative positions
of the planets and the Earth in their orbits
c. Inferior conjunction: when Venus is closest to Earth when it lines up
between the Earth and the Sun at the inferior conjunction
i. Figure on page 64
d. Elongation: the angular separation between Venus or any planet and
the sun is its elongation
i. Greatest western elongation: maximum elongation point
e. Superior conjunction: when Venus reaches the opposite side of the
Sun from the Earth
i. Greatest eastern elongation: Venus is east of the sun, rises after
the Sun, and sets after the Sun
f. Synodic period: the interval of time from one configuration to the next
identical one is the planet’s synodic period
g. state at what configuration retrograde motion occurs
Skip the paragraphs at the end of section 5.1.1 that discuss the calculation of synodic
periods; also skip QS 5.1.
3. Demonstrate your understanding of celestial motions of the planets by
calculating rising and setting times for inferior planets given their
elongations. [5.1.1]
4. List the fundamental differences in the positions of the Sun and the planets in
the heliocentric and geocentric models of the solar system. [Figure 5.7]
5. Define the basic parameters of the geocentric model of Ptolemy by [5.2.1]
a. explaining why epicycles and deferents were introduce
b. explaining how epicycles and deferents mimic the celestial motions of
the planets
c. list the order and location of the planets in the geocentric model
[Figure 5.11 – note the caption should read “The centers of the
epicycles …” not deferents]
6. 6. Define the basic parameters of the heliocentric model of Copernicus [5.2.2]
a. describe how the model uses epicycles
b. list the order and location of the planets in the heliocentric model
7. Recognize diagrams depicting both the geocentric and heliocentric models
and how both deal with retrograde motion (like Figures 5.5 and 5.10).
9. List the observations that supported the heliocentric model but were not
possible to make without a telescope. [5.2.2]
10. List the ways Tycho Brahe improved [5.3]
a. existing instrumentation
b. observing techniques
c. list the typical instruments he used
11. State how the scientific revolution began [First sentence in the chapter and
Unit 2 - Early Science - Scientific Revolution folder]
d. list who were the key figures in the revolution
e. describe the major contribution of each
f. identify what step in the scientific approach their work represents
i. testing a prediction of a hypothesis
ii. summarizing observations as laws or hypotheses
iii. obtaining facts of nature