Developmental Psychology Methods: longitudinal studies, cross sectional design, clinical interviews, etc. Major concerns: nature vs. nurture, continual vs. discontinuous, critical periods Last Year’s Developmental Theorists • Cognitive Development—Piaget, Baillargeon, Vygotsky (socially informed) • Social development—Attachment—Bowlby and Ainsworth, Lifespan Development— Erikson • Sexual Development—Freud, Horney, Money and Erhardt, Mead Neurobiological Brain Development and Neuroplasticity Theories • Tell me again about neurons. • Tell me again about neuroplasticity. • Dendritic branching is most significant in childhood and adolescence. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7jpXxT1Md08 at minute 39 • Interaction with loving and responsive caregivers contributes to healthy brain development. • Listen to http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2014/02/20/280237 833/orphans-lonely-beginnings-reveal-how-parentsshape-a-childs-brain Brain Development • Brain doubles in size from birth to young adult hood and folds become more complex, especially in cognition and emotion areas (PET and MRI). Chugani (1999) • • • • PET scans—glucose metabolism in newborn babies Little activity in cerebral cortex (executive function) Activity in brain stem and thalamus (reflexes) Activity in limbic system--amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cortex (emotions, memories, and bonding areasī attachment) • Lower brain levels developed first and then higher levels—6 to 9 months increased activity in frontal lobes, prefrontal areas of cortex, and improved cognitive competence. • http://www.dana.org/Cerebrum/2004/FineTuning_the_Baby_Brain/ and http://phy.ucsf.edu/~houde/coleman/chugani.pdf Bachevalier et al. (1999) • http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/P MC2913301/ Case (1991) • Brain changes between five and seven enable the frontal lobes to coordinate activities of other brain centers so more complex behaviors possible—attention control, forming explicit plans, self-reflecting • Observing humans with damage to frontal lobes and experimental research with animals—unable to plan ahead or stick to plans, no self-control, easily distracted. Giedd (2004) • • • • • • • MRI scans, longitudinal study, healthy children 95% of brain formed when child is around five or six, but prefrontal cortex starts growing again in adolescence. PFC is last to mature and responsible for cognitive processes such as planning, impulse control, direction of attention, and decision making. gray matter development between the age of 4-21 years using quantitative four-dimensional maps and time-lapse sequences. Thirteen healthy children for whom anatomic brain MRI scans were obtained every 2 years, for 8-10 years, were studied. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15148381 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides accurate anatomical brain images without the use of ionizing radiation, allowing longitudinal studies of brain morphometry during adolescent development. Results from an ongoing brain imaging project being conducted at the Child Psychiatry Branch of the National Institute of Mental Health indicate dynamic changes in brain anatomy throughout adolescence. White matter increases in a roughly linear pattern, with minor differences in slope in the four major lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital). Cortical gray matter follows an inverted U-shape developmental course with greater regional variation than white matter. For instance, frontal gray matter volume peaks at about age 11.0 years in girls and 12.1 years in boys, whereas temporal gray matter volume peaks at about age at 16.7 years in girls and 16.2 years in boys. The dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, important for controlling impulses, is among the latest brain regions to mature without reaching adult dimensions until the early 20s. The details of the relationships between anatomical changes and behavioral changes, and the forces that influence brain development, have not been well established and remain a prominent goal of ongoing investigations. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15251877 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bhv3bA_qG24 Waber (2007) • MRI Study of Normal Brain Development • Longitudinal, 450 healthy children aged 6-18, began in 1999 • MRI scans and battery of cognitive function tests (processing, memory, reading, calculation, IQ, and psychosocial) • Age predicts performance. Steep increase in function from age six but levelled off between 10 and 12. • http://stbb.nichd.nih.gov/pdf/NIH_MRI_neurops ychological.pdf Stathearn et al. (2001) • Child neglect associated with delayed cognitive development and head growth in young children. • http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/ 108/1/142 Rosenzweig and Bennet (1972) • • Brain changes in response to experience Reports a study in which rats placed in enriched or impoverished environments for 4-10 wk. differed in brain anatomy and chemistry. Ss with enriched experience had heavier and thicker cerebral cortexes, greater total activity of acetylcholinesterase but less activity per unit of tissue weight, greater activity of cholinesterase, more glial cells, larger cell bodies and nuclei, more dendritic spines, larger synaptic junctions, and increased RNA/DNA ratios. The greatest differences were found in the occipital cortex. It is suggested that daily 2-hr enrichment periods may be effective if the rat is stimulated to interact with objects in the environment. Changes were not caused by variations in amount of handling, stress, or maturation rate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) • http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/197222480-001 • http://neur2201.unsw.wikispaces.net/file/v iew/plasticity.pdf/156591175/plasticity.pdf Strengths and Weaknesses of neurobiological theories? • Say what? Cognitive Development • Piaget and his methods • Child is active scientist, builds mental representations (schemas), stage theory • Genetically based schemas (sucking and grasping as babies) to thinking schemas • Adaptation in the form of assimilation—new information integrated into existing cognitive schemas or accommodation—existing schemas modified to fit new information or new schemas are created. • Sensorimotor-object permanence, preoperational-egocentricism, conservation, concrete operational, formal operational • Piaget and Inhelder (1956) mountain task with doll, at six different viewpoints • Egocentricism, conservation Object permanence in young infants: further evidence. (Baillargeon and DeVos, 1991) • • Abstract: Recent evidence suggests that 4.5- and even 3.5-month-old infants realize that objects continue to exist when hidden. The goal of the present experiments was to obtain converging evidence of object permanence in young infants. Experiments were conducted using paradigms previously used to demonstrate object permanence in 5.5-month-old infants and 6.5-month-old infants. In one experiment, 3.5-month-old infants watched a short or a tall carrot slide along a track. The track's center was hidden by a screen with a large window in its upper half. The short carrot was shorter than the window's lower edge and so did not appear in the window when passing behind the screen; the tall carrot was taller than the window's lower edge and hence should have appeared in the window but did not. The infants looked reliably longer at the tall than at the short carrot event, suggesting that they (a) represented the existence, height, and trajectory of each carrot behind the screen and (b) expected the tall carrot to appear in the screen window and were surprised that it did not. Control trials supported this interpretation. In another experiment, 4.0-month-old infants saw a toy car roll along a track that was partly hidden by a screen. A large toy mouse was placed behind the screen, either on top or in back of the track. The female infants looked reliably longer when the mouse stood on top as opposed to in back of the track, suggesting that they (a) represented the existence and trajectory of the car behind the screen, (b) represented the existence and location of the mouse behind the screen, and (c) were surprised to see the car reappear from behind the screen when the mouse stood in its path. A second experiment supported this interpretation. The results of these experiments provide further evidence that infants aged 3.5 months and older are able to represent and to reason about hidden objects. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1786712 Hughes (1975) • Policeman Doll Study • http://www.simplypsychology.org/preoperati onal.html McCarrigle and Donaldson (1974) • http://www.simplypsychology.org/concreteoperational.html Strengths and Limitations of Piaget’s theory? • Say what? Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach to cognitive development Zone of proximal development, scaffolding, cooperative learning http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html Which is better biological, cognitive, or socio-cultural theories? • Say what? Cognitive Development as per Social and Environmental Variables • SES, parenting, nutrition, stimulating environments, pollution, etc. Farah et al. (2005) • http://www.iom.edu/~/media/Files/Activity% 20Files/Children/NeuroEffectsChildren/Farah. pdf Consider Krugman. • http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/18/opinio n/18krugman.html?_r=0 Bhoomika et al. (2008) • • • Methods: Twenty children identified as malnourished and twenty as adequately nourished in the age groups of 5–7 years and 8–10 years were examined. NIMHANS neuropsychological battery for children sensitive to the effects of brain dysfunction and age related improvement was employed. The battery consisted of tests of motor speed, attention, visuospatial ability, executive functions, comprehension and learning and memory Results: Development of cognitive processes appeared to be governed by both age and nutritional status. Malnourished children performed poor on tests of attention, working memory, learning and memory and visuospatial ability except on the test of motor speed and coordination. Age related improvement was not observed on tests of design fluency, working memory, visual construction, learning and memory in malnourished children. However, age related improvement was observed on tests of attention, visual perception, and verbal comprehension in malnourished children even though the performance was deficient as compared to the performance level of adequately nourished children. http://www.behavioralandbrainfunctions.com/content/4/1/31 Wertheimer (2003) • http://www.childtrends.org/wpcontent/uploads/2003/05/Child_Trends2003_05_01_RB_PoorFamilies.pdf Werner and Smith (1992) • http://www.pathwaysrtc.pdx.edu/pdf/fpS050 4.pdf Pungello et al. (2006) • Abecedarian Project • http://abc.fpg.unc.edu/ Consider. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6i105vkXV ok ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES • Rosenzweig again… Liu et al. (2000) • Nature Neuroscience 3, 799 - 806 (2000) Maternal care, hippocampal synaptogenesis and cognitive development in rats. Dong Liu, Josie Diorio, Jamie C. Day, Darlene D. Francis & Michael J. Meaney • We report that variations in maternal care in the rat promote hippocampal synaptogenesis and spatial learning and memory through systems known to mediate experience-dependent neural development. Thus, the offspring of mothers that show high levels of pup licking and grooming and arched-back nursing showed increased expression of NMDA receptor subunit and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA, increased cholinergic innervation of the hippocampus and enhanced spatial learning and memory. A cross-fostering study provided evidence for a direct relationship between maternal behavior and hippocampal development, although not all neonates were equally sensitive to variations in maternal care. • http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n8/abs/nn0800_799.html Farah et al. (2008) • http://www.psych.upenn.edu/~mfarah/Devel opment-EnviroStimParentalNurt.pdf Attachment • Bowlby (1973) • Internal working model—ideas of attachment figures and expectations, ideas about self, ideas about how self and others relate • http://www.simplypsychology.org/bowlby.ht ml • Schaffer and others, too • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KVskAjrC kSU Attachment • Remember Ainsworth—strange situation paradigm (1978), student of Bowlby. • Ganda Project (1969)—naturalistic observation of 28 mothers in Uganda over nine months, interviewed mothers and measured maternal sensitivity to infant’s (15 to 24 months) signals and needs, replicated in USA in 1971 with 26 families—70% secure, 10% ambivalent, 20% avoidant • http://www.simplypsychology.org/mary-ainsworth.html • Campos et al. (1983) found 62% secure, 15% ambivalent, and 15% avoidant • Main and Solomon (1986) added Type D disorganized/disoriented attachment Kagan (1982) • Temperaments • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CGjO1Kw ltOw Brazelton (1975) • Observational study of mothers and babies during their interaction, found that both imitated each other, took turns to initiate new movements=interactional synchrony Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) • http://psychteacheraqa.blogspot.com/2013/0 4/cultural-variations-in-attachment-van.html • Review of 32 worldwide studies, involving 8 countries and over 2000 infants; in Japan, ambivalent was more common but no avoidant; secure was most common in West Hazan and Shaver (1987) • “Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process” • experienced differently because of variations in their attachment histories—continuity of • “inner working models”—early to later • Newspaper, love quiz—56% respondents secure • Read and evaluate: http://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~schaller/Psyc591Readings/Haz anShaver1987.pdf • http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/dmessinger/c_c/rsrcs/r dgs/attach/hazanandshaver.pdf Feeney, Noller and Callan (1994) • http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/downloa d?doi=10.1.1.324.2280&rep=rep1&type=pdf • Attachment patterns in stable couples tend to be secure; attachment patterns seem to be flexible and may change; the relationship, stable and satisfying or negative, can lead to a change in internal working models of self and others. Deprivation and Trauma • DEPRIVATION--physical, emotional, or social; often related to institutionalization, poverty, parental problems e.g. alcoholism or mental illness • TRAUMA—powerful shock e.g. divorce, death of a parent, physical or sexual abuse, natural disasters, war Carion et al. (2009) • Objective Youth who experience interpersonal trauma and have posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) develop cognitive deficits that impact their development. Our goal is to investigate the function of the hippocampus in adolescents with PTSS during a memory processing task. Methods Twenty-seven adolescents between the ages of 10–17 years (16 with PTSS and 11 healthy controls) encoded and retrieved visually presented nouns (Verbal Declarative Memory Task) while undergoing fMRI scanning. Results The PTSS group demonstrated reduced activation of the right hippocampus during the retrieval component of the task. Further, severity of symptoms of avoidance and numbing correlated with reduced left hippocampal activation during retrieval. Conclusions Decreased activity of the hippocampus during a verbal memory task may be a neurofunctional marker of PTSS in youth with history of interpersonal trauma. The results of this study may facilitate the development of focused treatments and may be of utility when assessing treatment outcome for PTSS. • http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2910941/ Yehuda et al. (2001) • • • Childhood trauma and risk for PTSD: relationship to intergenerational effects of trauma, parental PTSD, and cortisol excretion. Abstract: Among the adverse mental health consequences of childhood trauma is the risk related to the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adulthood. Other risk factors for PTSD. including parental trauma exposure and parental PTSD, can also contribute to the experience of child trauma. We examined associations between childhood trauma and PTSD in 51 adult children of Holocaust survivors and 41 comparison subjects. in consideration of parental trauma exposure and parental PTSD. We also examined these variables in relation to 24-hr urinary cortisol levels. Adult offspring of Holocaust survivors showed significantly higher levels of self-reported childhood trauma, particularly emotional abuse and neglect. relative to comparison subjects. The difference was largely attributable to parental PTSD. Self-reported childhood trauma was also related to severity of PTSD in subjects, and emotional abuse was significantly associated with 24-hr mean urinary cortisol secretion. We conclude that the experience of childhood trauma may be an important factor in the transmission of PTSD from parent to child. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11523857 English and Romanian adoptees study (1990s)—324 Romanian adoptees • http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/english-and-romanianadoptee-study • http://www.kcl.ac.uk/iop/depts/mrc/research/theenglisha ndromaniandoptee(era)project.aspx • Rutter et al. (2004)—144 6 y.o. children • Rates of cognitive impairment and disinhibited attachment behavior • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=igC9R45TS5E • http://www.apa.org/monitor/feb04/doearly.aspx • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rFMZljG2LEA • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98BwGolMdYM • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VDR5xpLEx-U Perry and Pollard (1997) • “Altered brain development following global neglect in early childhood”—CT scans. • http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/p erry1997.pdf • http://www.ou.edu/cwtraining/assets/pdf/ha ndouts/2010/Altered%20brain%20developme nt%20following%20global%20neglect.pdf Resilience • Rutter (1990) and Schoon et al. (2002): maintaining adaptive functioning in spite of serious risk factors • Wyman et al. (2000): a child’s achievement of positive developmental outcomes and avoidance of maladaptive outcomes under adverse conditions • Risk factors and protective factors (temperament, close relationship, social support)—revisit Werner and Smith (2005) Kauai study Wright and Masten (2006) • Not a single trait but multiple contextual factors • file:///C:/Users/cmcnamar/Downloads/97814614 36607-c1.pdf • http://www.esc19.net/brac/military_family_reso urces/Masten%20and%20Obradovic%20Compete nce%20and%20Resilience%20inDevelopment%20 2006.pdf • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GBMet8oIvX Q Schoon and Bartley (2008) • Examine factors and processes that enable individuals to beat the odds—situational rather than dispositional in order to avoid blaming the victim • How to promote resilience by removing obstacles and creating opportunities The Triple P—Positive Parenting Program • http://www.triplep.net/glo-en/home/ • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VF7i8_sxRtQ • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ACcywo29 80 • Sanders: http://www.triplepnederland.nl/files/9613/3458/1155/Achtergrond _TripleP_Sanders_2012.pdf The High/Scope Perry Preschool Project • Began 1962, 123 high-risk, low SES, low IQ scores, 3-4 y.o. African-American children; 58 in program group; 65 in control • http://www.highscope.org/content.asp?conte ntid=219 • http://www.highscope.org/file/Research/Perr yProject/specialsummary_rev2011_02_2.pdf • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dnGEuHfC8w Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBS) mentoring program • Social support from a caring adult to a high-risk child or adolescent can promote a healthy development in spite of environmental factors. • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tvblk8qZi4E • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DFsur7ZR2 ZA • Tierney et al. (1995): http://www.promisingpractices.net/program.as p?programid=125 Gender Roles Evolutionary theory (men aggressive; women nurturing) Psychosexual differentiation theory (male androgens) Biosocial theory (intersex) Social learning theory-modeling Gender schema theory-beliefs, thinking, labels, conformity Sociocultural theory or social role theory Best explanation? Research • Research whether gender roles are nature, nurture, continuously, discontinuously, biologically, socially, environmentally, or cognitively informed. • some helpful terms: evolutionary theory, psychosexual differentiation theory, biosocial theory, Money and Ehrhardt, social learning theory, gender schema theory, Martin and Halverson, Matsumoto, Eagly, Mead, Goffman, Reinicke, Engle and Breaux Gender Roles Studies Wolf et al. (2002) Smith and Lloyd (1978) Baby X experiment Whiting and Edwards (1973) Stroufe et al. (1993) peer socialization Bower (1989) one year old playing Bem (1981) Martin and Halverson (1978) gender identity construction Martin and Halverson (1983) male and female activities Fagot and Hagan (1991) mother and father interactions Fagot (1985) gender policing Reinicke (2006) Denmark fathers Engle and Breaux (1994) fathers and parenting Best et al. (1977) gender stereotypes in UK, Ireland and US participants, method, conclusions, criticism? nature, nurture, biological, social, cognitive? matches with which theory? Adolescence PHYSICAL CHANGE AND IDENTITY • Schlegel and Berry (1991) • Hall (1904) • Simmons and Blyth (1987)-cultural ideal hypothesis • Caufmann and Steinberg (1996) • Fredrickson and Roberts (1997)-objectification theory • Stice and Withenton (2002) • Ferron (1997) US and French participants, method, conclusions, criticism? nature, nurture, biological, social, cognitive? matches with which theory? Adolescence and psychological research • Erikson (1950s) • Espin et al. (1990)-longitudinal letter study • Rutter et al. (1976)-Isle of Wight • O’Connell (1976)-married women with children • Condon (1987)-Canadian Inuit participants, method, conclusions, criticism? nature, nurture, biological, social, cognitive? matches with which theory?